PHARMACOGNOSY LEC

RESINS

Resins – amorphous products, complex, (mixtures of resin acids, resin alcohols, resinotannols, esters and resenes) hard, transparent or translucent, soften and
melt when heated
- insoluble in water, believed to be oxidation products of terpenes
- usually brittle, amorphous solids, fuse readily when heated, insoluble in water but dissolve in alcohol or other organic solvents
- varnish-like film on evaporation, burn with smoky flame:

1. Resin acids – oxyacids, free state or esters, soluble in aqueous solutions of alkalies
- metallic salts– abietic acid, copaivic acid, commiphoric acid

2. Resin alcohols – complex alcohols of high molecular weight

a) resinotannols
b) resinols (no reaction); free state or esters with aromatic acids – aloeresinotannol, peruresinotannol, siaresinotannol; benzoresinol, storesinol

3. Resenes – complex neutral substances devoid of characteristic chemical properties

- do not form salts or esters, insoluble in alkalies, not hydrolyzed by alkalies

4. Glycoresins – complex mixtures yielding sugars and complex resin acids on hydrolysis

Pharmaceutic resins obtained by:

1. extraction with alcohol and precipitation with water

2. separation of oil from oleoresin by distillation
3. collection of natural product that has exuded as oleoresin from plant by natural or artificial punctures and has partially evaporated into the atmosphere

Glucoresins / Glycoresins – resins in glycosidal combinations

Oleoresins – homogeneous mixtures of resins and volatile oils (natural and pharmaceutic)

Oleo-gum-resins – mixtures of oleoresins and gums

Balsams – resinous mixtures that contain cinnamic acid, benzoic acid or both or esters of these acids

I. RESINS
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Rosin Colophony Pinus palustris Solid Resin Stiffening agent
Pinaceae light amber (finest/water-white grade Diuretic in veterinary medicine
– medicinal use) Manufacture of varnishes, varnish and
almost black (dirty for destructive paint dryers, printing inks, soaps, sealing
distillation and production of rosin wax
oils)
Anhydrides of abietic acid, sylvic
acid, sapinic acid, pimaric acid
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
2. Podophyllum Mayapple Podophyllum peltatum Rhizome and Roots Drastic purgative
Mandrake Berberidaceae Podophyllotoxin Antimitotic
α,β-peltatins Caustic

Podophyllum Resin Podophyllin Powdered mixtures of resins Caustic

highly irritating to the eyes and Drastic purgative
mucous membrane Hydragogue cathartic

3. Colocynth Bitter Apple Citrullus colocynthis Fruit Cathartic

Bitter Gourd Cucurbitaceae Citrullol Drastic purgative
Colocynthin Hydragogue
Elaterins

4. Eriodictyon Yerba Santa Eriodictyon californicum Leaf Flavor to disguise bitter preparations
Hydrophyllaceae Eridictyol Stimulating expectorant
Xanthoeriodictyol, Chrysoeriodictyol
Homoeriodictyol, Eriodictyonic acid

5. Jalap Convolvolina Exogonium (Ipomoea) Tuberous root Cathartic

purga Convolvulaceae Convolvulin Hydragogue
Ipurganol, Jalapin Drastic purgative

6. Ipomoea Orizaba Jalap Ipomoea orizabensis Root Cathartic

Mexican scammony Convolvulaceae Orizabins, Jalapin Hydragogue
Scammonins
Ipurganol, Ipuranol

7. Mastic Resina Almaciga Pistacia lentiscus Exudate Pharmaceutic aid

Anacardiaceae α-resin Dental varnish to seal cavities
β-resin
(+)-pinene D
RESINS

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
8. Sahing Elemi Canarium commune Oleoresin Irritant
Belis Canarium luzonicum Amyrin Counterirritant
Burseraceae Pili - seed kernel –laxative / Antiseptic
food(roasted) Arthritis and rheumatism
Volatile oil - phellandrene, dipentene Boils
Abscesses
Furuncles

9. Kava Kava-kava Piper methysticum Rhizome and Roots Skeletal muscle relaxant
Piperaceae Yangonin Antipyretic, local anesthetic
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Kawain Preparation of intoxicating beverages
Methysticin

10. Cannabis Indian Hemp Cannabis sativa Flowering tops of the pistillate Sedative
Marihuana Moraceae plants Cultivated for bast fibers (hemp) and
Pot 1) drug type – ↑ THC fruits (hempseed- fixed oil)
Hashish – resin 2) hemp type - ↓ active principle, bast
Grass fibers for rope manufacture
Damo Reefers – cigarette form ∆9, ∆8 THC
Mary Jane – euphoric activity, cannabinol-
weakly active, cannabichromene and
cannabidiolic acid

11. Euphorbia Gatas-gatas Euphorbia pilulifera Leaves Asthma (cigarette or burn)

Golandrina Euphorbia hirta Acrid resin Local hemostatic
Botobotonis Euphorbiaceae

12. Guaiac Guaiacum officinale Heartwood Stimulant

Guaiacum sanctum α, β-guaiaconic acids Diaphoretic
Zygophyllaceae Diagnostic aid
Treatment of chronic rheumatic
conditions

13. Kamala Banato Mallotus philippinensis Leaves and seed Antifungal

Rottlera Euphorbiaceae Rottlerin Anthelmintic
Darangdang Mallotoxin Purgative
Kamalin

II. OLEORESINS – homogenous mixtures of resins and volatile oils

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Turpentine Gum Thus Pinus palustris Concrete oleoresin Counterirritant
Gum Turpentine Pinaceae Volatile oil and resin

2. Capsicum Cayenne Pepper Fruit Irritant

Capsaicin Carminative
African Chillies Capsicum frutescens Solanine (alkaloid), Vit. A & B, Stimulant
Tabasco Pepper Capsicum annuum var. oleoresin, volatile oil, fixed oil, Condiment
conoides ascorbic acid Rubefacient (depends on the pungency)
Arthritis and rheumatism
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Louisiana Long Capsicum annuum var. Dyspepsia (condiment)
Pepper longum
Solanaceae
3. Aspidium Male Fern Dryopteris filix-mas Rhizome and Roots Anthelmintic
Dryopteris marginalis Aspidinol, Filicic acid, Albaspidine
Polypodiaceae (FIlicin)

4. Ginger Zingiber Zingiber officinale Rhizome Flavor & Carminative

Luya Zingiberaceae Volatile oil (aroma – bisabolene, Antiseptic
Jamaica Z zingiberene, zingiberol) Rheumatism
African Z Oleoresin [pungency – gingerol Sore throat and pharyngitis
Cochin Z (zingerone and shogaol)]; Condiment, aromatic stimulant
Ginger ale manufacture

5. Curcuma Turmeric Curcuma longa Rhizome Flavor

Luyang Dilaw Zingiberaceae Curcumin Carminative
Turmerol, Phellandrene Antiseptic
Condiment
Preparation of curry powder (coloring
agent)

6. White pine Pinus strobus Inner bark Expectorant

Pinaceae Oleoresin
Tannic acid, Mucilage
Coniferin

7. Copaiba Balsam Copaiba Copaifera Oleoresin Genitourinary disinfectant

Fabaceae Volatile oil Diuretic
Resin acids Stimulant
Bitter principle Expectorant
Laxative

III. GUMRESINS
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Gamboge Garcinia hanburyi Yellow emulsion with water Purgative
Guttiferae α, β, γ, δ- garcinolic acids (gambogic Pigment
acids)
Water-soluble gum

