1. Symmetry elements of crystallographic systems.

In crystallography, symmetry is used to characterize crystals, identify repeating parts of molecules, and
simplify both data collection and nearly all calculations. Also, the symmetry of physical properties of a crystal
such as thermal conductivity and optical activity must include the symmetry of the crystal. Thus, a thorough
knowledge of symmetry is essential to a crystallographer. A clear, brief description of crystallographic
symmetry was prepared by Robert Von Dreele.
An object is described as symmetric with respect to a transformation if the object appears to be in a state
that is identical to its initial state, after the transformation. In crystallography, most types of symmetry can be
described in terms of an apparent movement of the object such as some type of rotation or translation. The
apparent movement is called the symmetry operation. The locations where the symmetry operations occur such
as a rotation axis, a mirror plane, an inversion center, or a translation vector are described as symmetry
elements.
Crystals are defined as solids that have an atomic structure with long-range, 3-dimensional order.
Unfortunately, this long-range order cannot be absolutely confirmed by any other method than some diffraction
technique. However, there are several observations that can be made that will strongly suggest that a sample is
crystalline before a diffraction experiment is undertaken.
Typically, crystals have flat faces and sharp edges. Also, many crystals will have one or more directions
that can be cleaved cleanly. Samples with a naturally round shape, or samples that have a concoidal fracture
pattern are nearly always described as a glass having no significant, long-range, 3-D order. Similarly, materials
that can be gently poked with a probe, and retain the deformed shape are gels or plastic materials and hence
have not long-range, 3-D order.
When you look at several crystals from one material, you will soon notice that, although the crystals
may have different sizes, all crystals have the same shape or habit. In particular, the angles between certain
pairs of faces of the different crystals will be the same. This observation was first made by Nicholas Steno in
1669. This observation became known as the law of constancy of interfacial angles.
2. Physical properties of minerals
The International Mineralogical Association has established the following requirements for a substance to be
considered a distinct mineral:

 It must be a naturally occurring substance formed by natural geological processes, on Earth or other
extraterrestrial bodies. This excludes compounds directly and exclusively generated by human activities
(anthropogenic) or in living beings (biogenic), such as tungsten carbide, urinary calculi, calcium oxalate crystals
in plant tissues, and seashells. However, substances with such origins may qualify if geological processes were
involved in their genesis (as is the case of evenkite, derived from plant material; or taranakite, from bat guano; or
alpersite, from mine tailings). Hypothetical substances are also excluded, even if they are predicted to occur in
currently inaccessible natural environments like the Earth's core or other planets.
 It must be a solid substance in its natural occurrence. A major exception to this rule is native mercury: it is
still classified as a mineral by the IMA, even though crystallizes only below −39 °C, because it was included
before the current rules were established. Water and carbon dioxide are not considered minerals, even though they
are often found as inclusions in other minerals; but water ice is considered a mineral.
 It must have a well-defined crystallographic structure; or, more generally, an ordered atomic arrangement.
This property implies several macroscopic physical properties, such as crystal form, hardness, and cleavage. It
excludes ozokerite, limonite, obsidian and many other amorphous (non-crystalline) materials that occur in
geologic contexts.
 It must have a fairly well-defined chemical composition. However, certain crystalline substances with a fixed
structure but variable composition may be considered single mineral species. A common class of examples are
solid solutions such as mackinawite, (Fe, Ni)9S8, which is mostly a ferrous sulfide with a significant fraction of
iron atoms replaced by nickel atoms. Other examples include layered crystals with variable layer stacking, or
crystals that differ only in the regular arrangement of vacancies and substitutions. On the other hand, some
substances that have a continuous series of compositions, may be arbitrarily split into several minerals. The
typical example is the olivine group (Mg, Fe)2SiO4, whose magnesium-rich and iron-rich end-members are
considered separate minerals (forsterite and fayalite).
Classifying minerals ranges from simple to difficult. A mineral can be identified by several physical properties, some of
them being sufficient for full identification without equivocation. In other cases, minerals can only be classified by more
complex optical, chemical or X-ray diffraction analysis; these methods, however, can be costly and time-consuming.
Physical properties applied for classification include crystal structure and habit, hardness, lustre, diaphaneity, colour,
streak, cleavage and fracture, and specific gravity. Other less general tests include fluorescence, phosphorescence,
magnetism, radioactivity, tenacity (response to mechanical induced changes of shape or form), piezoelectricity and
reactivity to dilute acids.

