UNIVERSITY  SPIRU  HARET  

                       BUCHAREST  
 
 
 
 
FACULTY    OF  ARCHITECTURE  
 

           
 
PERSPECTIVE  
COURSE  NOTES  
Part  I  
 
 
 
 
 
Lecturer  Mihai  Moldovanu,  PhD  
 
2014-­‐2015  
 
 
 
1  
  
 
Cuprins    
 
Part  I  
 
1.  THE  USE  OF  PERSPECTIVE  IN  ARCHITECTURE  
2.  HISTORY  OF  PERSPECTIVE  
3.  CONTEXT  IN  PERSPECTIVE  
4.  IMAGE  FORMATION  
5.  THE  OPTIMAL  PERSPECTIVE  ANGLE  
6.  PERSPECTIVE  CLASSIFICATION  
7.  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  PERSPECTIVE  SYSTEM  
8.  MECANISM  OF  CONICAL  PERSPECTIVE    
9.  DEPENDENT  METHODE  PERSPECTIVE  TO  THE  VERTICAL  PLANE  
10.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  METHODE  ON  A  VERTICAL  PLANE  
11.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  OF  THE  CIRCLE  AND  SPHERE  
12.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  CONSTRUCTION  FOR  ACHITECTURE  
13.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  AT  TWO  VANISHING  POINT  EYE  LEVEL  
14.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  AT  TWO  VANISHING  POINT  ABOVE  EYE  LEVEL  
15.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  AT  TWO  VANISHING  POINT  BELOW  EYE  LEVEL  
16.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  TO  A  SINGLE  VANISHING  POINT  
17.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  ON  AN  INCLINED  PLANE  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  2  
  
LECTURE  NOTES  -­‐  PERSPECTIVE      
 
                Lecturer  Mihai  Moldovanu,  PhD  
 
Perspective  explains  the  laws  according  to  which  the  objects  around  
us   assume   different   aspects   depending   on   the   spot   from   where   they   are  
seen.  
The   Perspective   is   a   graphic   procedure   according   to   which   the   three-­‐
dimensional  space  may  be  represented  on  a  two-­‐dimension  image.  
 
1.  THE  USE  OF  PERSPECTIVE  IN  ARCHITECTURE  
 
   -­‐   The   study   and   completion   of   an   architecture   creation   cannot   be   valued  
without  a  perspective  representation.  The  designing  practice  demonstrated  
a   continuous   shift   from   the   representation   in   descriptive   geometry   to   the  
perspective  one  and  vice  versa.  
 
       -­‐   Photography   may   replace   perspective   especially   for   documentation  
needs,  not  entirely  but  only  together  with  it,  although  perspective  has  the  
dominant  role.  
 
     -­‐   No   layout   can   completely   replace   perspective.   The   layout   can   only  
render  the  volumetry,  but  not  the  relation  with  the  human  dimension.  
 
     -­‐   Every   study   stage   may   cover   a   perspective,   as   it   proves   to   be   more  
economic   and   advantageous   than   a   layout.   Only   perspective   can   render   the  
atmosphere  and  the  relation  with  the  environment.  
 
  2.  HISTORY  OF  PERSPECTIVE  
 
  The  geometry  included  in  perspective  is  necessary,  but  not  sufficient.  
Therefore,   a   series   of   graphic   methods   were   used   to   get   the   perspective  
drawing  closer  to  the  reality.    
  Starting  the  1st  century  B.C,  the  Latin  architect  and  engineer  Vitruvius  
showed   the   usefulness   of   perspective   in   architecture:   “The  architects  need  
scenography  (perspective)  at  any  costs  because  it  teaches  how  to  give    

3  
convenient  ratios  to  different  sides  of  a  building  without  fearing  that  any  of  
the  designed  beauty  would  be  lost  by  construction”  .  
 
-­‐   In   Antiquity   perspective   was   known   by   its   “scenographical”  
representation.    
Geminus   (sec.   I.   B.C.),   historian   of   the   Greek   Mathematics,   gives   the  
following   definition:   “Scenography   is   that   branch   of   the   Optics   that   shows  
how   drawings   are   made,   representing   objects   at   different   distances   and  
heights,  keeping  though  the  proportion  and  shape”  
-­‐  During  the  Renaissance   it   was   named   “perspective”.   During   this   time,   it  
became  a  study  subject  in  all  the  universities  of  the  time.    
Leonardo   da   Vinci   (1452   -­‐   1519)   shows   that:   “Painting   is   based   on  
perspective   ...   nothing   is   done   about   it...The   apprentice   must   first   learn  
perspective,   according   to   which   it   can   assign   the   right   measure   to   each  
object”  
Joule   de   la   Gournerie   (19th   century)   defines   the   perspective   as   follows:  
“Perspective   is   the   art   of   representing   the   objects   in   space   as   a   picture,  
keeping  their  appearance.  It  is  linear  or  aerial,  dealing  with  shape  or  colour”.    
-­‐   During   the   Modern   period,   the   perspective   still   keeps   the   basic  
principles  applied  in  the  Renaissance,  but  the  representation  methods  are  
improved.   Perspective   is   not   only   geometry,   but,   as   Adrian   Gheorghiu,  
Profesor   at   the   ”Ion   Mincu”   University   of   Architecture   was   showing,   it   is  
geometry,   optics,   physiology   and   psychology   of   sight   at   the   same   time.    
Therefore,  ”perspective  is  the  science  that  renders  the  features  of  the  objects  
in  space  through  drawing,  as  are  seen  from  a  finite  distance”.  
   