IV. OLEO GUM RESINS - resins mixtures of resin, gum, volatile oil, small quantities of other substances
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Myrrh Gum Myrrh Commiphora molmol Africa or Somali (better) Protective
Arabian or Yemen Myrrh Stimulant

Cammiphora abbysinica
Burseraceae
PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Embalming material of Egyptians, Stomachic
incense and perfume in religious Antiseptic
ceremonies Astringent (mouthwashes)
Resin acids (α, β, γ-commiphoric
acids)
Resenes
Phenolic compounds

2. Asafoetida Devil’s Dung Ferula foetida Living Rhizome and Roots Carminative
Ferula assafoetida Isobutylpropanyl disulfide, Expectorant
Apiaceae asaresinol ferulate, ferulic acid, Antispasmodic
Umbelliferone Laxative
Worcestershire Sauce

V. BALSAMS – contain large proportions of benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, or both, or esters of these acids.
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Storax Liquid Storax Liquidambar orientalis Trunk Pharmaceutic aid for compound
Liquid Styrax . Pathological product benzoin tincture
Levant storax – Stimulant
Resin alcohols Expectorant
1) α-storesin (amorphous and forms Antiseptic
crystalline compound with potassium)
2) β-storesin (white flakes and do
not form a crystalline compound with
potassium), storesin cinnamate,
cinnamyl cinnamate (styracin),
phenylpropyl cinnamate, volatile oil,
vanillin, cinnamic acid
Liquidambar styraciflua
American storax – storesins and
other principles of Levant storax,
volatile oil, cinnamic acid, cinnamein,
resin esters and acids
BALSAMS
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
2. Peruvian Balsam Peru Balsam Myroxylon pereirae Pathological product Local protectant
Fabaceae Cinnamein (benzyl cinnamate and Rubefacient
benzyl benzoate) Parasiticide
Resin esters (peruresinotannol Antiseptic
cinnamate and benzoate) Vulnerary
Vanillin, cinnamic acid, peruviol

3. Tolu Balsam Myroxylon balsamum Pathological product Pharmaceutic aid in compound benzoin
Fabaceae tincture
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Resin esters (toluresinotannol Expectorant
cinnamate and benzoate) Flavoring agent (confectionery, syrups,
Volatile oil (benzyl benzoate, chewing gum)
cinnamic acid, benzoic acid, vanillin Perfumery

4. Benzoin Siam benzoin Styrax tonkinensis Pathological product

paralleloneurus Almond Tears
Concavo- convex tears/vanilla-like Perfumery
odor, graded according to size and
color
Coniferyl benzoate, benzoic acid,
siaresinol, vanillin
nlt 90% alcohol-soluble extractive

Sumatra Benzoin Styrax benzoin Blocks or irregular masses composed Pharmaceutic preparations
Styraceae of tears Antiseptic
Cinnamic and benzoic acids and Stimulant
their esters, vanillin, phenylpropyl Expectorant
cinnamate, cinnamyl cinnamate, Diuretic;
phenylethylene
nlt 75% alcohol-soluble extractive

Compound Benzoin Tincture –

topical protectant, expectorant
(benzoin, aloe, storax, tolu balsam)

Benzoic acid – preservatives of food Whitfield’s ointment – athlete’s foot and

and drinks (sodium salt) ringworm

VI. Latex – natural product of variable constitution with a milky consistency occurring in special plant tissues known as laticiferous vessels.

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Gutta-percha Palaqium (gutta) Milky exudates Temporary dental restoration and
Payena Usually preserved under water permanent root canal
Sapotaceae (brittle)
Gutta→ alban + fluavil

2. Chicle Sapodilla Gum Achras zapota Crude chicle Chewing gum

3. Balata Mimusops balata Bubble gum

 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
RESINS
Amorphous products with a complex chemical nature
Usually formed in schizogenous and schizolysigenous ducts or cavities and are end product of metabolism.
Hard, transparent, translucent, and when heated, they finally melt.

Oleoresins – Resins + volatile oils

Oleo-gum-resins – oleo resins + gums
Balsams – resinous mixtures that contain cinnamic acid, benzoic acid or both, or esters of these acids
*Resins are insoluble in water but dissolve in alcohol or organic solvents

PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS OF RESINS

Resin acids – contain large proportion of oxyacids, usually combining the properties of carboxylic acid and phenol
Resin alcohols
Resinotannols – complex alcohol of HMW
Resinols – Do not react with ferric salts
Resenes – Complex neutral substances devoid of characteristic chemical properties
Glycoresins – Complex mixtures yielding sugars and complex resin acids on hydrolysis

PHARMACEUTIC RESINS
Obtained by:
Extracting the drug with alcohol and precipitating the resin in water(Resin of jalap and podophyllum)
By separating the oil from oleoresin by distillation( rosin from turpentine and copaivic resin from copaiba)
By collecting the natural product that has exuded as oleoresin from plant through artificial and natural punctures

ROSIN
Colophony
Solid resin obtained from Pinus palustris
Only the light colored transparent rosins are used medicinally
Constituents: Abietic acid, sapinic acid, pimaric acid
USES:
Stiffening agent in cerates, plasters, and ointments
Diuretic in veterinary medicine
Use in manufacture of varnish and paints
Longleaf pine

Podophyllum
Mayapple or mandrake
Consist of dried rhizome and roots of Podophyllum peltatum
Constituents: podophyllotoxin, a-peltatin and B-peltatin
USES:
Drastic purgative
Antimitotic and caustic
Mayapple
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Podophyllum resin
Podophyllin
Powdered mixture of resins removed from podophyllum by percolation with alcohol and by subsequent precipitation from the concentrated percolate when
added to acidified water.
USES:
Caustic for certain papillomas
Drastic purgative
Hydragogue cathartic

Eriodictyon

Yerba santa
Dried leaf of Eriodictyon californicum
Constituents:
Eriodictyol
Xanthoeriodictyol
Chrysoeriodictyol
Homoeriodictyol
Eriodictyonic acid
USES:
Disguise the bitterness of certain preparation such as those containing quinine
Stimulating expectorant

Jalap
Jalap root
Dried tuberous root of Exogonium purga
Constituents: Jalapin (mixture of acidic glycosides)
USES:
Hydragogue and drastic purgative
Jalap resin – prepared by extracting powdered jalap with alcohol-water mixture
Exogonium purge

Mastic
Mastiche or mastich
Concrete resinous exudate from Pistacia lentiscus
Constituents:
a-resin – mastichic acid
B-resin - masticin
USES:
Use in the form of dental varnish to seal cavities.
Pistacia lentiscus

Kava
Kava-kava
Dried rhizome and roots of Piper methysticum
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Constituents: yangonin, desmethoxyyangonin, kawain, dihydrokawain, methysticin, dihydromethysticin
USES:
Skeletel muscle relaxants
Antipyretic
Local anaesthetic
Piper methysticum

Cannabis
Indian hemp, marihuana, pot, reefers
Dried flowering tops of the pistillate plants of Cannabis sativa
Indian Cannabis – 15-20% resin that contains the active principle Other constituents include cannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabidiolic acid etc.
Cannabis sativa

USES:
Δ9-THC possess euphoric activity
Δ9-THC – available under the name of dronabinol (Marinol) for the control of nausea and vomiting

OLEORESINS
Homogenous mixture of resins and volatile oils

Turpentine
Gum turpentine/Gum thus
Concrete oleoresin obtained from Pinus palustris
USE:
Counterirritant