 Crystal structure results from the orderly geometric spatial arrangement of atoms in the internal structure of a
mineral. This crystal structure is based on regular internal atomic or ionic arrangement that is often expressed in
the geometric form that the crystal takes. Even when the mineral grains are too small to see or are irregularly
shaped, the underlying crystal structure is always periodic and can be determined by X-ray diffraction. Minerals
are typically described by their symmetry content. Crystals are restricted to 32-point groups, which differ by their
symmetry. These groups are classified in turn into more broad categories, the most encompassing of these being
the six crystal families.
 The hardness of a mineral defines how much it can resist scratching. This physical property is controlled by the
chemical composition and crystalline structure of a mineral. A mineral's hardness is not necessarily constant for
all sides, which is a function of its structure; crystallographic weakness renders some directions softer than others.
An example of this property exists in kyanite, which has a Mohs hardness of 5½ parallel to [001] but 7 parallel to
[100]
 Lustre indicates how light reflects from the mineral's surface, with regards to its quality and intensity. There are
numerous qualitative terms used to describe this property, which are split into metallic and non-metallic
categories. Metallic and sub-metallic minerals have high reflectivity like metal; examples of minerals with this
lustre are galena and pyrite. Non-metallic lustres include: adamantine, such as in diamond; vitreous, which is a
 glassy lustre very common in silicate minerals; pearly, such as in talc and apophyllite; resinous, such as members
of the garnet group; silky which is common in fibrous minerals such as asbestiform chrysotile.
 The diaphaneity of a mineral describes the ability of light to pass through it. Transparent minerals do not
diminish the intensity of light passing through them. An example of a transparent mineral is muscovite (potassium
mica); some varieties are sufficiently clear to have been used for windows. Translucent minerals allow some light
to pass, but less than those that are transparent. Jadeite and nephrite (mineral forms of jade are examples of
minerals with this property). Minerals that do not allow light to pass are called opaque.
 Colour is the most obvious property of a mineral, but it is often non-diagnostic. It is caused by electromagnetic
radiation interacting with electrons (except in the case of incandescence, which does not apply to minerals). Two
broad classes of elements (idiochromatic and allochromatic) are defined with regards to their contribution to a
mineral's colour: Idiochromatic elements are essential to a mineral's composition; their contribution to a mineral's
colour is diagnostic. Examples of such minerals are malachite (green) and azurite (blue). In contrast,
allochromatic elements in minerals are present in trace amounts as impurities. An example of such a mineral
would be the ruby and sapphire varieties of the mineral corundum. The colours of pseudochromatic minerals are
the result of interference of light waves. Examples include labradorite and bornite.
 The streak of a mineral refers to the colour of a mineral in powdered form, which may or may not be identical to
its body colour. The most common way of testing this property is done with a streak plate, which is made out of
porcelain and coloured either white or black. The streak of a mineral is independent of trace elements or any
weathering surface. A common example of this property is illustrated with hematite, which is coloured black,
silver, or red in hand sample, but has a cherry-red to reddish-brown streak. Streak is more often distinctive for
metallic minerals, in contrast to non-metallic minerals whose body colour is created by allochromatic elements.
Streak testing is constrained by the hardness of the mineral, as those harder than 7 powder the streak plate instead.
 As cleavage is a function of crystallography, there are a variety of cleavage types. Cleavage occurs typically in
either one, two, three, four, or six directions. Basal cleavage in one direction is a distinctive property of the micas.
Two-directional cleavage is described as prismatic, and occurs in minerals such as the amphiboles and pyroxenes.
Minerals such as galena or halite have cubic (or isometric) cleavage in three directions, at 90°; when three
directions of cleavage are present, but not at 90°, such as in calcite or rhodochrosite, it is termed rhombohedral
cleavage. Octahedral cleavage (four directions) is present in fluorite and diamond, and sphalerite has six-
directional dodecahedral cleavage.
 Parting, sometimes called "false cleavage", is similar in appearance to cleavage but is instead produced by
structural defects in the mineral, as opposed to systematic weakness. Parting varies from crystal to crystal of a
mineral, whereas all crystals of a given mineral will cleave if the atomic structure allows for that property. In
general, parting is caused by some stress applied to a crystal. The sources of the stresses include deformation (e.g.
an increase in pressure), exsolution, or twinning. Minerals that often display parting include the pyroxenes,
hematite, magnetite, and corundum.

