73

Thus, the problem of vegetable debris is a serious one and its solution should
be conceived for the system in its entirety.
The role of the diversion works is to prevent clogging of the intake and the
uncontrolled accumulation of debris in the approach channel.
The control of ice formations should also be considered for the entire water
supply system. if the diversion is located in a zone with low winter
temperatures and if operation of the intake is required during this period, then
its functions are:
- to ensure the flow diversion and for this purpose to prevent the entrance
being clogged by ice;
- to prevent formation of ice crystals on metal surfaces which are over-cooled
during iow~temperature periods. Such ice crystals could agglomerate and obturate
any odd flow cross section.
(iii) The environmental function of the diversion works is to maintain the
environmental functions of the river, after implementation of the project. This
is easier to formulate than it is to realize. To avoid major environmental
disturbances, it is necessary:
- to define and evaluate the environment as it existed before the diversion;
- to forecast the long-term effects and side effects of the project;
- to assess possible negative aspects to these effects and evaluate means for
their minimization;
- to balance possible negative effects with the cost of minimization.
The difficultiesof such an undertaking are monumental, but, at least for
large river diversions, their solution is essential. For this reason, the
environmental. approach to the river diversion projects will be examined
separately (see Chapter 4).

3.3 INTAKE HYDRAULICS

3.3.1 The Flow Pattern at a Diversion Site
The general flow pattern at a diversion from a main flow is considered for a
simple scheme. For the sake of generality:
- the main flow is considered to be two-dimensional, subcritical and uniform;
- the cross-sections are rectangular, with non-erodible bed and banks;
- the diversion canal is normal to the main flow direction 0
‘I

- the elevation of the canal bottom in the diversion zone is constant;

Even for such highly simplified conditions, the flow pattern is far from simple
(see Fig. 3.3). ' ' '
* The inflow, Or, is divided into two parts: the first, Q5, into the
diversion canal, the second, the outflow (qr-Q9), flowing downstream; both
74

tr" ihnrdttorizud by A helicoidal interndl flew structure.

*' lhere is a certain surface current line, separating the two and ending in a
rnaracteristic point, M, called the "stop point".
* lwo large eddy zones occur around the edges of the entrance, following the
sudden curvature in the diverted flow. There is a particular case when the
second eddy zone is missing: this is the case when the stop point M coincides
with the entrance edge iilfiifll _4 0" Fl9- 3-3)- _
The eddies represent a source of hydraulic energy losses, and the solid
transport (both sediments and floating bodies) concentrates in the eddy zones.
Obviously, the intake design should minimize the size of these zones.
The following changes occur in water surface level:
- an initial drop resulting from a sudden decrease in the discharge in the main
channel;
- a second drop. equivalent to the head losses through the intake;
- along the intake entrance there is a negative backwater, displaying a minimum
depth at its upstream end (min dr on Fig. 3.3-a).
The diverted flow is obviously three-dimensional: the width of the surface
currents and the width of the bottom currents are different. The flow pattern is
strtunqty connected with_ the amount of sediments that penetrate through the
intake. In the approach flow, the maximum sediment concentration occurs at the
bottom of the channel, the coarsest fractions being transported at the bed level
(see Fig. 3.3).
no obvious conclusion is that the intake should not be supplied with bottom
currents.
The opposite conclusion of allowing the intake supply to come from- the surface
currents is not flawless: during floods or storms, large quantities of floating
debris occur and the penetration of such items into the intake should be
prevented. For this purpose, as a general rule, the intake entrance must be
covered with trashracks and provided with means for their cleaning.
The diversion design should be able to allow the intake supply to be taken
from the appropriate level at any given time. (See §3.?).‘

3.3.2 Uefinition of Hydraulic Parameters

For obtaining quantitative relations, a first step is the definition of
parameters which are characteristic of the intake hydraulics.
‘“(i) The diversion rate, l_<D_, is the main hydraulic parameter characterizing
a river intake:
 75

Ii
-2 _ _ t I
3 suseewoeo seouuem DISTRIBUTION
V,-(dr) AZr
__
__ __ t twt.
ind"
.
I W ‘ dlr fl,___i(Ql'-Q0).x

