Astrophotography

Handbook
for DSLR Cameras

Michael K. Miller
Oak Ridge, TN
 Quick Start Guide
The three most common forms of wide-angle astrophotography with DSLR cameras
adjust red values DLSR cameras Lens Modes ISO, Post
as necessary for NR noise reduction aperture,
proper exposure
RAW preferred processing
shutter speed
Star trails Full frame better Wide angle M mode, ISO 400, Combine
Point N for circles 16-50mm Manual focus Widest f-stop, frames in
Remote shutter
e.g., 24 mm at  in 30 min.- 2h Photoshop
release (hold or lock
(16 mm for a crop Liveview, in multiple 20 -30s (see slide 30)
down release)
sensor camera) shots (camera on CL
or intervalometer set NR OFF continuous low),
Star trails on 20s (LONG)
or BULB setting for
exposure time
intervalometer

Stars/Milky Full frame better Wide angle M mode, ISO 400-1600, Normal
Way Remote shutter 16-50mm Manual focus Widest f-stop,
release e.g., 24 mm at  in 10-20s max.
(16 mm for a crop Liveview, Single shot, S
Stars sensor camera)
NR ON
The moon Crop factor Longest focal Spot meter, ISO 200, Normal
cameras better length: Spot focus, f/5.6,
Remote shutter 400-500mm Auto focus ~1/1000s,
release on moon Single shot, S
Moon
The explanations for these settings are discussed in the following slides
Tripod is required for all these celestial objects; remove lens filters, use lens hoods
2
 Types of Astrophotography
Wide-field, or landscape, astrophotography - photographs of the night sky
revealing the stars and galaxies, including the Milky Way, that are acquired with
DSLR and other cameras with wide-angle lenses with focal lengths shorter than
roughly 35 mm.
Time-lapse astrophotography - an extension of wide-field astrophotography where
many exposures are taken over time and then combined to make time-lapse videos
and star trails.
Solar system – images of the planets, moons, and the sun of our own solar system
mostly photographed through telescopes, but a super telephoto lens on a DSLR
cameras can also give good results for some of these objects.

Deep space – images which are taken with a telescope of distant galaxies and
nebulae, i.e., objects beyond our own solar system.

This presentation is only applicable for DSLR cameras directly photographing the
universe. It is not intended or applicable to cameras attached to telescopes.
All exposure settings (ISO, aperture, shutter speed) quoted herein should be taken as
a starting point and refined as required for proper exposure.
The blue background “How-to” slides have detailed suggested instructions
3
 The night sky
The earth spins on its
23° axis once every
24 hours.
Therefore, the sky
rotates anti-
clockwise about the
Celestial North Pole
(CNP) in the Northern
Hemisphere.
Different parts of the
celestial globe are
seen at different
locations around the
world and at different
times and time of
year.
View from Oak Ridge, TN 4
 The night sky
• The sun.
• The moon.
• Light pollution
• Clouds
• Haze – which can smear out the brighter stars

The earth spins on its 23° axis once every 24 hours.

Stellarium and many other portable smartphone apps enable simple identification of stars,
constellations, planets, etc. in the night sky at specific times and locations.
5
 Twilight
• Civil Twilight
Civil twilight is approximately the
limit at which solar illumination is
sufficient, under clear weather
conditions, for terrestrial objects to
be clearly distinguished.

• Nautical Twilight The length of twilight depends on latitude

During nautical twilight, sailors can take reliable star sightings of well-known stars,
using a visible horizon for reference. The end of this period in the evening, or its
beginning in the morning, is also the time at which traces of illumination near the
sunset or sunrise point of the horizon are very difficult, if not impossible, to discern
(this often being referred to as "first light" before civil dawn and "nightfall" after civil
dusk).
• Astronomical Twilight
In some places, especially those with skyglow (the diffuse glow that can be seen over
populated areas), astronomical twilight may be almost indistinguishable from night.
Most casual observers would consider the entire sky fully dark even when astronomical
twilight is just beginning in the evening or just ending in the morning, and astronomers
can easily make observations of point sources, such as stars.
6
 Twilight
The Photographer's
sunset moonrise Ephemeris (TPE) is one
tool that can calculate
moonset
the different types of
twilight, and sun and
moon rises and sets for
different dates and
locations.
On Sept. 17, 2016 at the
sunrise TMO, Astronomical
twilight starts at 5:56 AM
and sunrise is 1h 27 min.
later at 7:23 AM
Sunset is at 7:41 PM and
Astronomical twilight is
1h 26 min. later at 9:07
PM.
But it is close to a full
moon that night.

photoephemeris.com
7
 Factors influencing the night sky
Even deep into Astronomical Twilight or Night, there are still several
factors to take into account for star gazing.
 Although the moon emits a lower Skyglow

intensity of light than the sun, it will still

dominate the night sky if present.
 after moonset and before moonrise
or during a New moon are optimum
 Light pollution (photopollution) -
brightening of the night sky caused by Melton Hill Dam, Oak Ridge
street lights and other man-made sources
that is prevalent in all towns and cities.
 Clouds and rain which obscure the sky
• Haze which can smear out the brighter
stars. Not advisable to setup over
pavement or buildings. Viewing over grass
or water will help avoid heat currents
(thermals) that will degrade the image.
Interference from clouds
8
 Local Light Pollution Maps
International dark sky location
Pickett’s State Park
4605 Picket Park Hwy (Hwy 154)
Jamestown, TN 38556

Pickett’s SP

Norris Dam SP

Lilly Bluff SO

TAO  good bad

The International Dark-Sky Association (IDA) is a
jshine.net/astronomy/dark_sky/
non-profit advocacy group involved in the
movement to reduce light pollution.
9
 Night Vision
Night vision is the ability to see in low light situations, such as astrophotography.
It takes most people about 20 minutes to become completely dark adapted after
entering a totally dark place, e.g., photographic darkroom, or underground cave.
There is significant light outdoors at night in except in a certified dark sky viewing
location.
It is inadvisable to check or set your camera settings with a regular white
flashlight, as you will ruin the night vision for you and anyone near you.
Rhodopsin in the human rods in the eye is insensitive to the red wavelengths of
light, so red lights and/or red googles are used to help preserve night vision.
Red filters are available for some flashlights, and red LEDs are incorporated into
many LED headbands. It must be dim (not see light at 1/2s @ f/2.8, ISO 1000).
Turn LCD screen brightness on camera to dimmest setting
Put black tape over LED lights on camera and AF light.