3. Rock forming minerals

a. Quartz family

Quartz or silica is composed of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O), the

two most abundant elements in the crust of the Earth (with SiO2
chemical formula). The crystalline varieties are those that occur in
distinct, visible crystals: amethyst, smoky quartz, citrine, rose
quartz, and milky quartz.
b. Feldspar family

The feldspars are a family of silicate minerals which occur in

igneous rocks. There are many different members to
the feldspar group. Obviously, silicon and oxygen form the
foundation for the group, but calcium, sodium, and potassium are
also present. ... Orthoclase occurs only in the felsic igneous rocks.

c. Augite

Augite is a rock-forming mineral of the pyroxene

group commonly found within igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Because its chemical structure
is highly variable, augite might be considered by
some to be its own group of minerals rather than an
individual mineral.

d. Hornblende

Hornblende is a field and classroom name used for a group of

dark-colored amphibole minerals found in many types of igneous
and metamorphic rocks. These minerals vary in chemical
composition but are all double-chain inosilicates with very similar
physical properties.

e. Biotite

Biotite is a name used for a large group of black

mica minerals that are commonly found in
igneous and metamorphic rocks. These include
annite, phlogopite, siderophyllite,
fluorophlogopite, fluorannite, eastonite, and
many others.
f. Muscovite

Muscovite is the most common mineral of the mica

family. It is an important rock-forming mineral present in
igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. Like
other micas it readily cleaves into thin transparent
sheets. Muscovite sheets have a pearly to vitreous
luster on their surface.

g. Calcite

Calcite is a rock-forming mineral with a chemical formula of

CaCO3. It is extremely common and found throughout the
world in sedimentary, metamorphic, and igneous rocks.
Some geologists consider it to be a "ubiquitous mineral" -
one that is found everywhere. Calcite is the principal
constituent of limestone and marble.

h. Garnet

Garnets ( /ˈɡɑːrnɪt/) are a group of silicate

minerals that have been used since the Bronze
Age as gemstones and abrasives. All species
of garnets possess similar physical properties
and crystal forms, but differ in chemical
composition.
4. Process formation of the following minerals
a. Coal

Coal is a solid, black, readily combustible fossil fuel that contains a large amount of
carbon-based material - approximately 50% of its weight. The formation of coal takes a
significant amount of time (on the order of a few million years), and the first coal-bearing rock
units appeared about 290-360 million years ago, at a time known as the Carboniferous or "coal-
bearing" Period. As well, there are extensive coal deposits from the Cretaceous age - about 65
to 144 million years ago. (Please see the timeline at the bottom of the page.)
The formation of coal begins in areas of swampy wetlands where groundwater is near or
slightly above the topsoil. Because of this, the flora present produces organic matter quickly -
faster in fact than it can be decomposed. In these areas, layers of organic matter are
accumulated and then buried. It is these layers of organic material that then form coal. The
energy in coal initially comes from the Sun, and is energy from sunlight trapped by dead plants.
The process that creates coal varies slightly in different areas depending on the plants and
conditions that are present, but the overall process is similar. There are two main phases in coal
formation: peatification and coalification. Bacterial activity is the main process that creates the
peat during peatification. Increasing temperature and pressure from burial are the main factors
in coalification. To form coal, the following steps are followed
 Plant matter in mires and wetlands, such as ferns, shrubs, vines, trees, and
algae die and accumulates on the surface. Initially the organic matter is
decomposed by bacteria, yielding carbon dioxide and methane.
 The plant matter becomes buried, and are no longer exposed to air. Anaerobic
bacteria then start to decompose the material. Burial and accumulation can
occur for several thousands of years, producing several meters of partially
decayed plant matter known as peat.
 When this peat is deeply buried, water and other compounds is squeezed out
from the increasing pressure and the lowest quality of coal, lignite, begins for
form.
 Continued burial, resulting in increasing pressures and temperatures, causes
this low-quality lignite coal to be transformed into higher quality "black
coals". First lignite becomes sub-bituminous coal, then bituminous coal, and
finally the highest quality anthracite coal. As these transformations occur, the
amount of water and other compounds in the coal decreases and the coal
becomes denser. Along with this comes a higher carbon concentration.
b. Petroleum

Petroleum (pronounced /pəˈtroʊliəm/), also called crude oil or just oil, is a naturally
occurring, yellowish-black liquid found in geological formations beneath the Earth's surface. It
is commonly refined into various types of fuels. Components of petroleum are separated using a
technique called fractional distillation, i.e. separation of a liquid mixture into fractions differing
in boiling point by means of distillation, typically using a fractionating column.

