Cell
Connective tissue
- All the living things are composed of cells.
- A single cell is the smallest unit that has all
the characteristics of life.
-is defined as the structural and functional unit
of the living body
General Characteristics of Cell
Each cell in the body:
1. Needs nutrition and oxygen
2. Produces its own energy necessary for its
growth, repair and other activities
3. Eliminates carbon dioxide and other
metabolic wastes
4. Maintains the medium, i.e. the environment
for its survival
5. Shows immediate response to the entry of
invaders like bacteria or toxic substances into
the body
6. Reproduces by division.
- Exceptions include neuron, which do not
reproduce.
The cell contains:
1. An outer membrane, the plasma membrane
2. A nucleus, a spherical or oval organelle often 
near the center
3. Cytoplasm, the region outside the nucleus,
in which organelles are suspend in a fluid, the
cytosol, and inclusion bodies containing
secretion and storage substances.
Tissue
- Tissue is defined as the group of cells having
similar function.
- There are many types of tissues in the body.
- All the tissues are classified into four major
types which are called the primary tissues.
- The primary tissues include:
1. Muscle tissue
 skeletal muscle, smooth muscle and
cardiac muscle
2. Nervous tissue
 neurons and supporting cells
3. Epithelial tissue
 squamous, columnar and cuboidal
epithelial cells
4.
 connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone
and blood
Organ
An organ is defined as the structure that is
formed by two or more primary types of tissues,
which execute the functions of the organ.
 Some organs are composed of all the four
types of primary tissues.
The organs are of two types, namely tubular or
hollow organs and compact or parenchymal
organs.
Some of the organs in the body are brain,
heart, lungs, stomach, intestine, liver,
gallbladder, pancreas, kidneys, endocrine
glands, etc.
System
The organ system is defined as group of organs
that work together to carry out specific functions
of the body.
Each system performs a specific function.
Digestive system is concerned with digestion
of food particles.
 Excretory system eliminates
unwanted substances.
 Cardiovascular system is responsible
for transport of substances between the organs.
 Respiratory system is concerned with
the supply of oxygen and removal of carbon
dioxide.
 Reproductive system is involved in the
reproduction of species.
 Endocrine system is concerned with
growth of the body and regulation and
maintenance of normal life.
 Musculoskeletal system is responsible
for stability and movements of the body.
 Nervous system controls the
locomotion and other activities including the
intellectual functions.
Types of Cells  Microtubules
1. Prokaryotes  Microfilaments
Cell that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound  Intermediate filaments
organelles  Ribosomes
Type of cell found in most unicellular organisms 2. Membrane bound organelles
and some multi-cellular organisms  Nucleus
 bacteria – staphylococcus aureus,  Mitochondria
Escherichia coli  Endoplasmic reticulum
 Archea – organisms found in the  Lysosomes
Arctic  Peroxisomes
 Golgi apparatus
2. Eukaryotes
Type of cells in some single-celled and most Cell membrane
multicellular organism Cell membrane is a protective sheath,
This cells contain a distinct membrane-bound enveloping the cell body.
organelles which are the living components of It is also known as plasma membrane or
cell plasmalemma.
 Fungi This membrane separates the fluid outside
 Ptotozoans the cell called extracellular fluid (ECF) and
 Animal cells the fluid inside the cell called intracellular
 Plant cells fluid (ICF).
The cell membrane is a semipermeable
Structures Prokaryotes Eukaryotes membrane.
Plasma + +  So, there is free exchange of certain
Membrane substances between ECF and ICF.
Ribosomes + + Thickness of the cell membrane varies from
DNA + + 75 to 111Å
Plasmid + + Structural Model of the Cell Membrane
Cell Wall + + 1. Danielli-Davson model
Cytoskeleton + + DanielliDavson model’ was the first proposed
Size and Smaller Bigger basic model of membrane structure.
length It was proposed by James F. Danielli and
Compartment - + Hugh Davson in 1935.
Nuclear - + This model was basically a ‘sandwich of
Membrane lipids’ covered by proteins on both sides.