(bl t“w°'"L
9 MAIN FLOW (Qr..QD)
-- '- rs— 1—:"'..________ |-PI fxr -
I "-~ ...___~ BOTTOM rtow SEPARATION LINE

W
"-(\~___ sunrace FLOW
Wu 5 * ..__ sceannnow LINE
-
_in ‘ms
--.. *-I

(9 ‘ 6?’ .' '0 ®

(comes) I I,/I yz .
.3 ' T Ws -1"
DIVERTED ""-"——"—-=:_—- I ‘ _ ‘HF A20

FLOW / Q9 dr(Q'r) /I GD dg
(a) t
@*" “1?j® .i_w,,_t ‘Y
L;-=5 is).
Fi . 3.3: The Flow Pattern at a Schematic Diversion
(a? Plan view (b) Section along the main flow (c) Section through the diverted
flow

KB = _."I1i‘) . (3.1)
Q;-(U
Here, Q9 is the water demand and qr is the river discharge. As a matter of
fact, Ugh) and Qrit) are both random functions of time; consequently, KD
is also a random function. For practical purposes, characteristic magnitudes
from the sets ()D[t) and Qr(t) should be employed.

‘l
?6
.-..,__‘_L

n rnnice of a characteristic value from the set Quit) is also necessary for
iin- intake hydraulic design. It is reasonabIe- to choose the intake design
ll |'.|_l|.n'-1+-, I)“.

The rhoice of a characteristic value from the set Q,-(t) is not equally
nhvinns_ There are the following three options:
(1) The averaged river discharge Or (the averaging time interval being a
hydrological year, T):

n, = .1.Jq,u).at. (3.2)
T .
(2) The discharge characterizing initiation of the bed load, uh}.
(J) A river discharge ugf, with a frequency equal to the standard
frequency of the intake design discharge as required by the water use (when such
a standard frequency exists), (see §3.6.d).
Thus, three expressions for the diversion rate Kg result:

Hp‘ -T ‘L. --r flu" =i’P_. Ko"' =‘3‘l- (3.3:

Ur Qbl Qsf
Lach of these expressions can be useful
The first reflects frequent operating conditions and the compatibility between
water demand and the water source. _
In general,

cu‘ s 1, (3.4)

since the demand cannot exceed, in the long term, the available average
discharge of the source, except when there are discontinuities in the function
|i;)('-)- i

The second" expression reflects conditions of transit of coarse sediments;

as -1 ruin’:-,

K“" s l . (3.5)
lnr difference tfib] ~ do) is necessary for the transport of coarse
sediment. There are exceptions to the rule (3.5) (see Chapter 6, §6.5).
The diversion rate KU"' reflects a necessary condition for adopting a
diversion dam (see Chapter 6, §6.1.5). '
(ii) The relative entrance velocity is a second important parameter:

xv = 1! (3.6)
vr

Here, VU is the averpge flow velocity in the intake entrance, when the design
discharge 0,, is diverted, and v, is the average river inflow velocity.
 77

The parameter K-v is important for the diversion flow pattern: the position
of the stop point H depends strongly on K, (see further §3.3.3). In general,
it is recommended that

K“ < I (3.6-a)

_- sin order to reduce the sediment concentration in the diverted flow.

Two parameters are defined to reflect the sediment load at the intake:
(iii) The relative sediment load is the rate

up = .11.. , (3.?)
pl‘ .

where PD and Pr are, respectively, the sediment load of the diverted flow
and of the river flow.
Obviously, the smaller Kp, the better.
(iv) The relative sediment concentration, is the rate

K55 = LEElQ._ (3.8)

(SC),-
I-

where (SC)[) and (SC), are, respectively, the sediment concentration in the
diverted flow and in the river flow. This parameter reflects the efficiency of
the intake operation, during intense sediment transport in particular. ' ,, ___H
- -

