Actuators Structure of discussion

Basic process control

• Controllers • Introduction to final control elements
• Processes • Control valves
• Measurement devices
• Variable speed drives
• Actuators
• Integration issues • Specifying and sizing control valves
• Empirical model building • Further learning
• PID controller tuning
• Further tutorial questions

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1. Introduction to final control elements Control valves

• Controls the process by changing fluid flow.
Controller diagram of a typical control loop • To save energy, it is important to minimise the pressure
drop across the valve while maintaining effective regulation.

Actuator
Some examples shown.
System Positioner: pneumatic or digital
F1 F2

T1 T2

Sensor
System
Controller TC
T
TT

Reference: http://www.che.ttu.edu/pcoc/software/ppt.htm
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 Alternative: variable speed drive 2. Control valves
• A variable speed motor Selecting a control valve involves choosing the
may be used e.g. to • valve type
adjust the flow through • valve trim characteristics and size
a pump. • valve actuator operating method, style and size
• This is more efficient • valve positioner and other accessories.
than controlling flow
with a valve after a Wrong choices can degrade control system performance e.g.
constant speed pump. • valve too small – plant disturbances cannot be controlled
• valve too big – may operate too close to the closed position
• More costly to install;
• undersized actuator will not be able to overcome the hydraulic and
requires “blocking resistive forces (stiction) in the valve, leading to erratic operation
valve” to block flow • Inappropriate valve positioner can introduce instability into the
when the motor is off. control system.
Reference: Improving the effectiveness of basic closed loop control systems,
Reference: Process Control Special Short Course 2006 - Fisher-Rosemount Systems 5 6
www.carbontrust.co.uk.

2.1 Control valve types Examples

• Globe valves are sliding stem valves. They have a throttling plug (i.e.
the globe) that moves up and down.
• Wide range, with
some appropriate for
on-off control and
others appropriate for
continuous control
• A selection flowchart
is useful (based on
economics).

Cage valve (hollow

External view Cutaway image (single plug; internal passage)
(with actuator) seated globe valve)
7 Reference: http://www.bray.com 8
 Butterfly valves – rotating stem. 2.2 Valve characteristics
Diameter: 2 inches – 100 inches.
The disk/stem design eliminates • Once a suitable valve type has been selected, it is important to choose
particle entrapment. The thin disk the appropriate flow versus open characteristic or trim.
also allows a low pressure drop.
• Valves normally have one of three inherent trim characteristics.

1. Linear: The flow rate is directly

proportional to the valve travel.
2. Equal percentage: For equal
increments in valve travel, the
flow rate increases by a constant
Ball valve. The picture does not percentage of the current flow
give a cutaway view, but we can rate.
imagine that instead of a disk, the 3. Quick opening: Provides a rapid
rotating element is like a ball with change of flow, as much as 80%
a hole. of maximum in the first 10% of
Reference: Harrold, D. (1999). Control valves: match size
with application, Control Engineering, September.
Typically, smaller in size than valve travel.
http://www.controleng.com/article/CA192829.html

butterfly valves.

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Valve characteristics 2.3 Valve actuators

General guidelines
• Pneumatic powered diaphragm and
• Valves with equal percentage trims are most often specified. They piston actuators are common. The
are used when the pressure drop across the valve is 10-70% of the upper diagram shows a pneumatic
pressure lost in the rest of the system. Typical applications are flow, actuator mounted on a butterfly
level and temperature control. valve.
• Valves with linear trims are used when the pressure drop across the • Electric motor and hydraulic
valve is more than 70% of the pressure lost in the rest of the system. actuators are also available. The
Typically, pressure control applications fit into this category. lower diagram is a cutaway view of
• Valves with quick opening trims are used in shutdown systems, an electrical actuator with a hand
where the combination of a rapid increase in flow on opening, wheel for manual override. Just
coupled with a tight shut-off on closure, is important. visible is the motor - A and the gear
system – C.
Valve trims are provided in a wide variety of sizes (referred to as valve
coefficent, Cv). Detailed calculations, which will be considered later,
are required to select the appropriate valve body and trim size for the
application.

Reference: Improving the effectiveness of basic closed loop control systems, www.carbontrust.co.uk. 11 Reference: http://www.bray.com 12
 Valve actuators – advantages and 2.4 Valve positioners
disadvantages Positioners are local controllers that
ensures that the valve achieves the
position requested by the loop
controller with minimum overshoot,
and fastest possible recovery after a
disturbance. A valve positioner may be
used to overcome problems with the
dynamic control of a valve e.g. stiction.
Positioners are best used when the overall closed loop control system
is slow.
Example of a pneumatic positioner.
The device has a diaphragm (hidden);
The actuator needs to be sized for each application. It has to generate an increase in signal pressure on the
enough force to open and close the valve, while overcoming the diaphragm causes a shaft to rotate,
dynamic flow and resistive forces in the valve. until the force on a feedback spring is
equal to the force from the air pressure
Reference: Improving the effectiveness of basic closed loop control systems, www.carbontrust.co.uk. 13 signal on the diaphragm. Reference: http://www.bray.com 14

3. Variable speed drives Variable speed drives

A variable speed drive (VSD) is an energy For loads with variable
efficient alternative to a control valve. Range: torque, the power absorbed
0.75 kW to 1 MW. the the drive (and hence, the
energy consumed) is
Advantages (over control valves):
proportional to the cube of
• Reduced energy use the speed. Hence, a small
• Improved dynamic control capability reduction in speed means a
• Enables ‘soft start’ of the motor large reduction in absorbed
• Improved control flexibility. power.