DNA + + 2. Unit membrane model
In 1957, JD Robertson replaced ‘Danielli
Histone - +
Davson model’ by ‘Unit membrane model’ on
the basis of electron microscopic studies
3. Fluid mosaic model
Proposed by SJ Singer and GL Nicholson
later in 1972
the membrane is a fluid with mosaic of
proteins
The following are the living components of the  mosaic means pattern formed by
cell arrangement of different colored
1. Non-membrane bound organelle
 pieces of stone, tile, glass or other
such materials
In this model, the proteins are found to float
in the lipid layer instead of forming the layers
of the sandwich-type model
Membranous Structures of the Cell
Essentially almost all organelles in the cell
are covered by membranes composed of
lipids and proteins
The different membranes in the cell are:
1. Cell membrane
2. Nuclear membrane
3. ER membrane
4. Mitochondrial membrane
5. Lysosomal membrane
6. Peroxisomal membrane
7. Membrane of Golgi apparatus
Characteristics of the Plasma Membrane
1. Semi permeable
 selects molecules that can enter or
leave the cell
a. Gases (CO2, O2) and water can freely
diffuse into the
phospholipid bilayer
b. Polar molecules like glucose, amino acids,
proteins require carrier proteins to enter or
leave the cell
2. Core conductor
allows the spread of excitation
3. Condenser
stores ATP
4. Rectifier
returns to original state after being excited
5. Resistor
limits the entry of ions
6. Receptor site
for peptide hormones, microbial toxins,
viruses and immunologic receptors
General Functions of the Cell Membrane
1. Transport of substances including water
2. Protective function
3. Enzymatic activity
4. Involved in signal transduction
5. Involved in intercellular junction and
communication between adjacent cells
6. Involve in cell to cell recognition-
especially the glycoprotein serving tags for
recognition by other cells
7. Involved in the maintenance of cell shape-
attachment to cytoskeleton and extracellular
matrix of the cell
8. Coordination of extracellular changes
Components of the Cell Membrane
1. Proteins
Constitute 55% of cell membrane
2. Lipids
Constitute 42% of cell membrane
3. Carbohydrates
Constitute 3% of cell membrane
Protein Layers of the Cell Membrane
Protein layers of the cell membrane are
electron-dense layers.
Protein layers give protection to the central
lipid layer.
The protein substances present in these
layers are mostly glycoproteins.
Protein molecules are classified into two
categories:
1. Integral proteins or transmembrane
proteins.
2. Peripheral proteins or peripheral
membrane proteins.
Membrane proteins
Responsible for the functional behaviour of
the cell membrane
Membrane are held in place by attaching to
the cytoskeleton located in the cytoplasm
and extracellular matrix located at the
exterior of the cell
The Structure of a Cell Membrane
The Cell membrane consists primarily of two
layers of phospholipid molecules with protein
molecules embedded and attached.
Intracellular Membranes also have a
structure based on proteins embedded in a
phospholipid bilayer.
The Five Functional Types of Membrane
Proteins and the Functions they perform
1. Channel
Permits simple or quasi-simple diffusion of
solutes in aqueous – or osmosis of water-
through a membrane
2. Transporter (carrier)
Binds noncovalently and reversibly with
specific molecules or ions to move them
across a membrane intact
3. Enzyme
Catalyzes a chemical reaction in which
covalent bonds are made or broken
4. Receptor
Binds noncovalently with specific molecules
and as a consequence of this binding,
initiates a change in membrane permeability
or cell metabolism. Receptor proteins
mediate the responses of a cell to a chemical
messages arriving at the outside face of the
cell membrane
5. Structural Protein
Attaches to other molecules to anchor
intracellular elements to the cell membrane,
creates junctions between adjacent cells or
establishes other structural relations
Two types of membrane Proteins
1. Integral membrane Proteins
Also called the intrinsic, integral, penetrating
or transmembrane protein because they
pass through the entire thickness of cell
membrane from one side to the other side.