Capsium
Cayenne pepper
Dried, ripe fruit of Capsicum frutescens (African chillies) or C. anuum (Tabasco pepper)
Contains 0.02 % capsaicin
USES:
Irritant and carminative
Rubefacient
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Stimulant
Condiment
Capsicum frutescens
Paprika, Hungarian paprika, turkish paprika - Large fruit pepper obtained from varieties of C. annuum
Spanish paprika or pimiento – paprika grown in spain

Ginger
Zingiber
Dried rhizome of Zingiber officinale
Contains 1-3 % volatile oil, the principal constituents of which are 3 sesquiterpenes (bisabolene, zingiberene and zingiberole)
USES:
Flavor
Condiment
Aromatic stimulant
Manufacture of ginger Ale
Zingiber officinale
Curcuma longa

White pine
White pine bark
Dried inner back of Pinus strobus
Contains tannic acid and oleoresin
USE:
Expectorant (2g)
Pinus strobus

Copaiba
Balsam of Copaiba
Oleoresin derived from South American species of Copaifera (Copaiba)
Contains volatile oils, resin acids, and a mall quantity of bitter principle
USES:
Genitourinary disinfectant
Diuretic
Stimulant
Expectorant
laxative

OLEO-GUM-RESINS
Mixtures of resin, gum, volatile oil and other substances
Examples are Myrrh and Asafetida

Myrrh
Gum myrrh
Oleo-gum-resin obtained from Commiphora molmol/ C. absysinica
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
2 varieties: Africa or Somali and Arabian
Protocatechuic acid and pyrocatechin
USES:
Protective and stimulant
Used in mouthwash as astringents
Ingredient of embalming materials of egyptian

BALSAMS
Resinous mixtures that contain large proportions of benzoic acid, cinnamic acid or both, or esters of these acids

Storax
Liquid storax/Styrax
Balsam obtained from the trunk of Liquidambar orientalis
Levant storax/ American storax
a-storesin and B-storesin
USES:
Pharmaceutic aid for compund benzoin tincture
Stimulant/expectorant/antiseptic
Liquidambar orientalis

Peruvian Balsam
Peru Balsam/Balsam of Peru
Obtained fro Myroxylon pereirae
60% cinnamein – vol oil consisting chiefly of benzyl cinnamate and lesser amount of benzyl benzoate
USES:
Local protectant and rubefacient
Parasiticide in certain skin diseases
Antiseptic
Myroxylon perirae

Tolu Balsam
Balsam of Tolu
Balsam obtained from Myroxylon balsamum
80% toluresinotannol cinnamate
USES:
Pharmaceutic aid for compund benzoin tincture
Expectorant and flavor

Benzoin
Balsamic resin obtained from Styrax benzoin and S. paralleloneurus (Sumatra benzoin) / S. tonkinensis (Siam benzoin)
USES:
Antiseptic/ Stimulant/ Expectorant/ Diuretic

Benzoic Acid
Synthetic product but was first obtained by sublimation from sumatra benzoin
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
USES:
Preservative for foods, drinks and pharmaceutics preparation
Antifungal
Ingredient in Whitfield’s ointment (Benzoic and Salicylic acid) – for athlete’s foot and ringworm.

ALKALOIDS

Alkaloids – basic nitrogenous compounds of plant origin that are physiologically active, with a limited distribution in nature
- Plants –rich source of alkaloids, some in animals, fungi, bacteria, reproduced in the laboratory by chemical synthesis
- Most possess basic properties due to presence of amino nitrogen (1 to 5 - primary amine/secondary amine/tertiary amine), possess marked physiologic
activity.
- Insoluble or sparingly soluble in water
- Salts formed with acids are freely soluble
- Free alkaloids soluble in ether, chloroform, or relatively non-polar, immiscible solvents, alkaloidal salts are insoluble
- Most are crystalline solids, few are amorphous, liquids
- Common alkaloidal reagents
- Usually bitter taste

Names of alkaloids:

1. generic name
2. specific name
3. common name
4. physiologic activity
5. discoverer
6. prefix/suffix (
7. “ine”

Functions:

1. poisonous agents- \
2. end products of detoxification reactions
3. regulatory growth factors
4. reserve substances

Amino acids most often serve as alkaloidal precursors

1. Pyridine-Piperidine
2. derivatives of piperidine
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
3. derivatives of nicotinic acid
4. derivatives of pyridine and pyrrolidine

I. PYRIDINE - PIPERIDINE
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Areca Betel Nut Seed Anthelmintic (veterinary)
Bunga Aarecoline Vermicide
Arecaidine, Guvacine, Guvacoline Taenifuge

2. Lobelia Indian Tobacco Leaves and Tops Expectorant

Emetic Weed Lobeline Similar to nicotine but with weaker,
Asthma Weed pharmacological effects

3. Pomegranate Granada Root and Stem bark Taenifuge

Cartagenian Apple Pelletierine Vermifuge
Pseudopelletrine Anthelmintic
Soisopelletrine
Methylisopelletierine

4. Conium Poison Hemlock Fruit Antispasmodic

Coniine Sedative
N-methylconiine, γ-coniceine Anodyne - Analgesic
Conhydrine

5. Tobacco Cured and Dried Leaves Insecticide

Nicotine
Nornicotine
Nicotianin / Tobacco camphor
(flavor)

II. TROPANE ALKALOIDS

II.A. Solanaceous alkaloids – (-) hyoscyamine, atropine, (±) hyoscyamine, scopolamine (hyoscine), apoatopine, belladonnine

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Belladonna Deadly Nightshade Leaf and Flowering / Fruiting tops Parasympathetic depressant
Leaf (-) hyoscyamine Spasmolytic agent
Bequtiful Ladt Atropine, Apoatropine, Anticholinergic - mydriasis
Belladonnine
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Scopolamine

2. Hyoscyamus Henbane Leaf, w/ or w/o Stem and Flowering Parasympatholytic

/ Fruiting top Anticholinergic - mydriasis
Hyoscyamine
Scopolamine

3. Stramonium Jimson Weed Leaf and Flowering / Fruiting tops Anticholinergic – mydriasis
Jamestown Weed with Branches Asthma
Hyoscyamine, Scopolamine

4. Talampunay Talumpunay Scopolamine Asthma in cigarette form

Katsubong Hyoscyamine
Atropine
5. Twilight Sleep Morphine & Scopolamine Pre anesthetia during labor

6. Withania Root Sedative

Tropine
Pseudotropine
Hygrine

7. Duboisia Leaves Chief source of atropine

(-) Hyoscyamine, Scopolamine,
Nicotine, Nornicotine

8. Pituri Australian Tobacco Nicotine, Nornicotine

9. Mandragora European Root

mandrake Hyoscyamine, Scopolamine,
Mandragorine

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
10. Coca Coke Leaves CNS stimulant
Rich Man’s Drug Collenchymatous tissues – bitter, Narcotic
Divine Plant of the benumbing taste Local anesthetic (Koller)
Incas
Ipadu
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC

a. derivatives of Ecgonine (cocaine, cinnamylcocaine, α-β- truxilline)

• Cocaine → ecgonine, benzoic acid, methyl alcohol
• Cinnamylcocaine → ecgonine, cinnamic acid, methyl alcohol
• α-β- truxilline → ecgonine, acid, methyl alcohol, α-β- truxillic acids
b. derivatives of Tropine (tropacocaine, valerine),
c. derivatives of Hygrine (hygroline, cuscohygrine)

