4.

1 Biological molecules

Nutrient : biological molecules / ions (ex. Nitrate-sodium-magnesium)

Carbohydrates

These contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).
 Glucose is a simple sugar ( a monosaccharide), Basic unit of carbohydrates
 Sucrose is a double-sugar molecule made up of two molecules of simple
sugars (a disaccharide)
 When lots of glucose molecules join together starch, glycogen or
cellulose can form (a polysaccharide)
 Glycogen, cellulose and starch are all made from glucose molecules
 Starch (energy store in plants)/Glycogen (energy store in animals (liver and
muscles) == insoluble / do not taste sweet

Proteins

These contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), oxygen (O), nitrogen
(N) and sulfur (S)

 Long chains of amino acids

 There are about 20 different amino acids
 They all contain the same basic structure but the ‘R’ group is different
for each one
 When amino acids are joined together a protein is formed
 The amino acids can be arranged in any order/sequence, resulting in
hundreds of thousands of different proteins
 Even a small difference in the order of the amino acids results in a different
protein being formed
 Basic unit of protein is amino acid / peptide bond

Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 1 Tel. 00201023726242

 Protein Shape
 There are thousands of different proteins in the human body and other
organisms
 Many of these proteins are different shapes and the shape often has an
important effect on the function of the protein
 For example:
o Enzymes are proteins that provide a surface for reactions to take
place called the active site.
o This is important as this is the place where another molecule fits into
the enzyme in order for a reaction to take place
o If the shape of the active site does not match the shape of the
molecule that fits into it, the reaction will not take place
o Every enzyme has a different shaped active site
o Antibodies are proteins with a structure that has binding sites on its
surface, this enables them to bind to the surface of pathogens.
The shape of the antibody must match the shape of the antigen on
the surface of pathogens so that it can attach to it and signal it for
destruction

 Every protein has a unique 3-D shape that enables it to carry out its
function
 Ex. Amylase is made from a sequence of amino acids joined together
forming a specific 3D shape

Fats
These contain the elements carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O).

 Most fats (lipids) in the body are made up of triglycerides

 Their basic unit is 1 glycerol molecule chemically bonded to 3 fatty acid
chains
 The fatty acids vary in size and structure
 Lipids are divided into fats (solids at room temperature) and oils (liquids at
room temperature)
 Fats are used for energy storage and thermal insulation in the body
 Basic unit is glycerol

Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 2 Tel. 00201023726242

 4.2 Chemical tests for biological molecules

Test for glucose (a reducing sugar)

 Add Benedict’s solution into sample solution in test tube
 Heat at 60 – 70 °c in water bath for 5 minutes
 Take test tube out of water bath and observe the colour
 A positive test will show a colour change from bright blue to
orange/brick-red

Test for starch using iodine

 Add drops of iodine solution to the food sample
 A positive test will show a colour change from orange-brown/yellow/light
brown to blue-black

Test for protein

 Add drops of Biuret solution to the food sample

 A positive test will show a colour change from blue to violet / purple/ lilac

Test for lipids/fats

 Fats will not dissolve in water they will dissolve in water.
 Food sample is mixed with 2cm3 of ethanol and shaken
 The ethanol is added to an equal volume of cold water
 A positive test will show a cloudy white emulsion forming

Test for vitamin C

 Add 1cm3 of DCPIP solution to a test tube

 Add a small amount of food sample (as a solution)
 A positive test will show the blue colour of the dye disappearing

Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 3 Tel. 00201023726242

 4.3 DNA
Describing DNA Structure
 DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the
instructions for growth and development of all organisms
 It consists of two strands of DNA wound around each other in what is
called a double helix
 The building block of DNA is called nucleotides

A nucleotide
 All nucleotides contain the same phosphate and Deoxyribose sugar, but
differ from each other in the base attached
 There are four different bases, Adenine (A), Cytosine (C), Thymine (T)
and Guanine (G)
 The bases on each strand pair up with each other, holding the two strands of
DNA in the double helix
 The bases always pair up in the same way:
o Adenine always pairs with Thymine (A-T)
o Cytosine always pairs with Guanine (C-G)
 The phosphate and sugar section of the nucleotides form the ‘backbone’ of
the DNA strand (like the sides of a ladder) and the base pairs of each strand
connect to form the rungs of the ladder

The DNA helix is made from two strands of DNA coiled together by hydrogen
bonds
Genes: length of DNA that codes for the production of a particular protein.

Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 4 Tel. 00201023726242

 Questions related to the topic of today from past papers/all variants
(2002 to 2021)
W20

S17

S16
W19

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 W16/S12

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 W18

S14

M21

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 W17

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W14

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W12

M15

Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 11 Tel. 00201023726242

 W11

S19/16

W03

S21

M17

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 35+35=70
15+15=30

S20

M16

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 S19

S18

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Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 15 Tel. 00201023726242

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S04

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 M21

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Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 18 Tel. 00201023726242

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Mr. Ramy El-gebaly (IGCSE biology teacher) 19 Tel. 00201023726242