Are globular protein units which consists of
hydrophilic and hydrophobic amino acids
 These proteins usually form a coiled
alpha-helix structure that spans the
cell membrane
Examples of integral protein:
1. Cell adhesion proteins
2. Cell junction proteins
3. Some carrier (transport) proteins
4. Channel proteins
5. Some hormone receptors
6. Antigens
7. Some enzymes
2. Peripheral proteins
Are peripheral or surfaced-located protein
membrane proteins
 Extrinsic proteins
 Protein units found in the inner and
outer part of the cell membrane and
do not penetrate the cell membrane
 Loosely bound to the surface of the
cell membrane
 Some of the peripherally located
proteins are attached to
carbohydrates to form ‘glycoprotein”
Examples of peripheral proteins:
1. Proteins of cytoskeleton
2. Some carrier (transport) proteins
3. Some enzymes
Functions of Proteins in Cell Membrane
1. Integral proteins provide the structural
integrity of the cell membrane
2. Channel proteins help in the diffusion of
water soluble substances like glucose and
electrolytes
3. Carrier or transport proteins help in the
transport of substances across the cell
membrane by means of active or passive
transport
4. Pump:
Some carrier proteins act as pumps, by
which ions are transported actively across
the cell membrane
5. Receptor proteins serve as the receptor
sites for hormones and neurotransmitters
6. Enzymes:
Some of the protein molecules form the
enzymes and control chemical (metabolic)
reactions within the cell membrane
7. Antigens:
Some proteins act as antigens and induce
the process of antibody formation
8. Cell adhesion molecules or the integral
proteins are responsible for attachment of
cells to their neighbors or to basal lamina.
Lipid Layers of the Cell Membrane
The central lipid layer is a bilayered structure
This is formed by a thin film of lipids.
The characteristic feature of lipid layer is
that, it is fluid in nature and not a solid
structure.
So, the portions of the membrane move from
one point to another point along the surface
of the cell.
The materials dissolved in lipid layer also
move to all areas of the cell membrane.
 Major lipids are:
1. Phospholipids
2. Cholesterol
1. Phospholipids
Phospholipids are the lipid substances
containing phosphorus and fatty acids.
Phospholipid molecules are arranged in two
layers.
Each phospholipid molecule resembles the
headed pin in shape.
The outer part is called the head portion and
the inner portion is called the tail portion.
Head portion is the polar end and it is soluble
in water and has strong affinity for water
(hydrophilic).
Tail portion is the non-polar end.
It is insoluble in water and repelled by water
(hydrophobic)
Membrane Phospholipid
The tails can differ in length, 1 tail –
unsaturated FA, 1 tail – saturated FA
Two Ends of the Cell membrane
1. Hydrophilic end
Water loving or polar end of the cell
membrane
Portion of the cell membrane exposed to the
aqueous environment that bathes the cell
exterior of the cell and the aqueous
cytoplasm
2. Hydrophobic end
Non-water loving or non-polar end of the cell
membrane
Portion of the cell membrane that meets the
water poor interior of the cell
Important in preventing the escape of most
water soluble substances in the cytoplasm
Four major phospholipid group in the
membrane
a. Phosphatidylcholine
(phosphoglycerides)
 Consists of glycerol backbone with 2
FA attached and a phosphorylated
alcohol
 Located in the outer part of the cell
membrane
b. Sphingomyelins
 Contains sphingosine backbone
rather than glycerol
 Located in the outer part of the cell
membrane
 Prominent in myelin sheaths
c. Phosphatidylethanolamine
 located in the inner part of the cell
d. Phosphatidylserine
 located in the inner part of the cell
2. Sterols
Most common sterols in cell membrane are
cholesterol
Cholesterol exists almost exclusively in the
cell membrane of mammalian cells
More abundant towards the outside of the
CM
Cholesterol intercalates among the
membrane phospholipids which is important
in maintaining the fluidity of the cell
membrane
Cholesterol
Cholesterol molecules are arranged in
between the phospholipid molecules.
Phospholipids are soft and oily structures
and cholesterol helps to ‘pack’ the
phospholipids in the membrane.