III. QUINOLINE ALKALOIDS

Tryptophan- precursor of quinine

Shikimic acid → anthanilic acid → tryptophan

↓
chorismic acid → prephenic acid + phenylalanine + tyrosine

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Cinchona Peruvian Bark Stem or Root bark Antimalarial
Countess Bark Quinine (yellow) Effervescent tonic water (quinine)
Jesuit’s Bark Cinchonidine (red) Overdose – temporary loss of hearing,
Quinidine, cinchonine, impaired sight, ringing in the ears
cinchotannic acid;
Fever
Dita Alstonia scholaris Diarrhea
Apocynaceae Boils

2. Cuprea Bark Cardiac arrhythmias

Commercial source of quinidine

IV. ISOQUINOLINE ALKALOIDS

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Ipecac Rio/Brazilian Rhizome and Roots Emetic
Cartagena Emetine Ipecac and Opium – diaphoretic
Nicaragua Cephaeline
Panama Psychotrine (bark)
Rio
Cartagena – 1
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Emetine/methylcephaeline –

Emetine HCl - antiamebic,

expectorant, emetic;
intramuscularly/subcutaneously not
orally (nausea, vomiting)

2. Hydrastis Goldenseal Rhizome and Roots Astringent in inflammation of the

Hydrastine, Berberine, Canadine mucous membrane

3. Sanguinaria Bloodroot Rhizome Expectorant and Emetic

Indians to stain faces
Sanguinarine, Chelerythrine,
Protopine, Allocryptopine

4. Curare South American Bark and Stems Skeletal muscle relaxant, control
Arrow Poison (+)-Tubocurarine convulsions of strychnine poisoning and
tetanus, adjunct to shock therapy,
Tubocurarine Cl standardized by diagnostic aid in myasthenia gravis
“head-drop crossover test”.

5. Opium Poppy Milky exudate from unripe Pharmaceutic necessity for Powdered
Meconium capsules Opium [Dover’s Powder and
Indian Opium Camphorated Opium Tincture]
Morphine (Serturner), Codeine, Analgesic, hypnotic, narcotic, myotic
noscapine (narcotine), Papaverine,
thebaine

Meconic acid (detection of opium)

Common Name Synonym Description Uses

6. Paregoric Antiperistaltic
Combined with other ingredients for
symptomatic treatment of diarrhea

7. Laudanum Opium Tincture Formerly used as antiperistaltic

Deodorized Opium Tincture
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
8. Poppy seed Maw seed No significant quantity of alkaloids Baking (poppy seed rolls)
Fixed oil (poppy seed oil) parenteral
formulations, drying oil, food, salad dressings

9. Morphine Most important Narcotic analgesic, strong hypnotic and

narcotic
Nausea, vomiting, constipation, habit-
formation

10. Codeine Methylmorphine Most widely used Narcotic analgesic, antitussive, sedative
Prepared from morphine by methylation, (cough)
from thebaine by reduction and Less toxic and less danger of habit formation
demethylation than morphine

11. Heroin Diacetylmorphine Acetylation of morphine

More pronounced action than morphine,
medicinal use discontinued

12. Apomorphine HCl Emetic (poisoning, subcutaneous)

13. Papaverine HCl Smooth muscle relaxant

With codeine sulfate – antitussive

14. Hydromorphone HCl Hydromorphinone HCl Less nauseating and constipating effects Powerful narcotic analgesic
Less habit forming than morphine

15. Hydrocodone Bitartrate Dihydrocodeinone bitartrate Antitussive and excellent aid in troublesome
cough

16. Noscapine Narcotine No narcotic properties - Anarcotine Antitussive

17. Opioid Synthetic morphine like compounds with the Possess cough relieving of codeine but not
same narcotic and pain-relieving properties addictive
as morphine but not as habit forming

V. INDOLE ALKALOIDS
Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Rauwolfia Root Hypotensive
Serpentina 1) weakly basic indole alkaloids - Sedative
reserpine, rescinnamine, deserpidine Tranquilizer
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
2) indoline alkaloids of intermediate
basicity – Ajmaline, isoajmaline,
Rauwolfinine (no tranquilizing action)

3) strong anhydronium bases-

Serpentine, serpentinine, alstonine

2. Catharanthus Vinca Whole plant Vincristine – oncolytic activity

Periwinkle Vincristine Vinblastine sulfate – stored in
Tsitsirika Vinblastine refrigerator (ampules) - wide variety of
Atay-bia Vinleurosine neoplasms
Vinrosidine
Vincristine sulfate – stored in
Oncovin – prescription product refrigerator (ampules)

3. Nux Vomica Quaker Buttons Seed Strychnine – CNS stimulant, vermin

Dog Buttons Strychnine killer (cells near center of seed)
Poison Nut Brucine Brucine – alcohol denaturant
(dimethoxystrychnine - outer cells near
epidermis)
4. Ignatia St. Ignatius Bean Source of Strychnine and Brucine

5. Physostigma Calabar Bean Seed

Ordeal Bean Physostigmine (eserine)
Eseramine, Geneserine,
Physovenine

Physostigmine- preserved in tight reversible inhibitor of

light resistant container not cholinesterases, cholinergic, myotic,
exceeding 1g (red tint) glaucoma

Physostigmine salicylate – cholinergic (ophthalmic), antidote

for anticholergic poisonings (injection)

Physostigmine sulfate cholinergic (ophthalmic)

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Ergot Rye Smut Fungus – sclerotium Oxytocic
Spurred Rye Developed on rye plants
Secale Cornutum Ergonovine (water-soluble fraction)
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Ergotamine + Ergotoxine (water
insoluble – peptide alkaloids)
Ergosterol, histamine, tyramine

Ergotoxine - ergocristine,
ergokryptine, ergocornine

SEMI – SYNTHETIC ALKALOIDS – methylergonovine, dihydroergotamine, methylsergide, LSD

1. Ergonovine maleate / Ergometrine maleate / Ergaobasine

2. Methylergonovine maleate
a. Methergrine
3. Ergotamine Tartrate
i. Ergomar, Gynergen
b. With caffeine for migraine headache, cerebral vasoconstrictors
i. Cafergot, Migral, Wigarine

4. Dihydroergotamine mesylate
5. Methylsergide maleate – serotonin antagonist in the prophylaxis of vascular headache
a. Taken with meals

6. Lysergic acid dietylamide (LSD) – semisynthesis – discovered by Hofmann

i. Delysid
b. Most active and most specific psychotomimetic agent – hallucinogen, experimental psychiatry

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description
1. Ololiuqui Seed Ancient Aztec hallucinogenic drug – lysergic acid
amide (ergine)

VI. IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Pilocarpus Jaborandi Leaflets
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Pilocarpine
Isopilocarpine
Pilocarpidine
Pilosine
After 2 years leaves are worthless
Cholinergic (ophthalmic) drugs for
Pilocarpine Nitrate/HCl treatment of glaucoma
Wash hands after application

VII. STEROIDAL ALKALOIDS

- formed from cholesterol or they and cholesterol have the same precursor

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Veratrum Viride American Hellebore Rhizome and Roots Hypotensive
Green Hellebore 1) esters of steroidal bases Cardiac depressant
(alkamines) with organic acids – Sedative
cevadine, germidine, germitrine,
neogermitrine, neoprotoveratrine,
protpveratrine, veratridine

2) glucosides of the alkamines –

pseudojervine and veratrosine

3) alkamines – germine, jervine,

rubijervine and veratramine

2. White Hellebore European Hellebore Rhizome Hypotensive, crude drug not used
Ester alkaloids (protoveratine A and therapeutically
protoveratrine B) Insecticide
Glycoalkaloids
Alkamines

3. Aconite Monkshood Tuberous root Cardiac depressant

Aconitine Anodyne (liniment)
Atisine

VIII. ALKALOIDAL AMINES

- Alkaloids do not contain heterocyclic nitrogen atoms; simple derivatives of phenylethylamine- common amino acids phenylalanine and tyrosine

