6.

Representation of Power System Components

6.1. Introduction
Electric power systems may be of great complexity and spread over large geographical area. An electric power
system consists of generators, transformers, transmission lines and consumer equipment (loads). The system
must be protected against flow of heavy short – circuit currents (which can cause permanent damage to major
equipment) by disconnecting the faulty section of system by means of circuit breakers and protective relaying.
It is necessary to know the maximum short-circuit currents that can occur at points of a system in order that
circuit breakers may be selected that are adequate to withstand the currents and operate successfully to cut out
the faulty section, and also in order that the protective relays may be selected for correct operation. The design
of machine, bus bars, isolators, circuit breakers etc., is based on the considerations of normal and short-circuits
currents.
It is also necessary to be able to calculate, approximately at least, the size of the protective reactors which must
be inserted in the system to limit the short circuit currents to a value which is not beyond that capable of being
withstood by the circuit breakers.
The short circuit currents in an AC system are determined mainly by the reactance of the alternators,
transformers and line up to point of fault in the case phase to phase faults. When the fault is between phase and
earth, the resistance of the earth path plays an important role in limiting the currents.
In case of circuit breakers their rupturing capacities are based on the symmetrical short circuit current which is
the simplest calculation among all types of short circuits. However, for determination of settings of relays it is
absolutely necessary to know fault current due to unsymmetrical fault condition too for which knowledge of
symmetrical components etc., is required.

6.2. Power System Network

Power system can be subdivided into three major components namely:
i. Generation System
ii. Transmission System, and
iii. Distribution System
Nowadays, mostly, power is generated by three phase synchronous generators, transmitted by three phase lines
and then distributed through three phase distribution networks. Three phase synchronous generators are always
designed to produce three phase balanced excitation i.e, to generate three phase voltages which are equal in
magnitude and displaced from each other by an equal angle of 120 electrical degrees. The three phase
transmission lines and the three phase distribution network are either arranged symmetrically or if arrangement
is unsymmetric, they are transposed at regular intervals to balance their electrical characteristics resulting in
balanced three phase network comprising transmission and distribution networks. Thus three phase generation
or supply as well as the three phase transmission and networks are balanced and therefore so far as the
calculations are concerned, they can be treated as a single phase system for analysis.

6. 3 Representation of Power System Components

A complete diagram of power system representing all the three phases becomes too complicated and
cumbersome for a system of practical size, so much that it may no longer convey the information it is intended
to convey. It is much more practical to represent a power system by means of simple symbols for each
component resulting in what is a single line. Any 3 phase network consisting of generators, transformers,

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transmission lines etc., can be solved as a single phase network composed of one of the three phases and a
neutral return, if it is balanced under normal operation. Many times, the components of the system are shown in
a single line diagram omitting the neutral also.
6.3.1. Single Line Diagram
The single line diagram of a power system network shows the main connections and arrangements of the system
components along with their data (such as output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance etc). In case of
transmission lines sometimes the conductor size and spacing’s are given. It is not necessary to show all the
components of the system on a single line diagram, eg circuit breakers need not be shown in a load flow study
but are must for protection study. In a single line diagram, the system components are usually drawn in the
form of their symbols. Generators and transformer connection – star, delta and neutral earthing are indicated by
symbols drawn by the side of the representation of these elements. Circuit breakers are represented by
rectangular blocks.

Fig. 6.0 Single Phase Circuit

Single phase circuit of a three phase system is considered above is shown in Fig 6.0. A one line diagram of a
simple three phase system considered above is shown in Fig. 6.1

Fig 6.1 One Line Diagram

Fig 6.2 shows the one line diagram of a sample power system

Fig. 6.2 One line Diagram of a Sample Power Station

This system has two generators, one solidly grounded and the other grounded through a resistor, that are
connected to a bus and through a step up transformer to a transmission line. Another generator, grounded
through a reactor, is connected to a bus and through a transformer to the other end of the transmission line. A
load is connected to each bus. On the one line diagram information about the loads, the ratings of the
generators, transformers and reactance of different components of the circuit is often given.

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6.3.2 Impedance Diagram Representation of a Power System
A further simplification from the single line diagram, with its symbols for the various components, is to draw
the diagrams with impedances only. In impedance diagram, each component is represented by its equivalent
circuit. Loads are assumed to be passive (not involving rotating machines) and are represented by resistance and
inductive reactance in series. Neutral earthing impedances do not appear in the diagram as balanced conditions
are assumed.
In order to calculate the performance of a power system under load condition or upon the occurrence of a fault,
the one line diagram is used to draw the single phase or per phase equivalent circuit of the system. Refering to
the one line diagram of a sample power system shown in Fig. 6.2, Fig 6.3 combines the equivalent circuits for
the various components shown in Fig 6.2 to form the per phase impedance diagram of the system.