A VSD is a replacement for valves that constrict the output of fixed For loads with constant torque (e.g. conveyers), the power absorbed
speed pumps. VSD’s can control the motor directly rather than using the the drive (and hence, the energy consumed) is directly proportional
gearboxes, switches, belts or pulleys to adjust the fan speed. to the speed. Hence, the energy saving potential is less.

A VSD is best used (for energy saving purposes) with a motor that
Many types of equipment are now sold with built in VSD’s e.g. pumps,
has a load requiring a variable torque (such as centrifugal pumps and
fans and air conditioning units.
fans).
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 VSD example application 4. Specifying and sizing control valves
On an air fan in a furnace,
running at a fixed speed. The Typical (globe) valve – air to close (A-C) or fail-open valve
process demand typically
varies; the air fan speed is
constant and a damper
restricts the flow to match the
demand (or duty). This is
inefficient, as the input power
to the fan is not reduced as
the airflow falls.
When a VSD is fitted, fan
speed can be controlled
instead of throttling the output;
the damper can now be
opened fully. If required airflow
is 50% (on average) of full
output, energy consumption of
the fan system is reduced to
12.5% (cube of the speed).
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Reference: http://www.che.ttu.edu/pcoc/software/ppt.htm

Air to open (A-O) or fail-closed valve Specifying and sizing control valves
A design equation used for sizing control valves relates the valve stem
position, x, to the actual flow rate, Q, by means of the valve flow
coefficient, C V :
∆Pv
Imperial units: Q = C v f ( x ) , Q measured in gallons per minute,
sp.gr.
∆Pv measured in p.s.i. (pounds per square inch), sp.gr. = specific gravity.
∆Pv
S.I. units: Q = C v f ( x )
, Q measured in cubic meters per second,
ρ
∆Pv measured in Pascals (Pa), ρ = density.

Now, f(x) = x, linear valve

f(x) = x , quick-opening (square
root) valve
x −1
f(x) = R , 20<R<50, equal
percentage valve
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Reference:Seborg, D.E. et al. (2004). Process Dynamics and Control, Wiley, 2nd Edition, Chapter 9.
Specifying and sizing control valves Specifying and sizing control valves

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Specifying and sizing control valves

Specifying and sizing control valves

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Specifying and sizing control valves Specifying and sizing control valves

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Specifying and sizing control valves Specifying and sizing control valves

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Specifying and sizing control valves Tutorial question

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Conclusion of tutorial example

• Though valves have one of three inherent flow characteristics, once a
valve is installed, its inherent trim characteristic is modified by the
operating conditions.
• To ensure effective control, the actual trim characteristic of the
installed valve should be as linear as possible.

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Tutorial example 2

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 Tutorial example 3 5. Further learning – virtual lab
http://www.cheric.org/education/control - Laboratory
3: Understanding the actuator: control valve.
This is a website with Java applets, covering
(a) Instrumentation for control valve.
(b) Selection of valve size and valve plug.
(c) Fail safe mode of control valve.
(d) Inherent and installed characteristics.
(e) Hysteresis and valve positioner.

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Lifelong learning – actuators 6. Further tutorial questions

Books/Websites
Seborg, D.E. et al. (2004). Process dynamics and control, 2nd edition, Chapter 9.
http://www.pc-education.mcmaster.ca/instrumentation/go_inst.htm

Trade magazines (e.g. Intech, Control Engineering) also often

have web-accessible articles. Just some examples:
Shinskey, F.G. (2000). “The three faces of control valves”, Control Engineering, July, 83-86;
http://www.controleng.com/article/CA191341.html
Harrold, D. (1999). “Select and size control valves properly to save money”, Control Engineering
Europe, October, p. 33-36; http://www.controleng.com/article/CA188852.html
Liptak, B. (2006). How to select control valves, Control (for the process industries),
Part 1, July (http://www.controlglobal.com/articles/2006/132.html),
Part 2, September (http://www.controlglobal.com/articles/2006/167.html),
Part 3, November (http://www.controlglobal.com/articles/2006/215.html).
Gibson, I. and Irvine, G. (2004). “The case for variable frequency drives as a final control element
spreads”, Intech, July, p. 33-36.
http://www.isa.org/Template.cfm?Section=Communities&template=/TaggedPage/DetailDisplay.c
fm&ContentID=37015

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 Question Answer
Which of the
• The control valve always remains within its limits when used for
following control: it is never fully closed or fully open.
statements False. It would be preferable to have the control valves (and pumps, etc.) that are large enough
are true ? to compensate for disturbances; unfortunately, this is not always the case.

• The selection of which valve to manipulate influences the behaviour

of the controlled variable.

• The control valve always remains within its limits when used for
control: it is never fully closed or fully open.
• The selection of which valve to manipulate influences the
behaviour of the controlled variable.
• A control valve % opening is usually changed by adjusting an
electric motor that moves the stem position.
True. The selection of the manipulated valve has a significant influence on the behaviour of
the controlled variable.
• A control valve % opening is usually changed by adjusting an
electric motor that moves the stem position.
False. Electric motors are not usually used to adjust the stem positions in control
vales. Normally control valves are adjusted pneumatically. The electronic signal is transmitted
near the valve and is converted to proportional air pressure that is transmitted to the valve via a
short pipe. The pressure slightly deforms the diaphragm and changes the stem position.

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