3.3.3 Relations between Hydraulic Parameters and Intake Geometry

There are theoretical and experimental relations between hydraulic parameters
and intake geometry; both have been established for quite simple, schematic
geometries, in order to attain a certain generality in the results. But there is
also a limitation to their usefulness for specific projects: the particular
conditions should be carefully compared with the scheme on which -the theoretical
results are based. -
The main value of the available relations consists, rather, in reflecting the
role of one parameter or another in the interaction between the hydraulic and
geometric parameters of the diversion. ‘a
Theoretical research has been directed to the design of the intake entrance
contour, beginning with the simplest scheme, (see Fig. 3.3). '
Two theoretical solutions should be mentioned:
(a) The solution of I.l.Levi [3.4]. It is clear that any practical design
should avoid sharp edges and reduce the sizes of_ the vortex zones. The basic
idea is that the intake entrance contour should coincide with the ‘two extreme
current lines; which means that the vortex zones are avoided cornpletelylsee
plan view in Fig. 3.3). If so,-it "is assumed that the flow is potential and that
the potential flow equations are valid. After two conformal transformations,
IFI

the following equations of the intake contour following the extreme current
lines were finally obtained:
-1
1 =-(L5 . H0 3,,%;.+i§,§l3- F1(-X) (3.9)
y = .£1;llE . r2(-x) (3.9-a)
""2 .
Here, I is the abscissa of the positive semiplane resulting from the conformal
transformation of the velocity field. The functions F1 and F3 were
tabulated by the author of this study.
The presence of the parameter 0 in equations (3.9) indicates that the solution
is valid for any diversion angle ¢. The contour resulting from (3.9) and (3.9-a)
is not simple to build. It can be assumed that a contour with smoothly rounded
edges would yield a significant reduction in the vortex zones, even if it did
not nullify them.
(h) The solution of 0.1. Cioc [3.5]. The purpose of this is similar to the
previous studyu the design of the intake contour; but the approach to the
solution is somewhat different. In the first part of the study, the flow was
assumed to Ina potential and efforts were directed to determine a relation
between the diversion rate, Kg, and the position of the stop point, H. The
remarkable feature is that, in the second part of the study, the existence of a
vortex in the diverted flow was assumed and the condition for the coincidence of
the stop point H with the downstream intake entrance edge was investigated.
A relation Kn (Hg/Hr), of the diversion rate as function of widths
ratio, resulted, and was confirmed experimentally. Some points of this
relation are indicated in Table 3.1.

TABLE 3.1: Experimental results g_ ___ _ '

wgrvr 2.00 1.00 0.20 0.10

Kg (potential flow) 0.83 0.62 0.18 0.10
to (with vortex zone) 0.00 o.a2 0.12 0.00
__-_______ __ _ _ _._-- | 1,-—_-— —--.41-| -q -- H l|

It must be mentioned that both studies referred to [3.4 and 3.5] were carried
nut prior to the computer era. Actually, numerical solutions of Laplace
equations (with complicated but known boundary conditions) may deliver results
rapidly.
From among the experimental studies, the work of A.A. Dfitserov should be
mentioned [3.6]. Using several experimental facilities and carrying out
many tests, he obtained empirical relations between most of the parameters
defined previously. An interesting result is the expression of the-relative
 T9

widths of the surface currents and the bottom currents as functions of the
diversion rate, Kg:

= 0.05 + 1.2 Kg (3.10)

= 1.02 KD - 0.00 (3.10-a)
:1;:::vF
'1W

It follows from (3.10-a) -that, for very -small diversion rates, K0<0.04,
the flow pattern as represented in Fig. 3.3-a becomes irrelevant; in fact, a
slowl circulation occurs at the diversion channel entrance (see §6.2). The
relations (3.10) have been confirmed by later experimental results [3.7]. A
qualitative experimental result is that an increased entrance width, H3, is
accompanied by an increased diversion of bottom currents.
To limit the diversion of bottom currents, a sill at the intake entrance is a
first and direct means. The experimental results of M. Vojinovici demonstrated
that the sill height can be limited to 0.5 h (h being the flow depth at the
front of the intake entrance), a higher sill being ineffective [3.8].
An important aspect is the maximum gravity diversion rate, Kg, from a given
main flow (as in Fig. 3.3). It has been demonstrated theoretically, by
dimensional analysis, that

to = f (Frr, En) , (3:11)

