FINAL EXAM

1. Geological Maps ( Study of structures, folds, faults and joints and their bearing on engineering construction )

This graph shows the response to increasing stress as applied to two different rock types: BRITTLE vs.
DUCTILE/PLASTIC
 This diagram depicts an adjacent ANTICLINE and SYNCLINE with their representative FOLD AXIS
and AXIAL PLANES.

This Diagram depicts some of the differences between Asymmetrical, Symmetrical, and
OVERTURNED folds.
 These diagrams show the effect of plunge on the fold axis.
 
STRIKE: The direction of the line formed by the intersection of a horizontal plane with a
bedding or fault plane.  The trend of the rock/fault outcrop.

DIP: The angle formed by the intersection of a bedding or fault plane and the horizontal
plane; measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike.
This diagram uses Strike and Dip of repeating rock units to produce a geologic map
and to infer the underlying fold.
 Notice the differential weathering of different rock layers, especially on the right side
of the image.  This differential weathering allows the tilted/dipping limbs to be more
noticeable.  Notice the V-shape of the outcrop pattern.  This ANTICLINE is plunging
toward the top of the picture; therefore, it is a PLUNGING ANTICLINE!
Folding produced by fault action typically produces angular and/or box-folds
Notice the effect of differential weathering on the joints in the background on the left side
of the image.
 Strike-Slip Faults typically have near-vertical fault surfaces.  They also come in two varieties:
Left-Lateral Strike-Slip and Right-Lateral Strike-Slip Faults.  Notice the pond in C.  This is a SAG
POND, which is usually due to INTERSEISMIC SUBSIDENCE.  Following the release in stress as the
result of an Earthquake, the rocks/ground relaxes and subsides, thus forming sag ponds in some
situations.
 2. Rock mechanics, physical properties and mechanical properties of rocks.

In several fields of work, including geology, petrophysics, geophysics, material science,

geochemistry, and geotechnical engineering, the physical properties of rocks are of interest and
utility. The scientific scale varies from molecular and crystalline to earthly observations of the Earth
and other celestial bodies. In order to reconstruct the origin of mineral deposits, geologists are
involved in the radioactive age dating of rocks; seismologists formulate prospective earthquake
forecasts using premonitory physical or chemical changes; crystallographers study the synthesis of
minerals with unique optical or physical properties; geophysicists examine the variation of subsurface
physical properties and ores of metals; geotechnical engineers examine the nature and behavior of
the materials on, in, or of which such structures as buildings, dams, tunnels, bridges, and
underground storage vaults are to be constructed; solid-state physicists study the magnetic,
electrical, and mechanical properties of materials for electronic devices, computer components, or
high-performance ceramics; and petroleum reservoir engineers analyze the response measured on
well logs or in the processes of deep drilling at elevated temperature and pressure.

Since rocks are aggregates of mineral grains or crystals, their properties are primarily
determined by the properties of their different mineral constituents. These general properties are
calculated in a rock by averaging the relative properties of the different grains or crystals and often
their orientations. As a consequence, for a large bulk volume of the rock, certain properties that are
anisotropic (i.e., vary with direction) on a submicroscopic or crystalline scale are reasonably isotropic.
Many properties often depend on the size, shape and arrangement of the grain or crystal, the quantity
and distribution of void space, the presence of natural cements in sedimentary rocks, the temperature
and pressure, and the form and quantity of fluids contained (e.g., water, petroleum, gases). Since
several rocks display a large range of these variables, a statistical variance is sometimes used to
allocate representative values for a specific property.

a. Porosity
The term rock refers to the bulk volume of the material, including the grains or crystals as well
as the contained void space. The volumetric portion of bulk rock that is not occupied by grains,
crystals, or natural cementing material is termed porosity. That is to say, porosity is the ratio of void
volume to the bulk volume (grains plus void space). This void space consists of pore space between
grains or crystals, in addition to crack space. In sedimentary rocks, the amount of pore space
depends on the degree of compaction of the sediment (with compaction generally increasing with
depth of burial), on the packing arrangement and shape of grains, on the amount of cementation, and
on the degree of sorting. Typical cements are siliceous, calcareous or carbonate, or iron-bearing
minerals.