3.  CONTEXT  IN  PERSPECTIVE  
 
The  human  sight  may  be  approximated  with  a  conic  projection  
system  where  the  sightlines  forming  a  visual  cone  follow  the  brims  of  the  
seen  object  delimiting  its  apparent  contour.  The  perspective  drawing  of  the  
studied  object  is  obtained  by  intersecting  the  visual  cone  with  a  plane.  

  4  
  
Fig.  1  –  Perspective  mechanism  according  to  Leonardo  da  Vinci  -­‐  (wood  engraving  by      
Albrecht  Durer  –  1525).  
 
 

 
Fig.  2  –  Grafic  perspective  mechanism  according  to  Leonardo  -­‐  axonometric  
reprezentation.  
 
 
 
 
 
5  
 4.  IMAGE  FORMATION  
 
The   study   of   perspective   starts   from   the   analysis   of   the   image   perception  
received   by   the   human   eye.   The   eye   lens   functions   as   a   biconvex   lens  
generating  a  real  image,  inverted  and  smaller.    
The   visual   field   is   the   space   portion   materialised   through   retina   images  
when  we  watch  an  object  keeping  our  head  still.  
The   visual   perception   is   based   on   the   physiological   and   stereotomic   nature  
of  the  eye  including  the  following  characteristics:  
1.   Accommodation   –   the   eye’s   possibility   to   bring   an   image   of   any  
object  on  the  retina,  through  the  eye  lens  variation  
 
2.  Visual  acuity  –  the  eye’s  capacity  to  perceive  really  small  objects.  
 
3.  Adaptation  -­‐  when  passing  from  an  intensity  of  light  to  another    
 

         
Fig. 3 The eye lens functions as a biconvex lens generating a real image, inverted.
(sursa: Zamfir Dumitrescu, Ciete de perspectivă artistică, Noi Media Print, 1998, Bucuresti).

Legend: RETINA = RETINA (the most sensitive membrane of the eye, consisting in photo
sensible cells, the terminal portion of the optic nerve
  6  
SCLEROTICA=SCLEROTICA (a white, external, protective membrane of the eye globe).
FOVEA CENTRALA = CENTRAL FOVEA.
COROIDA = CHOROID (a black “coating” of the sclerotica).
Pleoapa superioara = Upper eyelid.
CRISTALINUL = EYE LENS (a biconvex lens with a refraction index between 1,33- 1,48,
actioned by the ciliary bodies).
CAMERA POSTERIOARA = POSTERIOR CHAMBER (the “camera obscura” of the eye
containing the hyaloid body).
VASE SANGUINE = BLOOD VESSELS
IMAGINEA VIRTUALA RETINIANĂ = VIRTUAL RETINAL IMAGE
Pleoapa inferioară = Lower eyelid
CORNEEA = CORNEA (the lower part of the sclerotica, as a first refracting medium with a
refraction index varying between 1,33 and 1,36).
NERVUL OPTIC = OPTIC NERVE
MUSCHII CILIARI = CILIARY MUSCLES (or ciliary bodies; they act on the eye lens
according to the distances where the objects are placed)
IRISUL = IRIS (ring-like membrane, with an opening at the centre called a pupil. Together
with the pupil, the iris ensures the diafragm proces to allow light to enter in the eye.
 
 
5.  THE  OPTIMAL  PERSPECTIVE  ANGLE  
 
Visual  fields  clarity  areas:  
 
1.  The  central  area  with  a  clear  and  precise  sight:  28  -­‐  37  degrees.  
 
2.  The  moderately  clear  and  less  precise  area:  37  -­‐  53  degrees.  
 
3.  The  peripheral,  less  clear  and  less  precise  area:  >53  degrees.  
 

 
Fig.  4    Visual  field  clarity  areas.  (Acording  to  Horia  Teodoru,    
Perspectiva,  Editura  pentru  Literatura  si  Arta,  Bucuresti,  1959)  
 
   
 
    left  eye  visual  field           right  eye  visual  field  
   

7  
                                                
binocular  view                                monocular  view  
 
Fig.   5     Binocular   fields   of   view.   (   acording   to   Horia   Teodoru,   Perspectiva,   Editura  
pentru  Literatura  si  Arta,  Bucuresti,  1959)  
 
 

                                                                             
 
Fig.   6     Visual   field   of   the   eye   (acording   to   Horia   Teodoru,   Perspectiva,   Editura  
pentru  Literatura  si  Arta,  Bucuresti,  1959)  
 
 
6.  PERSPECTIVE  CLASSIFICATION  
 
The  first  classification  of  perspective  was  made  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci:  

  8  
         1.  The  linear  perspective  =is  obtained  by  intersecting  each  visual  ray  
with  the  perspective  picture,  using  different  construction  methods  of  the  
perspective  image.  
 
      2.  The  aerial  perspective  =  continues  the  linear  perspective,  by  
gradual  qualitative  rendering  of  the  lines,  shadow  areas,  light,  colour  
according  to  the  distances  of  the  object  towards  the  viewer  and  the  context  
where  the  object  is  (light,  space,  depth).  
 
Classification  of  the  linear  perspective:  
 
1.  According  to  the  main  viewing  direction:  
 
A.  –vertical  plane  perspective  (eg.  Fig.  9  -­‐C).  
 
B.  –inclined  plane  perspective(  eg.  Fig.  9  -­‐  B,  D).  
 
C.  -­‐  according  to  the  plane  shape.  
 

 
    Fig.  7    The  main  viewing  direction.  
 
A.  Vertical  plane  perspective  
   
The  main  viewing  direction  is  horizontal  and  driven  on  the    vertical  
face.   According   to   the   observer’s   position   towards   the   horizontal   plane  
object  the  vertical  perspective  are  dividet  in:  
   
a.    –central  frontal  perspective  –  one  vanishing  point  .  
9  
  
b.    –lateral  frontal  perspective  –  one  vanishing  point  .  
 
c.  -­‐corner  perspective  -­‐  two  vanishing  points.  