10
 Eye versus Camera
The human eye can detect approximately 6000 stars
DSLR cameras can detect ~5 million stars with a larger brightness range.
20 second exposures (under optimum conditions) should be able show all the stars plotted
on Sky Atlas 2000.0
10 - 20 minute exposures* will chart all objects seen with an average amateur telescope.
Spectral response of the eye is from
~390 nm to almost 850 nm
Spectral response of a Nikon D810 is from
~420 nm to ~700 nm
Therefore, the camera’s sensor cuts off the H
UV, violets and deep reds and infrareds.
However, the universe emits radiation
over a much larger range of wavelengths.

*if the rotation of the earth is compensated for

11
 Exposure and Camera Settings
In order to accurately expose the image of stars on the camera, the 3 factors that
control exposure, shutter speed (exposure time), aperture, and ISO setting have
to be properly selected. This is often a compromise! Use RAW files.
1. Normally, the widest aperture of the lens is selected to gather as much of the available
light (photons) as possible. However, some wide angle lenses have poor resolution and
bad field curvature wide open (i.e., the focus at the edges of the image may not be the
same as at the centre). Coma may also be observed at wide apertures. So the
aperture may need to be changed from wide open by 1 or 2 stops to f/2.8 or f/4.
2. The ISO setting does not change sensitivity of the sensor to photons, but changes the
amplification of the signal from the sensor at the expense of dynamic range and
sensor noise. Although the camera LCD monitor and the recorded image gets brighter
with higher ISO settings, no additional faint stars or nebulae are recorded! Noise
reduction can be applied when recording images to improve the signal-to-noise ratio.
3. The exposure time (shutter speed) can be selected to correctly expose. Many cameras
have a limit on the shutter speed, e,g,. 30s. This can be increased using the BULB [or
TIME] setting or by taking multiple exposures and combining them in post processing.
More importantly, the earth rotates with respect to the universe, so the stars become
streaks at longer times, which increases as the focal length of the lens increases. To
overcoming this issue, a tracking equatorial mount can be used.
Due to the long exposures, any camera movement or vibrations must be eliminated by
mounting the camera on a sturdy tripod and using a remote shutter release, etc.
12
 Dynamic Range of Sensor
In the 400-6400 ISO range that is often used in astrophotography, most DSLR
cameras have very similar dynamic range performance.
Mirrorless and compact cameras have lower dynamic ranges.

DxOMark

Lowest ISO yields the best dynamic range and lowest sensor noise.
13
 Special Cameras
Most stock cameras have infrared (IR) and ultraviolet (UV) blocking or hot mirror filters
that cut off the ends of the visible spectrum so that the color balance is close to that of
the human eye.
The spectral response varies by the sensor in each camera, so some cameras are better
than others for astrophotography (see hyperlinks below).
H-alpha (Hα) is a deep-red visible spectral line with a wavelength of 656.281 nm that is
emitted by many emission nebulae.
For astrophotography, the transmission of the H line should be greater than 20%.
For some cameras, it is possible to have the IR filter changed to extend its spectral
response. In some other cameras, the sensor itself is the limiting factor.
Note opening the camera will void the camera’s warranty, so best done by specialist firms.
Nikon's D810a is designed for astrophotography
 Specialized IR cut filter captures the red tones of H emission nebulae
- 4X increase in sensitivity to the 656 nm wavelength than a standard DSLR.
 36.3MP FX-format CMOS image sensor with no optical low-pass filter
captures staggering detail
 Shoot ultra-long exposures up to 900 seconds (15 minutes)
 Built-in Time-Lapse, Interval Shooting and unlimited continuous shooting
The discontinued Canon 20Da also was specially made for astrophotography.
 It passes almost 70% of the H wavelength
See ClarkVision.com and kolarivision.com/articles/internal-cut-filter-transmission/ 14
 Focusing the DSLR Camera
Setting the correct focus is especially critical is astrophotography.
Due to changes in atmospheric conditions, temperature, etc., most modern lenses
are designed to “focus past infinity”. Therefore, you cannot simply turn the focus
to the end of the range of focus travel. In addition, many lenses no longer have a
hard stop at infinity ∞.
For the moon with a long focal length lens, use standard spot autofocus.
However, for stars in the night sky, autofocus is not effective due to the low light
levels and small objects, so manual focus has to be used.
• Manually focus with liveview with the LCD screen magnification at maximum and a
bright star in the frame – temporarily increase the ISO to ~5000 – turn focus ring on
lens carefully and slowly from one side of the  symbol to the other till you get the
smallest spot size – note you will not see the stars until close to focus – reset ISO.
• Manually focus on the stars through the viewfinder – or focus on a distant object
during daylight and lock the focus ring with tape. Start around the ∞ symbol.
• Use a Bahtinov mask and live view to align the 3 diffractions spikes (next page).
As stars are point sources of light, they should appear as sharp circular points
when in focus.
Cameras with tilt LCD screens or tethered cameras facilitate this process
The depth-of-field at infinity is very large so any wide aperture can be used. 15
 Focusing with a Bahtinov Mask
Bahtinov masks were invented in
2005 by amateur Russian
astrophotographer Pavel Bahtinov
to assist in focusing stars.