Sorting is the tendency of sedimentary rocks to have grains that are similarly sized—i.e., to
have a narrow range of sizes (see Figure 2). Poorly sorted sediment displays a wide range of grain
sizes and hence has decreased porosity. Well-sorted indicates a grain size distribution that is fairly
uniform. Depending on the type of close-packing of the grains, porosity can be substantial. It should
be noted that in engineering usage—e.g., geotechnical or civil engineering—the terminology is
phrased oppositely and is referred to as grading. A well-graded sediment is a (geologically) poorly
sorted one, and a poorly graded sediment is a well-sorted one.
 Total porosity encompasses all the void space, including those pores that are interconnected to
the surface of the sample as well as those that are sealed off by natural cement or other obstructions.
Thus, the total porosity (ϕT) is

where VolG is the volume of grains (and cement, if any) and VolB is the total bulk volume.
Alternatively, one can calculate ϕT from the measured densities of the bulk rock and of the
(mono)mineralic constituent. Thus,

where ρB is the density of the bulk rock and ρG is the density of the grains (i.e., the mineral, if
the composition is monomineralogic and homogeneous). For example, if a sandstone has a ρB of
2.38 grams per cubic centimetre (g/cm3) and is composed of quartz (SiO2) grains having ρG of 2.65
g/cm3, the total porosity is

Apparent (effective, or net) porosity is the proportion of void space that excludes the sealed-off
pores. It thus measures the pore volume that is effectively interconnected and accessible to the
surface of the sample, which is important when considering the storage and movement of subsurface
fluids such as petroleum, groundwater, or contaminated fluids.

b. Permeability

In electromagnetism, permeability is the measure of magnetization that a material obtains in

response to an applied magnetic field. Permeability is typically represented by the (italicized) Greek
letter μ. The term was coined in September 1885 by Oliver Heaviside. The reciprocal of permeability
is magnetic reluctivity.

In SI units, permeability is measured in henries per meter (H/m), or equivalently in newtons per
ampere squared (N/A2). The permeability constant μ0, also known as the magnetic constant or the
permeability of free space, is the proportionality between magnetic induction and magnetizing force
when forming a magnetic field in a classical vacuum. Until 20 May 2019, the magnetic constant had
the exact (defined) value μ0 = 4π × 10−7 H/m ≈ 12.57×10−7 H/m.

On 20 May 2019, a revision to the SI system went into effect, making the vacuum permeability
no longer a constant but rather a value that needs to be determined experimentally; 4π ×
1.00000000082(20)×10−7 H/m is a recently measured value in the new system. It is proportional to
the dimensionless fine-structure constant with no other dependencies.

A closely related property of materials is magnetic susceptibility, which is a dimensionless

proportionality factor that indicates the degree of magnetization of a material in response to an
applied magnetic field.

c. Density
Density varies significantly among different rock types because of differences in mineralogy and
porosity. Knowledge of the distribution of underground rock densities can assist in interpreting
subsurface geologic structure and rock type.
In strict usage, density is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume; however, in
common usage, it is taken to be the weight in air of a unit volume of a sample at a specific
temperature. Weight is the force that gravitation exerts on a body (and thus varies with location),
whereas mass (a measure of the matter in a body) is a fundamental property and is constant
regardless of location. In routine density measurements of rocks, the sample weights are considered
to be equivalent to their masses, because the discrepancy between weight and mass would result in
less error on the computed density than the experimental errors introduced in the measurement of
volume. Thus, density is often determined using weight rather than mass. Density should properly be
reported in kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3), but is still often given in grams per cubic centimetre
(g/cm3).
Another property closely related to density is specific gravity. It is defined, as noted above, as
the ratio of the weight or mass in air of a unit volume of material at a stated temperature to the weight
or mass in air of a unit volume of distilled water at the same temperature. Specific gravity is
dimensionless (i.e., has no units).
The bulk density of a rock is ρB = WG/VB, where WG is the weight of grains (sedimentary
rocks) or crystals (igneous and metamorphic rocks) and natural cements, if any, and VB is the total
volume of the grains or crystals plus the void (pore) space. The density can be dry if the pore space is
empty, or it can be saturated if the pores are filled with fluid (e.g., water), which is more typical of the
subsurface (in situ) situation. If there is more fluid present,