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
1. Ephedra Ma-huang Entire plant or overground portion Sympathomimetic / adrenergic – effects
Ephedrine similar to epinephrine
Rise in blood pressure, mydriasis

Ephedrine sulfate Combat hypotensive states and allergic

disorders as asthma, treatment of nasal
congestion

Ephedrine HCl Sympathomimetic

2. Colchicum Meadow Saffron Seed and corm Gout suppressant

Colchicine Employed experimentally in treatment
of various neoplastic diseases

3. Khat Abyssinian Tea Leaves CNS stimulant

(-)-cathinone (fresh leaves)
(+)-norpseudoephedrine
(-)-norephedrine (older leaves)

4. Peyote Mescal Buttons Tops Disturbs mental function, causes

hallucinations and euphoria, mydriasis
etc.
Mescaline
Anhalanine, Anhalamine, Anhalidine

IX. PURINE BASES

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
1. Kola Cola Nut Cotyledon CNS stimulant
Bichy Nut CaffeineFheobromine Ingredient in carbonated beverages
fresh nuts – tannin kolacatechin
(dried – kola red)

Common Name Synonym Scientific & Family Name Part Used / Description Uses
2. Coffee Kape Seed Stimulant
Caffeine Diuretic
Trigonelline Dietetic
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Tannin Treatment of CNS depressant
aroma – caffeol (roasting) poisonings
Chlorogenic acid
Cup of brewed coffee contains 100-
150 mg of caffeine
Instant coffee 85-100 mg caffeine
Tea - 60-75
Cocoa - 5-40 mg
12 oz cola drink - 40-60 mg
Maximum daily dose -1.5 g
Decaffeinized coffee – extracting
most of the caffeine yet retaining
pleasant characteristic aroma
(0.08%)

3. Guarana Paste pf crushed seed Stimulant

Caffeine Astringent
Tannin – Catechutannic acid

4. Mate Paraguay Tea Leaves Laxative / purgative

Caffeine, tannin Diaphoretic
Diuretic
Tealike beverages

5. Tea Thea Leaves and leaf buds Stimulant

Tsaa Astringent

6. Theaceae GreenTea Caffeine (theine)

China and Japan Theobromine
Black Tea Theophylline
Sri Lanka and India Adenine, Xanthine, Gallotannic acid

- Caffeine-1,3,7,-trimethylxanthine CNS stimulant

- Theophylline- 1.3-dimethylxanhine Smooth muscle Relaxant for Asthma, Diuretic
- Theobromine- 3,7-dimethylxanthine Diuretic, Smooth muscle Relaxant, Little CNS stimulant action (Cardiac Edema and Angina Pectoris)
- Aminophylline / TheophyllineEethylenediamine Diuretic

ALKAOIDS
Basic nitrogenous compounds of plant origin that are physiologically active
Chemical rules designate that the names of all alkaloids should end in “ine”
Alkaloids are insoluble or sparingly soluble in water, but the salt formed on reaction with acids are usually freely soluble.
Free alkaloids are soluble in ether, chloroform, or other non polar solvents.. Alkaloidal salts are insoluble
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Alkaloids form salts with compounds of mercury, gold, platinum, and other heavy metals.
Common alkaloidal reagents include:
Wagner’s (Iodine in KI)
Mayer’s (Potassium mercuric iodide)
Dragendorff’s (Potassium bismuth iodide)

Function of Alkaloids
Poisonous agents protecting plant from insects and herbivores
End product of detoxification reactions representing a metabolic look-up of compounds harmful to the plant.
Regulatory growth factors
Reserve substances capable of supplying nitrogen or other elements necessary to the plant’s economy.

Biosynthesis of Alkaloids
The amino acids that most often serve as alkaloidal precursors include phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, histidine, anthranilic acid, lysine and ornithine.

Classification of Alkaloids
Base on ring structure or nucleus of the chief alkaloid group in the plant drug.
Pyridine-piperidine
Tropane
Quinoline
Isoquinoline
Indole
Imidazole
Steroid
Alkaloidal amine
Purine

Pyridine-Piperidine alkaloids

Nicotine
Bound to an ion exchange resin in a chewing gum base as a temporary aid to cigarette smoker seeking to give up smoking.

Areca
Areca, Areca nut, Betel nut
Dried ripe seed of Areca catechu
Constituents: Arecoline, arecaidine, guvacine and guvacoline
USES:
Anthelmintic, vermifuge and taenifuge

Lobelia
Indian tobacco
Dried leaves and tops of Lobelia inflata
Constituents: Lobeline
USES:
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Aid in breaking tobacco habit

Tropane Alkaloids

Belladona
Deadly nightshade leaf
Dried leaf and flowering or fruiting tops of tops of Atropa belladona
Contains Atropine, Apoatropine, belladonine and Scopolamine
USES:
Parasympathetic depressant
Spasmolytic agent

Solanaceous Alkaloids
Hyoscyamine
Atropine
Scopolamine (hyoscine)
Apoatropine
Belladonine

Atropine
Alkaloid obtained from Atropa belladona
Anticholinergic

Scopolamine
Hyoscine
Alkaloid abundant in Datura fastuosa and D. metel
Anticholinergic

Hyoscyamus
Henbane
From Hyoscyamus niger
Alkaloids: Hyoscyamine and scopolamine
Parsympatholytic
Egyptian henbane – from Hyoscyamus muticus

Stramomium
Jimson weed, Jamestown weed
From Datura stramomium
Alkaloids: Hyoscyamine and scopolamine
USES:
Anticholinergic
Powdered stramomium - relief of asthma

Cocaine
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Coca or coca leaves
From Erythroxylum coca
Alkaloids: ecgonine (Cocaine), tropine (Tropacocaine, valerine), hygrine( hygroline, cuscohygrine)
Divine plant of the Incas
Local anesthetic
Ingredient in Bromptons’s cocktail – used to control pain in terminal cancer

QUINOLINE ALKALOIDS

Tryptophan – precursor of quinine in cinchona

Cinchona alkaloids ( quinine, qunidine, cinchonine and cinchonidine)

Cinchona
Cinchona bark, peruvian bark
Dried bark of the stem or the root of Cinchona succirubra
USES:
Treatment of malaria fever
Overdose – Cinchonism – Temporary loss of hearing, impaired sight and ringing in the ear

ISOQUINOLINE ALKALOIDS

Ipecac
Dried rhizome and root of Cephaelis ipecacuannha/ Cephaelis muricata
Alkaloids: emetine, cephaeline and psychotrine
USES:
Treatment of drug overdose by inducing emesis
Emetine HCl – antiamebic, antiprotozoan

Hydrastis
Goldenseal
Dried rhizome and roots of Hydrastis canadensis
Alkaloids: Hydrastine, berberine, and canadine
USES:
Hydrastis alkaloids – astringents in the inflammation of mucus membrane

Sanguinaria
Bloodroot
Dried rhizome of Sanguinaria canadensis
Alkaloids: Sanguinarine, chelerythrine, Protopine
USES:
Stimulating expectorant and emetic

Tubocurarine
Curare/ South American Arrow poison
Bark and stems of Strychnos castelnaei
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
USES:
Skeletal muscle relaxant secure muscle relaxation in surgical procedures without deep anesthesia

Opium
Gum opium
From ripe capsules of Papaver somniferum
Alkaloids: Morphine, Codeine, Noscapine, Thebeaine, Narceine, Protopine, Laudanine, Codamine, Cryptopine, Lanthopine, Meconidine
Opium preparation
Paregoric or Camphorated Opium Tincture is - antiperistaltic.
Laudanum, Opium Tincture, or Deodorized Opium Tincture - used similarly to Paregoric.