Hr
where Fr, is the Froude number written with the average velocity, Vr, and
depth, dr, of the approach flow, and Hg, Hr are, respectively; the "widths
of the intake and the main channel. _
The function (3.11) was determined experimentally and is expressed graphically
in Fig. 3.4. It results from this diagram that, in principle, one can always
reach Kg =1 if the diversion width is large enough. This result cannot be
applied strictly in engineering practice for two reasons:
* Increasing l-lg, as given by the diagram, could yield an infeasible layout
(for medium rivers with, say, Hr = 100 m, it results that Hg > 20 In).
* An increase in the diversion rate is accompanied by an increase in the local
velocity at the intake entrance (see the negative backwater in Fig. 3.3-a); this
increase should be limited, theoretically, by the occurrence of the critical
velocity at the intake entrance.
For these reasons, the practical design criteria in different countries limit
the diversion rate to K0 (0.25 (see also Chapter 6, §6.1.5).
H;-, An important parameter of the intake geometry is the diversion angle,¢ ,
between the diversion axis and the main flow. The operation of ancient Indian
intakes has demonstrated that the amount of diverted bottom sediments is
no ~ 2:

HI: T UT)/or /3 _ ._ _ _ _ I

|\.' _
1 " _

05 L“ L - "_:

0
5ifi:@fluno
:1:.mr.:s. §,';l:' : '.3;.i'.; , :grai
e.': l"- . :' =: .l ‘iii
=IIH
Igl
-'0"'. . .
'k|ln:iy."l."u'

Fiq, 3,0: The maximal diversion rate for the scheme as in Fig. 3.3

proportional to the angle 4), all other factors being the same: an intake at
;<vu' would divert more bottom sediments than an intake at ¢_s90’. A diversion
al : -uu‘ vniuld ins supplied inainly' hy' bottom currents. This circwnstance is
runsidered when ice formations, and not coarse sediments, represent the doninant
problem; for example, in the case of intakes from large plain rivers (see
Lliaptnr b, 96.6.3). H
Interesting experimental results have been obtained concerning this matter
Il.u]_ The test program included a large range of channel geometries - see Fig.
1,5. The main experimental results, showing the sharing of the coarse sediments
between the diverted flow and the main flow, are indicated in the same figure.
In all tests the diversion rate was KU=l, i.e. 0U=Qr.
The iwocessing of some experimental results hi dimensionless parameters is
presented in ldblfi, 3.2.

Tndtt 3.2: Sediment Sharing at Channel Diversions (Experimental Results)

___ -___.-_ I In-'_.-I In-I 1 Ill — _ '_||—|_—

.rHvmv(*) Relative Curvature Relative Sediment Concentration Uhservation

H11, It-illillfi, ll/Hr KSC
1_ _ ii‘--___ -__ _ - - __|-_ __—|n_-——| -— - a. — — ——- 4- — - - -.q--—q,,.~~— -- —— — an.‘ ___!--_—-I Ill _

9. 55 1. 515 For K5); see

0.55 0.76 the relation
0.50 0.20 (3.u)
2.04 1.42
7.64 0.72
jjijljj :--lb‘:-lul-|‘\u'-" 7.hd h.??
If - 5./3 _ 1.00
1.»: 5. T3 0.10
ls 3.82 0.60
ru 3.82 0.00
* see geometry of schemes in Fig. 3.5 '

These results suggest the following:

(.1) An intake located in a flow alignment (a straight section) would catch
mus! ui the roars" sndimnnl inflow (Hrheme No. 1).
1-

(0) lul: same pattern occurs, for an intake located on the inside part of a
flow hend (schemes 5,0,7).
 Q) (D
eta! N‘? fir? P IEO __¥ 5 /55'

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-"""_ —‘ Zfl reg

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Fi9- 3.5: Sediment inflow partition in branching channels; schemes geumetry

[3.9]. ‘
 i
8? 1

(cl An intake located on the outside of a flow bend would not catch coarse 1
sediment at all (Scheme No. 4). Intermediate locations show intermediate
H-1_

results (Schemes 2 and 3).