 So, cholesterol is responsible for the
structural integrity of lipid layer of the
cell membrane
Glycolipids
Sugar or CHO containing lipids
Also located extracellularly
E.g. Cerebrosides and gangliosides
Membrane Fluidity
The fluidity of the cell membrane is important
for it to function effectively especially in the
entry or exit of substances
The fluidity of the cell membrane is
maintained morphologically by the:
 The presence of cholesterol among
the membrane phospholipids prevents
solidification of phospholipids during
low environmental temperature
 Increased in unsaturation (kinking) of
fatty acids during low environmental
temperature
Fluidity of the cell membrane is also
maintained with movement of the Cell
Membrane:
 Rotation along its longitudinal axis
 Lateral movement or lateral shift
 Transverse movement or flip flop –
catalyzed by the flippases enzyme
Functions of Lipid Layer in Cell
Membrane
Lipid layer of the cell membrane is a
semipermeable membrane and allows only
the fat-soluble substances to pass through it.
 Thus, the fat-soluble substances like
oxygen, carbon dioxide and alcohol
can pass through this lipid layer.
The water-soluble substances such as
glucose, urea and electrolytes cannot pass
through this layer.
Carbohydrates of the Cell Membrane
Some of the carbohydrate molecules present
in cell membrane are attached to proteins
and form glycoproteins (proteoglycans).
Some carbohydrate molecules are attached
to lipids and form glycolipids.
Carbohydrate molecules form a thin and
loose covering over the entire surface of the
cell membrane called glycocalyx
Membrane Carbohydrates
Consist of polysaccharides, simple sugars or
oligosaccharides that are covalently bound to
the membrane proteins called “glycolipid”
Cell Coat
A carbohydrate –containing layer on the
surface of leukocytic cells
Glycocalyx
More extensive cell coat found on special
surfaces such as the brush border of the
intestinal epithelial cells
Provides protection to the intesinal epithelial
cells
Functions of Carbohydrates in Cell
Membrane
1. Carbohydrate molecules are negatively
charged and do not permit the negatively
charged substances to move in and out of
the cell
2. Glycocalyx from the neighboring cells
helps in the tight fixation of cells with one
another
3. Some carbohydrate molecules function as
the receptors for some hormones.
Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm of the cell is the jellylike material
formed by 80% of water.
It contains a clear liquid portion called c. Proteins
cytosol and various particles of different 2nd most abundant substance in the cell
shape and size. Constitute 10-20% of the inner cell mass
These particles are proteins, carbohydrates, Two types of Proteins in the cell
lipids or electrolytes in nature. A. Structural Protein
Cytoplasm also contains many organelles  Filamentous proteins
with distinct structure and function. B. Globular Protein
Cytoplasm is made up of two zones:  Cell protein in globular form
1. Ectoplasm: Simple proteins Conjugated Proteins
Peripheral part of cytoplasm, situated just Albumin Glycoproteins
beneath the cell membrane Globulin Lipoproteins
2. Endoplasm: Protamines Nucleoproteins
Inner part of cytoplasm, interposed between Prolamines Chromoproteins
the ectoplasm and the nucleus. Metalloproteins
Phosphoproteins
d. Lipids
Polar cell substances that are soluble in lipid
solvents, insoluble in water
Constitute 2% of the inner cell mass
Consist primarily of C, H, O2 and minor
amounts of P, N, S
Serve as an integral component of the cell
membrane (Serves as barrier of the cell)
Protoplasm e. Carbohydrates
Different substances that make up the cell Molecules which provides nutrition to the cell
May be proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates. Comprise about 1% of the inner cell mass
 cytosol is the term referring to the Examples af CHO in the cell:
clear fluid portion a. Simple sugar (monosaccharide) –
Components of Protoplasm glucose, galactose, fructose
a. Water b. dissacharide – sucrose, lactose,
Most abundant substances in the cell maltose
Comprise 70-85% of the inner cell mass c. Polysaccharide – glycogen
It is also the principal fluid medium of the cell Carbohydrates are stored in the liver and
Cellular substances are dissolved in water skeletal muscle cells in the form of glycogen
b. Electrolytes
Provides the inorganic substances needed
for cellular reactions
Positively charged ions or cations
 K+
 Ca++
 Mg++
 Na+
Negatively charged ions or anions:
 Cl-
 HCO3
Membranous Organelle
Nucleus
Nucleus is the most prominent and the
largest cellular organelle.