2
1

3 focus too far correct focus focus too near

3 grids produce 3 angled diffraction spikes. As

the focus is changed, the central spike appears
to move from one side of the star to the other.
Optimum focus is achieved when the middle
spike (arrowed) is exactly centered between the
other two spikes.
Use bright star in center of frame, widest
aperture, high ISO, & high magnification in
Liveview to see, check with test images,
remove afterwards.
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahtinov_mask
SharpStar2 Precision Focusing Tool by Lonely Speck lonelyspeck.com/sharpstar/ 16
 Red Intensifier Filter

hoyafilter.com
blocked
If it is not possible to completely distance yourself more than ~60 miles from the
light pollution coming from cities, the Hoya Red Intensifier, or Didymium, filter can
filter out the yellow-orange portion of the spectrum from ~575 nm to ~600 nm.
This yellow-orange part of the spectrum that is blocked is the color of most
sodium vapor lamps but also blocks any stars emitting these wavelengths.
Although sodium lamps are slowly being replaced with more efficient LEDs, they
are still one of the most common types of outdoor lighting and light pollution.
17
 Other Filters
Solar Filters
Threaded solar filters should be attached to the front element of lens
ND 5 (ND100000) is the minimum strength for direct eye solar observation
without damage of retina.
 F-stop reduction of 16 2/3 stops
NOT FOR DIRECT EYE OBSERVATION
ND 3.8 (N8192) or ND 4 (ND10000) are the lowest values for solar CCD sensor
exposure without risk of electronic damage.
 F-stop reductions of 13 and 13 1/3 stops, respectively.

Telescope users can also use other types of filters, such as

 H filter in combination with an energy rejecting filter (ERF)
 Different types of Nebula filters including
 Broadband and narrow band for light pollution,
 Oxygen III for diffuse and planetary nebular, and
 H-Beta for the Horsehead. California and other faint nebular.

thousandoaksoptical.com/solar.html seymoursolar.com
18
 Long Exposure & ISO Noise Reduction
Dark noise
Noise in the digital sensor increases with the length of the
exposure and also with the ISO setting.
Some modern cameras have methods to minimize their effects
 Long Exposure Noise Reduction (NR) (in the custom menu settings)
 Camera automatically takes second “blanked” exposure at slow shutter speeds (i.e., longer
than 1 s) then subtracts the exact dark current map (thermally-induced current that the
sensor produces even when it isn’t struck by light) from the image data.
 High ISO Noise Reduction (NR) – Canon in-camera or Photoshop/Lightroom
 Luminance Noise - gray or black-colored noise or “grain” you often see in a magnified view
of an image
 Chrominance Noise - colored, speckled noise you sometimes see in mid-tone or shadow
areas
Remember to cover or close the shutter on the viewfinder to prevent stray light in.
In-camera noise reduction should be ON when taking long (>1s)
exposures of stars.
Noise reduction should be OFF during taking images of star
trails, else small breaks in the trails will be evident due to the
blanked exposure time. However, NR can be applied in post
production by taking several dark frames after the primary
Breaks in the star trail
image, as discussed later.
when NR is ON 19
 How to improve Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Combining a series of images can improve the signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio and
make the stars, star trails, etc. more visible from the background/sensor noise.
How many images?
• Light images – standard images that contain the images of stars, galaxies, nebula
• Dark images – removes the sensor generated a dark signal (noise) that depends of
the exposure time, temperature and ISO speed
Take images in the dark (hence the name) by covering the lens.
Must have the same exposure time, temperature and ISO speed of the light frames
• Bias (or offset) images - removes the sensor readout signal from the light frames
which is created by the electronics just by reading its contents.
Take the shortest possible exposure (it may be 1/4000s or 1/8000s depending on
your camera) in the dark by covering the lens
• Dark Flat images corrects the vignetting and uneven field illumination created by
dust or smudges in your optics
Take images of a uniformly-illuminated clean white card, etc.
it is very important to not move your camera (including not changing the focus).
Should have the same ISO speed of the light frames. The temperature is not important.
Between 10 and 20 dark, bias and dark flat (each) images are usually sufficient
Use RAW not jpg images
Source: deepskystacker.free.fr/english/theory.htm#CalibrationProcess
20
 Calibration processes for (all or some)
light, dark, and bias/offset frames



Output image


Post processing is required

to bring out the stars

Deepskytracker may be used to combine

these different types of frames into a final
image. See manual and hyperlink below for details
markwalkerscreenwriting.wordpress.com/deep-sky-stacker-
tutorial/ 21
 Deepskytracker + Photoshop

60 light (20s), 20 dark (20s), 20 bias (1/8000s) frames, D500, 16 mm, f/4, ISO 125, cropped © Michael K. Miller, 2016

After post processing the TIFF file, in particular repeated dark and mid level adjustments
in Photoshop, many more stars and other celestial objects become visible. 22
 Using DSLR cameras on a telescope
Amateur telescopes are available with longer focal length lenses (up to ~4000 mm) than
DSLR lenses and have better light collection. This enables more deep space objects to be
viewed.
The camera body is attached to the telescope with a T-mount adapter that is specific to the
camera mount and the eyepiece holder. Many modern telescopes use an external 42 mm
thread (not the same as the Pentax 42 mm thread). Alternatively, short adapters are
available with this thread.
Weight
• As the weight of the camera is considerably heavier than the eyepiece, the telescope
has to be rebalanced. This is not always possible with all makes of telescopes!
Focus
• It is not always possible to focus the telescope even with short extension tubes.
• As the lens’s electrical connections cannot be used, manual focusing is the only
option. The simplest method is to use Live View either on the LCD screen or on a
tethered laptop computer. The latter has the advantage of not moving the telescope
so easily, but there is a cable that can be tripped over in the dark.
Tracking
• Even driven equatorial mounts have limitations to keeping the object in view.
• The main issues are the accuracy of the polar alignment and Periodic Error
Corrections required to overcome variations in the worm and wheel drive mechanism.
Check compatibility of camera and telescope before purchase.
23
Wide-Field Astronomy
including
Time-Lapse Astronomy