(d) The length, L5, of the straight channel between the flow bend and the
intake location has an important role in the process: for L5>5H (H being the '1

flow width) the influence of the bend is nil. (Schemes 2,9 and 13-20).
lei Location of the intake in a bend flow is necessary, but not sufficient, to 1
prevent penetration of coarse sediment: the upstream-flow structure could
reverse the expected results (Schemes 21-23).
-es’-'~=—
These results are useful for the layout design of specific diversion projects.

3.4 CHANNEL MORPHOLOGY CHANGES FOLLOHING A RIVER UlVERSION_

3.4.1 Uescription_of the_P[og§ss_
its previously explained, coarse sediments should not be admitted into the
intake. Assuming that the intake design and operation are correct and this
requirement is met, what happens to the inflowing coarse sediments?
It is assumed that, before diversion, the river channel was stable. The
chan:'IE'i stability is one of the main requirements for a diversion site. For
eogreeering purposes, the following definition of the channel stability is
acceptable: a channel can be considered stable if its geometry does not change
significantly after the transit of frequent floods. (See also Chapter 2, §2.4).
That means that during the hydrological year, even though successive settling
and erosion of sediment deposits occur, the average channel cross-sections and
lungitwdlfldl slope remain more or less the same.
Any diversion project represents an interference in the river process.
Crrreitly designed, the intake would divert the design discharge, free of coarse
fivdlmvfllfi; thus, the river flow aunt its transport capacity are reduced, since
the lnflowing bedload remains the same. Obviously, the size of the disturbance
depends strongly on the diversion rate, Kn, defined with the relations (3.3).
ln order to obtain some general conclusions, the schematic diversion from as
one-channel flow with nonerodible banks will be examined. It is assumed that the
intake is designed and operated correctly and that the river flow is saturated.
There are three kinds of morphological changes of the channel as indicated
below. '
at River diversion without dam (see Fig. 3.6)
-i o I ‘l “—l j 1 _ ii

The scheme: is conceivable for small diversion rates. The scenario_ of the
wflfphfllflgififli changes following the diversion is:
* Reduced carrying capacity of the river flow, [QR-Q0), downstream from
tee intake entrance. ‘
 83

(a) £209
___ |'| WATER LINE eerone DWERSION
,\*°r~
iii.-.....
'
(““'—--.____ W.L-AFTER DIVERSION
. -,. - -‘_-._‘_"'--_
' l_| “*eE==~ --__ "Illa-.

isI-"-'i??.-_s~_._____
L

seonwem oeeosn amen

me nest Ftooo Fottowmc " Or '-Q
DIVERSION r\\ D

WATER LINE BEFORE DIVERSIDN

"”‘_-—--___. -___
“‘"""
I
0° FINAL oacxwaree

r . I I I
___‘..- E xi
i
_‘
. , I . N ‘-
" J ,_ I _- ‘ ‘ii
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_,.
I‘ 1| '
-I-0,
-F xi -.,"\ -_ '.

FINAL SEDTMENT ' ’ '1 '-'" r\Q, _Q

oeeosns .,.'* - .. D
Fig. 3.6: Channel morphology changes at a river intake
a) initial situation b) Final situation

* Partial settling of the coarse sediments, downstream from the intake

entrance, as a consequence of the foregoing.
* An imnediate effect is an extra backwater, generated by the deposit of
sediments.
* Following the initial deposits, further sedimentation occurs.
* In the long term, the accumulated deposits would finally restore the
original longitudinal slope of the upstream channel and its carrying capacity.
* The final situation is a generalized aggradation of the channel and the
general restoration of the flow depth and slope to their original magnitudes.
b) Restitution of a sediment free dischagge in a_riyer_Ehaggel (see Fig. 3.7).
This-scheine “appears at ai hydropower tailrace, at the point of discharge of
heated water from the cooling circuits of thermal plants, at the end of a
drainage collector, etc.
The sediment-free flow, added to the river inflow increases its transport
capacity. The channel morphology changes are directly opposite to those
described previously:
* A process of general erosion begins, downstream from the outflow exit.
* In the long term, channel degradation continues until the flow depth
increases, and the average velocity decreases to less than the critical
magnitudes for which movement of the bed sediments is possible. _
B4