It has a diameter of 10 μ to 22 μ and
occupies about 10% of total volume of the
cell.
It controls the different activities inside the
cell
Parts of the Nucleus:
1. Nuclear membrane or nuclear envelope
2. Nucleoplasm
3. Nucleolus
Functions of Nucleus
1. Control of all the cell activities that include
metabolism, protein synthesis, growth and
reproduction (cell division)
2. Synthesis of RNA
3. Formation of subunits of ribosomes
4. Sending genetic instruction to the
cytoplasm for protein synthesis through
messenger RNA (mRNA)
5. Control of the cell division through genes
6. Storage of hereditary information (in
genes) and transformation of this information
from one generation of the species to the
next
Nuclear membrane or nuclear
envelope
A double membrane enveloping
the nucleus separated by perinuclear space
and interrupted by the nuclear pores
Serves as a barrier for the
nucleus and permeable only to
ions and small molecules
Nuclear Envelope
Function: it regulates what enters or exits the
nucleus.
Structure: it is a double Layer of Lipids
Nucleoplasm
Soluble form of nuclear material not
occupied by nucleolus or chromatin
Nucleolus
This is the RNA containing body in the
nucleus
The number of nucleolus varies from 1-4
depending on the type of the cell
Nucleolus are prominent and high in number
of nucelolus in growing cells
Site of ribosome synthesis
Function: it produces RNA, which are used
to make all proteins.
Structure: located inside Nucleus, separate
from DNA
Nuclear pore
Pores of the nuclear membrane are guarded
(lined) by protein molecules.
Diameter of the pores is about 80 to 100 nm.
 However, it is decreased to about 7 to
9 nm because of the attachment of
protein molecules with the periphery
of the pores.
Exchange of materials between nucleoplasm
and cytoplasm occurs through these pores.
Gaps in the nuclear membrane that allow
transport of targeted proteins into the
nucleus and transport of mRNA out of the
nucleus
Chromatin
Carries the blue print of all heritable traits in
animals
Occurs in pairs except in germ cells
Two types of Chromatin
a. Heterochromatin – condensed
chromatin, metabolically active
b. euchromatin – dispersed chromatin,
replicating
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic acid
Function: contains information on how to
make proteins.
 a. Chromatin – unorganized DNA
(normal state)
b. Chromosomes – organized DNA
(present before cell division
Structure: it is made up of nucleotides,
locked in the nucleus
Mitochondria
Power house of the cell because this is the
site of key biochemical processes for ATP
production in the cell
Enclosed by a double membrane consisting
of the outer and inner membranes
The inner membrane is thrown into fold to
form the mitochondrial cristae
Site of Kreb’s or TCA cycle, cellular
respiration
Function: it produce energy for the cell – a
site of cellular respiration. “The Powerhouse”
Structure: it is a double membrane-bound,
kidney shaped.
Parts of the mitochondrion and their
Physiological importance
1. Mitochondrial matrix
Dense with DNA, large phosphate granules
and ribosomes
The mitochondrial ribosomes are smaller
than the cytoplasmic ribosomes
Contains the enzymes for the Kreb cycle and
Beta oxidation of fats
2. Inner membrane
Contains the enzymes for oxidative
phosphorylation
Contains electron carriers for the electron
transport system
Possesses the F1 factor or ATP synthase –
which is needed to synthesize AT during
cellular respiration
3. Outer membrane
Outer covering of the mitochondria
Vesicles
0.2 to 0.5 um
Considered as the suicide bag of the cells
Responsible for digesting the food vacuoles
or degenerating organelles of the cell
A single membrane-bound organelle with a
high content of hydrolytic or digestive
enzymes (40 acid hydrolases) for
intracellular digestion via endocytosis
 These lysosomal enzymes function
best in an acidic medium (pH 3.5-5.0)
in the lysosome which is maintained
by proton (H+) pumping.
Lysosomal membrane protects the cell from
the lysosomal hydrolytic enzymes.