 
 
Fig.  8    The  observator`s  position  towards  the  horizontale  plane  object.  
 
All  this  tipe  of  perspective,  in  according  to  the  observer’s  position  
towards   the   vertical   plane   object,   it   will   be     constructed   in   three  
different  ways  :  
 
a  –  eye-­‐level  horizon  perspective.  
 
b  –  worm’s  eye  level  (object  above  eye  level)  horizon  perspective.  
 
c  –  bird’s  eye  level  (object  below  eye  level)  horizon  perspective.  
 

  10  
                                    
 
    Fig.  9    a.  eye-­‐level  horizon  perspective.  
 
 
 
 
 

 
Fig.  10    b.  above  eye  level  horizon  perspective.  
 
 
 
 

11  
  
Fig.  11      c.  below  eye  level  horizon  perspective.  
 
B.  Classification  of  the  inclined  plane  perspective  -­‐  three  point  
vanishing  :  

       
  Fig.  12      a.    the  ascendant  perspective  –looking  up  at  a  tall  building.  
 
The  main  viewing  direction  is  ascendant.  It  is  used  for  the  very  tall  
architecture  objects  perspective  or  for  the  interior  perspective  of  the  
ceilings.    
 

  12  
  
Fig.  13      –the  descendent  perspective.  
The  main  viewing  direction  is  descendent.  Used  in  the  
perspective  of  the  units  seen  from  great  heights.  
 
C.  Perspective  classification  according  to  the  plane  shape:  
 

 
Fig.  14.  Different  type  of  shape  plane.  (surse:  M.  Enache,  I.  Ionescu,  Perspectiva  si  
Geometrie  Descriptive,  ed.  Didactica  si  Pedagogica,  1988,  Bucuresti)  
 
               a.-­‐  perspective  on  a  cylindrical  plane  with  vertical  axis.  
 
               b.-­‐  perspective  on  a  cylindrical  plane  with  frontal  horizontal  axis.  
 
               c.-­‐  perspective  on  a  spherical  plane.  
 
 
13  
  
7.  ELEMENTS  OF  THE  PERSPECTIVE  SYSTEM  
 
1.    The  ground  plane  (H)–  the  horizontal  plane  in  descriptive  geometry,  the  
land  where  the  objects  and  observer  stand.  
 
2.    The  horizon  plane  (PH)-­‐the  main  horizontal  visual  plane.  
 
3.     The   picture   plane   (T)–   the   vertical   plane   perpendicular   on   the   main  
visual  ray  where  the  perspective  images  of  the  observed  object  are  formed.  
 
4.     The   neutral   plane   (PN)-­‐   the   plane   passing   through   the   point   of   sight,  
parallel  to  the  picture.  
 
5.    The  ground  line  XX’  –the  line  of  the  earth.  
 
6.     The   horizon   line   HH’   –line   of   intersection   of   the   picture,   T   with   the  
horizon  plane  PH.  
 
7.    The  point  of  view  (O)-­‐the  observation  point,  the  centre  of  projection.  
 
8.    The  main  point  of  sight  (P)-­‐The  orthogonal  projection  on  the  picture  of  
the  point  of  view  O  
 
9.     The  main  direction  of  sight   (OP)-­‐   the   sight   distance   perpendicular   on   the  
picture  in  P.  
 
The  revealing  perspective  space  consists  of:  
 
1.  The   real   space  –  is  the  space  in  front  of  the  observer  from  the  picture  to  
infinite.  
 
2.  The  intermediary  space  –  is  the  space  between  the  picture  and  the  neutral  
space.  
 
3.  The  virtual  space  –  is  the  space  positioned  behind  the  neutral  plane.  
4.  The  observer’s  distance     (D-­‐,D+)  –  distance  from  the  point  of  sight  to  the  
picture    

  14  
  
                       Fig.  15  Elements  of  the  perspective  system.  (surs:  M.  Enache,  I.  Ionescu,  
Perspectiva  si  Geometrie  Descriptive,  ed.  Didactica  si  Pedagogica,  1988,  Bucuresti)  
 
  8.  MECANISM  OF  A  CONICAL  PERSPECTIVE    
 

   
Fig.  16.  Conical  Perspective.  (source  first  picture:  M.  Enache,  I.Ionescu,  Perspectiva,  ed.  
Didactica  si  Pedagogica,  1988,  Bucuresti)  
 
 In  conical  perspective  the  parallel  line  are  compenting  in  space  and  
get   a   point   on   the   horizon.   This   point   is   called   ”vanishing   point”   and   we  
note    with  F.  If  two  parallel  lines  go  to  the  line  of  horizon  (strait  level)  their  
point  of  intersection  is  located  on  the  horizon  in  P.  

15  
     Fig.  
17    The  mechanism  of  the  conical  perspective  on  a  vertical  plane  (picture).  
 
 

 
 
Fig.  18    The  mechanism  of  the  conical  perspective  on  a  vertical  plane  (picture).  
 
 
 
THE  GEOMETRIC  PROPERTIES  OF  THE  PERSPECTIVE  

  16  
Perspective  as  a  result  of  the  conic  projection  has  the  following  geometric  
properties:  
-­‐it  maintains  the  point,  the  straight  line  and  the  intersection;  
-­‐it  maintains  the  incidence  relations-­‐  collinearity;  
-­‐it  maintains  the  cross  ratio  of  four  collinear  points;  
-­‐the  ratio  of  three  points  is  not  maintained  in  perspective;  
-­‐the  parallel  straight  lines  in  space  appear  concurrent  in  the  vanishing  
point  in  perspective.  
-­‐the  metric  relations  are  not  maintained  in  perspective-­‐  the  linear  
dimensions,  the  surfaces  and  angles;  
-­‐the  curves  maintain  their  degree  and  tangent.  
 