(a)
RESTITUTION or A FLOW Qp

3* O1 INITIAL WATER
woven tevet

O
"U
\ oroop
\

INFHAL BED LEVEL

(b)
'1.-

-=_'.'f__f"- --..______ _ WATER sunrace

suerace AFTER
W _. ___
____ cwnnnet eeoslon
cnnnnet EROSION
wk
til at --_ ______ ___
——-. ‘-b

__ I‘-E-_
| -
‘"'-- L
-5

k ' _-""'
___‘ "'*-

i‘7?~~_M
l‘7?~~_M % “~~
I """ Or 1-Q
CHANNEL BED AFTER ’ - %‘“““~-___ h*a““*— P
'"' EROSION
enoslon “‘-—-..__

liq. 3.7: Channel morphology changes at a restitution in a river

lig. _‘"
a) initial
Initial situation b) Final situation

c) River diversion_with dam (see Fig. 3.8).

This is the scheme of the major diversion works.
In this case, the changes in channel onrphology
lo nnrphology would include those described
previously. - "
The diversion dam divides the river flow into two stretches:
- the upstream section, where the hydraulic slope is reduced due to the
backwater;
- the downstream section, where discharges are supposed to be free of coarse
sediments. _
The channel morphological changes develop in three stages:
In the first stage, after construction of the weir, the morphological changes
ln
begin both upstream and downstream. (See Fig. 3.8-a):
(i) The aggradation of the upstream reach: the coarsest sediments settle at
the upstream end of the backwater, followed by smaller fractions, which settle
after the initial deposits. The process is intense, during floods in
particular. .
(ii) The degradation of the downstream reach, due to three factors:
- increased turbulence downstream of the chute: '
-‘increased velocities due to a high specific discharge (the outlet width
 B5

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'5

Fl NAL SEDIMENTATION
FI to -o J
qfkl _-.i5f1.-!1-1.3!.! :"\ &i>
(C) I DIS CHANNELA
ms is*""’;”*'*‘~\-v7.-F->'T§'<‘<~?>¢
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AGGRADATION
Fig. 3.8: Channel morphology changes foIIowing
following a diversion dam implantation
a) First stage b) Intermediate situation c) -Final stage
HG

being significantly smaller than the flood channel width);

hning
- increased flow transport capacity, after coarse fractions have settled i
'I1.
upstream.
The development of the process leads to the following pattern:
* The upstream reach fills up to the crest of the spillway. A certain extra
backwater results as a side effect.
* The downstream channel degradation propagates a long way; as a side effect,
recession of the tail water level occurs. ii
‘I
11

The second stage of the process begins when the transport of coarse sediments
im I:--i'.i-'.
IT"-l'il"i i|r-irlu-llly
i|r-iilu.-illy up to the inaqnituile it had liefure
liefore diversion. il
The final stage beginswhen the flow transport capacity is fully restored
_Ffiq. 3.8-cl.
3.8-c). At this stage:
* The upstream channel is fully sedimented until the new channel bed slope 1

is restored to its original value. The backwater reaches its maximum level. '~¢I._|'A__-.§'1L.!.l-|.;nI'-.ilI|.\'|_. I

* The dounstremn
downstremn channel degradation ceases. The flow transport capacity is
smaller because of the diverted discharge. Thus there is now a tendency for
downstream channel aggradation. _
The intensity of these morphological processes depends mainly on:
- the diversion rate,
- the weir height,
- the initial backwater length,
- the random sequences of the sediment load,
- the hydrograph of the floods. .
The channel morphology patterns, as described, are not» just theoretical
deductions tn"
<n- tendencies, they actually occur. The cases presented in the
following examples are illustrative but not isolated.
I

L4.?ikmmHes
L4.?IxmmHes
txample No. 3.1:
txalnple Drastic changes in channel morphology following a river
diversion [3.I0].
[3.l0].
The project was conceived and implemented during the years 1939-41 for the
supply of cooling water to a 30 Mil thermal power plant by diverting a nearby
river. Severe morphological changes followed soon after the project was
completed.
Some river characteristics:
Average longitudinal slope of the main channel 0.8 m/km
Low water flow about 2.5 m3/s
Design flood peak 650 m3/s
 B7