© Michael K. Miller, 2016

 Star Trails
A long static exposure
or, more effectively, a
series of exposures may
be taken and combined
can be used to generate
star trails.
Must NOT move the
camera, so a sturdy
tripod is required.
The Celestial North (or
South) Pole (CNP/CSP)
must be in the field of
view to show the point
of rotation of the arcs-
possibly positioned at
one of the power points
of the rule of thirds.
© Lee Smalley
More artistic images often include a foreground object, such as a tree, or ground.
For proper exposure of this object either light paint with a powerful flashlight, or
take a separate exposure and combine in post production.
This series of exposures method also works for meteorites.
25
 Star Trails
Typical parameters – adjust as necessary - cameras with tilt LCD screens make focusing easier
• A clear, cloudless, and moonless night well after Astronomical Twilight
• Mount camera with a remote cable release/intervalometer on a sturdy tripod
• Wide angle lens appropriate for the field-of-view desired: e.g., 16 - 50 mm
Horizontal angle of view: 16 mm 97; 18 mm 90; 20 mm 84; 24 mm 74; 35 mm 54; 50 mm 50.
• M (or A) exposure mode
• In-camera noise reduction (NR) OFF to prevent breaks in the star trails
• Manually focus at infinity (in magnified live view); no lens filters, use lens hoods
• Adjust ISO and aperture as necessary for correct exposure of stars and to not
over expose the background – test exposures are simplest way to optimize.
– ISO: 200 - 1600 depending on camera (lower better); Aperture: f/1.4 to f/4
• Shutter speed and number of exposures are used to define the length of arc
Length of star trail arc in degrees =
360 * exposure time (min) / time of 1 Earth rotation (24*60 min)
e.g., 60 min. (120 x 30s) exposure = 15 rotation
• Although the length of all the star trail arcs will subtend the same angle, they
will increase in length with distance from the Pole to the Equator.
• Typical total exposure times: 30 min to 3 h (7.5 to 45 rotation
– use BULB, TIME, or LIVECOMP (Olympus) setting, 20 s exposures
– battery life is the limiting factor for some cameras (p.16)
• Use fresh batteries due to the long exposures required.
26
 Star Trails – single or multiple exposures?
Why take a series of exposures rather than a single long exposure?

Single 1200s exposure 60 x 20s exposures (1200 s)

@ f/5, ISO 200, 17 mm @ f/4, ISO 200, 16 mm

The long static exposure continuously integrates the photons from the stars but
also the ambient light in the background. Therefore, the background is much
lighter (i.e., overexposed) and detracts from the stars (poor signal-to-noise ratio).
The combined extended series of exposures has a darker background and showed
the colours of the star trails better.
Combining multiple exposures can also bring out fainter stars.
[Film suffers a reciprocity failure at long exposures]
27
 Intervalometer/Remote shutter release
An intervalometer attaches to the shutter release connector for longer exposure times or
taking series of multiple exposures.
Alternatively, a remote shutter release with camera in continuous shooting CL mode + 20 s exposures
5 parameters are required: Intervalometer
Delay: the time before the
shutter is opened for the
1st frame [e.g., 1 or 2 s] Each parameter may be set to
Exposure time (LONG): the up to 99 h 59 min. and 59 s
time that the shutter is
open. [e.g., 20 s] Use the multifunction dial to set parameters
Interval (INTVL): The time Left and right arrows to select the function indicated
between frames – this by the bar under the function 
should be the Exposure Then press set button., then left or right
time + the time needed to arrows to select hour, min, or sec , up
write the file to the or down arrows to change value; left
memory card. [e.g., 22 s]. and right arrows to move to next value,
Must be longer than LONG press set to finish.
Number of shots: the
number of exposures to be To use after setting: Select Focus mode M; Exposure mode M;
taken [-- = unlimited] Single frame S; shutter speed BULB; Compose and focus;
Beep: toggles ON or OFF Press TIMER START/STOP to start and again to abort
There is no ON/OFF switch so they are on as long as the batteries are inserted. Use fresh batteries. 28
 Star Trails

© Michael K. Miller, 2016

Each star produces a coloured arc or star trail

Nikon D800, 14-24 mm lens @ 24 mm, ISO 800, f/4, 90 min. with an intervalometer
180 images were combined in Photoshop 29
 Combining Series of Exposures
1. Open Photoshop CC
2. Load files into layers - File>
Scripts> Load files into
Script...
3. Browse for the files and add
them (<CTRL> click to select
multiple files)
4. File> Scripts> Load Files into
Stack...
5. Browse for the files and add
them (<CTRL> click to select
multiple files). Selected files
will have a lighter grey box
around them.
6. Do NOT Auto-align layers
© Michael K. Miller, 2016
Nikon D500, 16-35mm @ 16mm, f/4, ISO 200, 60 x 20s images 7. Change NORMAL to LIGHTEN
This blending mode replaces
dark pixels of the background
In order not the overexpose the background, a series of with lighter ones of the stars
shorter exposure images are recorded with an
8. Layer> Merge visible
intervalometer rather than one long exposure.
This stack of separate images then have to be combined in
post production in Photoshop, etc.
30
 Star Trails: Olympus LIVECOMP 60 min = 15arc
1. Suitable wide-angle Olympus (MFT) lenses 7-14 mm f/2.8 mm, 12-40 mm f/2.8, 8 mm
f/1.8 fisheye, or equivalents. Mount lens on camera, fully charged batteries in camera
2. Setup and level tripod with a ball head. Mount camera on tripod. Attach a remote shutter
release. Select any focal length between 7 and ~15 mm (wider is generally better).
3. Set lens in manual mode (pull focus ring toward the body of the camera or press AF
button on the body and turn rear dial to MF), remove lens cap.
4. Set Mode dial to Manual (M) and view the LCD screen to focus the lens on the stars. If
necessary, temporarily increase ISO (switch position 2, front dial) to increase brightness.
5. Compose your shot to ensure that it is positioned to show off as much sky as possible, the
horizon (if present) is level, there is some foreground object. To include the center of the
star trail circles, aim the camera North and Polaris (CNP) must be in the frame.
6. Set camera settings for night photography. ISO = 400 and aperture = f/4
7. Turn the shutter speed dial all the way clockwise to LIVECOMP (LCD will dim). A message
will appear "Press shutter button once to prepare for composite shooting."
8. NEXT, select "Menu". The "Composite Settings" menu appears. Now set your base
exposure between 1 and 60 s (start with 30 s) then press OK. This set how long each
composite image will be exposed for and how frequently the LCD is updated.
9. Press the Shutter Release (1st): This first press will expose the base exposure for the time
selected in the previous step. A message “Ready for composite shooting” will appear.
10. Press the Shutter Release a 2nd time to start superimposing additional images. Watch the
LCD screen to see the star trails increase. An exposure histogram will appear bottom left
and an increasing frame counter with exposure time will appear bottom right. [3h max]
11. When ready or to abort, press the Shutter Release a 3rd time to stop capture. File is then
stored on the SD card. [To repeat with same settings go to 9, otherwise go to 4]
Suitable cameras: OMD-E-M1, E-M5 II, E-M10, Pen E-PL7 and Tough TG-4; instructions for OMD-E-M1 v4.0 firmware 31
 Star Trails