Morphine
Most important opium alkaloid
USES:
Narcotic analgesic
Hypnotic
Tends to induce nausea, vomiting, constipation, and habit formation

Codeine
Most widely used opium alkaloid
USES:
Narcotic analgesic and antitussive
Less toxic and less danger of habit formation

Diacetylmorphine
Heroin
Formed by the acetylation of morphine
Action is more pronounced than that of morphine
Apomorphine HCl
Formed when morphine is treated with hydrochloric acid in sealed tube
USES:
Emetic and particularly valuable in cases of poisoning because it may be administered intravenously

Hydromorphone HCl
Powerful narcotic analgesic and tends to depress the respiratory mechanism

Noscapine
Narcotine
No narcotic properties and is therefore sometimes called anarcotine
USES:
antitussive

INDOLE ALKALOIDS

Rauwolfia serpentina
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Dried root of Rauvolfia serpentina
Alkaloids: Reserpine, Rescinamine, Deserpidine, Yohimbine, Serpentine
USES:
Exert their hypotensive efefcts by depeletion of norepinephrine through inhibition of catecholamine storage
Alseroxylon fraction – basic powdered alkaloidal extract of rauwolfia serpentine

Alkaloids
Reserpine – antihypertensive and tranquilizer
Rescinamine – Antihypertensive
Deserpidine – Tranquilizer and antihypertensive

Catharantus
Vinca
Dried whole plant of Catharantus roseus
Periwinkle
70 different kind of alkaloids
Vincristine and Vinblastine
The most characteristic effect of these drugs is the arrest of cell division at metaphase

Vinblastine sulfate
Treatment of wide variety of neoplasm
Combination therapy with other antineoplastic agent
Recommended for the treatment of acute leukemia and in combination therapy in Hodgkin’s disease and other tumor

Nux vomica
Dried ripe seed of Strychnos nux-vomica
Alkaloids: Strychnine and Brucine
Central stimulant
Brucine – less toxic than strychnine is an alcohol denaturant

Physostigmine
Calabar bean, Ordeal bean
Dried ripe seed of Physostigma venenosum
Alkaloids: Physostigmine (eserine), Eseramine, Geneserine and Physovenine
Physostigimine – reversible inhibitor of cholinesterase, thus enhances the effect of Acetylcholine (Miosis, Contraction of cilliary muscle, Decrease
intraocular pressure). Used to treat glaucoma
Physostigmine salicylate – Cholinergic (opthalmic)
Physostigmine sulfate in the form of ointment

Ergot
Rye ergot, Secale cornutum
Dried sclerotium of claviceps purpurea
Alkaloids: Ergonovine , Ergotamine , Ergocristine , ergokyrptine and ergoconine
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Ergot Alkaloids
Ergonovine Maleate – Oxytocic and produces much faster stimulation of the uterine muscles than any other ergot alkaloids
Methylergonovine Maleate – Oxytocic, more active and longer acting than ergonovine
Ergotamine tartrate – Specific analgesic in the treatment of migraine
Methysergide maleate – Serotonin antagonist employed in the prophylaxis of vascular headache
Lysergic Acid Diethylamide – Does not occur in nature but prepared by semisynthesis
Discovered by A. Hofmann
Most active and most specific psychotomimetic
Drug related to ergot
Ololiuqui – Ancient Aztec Hallucinogenic drug
From Rivea corymbosa

IMIDAZOLE ALKALOIDS

Pilocarpine
Leaflets of Pilocarpus jaborandi
Pilocarpine HCl – hygroscopic
Pilocarpine nitrate
USES:
Cholinergic used in the treatment of glaucoma

STEROIDAL ALKALOIDS

Veratrum Viride
American or Green Hellebore
From the dried rhizome and roots of Veratrum viride
Alkaloids:
Group 1 – Steroidal bases
Group 2 - Pseudojervine
Group 3 - Alkamines
USES:
Hypotensive, cardiac depressant and sedative

Veratrum album
White hellebore or European Hellebore
Dried rhizome of Veratrum album
Alkaloids: Protoveratrine A and Protoveratrine B
USES:
Hypotensive but the crude drug is not used therapeutically
Both white and green hellebore are also emplyed as insecticide

ALKALOIDAL AMINES
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Ephedra
Ma huang
Entire plant or overground portion of Ephedra sinica
Ephedrine
USES:
Potent sympathomimetic agent that stimulates alpha, beta1, beta 2 adrenergic receptors

Colchicine
Alkaloid obtained from Colchicum autumnale.
USES:
Suppressant for gout

Khat
Abyssinian tea
Fresh dried leaves of Catha edulis
Alkaloid: Cathinone
Leaves are chewed habitually by many people in East Africa and Arabian countries to alleviate the sensations of hunger and fatigue.

Peyote
Mescal buttons
Dried tops of Lophophora williamsii
Alkaloid: Mescaline
-regarded as the first of a series of psychotomimetics
Causes concomitant hallucinations and euphoria

PURINE BASES

Kola
Cola/ kolanuts
Dried cotyledon of cola nitida
Contains caffeine, and theobromine
Central stimulant
Ingredient in several carbonated drinks

Coffee Bean
Dried ripe seed of Coffea Arabica

Decaffeinized coffee
Prepared by extracting most of the caffeine from the coffee bean, yet retaining the pleasant characteristic aroma of coffee
Contain up to 0.08% caffeine

Caffeine
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
1,3,7-trimethylxanthine
Occurs in coffee, tea, cacao, guarana, cola and mate
CNS stimulants

Theophylline
Thea/tea
Leaves and leaf buds of Camellia sinensis
Green tea – Prepared in China and Japan by rapidly drying the freshly picked leaves in copper pans over mild artificial heat
Black tea – prepared in Sri Lanka and India by heaping the fresh leaves until fermentation has begun.
1,3-dimethylxanthine
Smooth muscle relaxant for the relief or prevention of bronchial asthma and treatment of reversible bronchospasm associated with chronic bronchitis and
emphysema

Theobromine
3,7-dimethylxanthine
prepared from the dried ripe seed of Theobroma cacao
Diuretic and smooth muscle relaxant
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Vitamin
Organic molecules essential for normal health and growth.
Required in trace amounts and are obtained from the diet because sufficient amounts are not synthesized in the body.
Vitamins are essential for the normal growth and development of a multicellular organism.