The channel morphology is typical of a foothill river: a narrow channel

divagating through its sediments (mainly gravels and sands) in a flood channel
some 300 m wide.-
The project consisted of a diversion spillway dam, of initial height 2.50 m
and as wide as the flood channel, and a conventional intake structure on the
left river bank. Three sluice gates, each 2.0 m wide, were introduced near the
intake entrance at the left end of the weir for maintaining a stable left bank
channel near the intake.
The diversion site was close to an existing road bridge over the river.
The operational experience: A few years after the project was completed, the
upstream channel became fully sedimented beyond the design backwater and became
a sort of delta with numerous branches, separated by small isles formed from
sediment deposits, consolidated and covered by perennial vegetation (see
Fig. 3.9). The presence of vegetation witnessed the stability of the deposits
and the existence of fine fractions in the deposits. Consequently, the overflow
was sediment-free, had an increased erosive capacity {due to the chute) and a
full transport capacity. In the downstream channel a process of general erosion
developed rapidly; the pattern ‘was complementary to that in the upstream
channel. The developing erosion of the downstream channel was followed by a
rapid recession of the Tilt. As a consequence, the hydraulic jump slipped from
the stilling apron at the spillway toe and intensive local scouring developed at
the downstream end of the dam. As an improvisation, a new floor was added every
2-3 years to protect the toe of the structure {see Fig. 3.10). However, as the
active factors remained untouched, the process continued until the dam failed:
as a result of the combined local and general erosion, the acting head of the
structure became more than triple the original 2.50 IIII'll and the structure's
stability was lost. It is quite possible that the whole structure and the
underlying earth massif failed along a circular slip surface.
Comments: The case illustrates, step by step, the channel's morphology
changes, as presented at 3.4.1-c. The events correspond to the first stage of
the process mentioned there. Due to the failure of the dam, the further stages
did not follow. The main cause of the upstream channel sedimentation was the
severely reduced flow carrying capacity after damning of the river. The carrying
capacity was also reduced because of the exaggerated spillway width and the
insufficient width of the gated spans. (See further §3.7)
The main factor in the failure .of the diversion dam was ignorance of the
recession of tail water levels when foundations of structures were designed, the
foundations of the stilling pool, in particular. _ _ _ I _

1|
B? .

evistence of a oumeios Plant, the presence of an ausilliary spillway, or the

location of the water users ton one side of the river, or on both}.

3.5 THE HYDRAULIC DESIGN DF RIVER DIFERSIDH PHDJECT5

lhe correct hydraulic design is of utmost importance for the success of a
river diversion project. The structural design of the components, retaining
walls, plates, beams, is also very important but the procedures used for their
design are not really related to the specifics of the diversion structures,

J. .l lhe Purpose of the Hydraulic oesig

The- main task of the hydraulic design is to determine the sire of the
diversion works. The- details of this task are different for each specific
project, but for any river diversion the hydraulic design should produce the
following results:
aJ Characteristic water levels and elevations of the structures:
aal Normal Hater level, Ht; Hasimum Hater level, Has,HL
ahl Elevations of the dam crest, the gates-operation deck, the intake and
pump platforms: minimum elevation of bridge crossings, if any.
bl outlet sizes:
ha} Lengths of the service outlets and auailliary spillhay, if any.
oh} Hidths of the gated Heir.
bcl slidth of the sluice-uay.
hd] other outlets, such as hnttnm outlets, sand traps, etc.
cl intake sires:
cal Entrance openings: width, height and elevation.
chi Hydraulic losses before the conveyance entrance section.
d] Hydraulic eoergy dissipation:
“Haj Stilling pools andfor other dissipation structures, dfs of the dam
outlets.
dbl other energy dissipators {for example, between the intake and the main
conveyance channel}.
dc} Protection of the downstream channel bed and banks.
e} Seepage:
ea} Eeepage through earthfills and its control.
eh} Seepage heloiw and around concrete structures and foundations lid its
contrul. I-

fl The approach-and tail-channels geometries:

fa] The channels widthtsl and the lengths of training dikes and levees.
 93

fb} The radius, or radii, of curvature of the channels’ alignment.

fc} Forecast of the morphological changes after the river diversion.
A particular difficulty in handling the hydraulic design is that the
parameters involved are interdependent and, thus, cannot be determined
independently, one after the other. For example,
the hilt depends on intake sires, '
the ftax Ht depends on outlet sizes,
the energy dissipation depends o both and on many other factors.
its the equations are implicit, the solutions would result from successive
approximations.