© Michael K. Miller, 2016

Reducing exposure in LR/PS can bring out the colours of the star trails
Olympus OMD-M-E1, 12-50 mm @12 x2 mm, ISO 400, f/2.8, LIVECOMP – 1½ h (270 x 20 s exposures) 32
 plane
Star Trails

© Michael K. Miller, 2016

Very slightly out of focus can also bring out the colours of star trails
Olympus OMD-M-E1, 12-50 mm @19 x2 mm, ISO 1000, f/4, LIVECOMP – 1 h (120 x 30 s exposures) 33
 Images of Stars, the Milky Way, etc.

© Michael K. Miller, 2014

The Milky Way - Kalahari Desert, Botswana, D800, 26mm, f/3.2, ISO 3200, 30 s 34
 Meteorites and Satellites
Upcoming showers
October 7, 2016
Draconids
October 20-21, 2016
Orionids
November 4-5, 2016
South Taurids
November 11-12, 2016
North Taurids
November 16-17, 2016
Leonids
December 13-14, 2016
Geminids

© Michael K. Miller, 2014

Meteors are pieces of comet debris that heat up as they enter the atmosphere
and burn up in a bright burst of light, streaking a vivid path across the sky as they
travel at 37 miles (59 km) per second. Blink and you will miss a single meteor, so
take many consecutive exposures with an intervalometer to catch them. 35
 Clear Aperture and Light Gathering
The clear aperture (CA) refers to the full diameter of the lens and is
a measure of the light gathering ability of the lens.
clear aperture = focal length of lens / the f-number
where the f-number = the focal length / the diameter of the entrance pupil.

f/2.8 lens Clear aperture, Light gathering

(actually 2.828) millimeters ability compared to
a 50 mm lens
18 mm 6.4 0.36 times
24 mm 8.5 0.48 times
50 mm 17.7 1 (reference value)
200 mm 70.7 4.0 times
Therefore, longer focal lenses of the same aperture, should be able to detect more
stars at the expense of field-of-view, assuming that the atmosphere and other
sources of noise are not limiting factors.
This is why astronomers would like larger diameter telescopes, as they have better
light gathering abilities, and can therefore see more stars, etc.
36
 Untracked* Aperture Rating of Lenses
One measure of the suitability of a lens for astrophotography is the untracked*
aperture rating (higher numbers are better)
Untracked aperture rating = aperture area * angular area of lens* exposure time
focal Horizontal Aperture, 500 rule Clear Aperture Angular Untracked
length of Angle of f-number shutter aperture, area, Area, aperture rating
2 2
lens, mm view, degrees speed, s mm mm radians (higher better)
14 81.2 f/2.8 35.7 5.0 19 2.5 1773
18 67.4 f/2.8 27.8 6.4 32 1.8 1633
20 61.9 f/1.8 25.0 11.1 97 1.6 3840
20 61.9 f/2.8 25.0 7.1 39 1.6 1556
24 53.1 f/1.4 20.8 17.0 226 1.6 5626
24 53.1 f/1.8 20.8 13.3 140 1.6 3472
24 53.1 f/2.8 20.8 8.5 57 1.2 1406
50 27.0 f/1.8 10.0 27.8 606 0.3 1973
50 27.0 f/2.8 10.0 17.7 246 0.3 799
Untracked aperture rating
– Increases with larger apertures, but the cost of lens and/or imperfections increases
– Increases with shorter focal lengths (i.e., wider angle lenses )
However, chromatic aberration (or coma) from imperfections in the lens at the widest
apertures can produce distortions or tails in off-axis point sources, such as stars.
*Untracked means that the stars are not synchronously tracked with a motorised equatorial mount. 37
 “500 (or 600 rule)” for shutter speed
Due to the rotation of the earth
with respect to the universe, the
longest shutter speed to retain
stars as circular dots of light
rather than streaks can be
empirically expressed as
maximum shutter speed =
500/focal length of lens.
For example, for a 24 mm lens Slight elongation to stars = too long
for wide-field astro-
photography, the maximum
exposure time would be 21 s.