Water-soluble Vitamins
Not stored in the body since excess amounts are excreted in the urine
Destroyed by heat, oxygen and ultraviolet light
Required by many enzymes as cofactors to carry out certain aspects of catalytic action

VITAMIN B1 (THIAMINE)
Active form: Thiamine pyrophosphate
RDA: 1.2 mg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important to nerve function
Sources: Liver, yeast, whole grain, bread, cereals, milk
Deficiency: Beriberi
Wernicke-Korsakoff (alcoholics)
Signs and Symptoms: Tachycardia, vomiting, convulsions, Apathy, loss of memory, eye movements

VITAMIN B2 (RIBOFLAVIN)
Active form: FMN, FAD
RDA: 1.2-1.8 mg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for normal vision and skin health
Sources: Beef, liver, chicken, eggs, green leafy vegetables, dairy foods, peanuts, whole grains
Deficiency: Rare
Signs and Symptoms: Dermatitis
Angular stomatitis

VITAMIN B3 (NIACIN)
Active form: NAD+, NADP+
RDA: 14-18 mg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism; important for nervous system, digestive system, and skin health
Sources: Brewer’s yeast, chicken, beef, fish, liver, brown rice, whole grains
Deficiency: Pellagra
Signs and Symptoms: Dermatitis, Diarrhea, Dementia

VITAMIN B5(PANTHOTENIC ACID)

Active form: Coenzyme A
RDA: 5 mg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism.
Sources: Salmon, beef, liver, eggs, brewer’s yeast, whole grain, fresh vegetables

VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC

Active form: Pyridoxal phosphate

RDA: 1.3-2.0 mg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for protein metabolism; helps make red blood cells.
Sources: Meat, liver, fish, nuts, whole grains, spinach
Deficiency: Rare
Signs and Symptoms: Glossiti, Neuropathy

VITAMIN B12(CYANOCOBALAMIN)
Active form: Methylcobalamin, Deoxyadenosyl cobalamin
RDA: 2.0-2.6 μg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells.
Sources: Liver, beef, kidney, chicken, fish, milk products
Deficiency: Pernicious anemia, Dementia, Spinal degeneration
Signs and Symptoms: Megaloblastic anemia, Neuropsychiatric symptoms

VITAMIN H (BIOTIN)
Active form: Enzyme-bound protein
RDA: 30 μg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for energy metabolism.
Sources: Liver, yeast, nuts, eggs

VITAMIN C (ASCORBIC ACID)

Active form: Ascorbic acid
RDA: 60-95 mg
Function: Collagen synthesis, wound healing
Sources: Blueberries, oranges, strawberries, cantaloupe, tomatoes, peppers, broccoli, cabbage, spinach
Deficiency: Scurvy
Signs and Symptoms: Sore, spongy gums, Loose teeth, Poor wound healing

FOLIC ACID (FOLATE)

Active Form: Tetrahydrofolic acid
RDA: 400 μg
Function: Part of an enzyme needed for making DNA and new cells, especially red blood cells.
Sources: Green leafy vegetables. Beans, meat, seafood, yeast, asparagus, whole grains enriched with folic acid
Deficiency: Megaloblastic anemia, Neural tube defects
Signs and Symptoms: Anemia
Birth defects

FATSOLUBLE VITAMINS
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC

Carried in lipids & are influenced by the same factors that affect lipid absorption
Fairly resistant to the effects of heat; they are not destroyed by cooking or food processing (Vitamins A, D, E, & K)
Stored in the body and not eliminated toxicity

VITAMIN A (RETINOL)
Active Form: Retinol, Retinal,Retinoic acid
RDA: 800 μg
Function: Needed for vision, healthy skin and mucous membranes, bone and tooth growth, immune system health
Sources: Yellow and green fruits and vegetables
Deficiency: Impotence, Night blindness, Growth retardation, Xerophthalmia
Signs and Symptoms: Increased visual threshold, Dryness of cornea

VITAMIN D3
Active form: 1,25-dihydroxy-cholecalciferol
RDA: 5-10 μg
Function: Needed for proper absorption of calcium; stored in bones
Sources: Sunlight, cod liver oil, enriched milk, eggs
Deficiency: Rickets (children), Osteomalacia (adults)
Signs and Symptoms: Soft, pliable bones

VITAMIN E (α-tocopherol)
Active form: Any of the several tocopherol derivatives
RDA: 800 μg
Function: Antioxidant; protects cell walls
Sources: Yellow and green fruits and vegetables
Deficiency: Rare
Signs and Symptoms: RBC fragility leads to hemolytic anemia

VITAMIN K (Menaquinone (K2))

Active form: Menadione, Menaquinone, Phylloquinone
RDA: 90-120 μg
Function: Needed for Proper Blood Clothing
Sources: Meats, whole grains, vegetables
Deficiency: Newborn, Rare (adults)
Signs and Symptoms: Bleeding
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
ENZYMES
are organic catalysts produced by living organisms.
They make possible the many complex chemical reactions that make up life processes.
Enzymes are proteins that range in molecular weight from about 13,000 to as much as 840,000

COMMON PROTERTIES OF ENZYMES

• Enzymes are colloids & are soluble in water and dilute alcohol but are precipitated by conc. alcohol.
• Most enzymes act best at temperature between 35 & 40oC, temperatures above 65oC especially in the presence of moisture usually
completely destroy them
• certain heavy metals, formaldehyde, and free iodine retard the enzymes activity
• Their activity is markedly affected by pH of the medium in which they act or by the presence or other substances in the medium.
• Highly selective in their action.
• Often occurs with inorganic and organic substances that have an important part in the catalytic action. 
Coenzymes – Non-protein organic compounds
Activators – If it is an inorganic ion.

MAJOR CLASSES OF ENZYMES:

Oxidoreductases
catalyzing oxidoreductions between 2 substances

Transferases
catalyzing a transfer of a group, other than hydrogen, between a pair of substrates

Hydrolases
catalyzing hydrolysis of ester, ether, peptide, glycosyl, acid anhydride, C-C, C- halide or P-N bonds

Lyases
catalyzing removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other than hydrolysis, leaving double bonds

MAJOR CLASSES OF ENZYMES:

Lyases
catalyzing removal of groups from substrates by mechanisms other than hydrolysis, leaving double bonds

Isomerases
catalyzing interconversion of optic, geometric or positional isomers

Ligases
catalyzing linkage of 2 compounds coupled to the breaking of a pyrophosphate bond in ATP or a similar compound
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
NOMENCLATURE OF ENZYMES (TRIVIAL NAMES)
Esterases including lipase, phospholipase, acetylcholinesterase,& others
Carbohydrases including diastase, lactase, maltase, invertase cellulase, hyaluronidase, glucuronidase, lysozyme
Nucleases including ribonuclease, desoxyribonuclease, nucleophosphatase
Nuclein deaminases including adenase, adenosine deaminase
Amidases including arginase, urease
Proteolytic enzymes including pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, papain, fibrinolysis,streptokinase, urokinase, and others

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPORTANT ENZYMES

AMYLOLYTIC ENZYMES OR CARBOHYDRASES
Diastase & amylase
terms applied to 2 well known amylolytic enzymes. That are also found in the digestive tract of animals; sometimes called “animal diastase”

Salivary diastase or ptyalin

Pancreatic diastase or amylopsin

Malt diastase
formed during the germination of barley grains & converts starch into maltose.

Invertase or sucrase
found in yeast & in intestinal juice. It brings the hydrolysis of sucrose into glucose& fructose.

CARBOHYDRASES
Maltase
causes the conversion of maltose into glucose, also found in yeast & intestinal juice

Zymase
fermenting enzyme causing the conversion of monosaccharides into alcohol & carbon dioxide

Emulsin
an enzyme found in almond. It causes the hydrolysis of B- glucosides thus, amygdalin is hydrolyzed into glucose, benzaldehyde, and
hydrogen cyanide.

Myrosin
found in white and black mustard, it hydrolyzes sinalbin, sinirgin, & other glycosides.
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
OXIDIZING ENZYMES
PEROXIDASES
Widely distributed in plants
Bring about the oxidation reactions that cause the discoloration of bruised fruits

THROMBIN
Converts the fibrinogen of the circulating blood into the insoluble fibrin of the blood clot

ZYMASE
Splitting monosaccharide by oxidation.

MALT EXTRACT
Partially and artificially germinated grain of Hordeum vulgare
The malt is infused with water at 60oC, and the expressed liquid is concentrated at a temperature not exceeding 60oC, preferably under
reduced condition
Maybe mixed with 10% by weight of glycerin. It contains dextrin maltose, glucose and amylolytic enzymes.
It can convert not less than 5 times its weight of starch into water soluble sugars
It is used as an aid in digesting starch and bulk-producing laxatives.