3.6.2 Heans and Procedures

The available means for carrying out the hydraulic design are the following:
- Theoretical, involving mathematical equations of the fluid dynamics and
empirical relations.
- Experimental, employing hydraulic model tests in the laboratory, field
investigations and measurements.
- The professional experience of the personnel involved in the design of river
diversions. _
lhe available mathematical equations are the continuity equation, the flow
equation [or mementos} and the energy equation - all of them expressed in terms
of the average iralues of the vectors involved. ilictually, the availability of
computer facilities has made possible the numrical solution of some
differential equations of fluid dynamics, the boundary conditions being defined.
The best example is the Laplace equation for seepage through the earth fills or
below the fotmdations of concrete structures. The available library progrmns
for the numerical solution of these equations yield the pressures and velocities
in the seepage field, making obsolete any other procedure for draiwing the floiv
net. another efficient approach is the construction of mathematical models to
simulate a process; for example the process of the changes in river channel
morphology following a river diversion.
its is well known, even the basic equations include empirical coefficients.
mainly for expressing hydraulic losses. For some parameters, such as the
sediment transport, the empirical character of the relations is predominant.
iihen using empirical relations special care should be taken to observe the
assillptions and conditions that limit the field of their val ldity.
Physical models are a very effective to-ol for solving three-dimensional flow
problems such as:
- the design of the approach channel for very large diversions;
—optimiaation of structures contours, to minimiae local head losses and
 ‘Ed

vortex tones;
- ggtes operation rules, the effects of sluice gates on upstream deposits;
- the energy dissipation at downstream outlets.
There are tug important advantages xhich hydraulic nxsdel tests offer: firstly,
the local conditions {such as channel and structural geometries, flow structurel
are reproduced and their influence included in the results: secondly, various
conditions and situations, including extraordinary conditions such as the
maximum floods, can be simulated. Using these advantages, a program of model
tests can screen a large nuinber of alternative solutions and can help with
defining details for a selected alternative. The design, construction and
op--r.ii.inn of .1 hydraulic nindei should he carried out in a qualified hydraulic
laboratory in close cooperation with the design team. The txidertakiog requires
time {months} and is costly. Thus, the physical modelling can only be considered
for very large diversion projects. For other river diversions ,- the experience of
previous projects, Including model test results, must be exploited extensively.
The professional experience of the design oersoonel is an invaluable asset. ii
warning should be made against the tendency to "copy" past projects, even if
their design was correct. Using previous solutions must be accompanied by a
cin-ck on the behaviour of these solutions under operational conditions and a
check on the degree of similarity betiveen the conditions of the new and the
previous projects.
The hydraulic design procedures should begin with rapid, simplified procedures
in lhe early design stages, followed by detailed, more accurate procedures in
the advanced design stages.

'l.ii..l Data required for Hydraulic Design

ihn inputs of the hydraulic design program for a nee diversion project are:
a} iiydraulic data: lliver flow hydrograph opts}; characteristic discharges
for low mater stages and for floods, including high floods (saith E1, 11, or iJ,l1
probability]. Ii correlation betiveen the river flow and the water surface
elevation, in some cross-sections characteristic of the project. For a
diversion dam project the rating curve is very important for the size of the
outlets and for the energy dissipation -downstream, For the last aspect in
particular, a forecast of the Tilt recession following downstream channel
erosion should be made available.
other data are the anouot of sediment transport, the distribution of sediment
fractions and their correlation with the water discharges, and information about
ice formation, if any.
if a model test program is involved, flood hydrographs and the corresponding