This empirical formula was

developed for film cameras,
whereas modern DSLR cameras
have finer (pixel) resolution and
so the 500 value has to be
reduced, as this 20 s exposure
shows streaks.
The length of star trails
3:1 mag
increases with distance away
from the Poles. Therefore,
check the entire image and
circular streaks reduce exposure time if
Each sensor pixel is magnified to necessary.
3 pixels (3:1 magnifiction) 38
 Plate scale - Megapixels
A better approach to determining the maximum exposure time to have circular
stars is the plate scale method together with the observation that stars on the
celestial equator move 15 arc-seconds per (time) second
Plate scale = the number of arc seconds in a radian (206265) * pixel size of camera’s
sensor in mm / focal length of lens (small angle approximation)
A star will cross a single pixel in the plate scale/15 (with both measured in arc-seconds)
and the maximum shutter speed in seconds is this value times the number of
pixels for acceptable sharpness of the star.
A perfectly-focused modern DSLR is able to resolve 2 pixels
Megapixels Sensor Max shutter “500” rule
pitch speed, s equivalent
20 mm lens microns Across 2 pixels Pixels x00
crossed

24.3 5.98 8.2 6.1 164

36.3 4.88 6.7 7.5 134
50.6 4.13 5.7 8.8 114
For modern high pixel count DSLR cameras, the “500” rule should be replaced by
“100-150” to get approximately the same 2 pixel crossing. 39
 Plate scale – Focal length of lens
The light gathering ability and shutter speed are also determined by the focal
length of the lens. For different focal length lens with a constant aperture of f/2.8
focal 500 rule D800 4.88 mm time for Clear Light gathering Horizontal
length of shutter pixel crossing acceptable aperture, ability compared AOV,
lens, mm speed, s time, s sharpness, s mm to a 50 mm lens degrees
14 35.7 4.8 9.6 5.0 0.28 104.3
16 31.3 4.3 8.4 5.7 0.32 96.7
17 29.4 3.9 7.9 6.1 0.34 93.3
18 27.8 3.7 7.5 6.4 0.36 90.0
20 25.0 3.4 6.7 7.1 0.40 84.0
24 20.8 2.8 5.6 8.6 0.48 73.7
30 16.7 2.2 4.5 10.7 0.60 61.9
35 14.3 1.9 3.8 12.5 0.70 54.4
50 10.0 1.3 2.7 17.9 1.00 39.6

For longer focal length lenses

– The shutter speed to prevent star trails is shorter
– The clear aperture and light gathering ability is higher for the same aperture
– The field-of-view is smaller
40
Advanced
SkyTracker – motorized equatorial mount
Longer exposures of stars require a motorized equatorial mount, such as the
iOptron SkyTracker, Vixen Polarie Star Tracker Mount, etc. to synchronize the
movement of the earth/camera to that of the stars and prevent star trails.
1. Level tripod then mount Skytracker on tripod’s 3/8 in thread
2. Set latitude to 0 then rotate the azimuthal base on Skytracker until
the front face is perpendicular to N on compass, then lock Azimuth
screw. Keep camera away or it may interfere with compass.
3. Mount the camera mounting block to a ball head then attach to
Skytracker
4. Mount the camera/lens on the ball head.
5. Focus lens at infinity. Set ISO and f-number. Set and attach
intervalometer.
6. Insert the Polar Scope and lock in place.
7. Tilt Skytracker till it reads your Latitude (Oak Ridge is 36 N).
You should be able to see Polaris through the Polar sight hole.
8. Fine tune the position with tilt and azimuth controls until Polaris is in
the correct position on the Polar scope for the current time (see later) .
9. Lock tilt and azimuth controls.
10. Using ONLY the movements on the ball head, point camera at desired
location in the sky.
11. Turn on Skytracker and activate intervalometer on camera.
41
 The night sky

Polaris can be difficult to find – first use compass to find North 42

 The night sky

Adding the imaginary constellation lines help find Polaris in Ursa Minor 43
 Polaris α Ursae Minoris
Hubble Polaris α Ursae Minoris (α UMi),
“of/near the (north) pole” is also
known as the “Pole Star” or the
“North Star”.
Polaris can be located by drawing
a line from Merak through
Perkab Dubhe in Ursa Major (Big Dipper,
Kochab
Plough), and go ~5 times the
Merak/Dubhe distance to Polaris.
It also is the final star in the
handle of Ursa Minor (Little
Dipper).
Polaris climbs higher as you
travel North, is directly overhead
Dubhe at the North Pole, and on the
horizon at the equator.
Stars rotate anti-clockwise in the
Merak Northern hemisphere will have
Polaris near their center of
Polaris is only visible in the Northern hemisphere
rotation.
44
 Polaris - close to the north celestial pole
When aligning cameras (or telescopes)
for long time exposures, it is important
to point to the Celestial North Pole
rather than Polaris.
The position of Polaris in the sky is
slowly moving towards the Celestial
North Pole.
At noon on Jan 1st 2000 (J2000.0) Polaris
was located at 89° 15 50.8.
According to Stellarium, it is now
located at 89° 19 23.
Today, it rotates each day around the
Celestial Pole at a radius of
approximately 40 (arc minutes).

Note the spotting scope inverts the image which is corrected for in the iOptron app. 45
 South Celestial Pole
The location of the South
Celestial Pole can be found
1. from the pointers stars in
the Southern Cross and
the Southern Pointers
near Sigma Octantis.
2. The third corner of the
equilateral triangle
formed by Canopus (the
second brightest star in
the sky) and Achernar.
3. Two faint ‘Magellanic
clouds” or gallaxies in the
southern sky.
4. From the line where
Canopus is halfway
between Sirius and the
Star trails in the Southern hemisphere will have the pole.
South Celestial Pole at their center of rotation.