 
METHODES  OF  PERSPECTIVE  ON  A  VERTICAL  PLANE.  
  In   design   practice   have   revealed   four   distinct   methods   of  
construction  of  perspective:  
A. dependent  methode  –  that  use  plan  and  elevation  from  descriptive  
geometry.   It   was   intiated   and   developed   by   Brunelleschi,  
Leonardo   da   Vinci   and   Monge.   This   is   an   accurate   and   laborious  
methode.  
B. Free   methode   –   represents   direct   method   that   allowing  
construction   perspective   without   using   dual   orthogonal  
projection.   It   operates   on   intuition   because   all   operations   are  
solve   directly   the   painting.   It   was   intiated   and   developed   by  
Desargues,  Lambert  and  Poncelet.  
C. Axonometric  method   -­‐   drawing   directly   on   a   network   perspective  
what   is  built  before  on  the  picture.  It  was  initiated  by  Renaissance  
painters   and   developed   by   Desargues,   Abraham   Bosse   and   Pierr  
Olmer.  
D. Observational   perspective   –   it   is   a   methode   of   drawing   after   the  
nature,  that  develops  a  good  view  into  space.  
In   practice   these   methods   are   intertwined;   the   dependent  
perspective   put  volumes  in  the  page  and  free  perspective  allows  finishing  
details   for   that.   In   our   course   we   will   study   more   free   method   of  
construction   perspective,   and   the   dependent   perspective   methode   it   will  
remember  as  an  old  method.  
 
 
 
9.  DEPENDENT  METHODE  OF  PERSPECTIVE  TO  THE  VERTICAL  PLANE  
 

17  
  
Fig.  40    Leonardo  Vitro.  (source  first  picture:  M.  Enache,  I.Ionescu,  Perspectiva,  ed.  
Didactica  si  Pedagogica,  1988,  Bucuresti).  
 
 
Dependence  perspective  is  the  method  to  determine  the  points  of  intersection  of  
the  visual  rays  to  the  verticale  plane.  Aurelian  Gheorghiu  say  about  that  is  “a  methode  of  
visual  rays  drawn  drawn  in  double  orthogonal  projection”.  

 
 
Fig.  19      Volumes  construction.  Method  line  by  line  (F,F90)  
(sourse:  Aurelian  Tanasescu,  Geometrie  descriptiva,  Perspectivă,  Axonometrie,  
Ed.Didactia  si  pedagogica,  Bucuresti  1975)  

  18  
  
Fig.  21      Volumes  construction.  Method  poin  by  point  (w,P)  
(sourse:  Aurelian  Tanasescu,  Geometrie  descriptiva,  Perspectivă,  Axonometrie,  
Ed.Didactia  si  pedagogica,  Bucuresti  1975)  
 

 
Fig.  20      Volumes  construction.  Method  wF.  (sourse:  Aurelian  Tanasescu,  
Geometrie  descriptiva,  Perspectivă,  Axonometrie,  Ed.Didactia  si  pedagogica,  
Bucuresti  1975)  

19  
  
Fig.  22      Volumes  construction.  Method  wF.    
(sourse:   Aurelian   Tanasescu,   Geometrie   descriptiva,   Perspectivă,   Axonometrie,  
Ed.Didactia  si  pedagogica,  Bucuresti  1975)    
 
 
 
10.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  METHODE  ON  A  VERTICAL  PLANE  
 
It  is  the  method  to  obtain  the  objects’  perspective  in  space  directly  on  
the  plane  using  the  invariant  geometry  properties  by  conic  projection,  
without  using  the  epure  in  descriptive  geometry.  
 
Advantages  of  the  free  perspective:  
 
-­‐it  is  intuitive  and  closer  to  the  visual  perception.  
 
-­‐it  is  faster  because  it  operates  with  fewer  lines.  
 
-­‐it  allows  the  control  of  the  image  starting  with  the  first  lines.  
 
-­‐it  allows  the  construction  of  the  perspective  with  elements  set  in  the  
initial  plane,  so  that  the  perspective  image  does  not  need  to  be  transposed  
or  augmented.  
 
 
The  point  on  perspective  
 
  20  
1.  The  perspective  of  a  A1  point  is  the  A  intersection  point  between  the  OA1  
sight  distance  and  the  plane.  
 
2.  The  perspective  of  a  point  and  its  horizontal  projection  are  placed  on  the  
picture’s  plane  always  on  the  same  vertical  direction.  
 
3.  If  the  perspective  of  two  points  in  space  coincide  on  the  plane,  the  point  
that  is  further  away  from  the  plane  is  the  one  having  the  perspective  of  its  
horizontal  projection  further  than  the  horizon  line.  
 
4.  If  the  horizontal  perspectives  of  two  points  in  space  coincide,  high  level  
in   relation   to   the   horizontal   plane   shows   what   point   is   further   from   the  
picture.  
 
5.   If   a   point   in   the   horizontal   plane   is   confused   with   its   horizontal  
projection,  than  their  perspective  will  be  confused  as  well.  
 
6.   all   the   points   of   the   perspective   plane   are   their   own   perspective.   The  
horizontal   projections   of   these   points   are   situated   on   the   xx   line   of   the  
plane.  
 
7.   All   the   points   on   the   line   at   infinity   of   the   horizontal   plane   have   their  
perspective  on  the  hh  line  of  the  horizon.  
 