New lysosomes are synthesized in the Golgi
apparatus
Types of Lysosomes
1. Primary lysosome
pinched off from Golgi apparatus
It is inactive in spite of having hydrolytic
enzymes
2. Secondary lysosome
the active lysosome
It is formed by the fusion of a primary
lysosome with phagosome or endosome
Different Lysosomal Enzymes
1. Lipases
 Digest lipids
2. Carbohydrases
 Digests CHO
3. Proteases
 Digest proteins
4. Nucleases
 Digest nucleic acids
Lysosome membrane:
1. H+ - pumps
Internal proton is kept high H+ concentration
by H+-ATPase
2. Glycosylated proteins may protect the
lysosome from self-digestion
3. Transport proteins:
Transporting digesting materials
Mechanism of lysosomal function
Lysosomal functions involve two
mechanisms:
1. Heterophagy:
Digestion of extracellular materials engulfed
by the cell via endocytosis
2. Autophagy:
Digestion of intracellular materials such as
worn-out cytoplasmic organelles.
Lysosomal Lytic enzymes engulf
(endocytosis) and Cause autolysis of:
1. Degenerating orsubstances organelle cell
(autophagic vacuole)
2. Bacteria or foreign substances (phagocytic
vacuole)
Other Functions of Lysosomes:
1. Destroy Old RBC and Dead cells
2. Dissolution of blood clots and thrombi
3. Keratinization of skin
4. Secretes hydrolases by sperm for
penetration of ovum during fertilization
5. Digestion of yolk during embryonic
development
6. Bone resorption
7. Defense against invading organisms by
circulating macrophages
(heterophagy)
Peroxisomes
0.2 to 0.5 um
A small membrane-bound vesicle containing
oxidative enzymes involved in:
 Beta oxidation of fats
 Production of hydrogen peroxide
Peroxisomal Oxidative Enzymes
1. Catalase
2. Urate Oxidase
3. D-amino oxidase
Functions of Peroxisomes
1. Breakdown the fatty acids by means of a
process called beta oxidation:
 This is the major function of
peroxisomes
2. Degrade the toxic substances such as
hydrogen peroxide and other metabolic
products by means of detoxification.
3. Form the major site of oxygen utilization in
the cells
4. Accelerate gluconeogenesis from fats
5. Degrade purine to uric acid
6. Participate in the formation of myelin
7. Play a role in the formation of bile acids
Secretory Vesicles
The organelles with limiting membrane and
contain the secretory substances.
Formed in the endoplasmic reticulum and
are processed and packed in Golgi
apparatus.
Present throughout the cytoplasm.
When necessary, these vesicles are ruptured
and secretory substances are released into
the cytoplasm.
Storage vesicles containing secretory
substances formed by the E-Golgi Apparatus
system
Endoplasmic reticulum
A complex series of tubules in the cytoplasm
of the cell
Two types of ER
1. Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER) or
granular ER
Consists of extensive tubules with ribosomes
attached on the cytoplasmic side of the
membrane
Site of protein synthesis for extracellular use
 Hormones
2. Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER) or
Agranular ER
Round tubules which lack ribosomes
Site of lipid synthesis
 Steroid and cell membrane
phospholipids
Site for processing of synthesized proteins
Site for detoxification of foreign substances\
 a. Cis face ( forming , transport vesicles
are formed from ER) and
b. Trans face ( maturing face, where
secretory granules are formed)

Endoplasmic Reticulum The golgi complex is compartmentalized.

Function: involve in transportation route for Phosphorylation occurs in the Cis region.
proteins. In other regions, different types of
a. Rough ER: has ribosomes carbohydrtaes are added as glucycosylation
b. Smooth ER: no ribosomes passes through the cisternane.
Structure: it looks like tubes and channels This figure illustrates the different regions
Ribosomes where sugarslike mannose, galatose, etc.,
Important organellle for protein synthesis are added.
Synthesized in the nucleoous The final sorting is done in the Trans Golgi
Consists of RNA (65%) and protein (35%) complex.