It consists of naturally occurring hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and may

contain miscellaneous organic compounds. The name petroleum covers both naturally occurring
unprocessed crude oil and petroleum products that are made up of refined crude oil. A fossil
fuel, petroleum is formed when large quantities of dead organisms, mostly zooplankton and
algae, are buried underneath sedimentary rock and subjected to both intense heat and pressure.

Petroleum has mostly been recovered by oil drilling (natural petroleum springs are rare).
Drilling is carried out after studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentary
basin analysis, and reservoir characterisation (mainly in terms of the porosity and permeability
of geologic reservoir structures) have been completed. It is refined and separated, most easily
by distillation, into numerous consumer products, from gasoline (petrol), diesel and kerosene to
asphalt and chemical reagents (ethylene, propylene, butene, acrylic acid, para-xylene) used to
make plastics, pesticides and pharmaceuticals. Petroleum is used in manufacturing a wide
variety of materials, and it is estimated that the world consumes about 100 million barrels each
day.
THE FORMATION OF PETROLEUM:

Step 1: Diagenesis forms Kerogen

Diagenesis is a process of compaction under mild conditions of temperature and pressure.
When organic aquatic sediments (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates) are deposited, they are very
saturated with water and rich in minerals. Through chemical reaction, compaction, and
microbial action during burial, water is forced out and proteins and carbohydrates break down
to form new structures that comprise a waxy material known as “kerogen” and a black tar like
substance called “bitumen”. All of this occurs within the first several hundred meters of burial.
The bitumen comprises the heaviest components of petroleum, but the kerogen will undergo
further change to make hydrocarbons and, yes, more bitumen…
Step 2: Catagenesis (or “cracking”) turns kerogen into petroleum and natural gas
As temperatures and pressures increase (deeper burial) the process of catagenesis begins, which
is the thermal degradation of kerogen to form hydrocarbon chains. Importantly, the process of
catagenesis is catalyzed by the minerals that are deposited and persist through marine
diagenesis. The conditions of catagenesis determine the product, such that higher temperature
and pressure lead to more complete “cracking” of the kerogen and progressively lighter and
smaller hydrocarbons. Petroleum formation, then, requires a specific window of conditions; too
hot and the product will favor natural gas (small hydrocarbons), but too cold and the plankton
will remain trapped as kerogen.
This behavior is contrary to what is associated with coal formation. In the case of terrestrial
burial, the organic sediment is dominated by cellulose and lignin and the fraction of minerals is
much smaller. Here, decomposition of the organic matter is restricted in a different way. The
organic matter is condensed to form peat and, if enough temperature (geothermal energy) and
pressure is supplied, it will condense and undergo catagenesis to form coal. Higher
temperatures and pressures, in general, lead to higher ranks of coal. See the COAL page for
more information.

References:
1. Hans Wondratschek, "Matrices, Mappings, and Crystallography" in International Union of
Crystallographers Teaching Pamphlets available
at: http://www.iucr.org/education/pamphlets.
2. J. P. Glusker, M. Lewis, and M. Rossi 1994, Crystal Structure Analysis for Chemists and
Biologists. VCH Publishers:New York, 5-6 (and references therein).
3. E. H. Nickel & J. D. Grice (1998): "The IMA Commission on New Minerals and Mineral
Names: procedures and guidelines on mineral nomenclature". Mineralogy and Petrology,
volume 64, issue 1, pages 237–263.
4. Nickel, Ernest H. (1995). "The definition of a mineral". The Canadian Mineralogist. 33 (3):
689–90.
5. Dyar, Gunter, and Tasa (2007). Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy. Mineralogical Society
of America. pp. 2–4.
6. Dyar, M.D.; Gunter, M.E. (2008). Mineralogy and Optical Mineralogy. Chantilly, VA:
Mineralogical Society of America.
7. Busbey, A.B.; Coenraads, R.E.; Roots, D.; Willis, P. (2007). Rocks and Fossils. San
Francisco: Fog City Press.
8. R. Wolfson.Energy, Environment and Climate, 2nd ed. New York, U.S.A.: Norton, 2012, pp.
95-96
9. Planet Energies. (May 11, 2015). How Coal is Formed [Online]. Available:
http://www.planete-energies.com/en/medias/explanations/how-coal-formed-process-
spanning-eras
10.anadian Federation of Earth Sciences. (May 11, 2015). Four Billion Years and Counting:
Canada's Geological Heritage, 1st ed. Toronto, ON, Canada.: Nimbus Publishing, 2014