where ρfl is the density of the pore fluid. Density measurements for a given specimen involve
the determination of any two of the following quantities: pore volume, bulk volume, or grain volume,
along with the weight.
A useful way to assess the density of rocks is to make a histogram plot of the statistical range
of a set of data. The representative value and its variation can be expressed as follows: (1) mean, the
average value, (2) mode, the most common value (i.e., the peak of the distribution curve), (3) median,
the value of the middle sample of the data set (i.e., the value at which half of the samples are below
and half are above), and (4) standard deviation, a statistical measure of the spread of the data (plus
and minus one standard deviation from the mean value includes about two-thirds of the data).
A compilation of dry bulk densities for various rock types found in the upper crust of the Earth is
listed in the Table. A histogram plot of these data, giving the percent of the samples as a function of
density is shown in Figure 3. The parameters given include (1) sample division, the range of density
in one data column—e.g., 0.036 g/cm3 for Figure 3, (2) number of samples, and (3) standard
deviation. The small inset plot is the percentage of samples (on the vertical axis) that lie within the
interval of the “mode - x” to the “mode + x,” where x is the horizontal axis.
Density/Sp. Gravity = 2.5 to 2.8. Non-porous and compact rocks have higher density and
toughness. Normally rocks have three times the density of water. Pumice rock has density less
than that of water. Basalt: 3 g/cm3

; granite: 2.7 g/cm3

; sandstone: 2.3 g/cm3. High density rocks

like massive gabbro, basalt and quartzite are very hard and most suitable for foundation
purposes.
 In Figure 3, the most common (modal) value of the distribution falls at 2.63 g/cm3, roughly the
density of quartz, an abundant rock-forming mineral. Few density values for these upper crustal rocks
lie above 3.3 g/cm3. A few fall well below the mode, even occasionally under 1 g/cm3. The reason for
this is shown in Figure 4, which illustrates the density distributions for granite, basalt, and sandstone.
Granite is an intrusive igneous rock with low porosity and a well-defined chemical (mineral)
composition; its range of densities is narrow. Basalt is, in most cases, an extrusive igneous rock that
can exhibit a large variation in porosity (because entrained gases leave voids called vesicles), and
thus some highly porous samples can have low densities. Sandstone is a clastic sedimentary rock
that can have a wide range of porosities depending on the degree of sorting, compaction, packing
arrangement of grains, and cementation. The bulk density varies accordingly.
Other distribution plots of dry bulk densities are given in Figures 5 and 6, with a sample division of
0.036 g/cm3 for Figures 5 and 6A and of 0.828 percent for Figure 6B. The Table lists typical ranges of
dry bulk densities for a variety of other rock types as prepared by the American geologists Gordon R.
Johnson and Gary R. Olhoeft.
 d. Strength
Strength: It represents present competency of rock fabric to bind the components together. Density or
unit weight or specific weight: If G= 2.6, 𝛾 = 26 𝐾𝑁/𝑚 2 approx.
Relationship between porosity and dry density
𝛾dry = G𝛾w(1-n)
Mode of failure is dictated by the joint system.
The seepage is governed by these discontinuous and the gouge material present.
Rock strength is specified in terms of tensile strength, compressive strength, shear strength,
and impact strength. In the context of fracture gradient, only the tensile strength of rock is of
importance. The tensile strength of rock is defined as the pulling force, required to rupture a rock
sample, divided by the sample’s cross-sectional area. The tensile strength of rock is very small and is
of the order of 0.1 times the compressive strength. Thus, a rock material is more likely to fail in
tension than in compression.
The rock mechanics failure criteria have their limitations and are therefore suitable only for
particular applications. In this chapter we use only two of these criteria, used extensively in the oil and
gas industry, that is, Von Mises and Mohr–Coulomb failure and expand on the in situ and laboratory
testing techniques to measure or estimate their relevant parameters.