46
Solar System

NASA 47
 Moon rise and set times aa.usno.navy.mil/data/docs/RS_OneYear.php
As the moon is illuminated by relatively low intensity, reflected
light from the sun, no special viewing precautions are required.
Full Moon What is the best time in its cycle to
29.5 day cycle photograph the moon?
Synodic month  New Moon is essentially invisible.
Waxing Gibbous Waning Gibbous  Full Moon gives largest image but the
light is head-on to the surface, so
29.5 day cycle there are no shadows and little
First Quarter with respect to Sun Last Quarter detail. Moon rises at sunset and
Synodic month sweeps through the night sky all
night long till sunrise.
New Crescent Old Crescent  Between the quarters and the
Gibbous moons gives better
shadows to see the craters.
moonconnection.com/moon_phases_calendar.phtml
New Moon
Typical parameters for a clear, cloudless night Shutter speed = N * N/ (ISO * 2Q),
M (or A) mode– auto (or manual) focus on moon where N is the f-number
Base ISO: 100 - 200 depending on camera Q is the brightness exponent
Aperture: f/8 for maximum resolution or f/11 ISO is ISO
Shutter speed: ~1/400 to 1/200 s or use spot meter Q = 8 for a full moon – no eclipse
Bracket exposures. Use a tripod 48
 Size and Orbit of Moon
The orbit of the moon makes around the Earth is slightly elliptical.

Mean radius 1737.1 km

Equatorial radius 1738.1 km
Semi-major axis 384748 km Polar radius 1736.0 km
Mean distance 385000 km
Inverse sine parallax 384400 km Therefore, the angle-of-view varies
by 12-14° between the perigee and
Perigee (supermoon) 362600 km (avg.)
apogee
(i.e., min. distance from Earth) (356400–370400 km)
 between 0.49° and 0.56°
Apogee 405400 km (avg.)  Average: 0.518°
(i.e., max. distance from Earth) (404000–406700 km)
49
 Moon – size of image
Day 7 of 100% crop Day 8 of 100% crop
Lunar Cycle Lunar Cycle
Olympus OMD-E- Nikon D500 with
M1 with 300 mm 500 mm
and 1.4x TC, and 1.4x TC,
effective 840 mm effective 1050 mm
ISO 200, f/5.6, ISO 400, f/5.6,
1/320s, 1/1000s,
Aperture mode Aperture mode
Spot meter and Spot meter and
Spot autofocus Spot autofocus
near the terminus near the terminus

© Michael K. Miller, 2016

200 mm ~8% of FF camera frame

300 mm ~11% of FF camera frame
400 mm ~15% of FF camera frame
500 mm ~19% of FF camera frame
600 mm ~23% of FF camera frame
1000 mm ~38% of FFcamera frame © Michael K. Miller, 2016

Teleconverters and crop sensor cameras extend focal length of lens

The moon moves relatively quickly through frame at long focal lengths lenses, so realign
after each exposure, and use short exposure times (1/500 – 1/2000s) to prevent blurring.
Shorter focal length lenses with a moon as part of the screen or for recording multi-
exposures of an eclipse from start to end (up to almost 2h) are also good approaches.
50
 Brightness of total lunar eclipses
French astronomer André-Louis Danjon proposed a five point scale for
evaluating the visual appearance and brightness of the Moon during
total lunar eclipses. However, the scale is more useful for evaluating the
transparency of Earth's atmosphere.
Lunar eclipses vary greatly in their brightness from
L = 0, almost invisible at totality (~330 s exposure at f/8, 400 ISO)
L = 1, dark gray or brown (~80 s exposure)
L = 2, deep red or rust coloured with a dark central shadow and
bright umbral edge (~20 s exposure)
L = 3, brick red with a bright or yellow rim to the umbral shadow
(~5 s exposure)
L = 4, very bright copper-red or orange with a very bright blueish rim
to the umbral shadow (~1.5 s exposure)
Best done by the naked eye just after the beginning and before the end of
totality when the moon is near the edge of the shadow to provide an
opportunity to assign an 'L' value to the outer umbra
These long exposures require a tracking mount to accommodate the rotation of
the moon about the earth.
see timeanddate.com/eclipse/list.html for list of eclipses for next 10 years 51
 Photographing the Sun
WARNING – Viewing or photographing the sun can be
extremely dangerous to your health (and your camera)
and many people have lost their sight doing so!
Do NOT look directly at the sun! What to photograph
Do NOT look through the viewfinder at the sun! Sunset and sunrises
Do NOT use smoked glass! Leave to the professionals
Do NOT use sunglasses! Sun spots and coronal ejections
Do NOT use standard Neutral Density filters! Solar eclipses (rare)
Do NOT use exposed film of any type! Mercury traverses of sun (rare)
For direct viewing ONLY, use special SOLAR GLASSES available at Amazon, etc.
or Black Polymer solar viewing film and cards from Thousand Oaks Optical
Make sure there are no pinholes by looking through the filter at a lightbulb
For cameras ONLY, use special SOLAR FILTERS - a strong 0.002" thick polymer that is a
MINIMUM of ND 5 (ND100000) filter which blocks 99.999% of the suns rays.
thousandoaksoptical.com or seymoursolar.com(~$52 for a 52 mm, ~$70 for a 77 mm)
Use special SOLAR TELESCOPES
Use a pin-hole camera (i.e., a black card with a small 0.25 mm (0.01 in) hole) and look or
photography the projected image on white paper - mrpinhole.com/calcpinh.php 52
Things to leave to the Solar Dynamics Observatory/NASA JPL
Corona Loops

2012 Mercury transit Sun spots

This meteorological phenomenon is caused by the
reflection, refraction and dispersion of light in water
droplets resulting in an arc of the colours of the
spectrum. © Michael K. Miller, 2008
Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the
region of sky directly opposite the sun.

53
Solar Eclipse – Aug. 21, 2017 & Apr. 8, 2024
Total solar eclipse passes directly over Nashville

Lasts for 2 min 40.2 s

visitmusiccity.com/visitors/eclipse

Solar glasses are mandatory – do not look directly at sun

see timeanddate.com/eclipse/list.html for list of eclipses for next 10 years 54

 Photographing Solar Eclipses

During totality, the

Earth obscures the sun
so that the corona can
be observed.
This increases the size
of the coronal image to
be recorded by a large
factor – 2 to 5 times.