8.   There   is   a   perspective   correspondent   to   each   point   in   the   horizontal  
plane   situated   in   the   real   space-­‐   a   point   in   the   picture   plane   situated  
between  the  xx  base  of  the  picture  and  the  hh  horizon  line.  
 
9.   If   a   point   is   situated   in   the   intermediary   space,   than   the   perspective   of  
the   horizontal   projection   is   situated   in   the   picture   plane   under   the   xx   base.  
ex.  E1  point.  
 
10.   if   a   point   is   situated   in   the   vertical   plane,   than   the   perspective   of   the  
horizontal  projection  is  placed  in  the  picture  plane  above  the  hh.  line  ex.  G1  
point.  
 

21  
  
Fig.  23    The  perspective  point  on  the  vertical  plane.  (source:  Aurelian  
Tănăsescu,  Probleme  de  Perspectiva,  ed.  Didactică  si  Pedagogică,  Bucuresti,  
1971)    
 
 

 
 
Fig.  24      Different  positions  of  the  point  in  perspective.  (source:  
Aurelian  Tănăsescu,  Probleme  de  Perspectiva,  ed.  Didactică  si  Pedagogică,  
Bucuresti,  1971)  
 
                       The  perspective  of  the  straight  line  
 
  22  
 The   straight   lines   have   the   same   classifications   in   perspective   as   in  
descriptive  geometry.  

Fig
..25      Random  straight  lines  in  perspective.                                                                      

       
Fig.  26      Particular  straight  lines  in  perspective  
 
 

       
  Fig.  27  Straight  line  in  any  kind  of  position.  Staight  line(c)  and  (b)  have  upward  
position   and   intersect   plan   of   earth   befor   obs.   in   point   (h)   below   the   horizon;   Stright  
line  (a  )  and  (d)  have  a  downward  position    intersect  plan  of  earth  behind  obs.  in  point  
(h)  above  the  horizon.    
 

23  
  
Fig.  28    Particular  straight  line.  Straight  line  (A)have  a  horizontal  position;  
straight  (B)  have  a  frontal  position,  straight  line  (C)  have  a  frontal  and  horizontal  
position,  Straight  line    (D)  is  perpendicular  to  the  horizontal  plane,  straight  line  (E)  is    a  
straight  end  line.    
 
The  plane  perspective  
 
The   plane   will   have   different   representations   according   to   its  
position   towards   the   projection   plane:   horizontal   plane,   vertical   plane,  
frontal  plane,  end  plan.  
 

 
Fig.  29    The  plan  perspective  have  same  proprieties  like  plane  geometry.  
 
 

  24  
                
 
 
Fig.  30    Vertical  plane  in  perspective.                  Fig.  31  End  plane  in  perspective  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

     
Fig.  32  Horizontal  plane  in  perspective                                  Fig.  33    Frontal  plane    in  perspective  
 
 
 
 
 
Divisions  in  perspective  
   
 
25  
  
Fig.  34    The  division  of  a  straight  line  segment  into  equal  parts.              
 

 
Fig.  35    The  vertical  division  of  a  straight  line  segment  
 

 
 
Fig.  36      Division  of  a  facade  into  equal  parts.  
 

  26  
  
Fig.  37    Division  of  a  facade  into  equal  parts.    
 

 
Fig.  38    Equal  parts  added  on  right  and  left  of  a  façade  in  perspective.  
   

 
 
                   Fig.  39    Division  perspective  on  inclined  planes.  
 
 
   
 
27  
 Construction  based  to  vanising  point.  
 

 
 
 
Fig.  40    The  diagonal  vanishing  points  method.  
 

 
 
 
Fig.  41  -­‐  The  +F45/-­‐F45  method.  
 
 
 

  28  
  
 
Fig.  43      The  D+/D-­‐  distance  points  (used  in  the  interior  perspective).    
 
 
Construction  based  to  measuring  point.  
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
Fig.  42    The  measuring  points  method  (used  in  the  Restitution  of  perspective  ).  
 
 
 
11.  THE  CIRCLE  AND  THE  SPHERE  IN  PERSPECTIVE  
 
 
 
29  
  
 
 
Fig.  44    Circles  perspective  (sursa:  M.  Enache,  I.Ionescu,  Perspectiva  si  
Geometrie  descriptiva,  ed.  Didactica  si  Pedagogica,  1988,  Bucuresti)  
   
CIRCLE  
 
 A  circle  in  perspective  has  a  unique  characteristic,  it  is  viewed  
however  obliquerly,  the  shape  it  markes  is  a  perfect  ellipse.    
According  to  the  observer  and  their  position,  the  perspective  of  a  
circle  may  be:  
1.   An   ellipse  –   when   the   neutral   plane   doesn’t   cut   the   circle,   the  
observer  being  in  the  real  or  intermediate  space.  
 
2.   A   parabola   –   when   the   neutral   plan   is   tangential   to   the   visual  
conical  surface,  therefore  the  neutral  line  is  the  tangent  of  the  circle.  
 
3.   A   hyperbola  –   when   the   neutral   plane   cuts   the   circle   in   two   points,  
thus  the  observer  is  inside  the  circle.  
 
Projecting   a   circle   requires   fitting   the   circle   inside   a   square.   In   perspective,  
the  circle  appears  as  an  ellipse  depending  on  the  orientation  of  the  square  
to   one   or   two   vanishing   points.   For   a   more   accurate   drawing,   we   will  
construct  an  ellipse  in  8  points.    