Function: it makes proteins  So it is called the polarity organelle
Structure: it is a small circular organelles
Types of Ribosomes and their Function
1. Free Ribosomes
Occurs freely in the cytoplasm
The site of protein synthesis for intracellular
use (non-secretory and non-membrannous
proteins)
 Hemoglobin, proteins in peroxisomes,
 Often linked together in chains called
polyribosomes or polysomes
2. Bound Ribosomes
Ribosomes attached to RER
Synthesizes proteins for extracellular use
 Hormones and integral membrane
proteins A typical Golgi apparatus and its relationship
Golgi apparatus to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) and the
Consists of stacks (5-8) of membrane – nucleus.
enclosed sacs called “cisterns”
It is a polarized structure with a
Processing, sorting and transport in the Golgi
complex
 The Golgi networks are processing
and sorting stations where proteins
are modified, segregated and then
shipped in different directions
Cytoskeleton
A system of fibers that support or provides
the framework of the cell
Consists of microtubules, intermediate
filaments and microfilaments
Microtubules
A long hollow structure made up of alpha
and beta tubulin sub-units
Produced in the centrioles and distributed
throughout the cytoplasm
Microtubules could be arranged singlet,
doublet (in Cilia and flagella) and triplet (in
centrioles and basal bodies)
Functions of Microtubules
1. Mechanical and Structural function
 Maintains shape of the cell
 Provides mechanical strength on
tissues
2. Placement and movement of organelles
3. Cell division
 Involved in the movement of mitotic
spindle fibers and chromosomes
4. Main component of cilia and flagella
5. Cellular Motility or movement
6. Transport of macromolecules within the
cell
The effects of proteins that bind to
microtubule ends.
A. The transition between
Microtubule growth and
Microtubule shrinking is controlled in cells by
special proteins.
B. Capping proteins help to localize
microtubules.
Centrosome
A structure near the nucleus
Serves as the site of microtubule production
Consists of a pair of centrioles and
amorphous pericentriolar material
A. The centrosome is the major MTOC of
animal cells. Located in the cytoplasm next
to the nucleus, it consists of an amorphous
matrix of protein containing the g-tubulin ring
complexes that nucleate microtubule growth.
B. A centrosome with attached microtubules.
The minus end of each microtubule is
embedded in the centrosome, having grown
from a g-tubulin ring complex, whereas the
plus end of each microtubule is free in the
cytoplasm.
Centrioles
Short cylinders located near the nucleus,
arranged at right angles to one another
Each centriole is made up of 9 bundles of
microtubules (3 per bundle arranged in a
ring)
Cilia
Long projections in apical surfaces of cells
that transport materials along the surface of
the cells occurs singly, longer.
E.g. Epthelial cells in respiratory tract
Two types of Cilia:
 Kinocilia – ture cilia, motile
 Stero cilia – non-motile
 Flagella
 Numerous, shorter
 E.g. Tail of sperm cells
Intermediate Filaments
The most abundant and stable component of
cytoskeleton
The most important filamentous component
present in the matrix of the cytoplasm
Distributed throughout the cell
Important for connecting the nuclear
membrane to the cell membrane
Functions of Intermediate Filaments
1. Provides mechanical strength on tissues
2. Anchoring Cytoplasmic organelles
Plectin cross-linking of diverse
cytoskeletal elements.
Plectin (green) makes cross-links from
intermediate filaments (blue) to other
intermediate filaments, to microtubules (red),
and to myosin thick filaments.

Microfilaments
Solid rod made of globular proteins called:
actin, myosin
Actin (more abundant than myosin in non-
muscle cells)
Microfilaments distributed at the periphery
And apical surface of cells
Functions of microfilaments
1. Give structural strength to the cell
2. Provide resistance to the cell against the
pulling forces
3. Are responsible for cellular movements
like contraction, gliding and cytokinesis
(partition of cytoplasm during cell division).
4. Mechanical and Structural support
Maintains cell shape
Reinforces cell membrane
5. Participates in Cytokinesis
Formation of contractile for dividing cells
6. Contractile component of muscles
7. Formation of cytoplasmic protuberances
 Formation of filopodium for movement
of fibroblasts
 Reinforces cell membrane