e. Hardness
It is the measure of resistance to abrasion i.e., resistance to permanent deformation. It is
determined by Schmidt rebound hardness number.
 The Mohs' hardness scale was developed in 1822 by Frederich Mohs. This scale is a chart of
relative hardness of the various minerals (1 - softest to 10 - hardest). Since hardness depends upon
the crystallographic direction (ultimately on the strength of the bonds between atoms in a crystal),
there can be variations in hardness depending upon the direction in which one measures this
property. One of the most striking examples of this is kyanite, which has a hardness of 5.5 parallel to
the 1 direction ( c-axis), while it has a hardness of 7.0 parallel to the 100 direction ( a-axis). Talc (1),
the softest mineral on the Mohs scale has a hardness greater than gypsum (2) in the direction that is
perpendicular to the cleavage. Diamonds (10) also show a variation in hardness (the octahedral faces
are harder than the cube faces). For further information see articles from the American Mineralogist
on microhardness, the Knoop tester, and diamonds.

f. Plasticity
When a rock or mineral is subjected to stress, stress is proportional to strain as long as the elastic
limit has not been exceeded. This relationship is known as Hooke's law. Plastic deformation takes
place when a rock, mineral, or other substance is stressed beyond its elastic limit (Fig. 1). Plastic
deformation is that deformation that produces a permanent change in the shape of a solid without that
solid having failed by fracturing.
 Plasticity theory for rocks is concerned with the response of rocks to loads beyond the elastic
limit. Historically, conventional wisdom has it that rock is brittle and fails by fracture while plasticity is
identified with ductile materials. In field scale rock masses, structural discontinuities exist in the rock
indicating that failure has taken place. Since the rock has not fallen apart, contrary to expectation of
brittle behavior, clearly elasticity theory is not the last work.
Theoretically, the concept of rock plasticity is based on soil plasticity which is different from
metal plasticity. In metal plasticity, for example in steel, the size of a dislocation is sub-grain size
while for soil it is the relative movement of microscopic grains. The theory of soil plasticity was
developed in the 1960s at Rice University to provide for inelastic effects not observed in metals.
Typical behaviors observed in rocks include strain softening, perfect plasticity, and work hardening.
Application of continuum theory is possible in jointed rocks because of the continuity of
tractions across joints even through displacements may be discontinuous. The difference between an
aggregate with joints and a continuous solid is in the type of constitutive law and the values of
constitutive parameters.
The governing equations, constitutive models, and yield surfaces discussed above are not
sufficient if we are to compute the stresses and displacements in a rock body that is undergoing
plastic deformation. An additional kinematic assumption is needed, i.e., that the strain in the body can
be decomposed additively (or multiplicatively in some cases) into an elastic part and a plastic part.
The elastic part of the strain can be computed from a linear elastic constitutive model. However,
determination of the plastic part of the strain requires a flow rule and a hardening model.
REFERENCES:

H.S. Washington (1917) and R.J. Piersol, L.E. Workman, and M.C. Watson (1940) as compiled
by Gary R. Olhoeft and Gordon R. Johnson in Robert S. Carmichael (ed.), Handbook of Physical
Properties of Rocks, vol. III, CRC Press, Inc. (1984).

R.A. Daly, G.E. Manger, and S.P. Clark, Jr. (1966); A.F. Birch (1966); F. Press (1966); and
R.N. Schock, B.P. Bonner, and H. Louis (1974) in Robert S. Carmichael (ed.), Handbook of Physical
Properties of Rocks, vol. III, CRC Press, Inc. (1984).

Duggal, S.K. Pandey, H.K and Rawal, M.(2014), „Engineering Geology‟, McGraw Hill
Education(India) Pvt. Ltd, New Delhi-16, pp 391 - 414.

Goodman,R.E(1989), „Rock Mechanics‟, John Wiley and sons, New York, pp 19-49.

Ramamurthy, T., (2010), „Engineering in Rocks for Slopes, Foundations and Tunnels‟,
PHI Learning Private Limited, New Delhi, pp 1 – 11.

Verma, B.P.(2017), Engineering Geology and Rock Mechanics, Khanna publishers, Nai
Sarak,Delhi-110006,India, pp.266-275.

Parker, Richard H.; Yu, Chenghui; Zhong, Weicheng; Estey, Brian; Müller, Holger (2018-04-
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Davis, Richard S. (2017). "Determining the value of the fine-structure constant from a current
balance: Getting acquainted with some upcoming changes to the SI". American Journal of Physics.
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Seyfert C.K. (1987) Plastic deformation of rocks and rock-forming minerals. In: Structural
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https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31080-0_78