  30  
  
 
 
 
 
Fig.  45    Circles  perspective  –  in  a  ortogonal  construction  we  can  draw  a  circle  using  a  
square   and   join   the   diagonal   what   intersecting   the   circle.   Afther   that   we   can   divide   a  
circle  in  8  point  and  project  this  to  vanishing  point.  
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
Fig.  46    Circle  perspective  –  perspective  construction  with  point  F45.  
 

31  
                                
 
Fig.47    Circle  perspective  –  construction  with  8  point  of  circle  drawing  in  a  square,  and  
his  horizontal  projection.  
 

 
 
Fig.48    Cylinder.  The  cross-­‐section  of  a  cylinder  is  a  circle  so  naturally  each  end  
will  be  seen  in  perspective  as  an  ellipse.  We  draw  each  ellipse  to  a  new  level.  
 
 
 
 
  32  
  
SPHERE  

 
 
Fig.49  Identification  imagine  of  sfere  on  the  vertical  plane  in  perspective.  
 
Apparent  outline  
1.  If  the  observer  concentrates  his  sight  on  the  centre  of  the  sphere,  
the  sphere  will  appear  as  a  circle;  failing,  it  will  be  an  ellipse.    
2.   The   perspective   of   the   sphere   seen   from   the   inside.   The   plane  
covers   the   perspectives   of   the   meridians,   while   the   section   covers   the  
nature  of  the  parallel  circles.    
 

 
Fig.50    Putting  into  perspective  the  sphere  orthogonal  points.  
 
   

33  
  
Fig.    51      Construction  interior  design  perspective  of  the  sfere.  
                         (ellipse  /  ellipse  /  parabola  /  hyperbola  /  hyperbola  /  hyperbola)  
 

                       
 
Fig.  52  Perspective  view  of  the  interior  design  of  Pantheon,  Roma.  
 
 
 
 
  34  
  
12.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  IN  A  VERTICAL    PLANE  FOR  ACHITECTURE  
 
The   free   perspective   method   to   a   vertical   plane   has   the   following  
characteristics:  
-­‐it   achieves   a   good   proportion   of   the   perspective   through   the   clear  
visibility  circle.  
 
-­‐it   establishes   the   optimal   distance   from   the   viewer   to   the   object  
using   the   geometrical   relation   of   the   clear   visibility   radius   of   the  
circle.  
 
-­‐the  clear  visibility  circle  allows  the  easy  choice  of  the  de  370    or  530    
optimal  visual  angle.  
 
-­‐it  uses  the  measuring  points  for  a  proportional  representation.  
 
-­‐it   allows   the   establishment   of   a   graphic   scale   in   relation   with   the  
human  height  and  the  dimensions  of  the  architectural  object.  
 
-­‐it  allows  an  easy  lay-­‐out  in  relation  with  the  representation  surface.  
 
The  free  perspective  resolves  two  categories  of  issues  directly  on  the  
plane:  
1.   Position   issues   (divisions,   intersection,   collinearity,   concurrence,  
tangent,  parallelism)  
2.    Metric  issues  (lengths  and  angles)  
 
The  requirement  for  a  good  perspective  
 

 
Fig.  53    The  perspective  visor  created  by  Horia  Teodoru.  
The   visor’s   perception   proposed   by   professor   architect   Horia  
 
Teodoru   in   his   treatise   ”Perspectiva”   edited   in   1962,   is   a   model   in  
35  
choosing   a   good   perspective.   It   is   represented   by   a   3   cm   circle   on   a  
cardboard   and   a   tangent   arm   to   the   visor   circle   where   the   distances  
towards  the  centre  are  marked  (2  radii,  3  radii,  4  radii)  These  indicate  the  
optimum  angle  for  perspective:  
  1.  -­‐  4  radii  distance-­‐  the  angle  of  the  visual  cone  has  280.  
  2.  –3  radii  distance-­‐  the  angle  of  the  visual  cone  has  370.  
  3.  –2  radii  distance-­‐  the  angle  of  the  visual  cone  has  530.  
4.   –when   the   distance   is   less   than   2   radii,   the   perspective   will   be  
forced.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
Fig.   54     Wiewfinder   perspective   is   represented   to   a   window   where   we   drew   more   clear  
visibility  circles.    We  can  choose  the  distance  from  the  glass  and    we  can  choose  angles  
of   vision   clear   as   we   look   at   the   subject.   At   a   distance   of   4   rays   viewing   angle   is   28  
degrees,  at  a  distance  of  3  rays  viewing  angle  will  be  37  degrees,  at  a  distance  of  2  rays  
viewing  angle  is  53  degrees.  Considering  that  the  human  eye  yellow  spot  has  a  viewing  
angle   of   35   clear   we   adapt   our   perspectve   an   angle   of   37   horizontal   and   28   degree  
vertical.  

  36  
  
 
    Choosing  the  good  point  of  distance  

 
 
Fig.  55    The  distance  of  the  point  of  view  towards  the  object.  
 
-­‐The   distance   determines   the   angle   under   which   the   perspective  
object  is  seen  (2).  
-­‐The  visual  angle  gets  wider  when  getting  close  to  the  object  (3).  
-­‐When  the  angles  are  very  small  the  image  is  flat  (1).  
-­‐The  vanishing  angle  of  the  edges  is  enhanced  when  the  visual  angle  
is    increased,  reaching  a  deformed  perspective  (4).  
 
Good  visibility  areas:  
  In   order   to   obtain   a   good   perspective,   we   must   take   into  
consideration   the   best   position   of   the   viewer   towards   the   architectural  
object   for   a   right   visibility   so   that   the   representation   keeps   the   projected  
proportion   as   close   to   reality   as   possible.   Therefore,   in   the   figures   below  
we  distinguish:    
-­‐ Four  areas  of  good  frontal  visibility,    
-­‐ Two  areas  of  good  corner  visibility  included  in  field  B.    

