Chapter 2

BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF BEHAVIOR

Lesson Objective:
At the end of this module, you should be able to;
1. Consider the biological approach as a major contributor to explaining behaviors.
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Basic Definitions:

Psychobiology is the study of the biological bases of human behavior.

The nervous system is the system by means of which we perceive, adapt to, and interact with,
the world around us.

Development of the Nervous System

The nervous system begins pre-natally (before birth). This tube eventually develops into the
spinal cord, with a specialized extension, the brain stem. The posterior (rear) portion of the brain stem
develops the more specialized cerebellum, and the anterior (front) portion develops the cerebral
hemispheres, which distinguish mammals from the other animals.

The Central Nervous System

The central nervous system (CNS) comprises two parts: the brain and spinal cord. For protection,
both the brain and spinal cord are encased in bone. In addition, cerebrospinal fluid circulates inside
and around the brain and spinal cord to provide additional protection.
The brain, protected by the skull, is the organ in our bodies that most directly controls our
thoughts, emotions, and motivations.
The spinal cord is a series of interconnected neurons (nerve cells) extending from the brain
down through the center of the back. Multiple neurons in the spinal cord and elsewhere form nerves.
The spinal cord is roughly a cylindrical bundle of nerves about the diameter of the little finger, and it
is enclosed within protecting vertebrae, which are the bones in the back that form the spinal column.
The spinal cord carries information to and from the brain.
The two directional communications in the nervous system, illustrated by the carrying of
information to and from the brain by the spinal cord, involves two different kinds of nerves and neurons.
Receptors are structures designed to receive sensory information from the outlying nerves of the body
and transmit that information back up through the spinal cord to the brain. Effectors transmit motor
information about how the body should act in response to the information it receives. Usually, this
information comes from the brain.
Under some circumstances, the spinal cord transmits a message directly from receptor nerves
to effector nerves, without routing the message through the brain until after the body has responded
to the sensory information; these direct connection responses are called 'spinal reflexes.' Reflexes are
much faster than voluntary responses. Reflexes allow rapid responses to potentially threatening
situations.
The Peripheral Nervous System

The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises all of the nerve cells except those of the brain
and spinal cord. The primary job of the PNS is to relay information between the CNS and the receptors
and effectors lying outside the CNS. The PNS connects with the receptors in both our external sensory
organs and our internal body parts. It also connects with the effectors that produce movement, speech,
and so on. The PNS comprises two main parts.
The somatic nervous system controls quick and conscious movements of our skeletal muscles,
the muscles that are attached directly to our bones that allow us to move. In general, we have voluntary
control over the muscles served by the somatic system.
The autonomic nervous system controls such movement of our non-skeletal muscles, which
comprise the heart muscles and the smooth muscles. The smooth muscles include those of the blood
vessels and the internal body organs. The autonomic nervous system is further subdivided into two
parts.
The sympathetic nervous system is concerned primarily with 'catabolism,' the processes by
which your body captures, stores, and uses energy and material resources from food and eliminates
wastes.
The parasympathetic nervous system is concerned primarily with 'anabolism,' the processes that
store energy in the body. The parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems tend to work in
tandem.

In general, the sympathetic nervous system is activated by situations requiring arousal and alertness.
On the other hand, the parasympathetic nervous system becomes active when the body is conserving
energy.

The Brain: Structure and Function

The brain can be divided into three main regions:
A. The forebrain

The forebrain is the region of the brain located toward the top and front of the brain. It
comprises two parts: the telencephalon and diencephalon.
The telencephalon is the topmost and farthest forward portion of the forebrain.
It comprises three parts:
1. The cerebral cortex forms the outer layer of the cerebral hemispheres
(right and left hemispherical halves of the brain) and plays a vital role in
our thinking.
2. The basal ganglia is a collection of nerves crucial to motor function.
3. The limbic system is important to emotion, motivation, and learning. In
particular, it comprises three interconnected cerebral structures:
a. hippocampus - plays an essential role in the formation of
memories. Persons who have suffered damage to or removal of
the hippocampus can still recall memories but cannot form new
ones.
b. amygdala - plays a role in anger and aggression.
c. septum - involved in anger and fear.
The diencephalon is the portion of the forebrain that is between the telencephalon and midbrain. It
comprises the thalamus and hypothalamus.
1. thalamus - relays incoming sensory information through projection fibers to the appropriate
region in the cortex.
2. hypothalamus involved in water balance in tissues and bloodstream. It controls much of the
autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system, and is involved in temperature regulation.
It also interacts with and is sometimes viewed as part of the limbic system and is thereby
involved in behavior related to species survival: fighting, feeding, fleeing and mating.

B. The midbrain

This is the main source of control for visual and auditory information. The reticular
activating system of the midbrain helps regulate states of consciousness, including
sleep, wakefulness, arousal, and attention, as well as breathing and heartbeat.

C. The hindbrain

The hindbrain is the most rearward portion of the brain.

1. the medulla oblongata, part of the reticular activating system (which extends
into the hindbrain). It helps control heartbeat, breathing, swallowing, and
digestion.
2. the pons serves as a kind of relay station for signals passing from one part of
the brain to another,
3. the cerebellum is involved in bodily coordination, balance, and muscle tone. If
the cerebellum is damaged, movement becomes jerky and disjointed.