MALT EXTRACT
DIASTASE
Yellowish white, amorphous powder
Obtained from an infusion of malt
Converts 50 times its weight of potato starch into sugars.

LACTASE
Hydrolyses lactose to galactose and glucose
Obtained commercially from the yeast, Saccharumyces lactis
Help patients with lactose intolerance to digest the lactose in milk or milk products

PEPSIN
Substance containing a proteolytic enzyme
Obtained from the glandular layer of the fresh stomach of the hog, Sus scrofa
Prepared by digesting the minced stomach linings with hydrochloric acid
The solution is clarified, partially evaporated, dialyzed, concentrated, and either poured on glass plates to dry, thus forming scale pepsin, or
carefully evaporated in a vacuum forming spongy pepsin.
Occurs as lustrous, transparent, or translucent scales
Granular or spongy masses
 PHARMACOGNOSY LEC
Light yellow or light brown, fine white or creamy colored amorphous powder.
Free from offensive odor and slightly acid or saline taste
It digests NLT 3000 and NMT 3500 times its weight of coagulated albumin
Administered to assist gastric digestion
It should be given after meals and followed by a dose of hydrochloric acid, the usual dose is 500mg.
Often combined with pancreatin in product formulations

PANCREATIN
Substance containing enzymes
Principally amylase, lipase and protease
Obtained from the pancreas of the hog, Sus scrofa or of the ox, Bos taurus.
The fresh glands are minced and extracted by method similar to those in the manufacture if pepsin
Cream, colored amorphous powder with a faint characteristics
Its greatest activity is in neutral or faintly alkaline solution
Use as a digestive aid and also for pre indigestive foods for invalid.
Enteric-coated granules of pancreatin have been used to treat infants with celiac disease and related pancreatic deficiencies

PANCREALIPASE
More concentrated form of pancreatin
Employed as a digestive aid
Increase the intestinal absorption of fat, thus aiding in the control of steatorrhea.
Available in the form of capsule, powder pockets, and tablets
The usual dose range is 8000 to 24,000 USP units of lypolytic activity prior to each meal or snack.

PAPAIN
Is the dried and purified latex of the of Carica papaya.
The epicarp adheres to the orange-colored, fleshy sarcococarp, which surrounds the central activity, this contains a nearly black seeds.
It is used as a digestant for proteins
Employed to relieve the symptoms of episiotomy
An ingredient in cleaning solutions for soft contact lenses
It is also used as tenderizer in the meat packing industry

CHYMOPAPAIN
Non-pyrogenic proteolytic enzyme
It is a sulfhydryl enzyme similar to papain with respect to substrate
Employed in the treatment of herniated lumbar intervertebral disc
It is injected into the nucleus pulposus to hydrolyze the non- collagenous polypeptides
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It relieves the compressive symptoms of lower back pain

BROMELAINS
Mixture of protein digesting and milk clotting enzymes
Obtained from the juice of pineapple plant, Ananas comosus
From both ripe and unripe fruits
Used as adjunctive therapy to reduce inflammation and edema
Accelerates tissue repair especially following episiotomy
Employed in the production of protein hydrolysates, in tenderizing meats and in leather industry

TRYPSIN
Crystallized trypsin is obtained from an extract of the pancreas gland of the ox, Bos taurus
White to yellowish-white, odorless, crystalline or amorphous powder stable in dry state, but rapidly deteriorates in solution form
It should be stored in tight containers away from excessive heat
Employed orally, topically, by inhalation, or by local injection for debridement of necrotic and pyogenic surface lesions
The current use of trypsin is primarily topical by aerosol application for wound and ulcer cleansing

CHYMOTRYPSIN
proteolytic enzyme crystallized from an extract of the pancreas of an ox( BosTaurus)
contains NLT 1000 USP Chymotrypsin units in each mg.
occurs as a white to yellowish-white, odorless, crystalline or amorphous powder.
Is available as chymotrypsin for ophthalmic preparations.

HYALURONIDASE
prepared from mammalian testes and capable of hydrolyzing mucopolysaccharides.
Potency is expressed in USP hyaluronidase units.
mucolytic enyme capable of depolymerizing and catalyzing hyaluronic acid and hexosamine containing polysaccharides.
promotes diffusion and hastens absorption as subcutaneous infusions.
Hyaluronidase injection is used as a spreading agent.

STREPTOKINASE
purified bacterial protein
Supplied as a lyophilized powder
Used in the treatment of pulmonary embolism, deep vein thrombosis, and arterial thrombosis and embolism
Streptokinase converts plasminogen to the proteolytic enzyme plasmin which degrades not only fibrin clots but also fibrinogen and other
plasma proteins.
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UROKINASE
Isolated from human urine or obtained from human kidney cells.
has same clinical uses as Srteptokinase.
Has low probability of causing allergy because it is from human origin.

FIBRINOLYSIN
is in the blood serum (protease) and in the plasma (plasminogen)
Prepared by activating human blood plasma fraction with streptokinase.
In dried form it retains its proteolytic activity, but in solution form it rapidly deteriorates.
Its enzyme activity is lost when exposed in RT for 6-8hrs
Used in treatment of blood clots in cardiovascular system

DESOXYRIBONUCLEASE
is in the blood serum (protease) and in the plasma (plasminogen)
Prepared by activating human blood plasma fraction with streptokinase.
In dried form it retains its proteolytic activity, but in solution form it rapidly deteriorates.
Its enzyme activity is lost when exposed in RT for 6- 8hrs
Used in treatment of blood clots in cardiovascular systemis in the blood serum (protease) and in the plasma (plasminogen)

DESOXYRIBONUCLEASE
Prepared by activating human blood plasma fraction with streptokinase.
In dried form it retains its proteolytic activity, but in solution form it rapidly deteriorates.
Its enzyme activity is lost when exposed in RT for 6- 8hrs
Used in treatment of blood clots in cardiovascular system
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STEROIDS
• A natural product class of compounds which are widely distributed throughout nature.
• Biological activities:
– Molting of insects (ecdysone)
– Induction of sexual reproduction in fungi (antheridiol)
– Development and control of reproductive tract in humans (estradiol , progesterone,testosterone)
– Therapeutic applications (oral contraceptives, anti-inflammatory agents, anabolic agents)

Sterols
• First steroids isolated from nature
• Widely occurring sterol is cholesterol
– First isolated from human gallstone
– One of the chief constituent of lanolin
– Present in atherosclerotic plaque

Ergosterol
• Principal sterol in fungi
• Known as provitamin D2

B-sitosterol
• Most common sterol in plants
• Widely distributed in the plant kingdom
• Obtained in wheat germ oil, corn oil, cottonseed oils

Stigmasterol
• Closely related to b sitosterol
• First isolated from calabar bean
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• Also found in soybean oil

Steroid hormones
• 2 classes
– Sex hormones
• Produced in gonads
• Mediates growth,devt,maintenance and function of the reproductivetract and accessory sex organs
• 3 categories
– Estrogens and progestins regulates functions of female reproductive tract
– Androgens (male RO)

• Adrenocortical hormones
– Produced by outer cortical portion of adrenal glands
– 2 classes
• Mineralocorticoids – affect the excretion of fluid and electrolytes with subsequent sodium retention
• Glucocorticoids – hormones that affect intermediary metabolism

Hypothalamus
• Feedback regulation of steroid hormone production
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