   
Fig.  56    The  angle  for  the  good  visibility  areas  depending  of  our  position.    
 
 

37  
  
  Fig.  56    Views  possible  in  two  point  perspective.  There  is  an  infinity  of  possible    
position  for  an  object  viewed  in  two-­‐point  perspective.  Object  can  be  viewed  from  
above,  from  underneath  and  the  left  and  right  in  the  same  way  as  those  viewed  in  one-­‐
point,  the  difference  being  that  in  two-­‐point  the  object  is  turned  at  an  angle  to  the  PP.  
 
 

 
 
  Fig.  58    Adifferent  angle  requres  a  different  vanishing  point.  
 

 
 
  Fig.  57      Objects  positioned  at  a  different  angle  to  the  PP.  
 
 

  38  
  
13.  PERSPECTIVE  AT  TWO  VANISHING  POINT  EYE  LEVEL  HORIZON.  
 
Two   point   perspective   is   the   most   commonly   used   construction  
method   in   artistic   and   architectural   work.     In   the   following   we   will   see   a  
model   representation   of   a   cube   in   a   corner   perspective   (two   vanishing  
points)   looked   at   eye   level.   The   cube   can   be   associated   with   a   form  
arhtectural,  any  interventions  on  it  change  its  shape  and  appearance.  
Before  we  begin  setting  up  a  drawing  we  need  to  be  clear  about  what  
is   meant   by   two-­‐point   perspective.   If   an   object   is   viewed   in   two   point  
perspective,  it  means  that  it  appears  to  stand  on  a  horizontal  plane;  its  side  
planes   are   turned   at   an   angle   to   the   viewer   and   all   its   vertical   lines   are  
parallel   to   the   PP.   When   drawing   an   object   viewed   in   two   point  
perspective,  two  VP  (F,  F90)  are  used  and  horizontal  lines  appear  to  vanish  
to  the  left  or  right  F  and  F90.  
 
 

 
Fig.  57    Draw  distance  point  of  view  at  two  rays  from  horizon  line.    
Choose  vertical  edge  of  a  cube  and  divided  to  find  unit  for  measuring.      
 

39  
  
  Fig.  58    Draw  the  circle  of  clear  visibility  with  the  size  range  previously  
    established.  Considering  that  the  proportion  will  be  good  design  can  go    
to  the  next  step.  
 

 
Fig.  59  From  position  of  viewer  (Q),  that  corresponding  to  angle  530  we  draw  
vanishing  points  at  90  degrees.  We  obtain  points  F  and  F90.  

  40  
  
Fig.  60    Estabilishing  the  measuring  points.  Each  M  and  M90  is  found  by  taking  
the  distance  from  the  F  AND  F90  to  the  eye  and  layng  it  along  horizon  line  with  
the  F  and  F90  as  the  pivot,  or  putting  a  compass  point  on  a  F,F90  and  inscribing  
an  arcthrough  Q  up  to  intersect  HL  
 

 
Fig.  61    From  extreme  points  of  the  vertical  edge  of  the  cube  we  will  draw  
directions  to  vanishing  point  F,  F90.  

41  
  
Fig.  62    Draw  horizontal  edges  in  the  true  size  of  the  cube.  They  are  marked  by  a  
horizontal  line  taken  from  the  top  vertical  edge,  and  it  will  have  the  same  size  as  
that.  

 
Fig.  63  Draw  the  edges  of  the  cube  in  perspective  with  measurement  points.  
Drawing  vertical  edges  of  the  points  of  intersection  established  vanishing  
directions.  Thus  we  get  the  volume  of  the  cube  in  perspective  image.  
 

  42  
  
Fig.  64  Divide  the  each  cube  faces  by  3  equal  parts.  The  measure  will  be    
placed  to  the  horizontal  and  vertical  edges  of  the  cub  and  after  that  it  will    
be  transferred  to  his  faces.    

 
             Fig.  65  Drawing  on  the  faces  of  the  cube  shape  contour  derived  from    
volumetric  cube.  
 
.  
 
 
Method  to  draw  all  points  inside  of  architectural  envelope.  
   

43  
  
 
Fig.   66     Fore   more   complex   design   we   will   draw   a   grid   on   the   ceiling   to   facilitate  
implementation  of  the  plan  of  buiding.    
 
 
 

 
 
 
Fig.   67   Determination   of   a   point   located   inside   the   tire.   Measuring   the  
coordinates   of   the   point   on   the   ceiling   plane   (1)   and   from   that   place   draw   a  
vertical   line.   From   anvelope   edge   will   draw   a   vertical   (2)   to   front.   Level   of   the  
point   we   measuring     to   first   edge   as   the   tire   and   it   will   draw   (3)   the   point   of  
running  front  (F).  From  the  point  of  intersection  of  this   two  lines  (2)  and  (3)  we  
will  draw  a  straight  horizontal  line(4)  oriented  to  the  vanishing  point  (F90),  that  
it  will  meet    vertically  line  (5).  This  will  be  the  point  we  are  looking  for.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
  44  
14.  PERSPECTIVE  AT  TWO  VANISHING  POINT,  OBJECT  BELOW  
EYE  LEVEL  (a  bird’s  eye  view).  
 
 

 
Fig.  68  Setting  up  the  framework.  Drawing  measuring  of  building  on  the  front  
edge  and  estimate  viewer  distance  at  1,5  rays  from  P.  

 
Fig.  69    After  construction  of  vanishing  point  (F,F90)  and  measuring    
point  (M,M90)  we  can  drawing    the  box  .  