Focal Lengths in BLUE are for 1.5 Crop frame DSLRs

Due to the corona, the focal length of the lens required for photographing the sun is
shorter than that for the moon even though they have almost the same angle-of-views.
An effective focal length of more than 500 mm on a high megapixel camera (i.e., 300 mm
on a cropped sensor camera) on a sturdy tripod
55
 Solar eclipse – exposure times
Corona An aura of plasma that surrounds the sun and other stars.
The corona is approximately one solar radius around the sun's disk
Chromosphere A reddish gaseous layer immediately above the photosphere
Baily's beads The row of brilliant points of sunlight shining through valleys on the
edge of the moon that are seen for a few seconds just before and after
the central phase in an eclipse of the sun
Prominences A tongue-like cloud of luminous gas rising from the sun's surface
Eclipse feature Brightness Shutter speed, s For 100 ISO and f/8
exponent, (best to bracket exposures) Shutter speed = N * N/ (ISO * 2Q), where N is
the f-number and Q the brightness exponent
Q
Partial with 4 ND 11 0.000313 s or 1/ 3200 ND4 ND10000 neutral density filter
Partial with 5 ND 8 0.002500 s or 1/ 400 ND5 (ND100000) MINIMUM
Baily's beads 11 0.000313 s or 1/ 3200 Baily's beads change rapidly
Chromosphere 10 0.000625 s or 1/ 1600
Prominences 9 0.00125 s or 1/ 800
Corona - 0.1 Rs 7 0.005 s or 1/ 200 Rs is the Solar Radius
Corona - 0.2 Rs 5 0.02 s or 1/ 50
Corona - 0.5 Rs 3 0.08 s or 1/ 12.5
Corona - 1.0 Rs 1 0.32 s or 1/ 3.1 Diamond Ring effect
Corona - 2.0 Rs 0 0.64 s or 1/ 1.6
Corona - 4.0 Rs -1 1.28 s
Corona - 8.0 Rs -3 5.12 s
Use bracketed exposures due to the large variation in brightness of different features 56
 Other
Meteorological
Phenomena

57
 Photographing Sunsets and Sunrises
Sunsets and sunrises can be taken with any focal length lens.
The best times are often during the magic hours before and after the actual rising and
setting of the sun to catch the colours of the reflected light off the bottom of the clouds.

All © Michael K. Miller

Do NOT look directly or through the viewfinder at the sun. 58
Aurora Borealis and Australis or Polar Lights

© Michael K. Miller, 2008

Auroras are produced in both polar regions when charged electrons and protons from
both the solar wind and magnetospheric plasma are ionized in the Earth’s upper
atmosphere producing waves of light of varying colours and complexity.
18-24 mm lens, ISO 400-800, f/2.8, 4 to 25 secs depending on speed of aurora, tripod, no filters 59
 Rainbows

© Michael K. Miller, 2008

This meteorological phenomenon is caused by the reflection, refraction and dispersion of

light in water droplets resulting in an arc of the colours of the spectrum.
Rainbows caused by sunlight always appear in the region of sky directly opposite the sun.
70 mm focal length, ISO 200, 1/750 s at f/6.7 - matrix metering 60
 Halo, nimbus, icebow, or gloriole

© Michael K. Miller, 2006

This rare optical phenomenon is produced by ice crystals in the cirrostratus

clouds in the upper atmosphere creating coloured or white arcs and spots in
the sky near the sun or moon.
Do not look at the sun directly or through the viewfinder, use live view
24 mm focal length, ISO 100, 1/250 s at f/8 - matrix metering off sky 61
 Summary of Other Tips
Wide-field astrophotography
• Make sure you are totally familiar with the controls and functions of your
camera
• Check sensor for spots – professionally clean if necessary.
• Make sure to set the camera settings as much as possible before going dark
• Use fresh batteries and memory cards, as you don’t want to changes these in
the dark.
• Use a study tripod for the long exposures.
• Always use a dim red flashlight or red headlight when outside to prevent
losing your night vision
• Have a compass or smartphone to find the Celestial North Pole (at the end of
the handle of Ursa Minor – Little Dipper)
• The Magnetic North pole is currently at 86.4° N 166.3° W
• Polaris is currently located at 89° 19 23 N
• Dress appropriately, as it can get very cold at night
• Bring bug spray to repel insects, but KEEP it well away from cameras and
lenses as it is nearly impossible to remove

62
 Appendix: Types of telescopes
1. Refracting telescope which uses lenses (dioptrics) to form an
image.
2. Reflecting telescope which uses an arrangement of mirrors
(catoptrics) to form an image.
3. Catadioptric telescope which uses mirrors and lenses to form
an image.

A telescope's light gathering power and ability to resolve small

detail is directly related to the diameter (or aperture) of its
objective (the primary lens or mirror that collects and focuses the
light). The larger the objective, the more light the telescope collects
and the finer detail it resolves.

63
 Appendix: Telescope mounts
Telescope mounts have 2 functions
1. Provide a rigid support for the weight of the instrument
2. Control the movement to point and guide the instrument to the object
Altazimuth Mount - The simplest mount with two motions, altitude (up and
down/vertical) and azimuth (side to side/horizontal).
Dobsonian Mount - A newer, modified version of the Altazimuth mount invented
in the 1970's by John Dobson for larger and heavier Newtonian Reflectors.
Equatorial Mounts
• German Equatorial Mount - Both Newtonian Reflectors and Refractor
telescopes normally use this type mount. A large counterweight (to balance
the weight of the optical tube) extends on the opposite side of the optical
tube.
• Fork Mount - Most Catadioptric telescopes and other shorter optical tubes use
this style mount, which is generally more convenient to use than the German
mount, especially for astrophotography.
State-of-the-art computer-controlled telescope allows fully automatic operation
making it extremely easy and quick for the observer to locate objects.
64