45  
  
  Fig.  70    After  drawing  the  box  we  must  finding  point  in  the  interior  of  box.  
 
 

 
 
               Fig.  71  Drawing  a  grid  on  the  earth  plane  for  a  perspective  with  below  eye  level.  
 

  46  
  
Fig.   72   Determination   of   a   point   located   inside   the   tire.   Measuring   the  
coordinates   of   the   point   on   the   ceiling   plane   (1)   and   from   that   place   draw   a  
vertical   line.   From   anvelope   edge   will   draw   a   vertical   (2)   to   front.   Level   of   the  
point   we   measuring     to   first   edge   as   the   tire   and   it   will   draw   (3)   the   point   of  
running  front  (F).  From  the  point  of  intersection  of  this   two  lines  (2)  and  (3)  we  
will  draw  a  straight  horizontal  line(4)  oriented  to  the  vanishing  point  (F90),  that  
it  will  meet    vertically  line  (5).  This  will  be  the  point  we  are  looking  for.  
 
15.  PERSPECTIVE  AT  TWO  VANISHING  POINT,  OBJECT  ABOVE  
EYE  LEVEL  (a  worm’s  eye  view).  
 

 
Fig.  73  Setting  up  the  framework  for  a  good  below  eye  level  perspective.  Drawing  
measuring   of   building   on   the   front   edge   and   estimate   viewer   distance   at   1,5   rays  
from  P.  
 
 
   

47  
  
Fig.  74  After  construction  of  vanishing  point  (F,F90)  and  measuring    
point  (M,M90)  we  can  drawing    the  box  .  
 

 
Fig.  75  After  drawing  the  box  we  must  finding  point  in  the  interior  of  box..  
 
 
 
 
 
  48  
  
 
16.  FREE  PERSPECTIVE  TO  A  SINGLE  VANISHING  POINT.  
 
 

   
                                       Fig.  71  Front  view  perspective  to  a  single  vanishing  point.  
 
Taking   the   distance   point   (D)   at   a   length   equal   to   the   width   of   the  
drawing   results   in   a   53°   angle   perspective.   (D)   point   allows   drawing   the  
respective  grid  on  the  floor.        

 
                  Fig.  72  Methods  of  construction  of  one  point  perspective  vanishing.  

49  
  

 
Fig.  73  Representing  one  point  perspective  vanishing.  

 
Fig.  74    Methods  of  drawing  perspective  one  point  vanishing  eye  level.  
 
 

  50  
  
 
 
Fig.  75    Methods  of  drawing  perspective  one  point  vanishing  bird’s  level  view.  
 
 
 
 

 
 
Fig.  76    One  point  vanishing  perspective  after  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  
 
 

51  
  
 
Fig.  77    Study  one  point  vanishing  perspective  after  a  painting  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  
 
 
 
 
 
 
16.  PERSPECTIVE  ON  AN  INCLINED  PLANE  
 
 
In  case  of  perspectives  on  an  inclined  plane,  the  vertical  lines  seem  to  
converge  to  a  third  vanishing  point.  These  perspectives  will  always  have  
three  vanishing  points.    
 
1.  Worm’s-­‐eye  view  is  a  view  of  an  object  from  below.  It  is  used  when  
projecting  extremely  high  architectural  objects  or  ceilings.  
 
2.  Bird’s-­‐eye  view  is  a  view  of  an  object  from  above.  It  is  used  when  
projecting  the  structures  seen  from  considerable  heights.  
 
 
 

  52  
     Fig.  
78    Reprezentarea  unor  cladiri  in  perspectiva  ascendenta  pe  tablou  inclinat.  
 

 
Fig.  79  Reprezentarea  unor  cladiri  in  perspectiva  descendentă  pe  tablou  inclinat.  
 
If   the   image   view   are   from   skay   to   earth   all   paralle   verticals   in  
perspective  competing  in  a  new  vanishing  point  Fv,  that  is  considered  the  
third  point  perspective  construction.    

After  the  main  direction  of  view  picture  perspective  can  be:    

a.  bottom-­‐up  perspective      

53  
 -­‐  vanishing-­‐point  of  verticals  is  located  above  the  horizon.    

-­‐  the  viewer  looks  building  from  its  base  to  up.    

-­‐verticals   are   not   parallel   to   the   picture,   they   appear   inclined   and        
competing  in  perspective.    

-­‐  point  of  view    (P)  is  not  situated  on  the  horizon,  it  is  above  or  below  
to  that,  depending  on  the  type  of  perspective.  

 
a  downward  perspective    
-­‐  vanishing  point  of  verticals  is  located  below  the  horizon.    
-­‐  the  viewer  is  somewhere  above  the  building.  
-­‐  verticals  are  not  parallel  to  the  picture,  they  appear  inclined  
competing  in  perspective.    
-­‐  unit  of  vertically  measurement  is  not  realy,  it  has  decreased  by  the  
laws  of  the  decrease  perspectives.  
 
Constructing  the  three  vanishing  point-­‐perspective  on  an  inclined  plane.    
 

 
Fig.  80    Folding  perspective  two  vanishing  points  allows  the  construction  of  the  
3-­‐point  perspective  vanishing.  

  54  
  
 
Fig.  81    Setting  the  measuring  points  and  the  main  directions  of  view.  
The  point  P  is  intersection  of  main  direction.  
 

   
 
Fig.  82  Cube  in  a  perspective  with  3  vanishing  points.  Constuction    
methode  use  vanishing  point  F45.  
         

55  
  
Fig.  83    Method  diagonals  construction  perspective.  
 

 
 
Fig.  84    Method  of  measurement  points  for  construction  perspective.  

  56