Fig. 6.3 Per Phase Impedance Diagram

The impedance diagram does not include the current limiting impedances shown in the one line diagram
because no current flows in the ground under balanced condition.

6.3.3 Reactance Diagram Representation of a Power System

The impedance diagram can further be simplified by making certain assumptions and reduced to simplified
reactance diagram. Reactance diagram is drawn by neglecting effective resistance of generator armature,
transformer winding resistance, transmission line resistance, line charging and the magnetizing circuit of
transformers. Fig 6.4 presents the per phase reactance diagram for the the one line diagram of a sample power
station shown in Fig. 6.2.

Fig. 6.4 Per Phase Reactance Diagram

Fig. 6.5 presents a power system network and Fig 6.6 presents the reactance for that network.

Fig. 6.5 Power System Network

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 Fig 6.6 Reactance Diagram
Assumptions made for drawing reactance diagrams give results quite accurate for many power system studies,
such as short circuit studies etc., as winding resistances including the line resistances are quite small in
comparison with leakage reactance and shunt path which includes line charging and transformer magnetizing
circuit provide a very high parallel impedance with fault. In general it is to be noted that if the resistance is less
than one – third of the reactance, and resistance is ignored, the error introduced will not be more than 5%.

6.4 Percentage Resistance and Reactance and Base kVA and kVA
Resistance and reactance (and consequently impedance) may be expressed in percentage or ohmic terms. In the
case of rotating machines and transformers, manufacturer values are always in percentage terms while tables for
cables and overhead lines are always in ohmic terms. Calculations can be made using either but not a mixture.
For short circuit calculations, generally the percentage values are employed and therefore their understanding
essential.
Percentage Resistance. It is the voltage drop across the given resistance expressed as percentage of normal
voltage when carrying full load current pertaining to normal rating, ie.,

IR
%R = x 100 (6.0)
V

Where R is the resistance in ohms, I is the full load current and V is the rated voltage.
Percentage Reactance. Percentage reactance can be defined in the same way a percentage resistance. It is the
voltage drop across the given reactance expressed as percentage of nominal voltage when carrying full load
current pertaining to normal rating i.e.,

IX
%X = x 100 (6.1)
V

Where X is the reactance in ohms, I is the full load current and V is the rated voltage.
From equation (6.1) we have

( %X ) X V
X= ohms
1 X 100

Multiplying and dividing the right hand expression by V, we have

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 ( %X ) X V X V
X=
V X 1 X 100

( %X ) V ²
= ohms (6.2)
(Output ∈VA )100
When the voltage and the output are expressed in kV and kVA respectively, then

V V

X=
( %X ) X ( 1000 ) X ( 1000 ) X 1000
V
100 X (
1000 )
X1

( %X ) ( kV )2 X 10
= ohms (6.3)
kVA

( X ) (kVA )
Or %X = (6.4)
10(kV )²
Thus if actual reactance in ohms is given, percentage reactance can be determined and vice versa.
Base kVA. If numbers of equipments such as generators, transformers, transmission lines etc are connected in
parallel and their percentage resistances and reactances also refer to their respective kVA ratings, it is difficult
to compare these percentage resistances and reactances and their combined effect until and unless they are all
referred to a common kVA. This common kVA, which is taken as an arbitrary one is known as the base kVA of
the system.
A base kVA may be chosen in the following manner:
(i) Equal to the kVA rating of the largest unit connected in the network.
(ii) Equal to the sum of the kVA ratings of all the units connected in the network.
(iii) Any arbitrary value.
It must, however, be clearly understood that the value of the base kVA, has no bearing whatsoever on the
results; since in the ultimate formula for the calculation of short circuit current base MVA is to be taken into
consideration.
The conversion of percentage reactance at rated kVA to the percentage reactance at base kVA can be made by
using the following expression:

Percentage reactance at base kVA

Base kVA
= x percentage reactance at rated kVA (6.5)
Rated kVA

Thus if a transformer is rated for 10,000 kVA and has percentage reactance of 7.5%, then the percentage
reactance at the base kVA of 25,000 shall be

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 25,000
= x 7.5 = 18.75%
10,000
Base kV. In some cases it is convienient to work in ohmic values of the various reactances rather than in
percentage values. The method would become simple if all the reactances relate to the same voltage but if step
up or step down transformers or other equipments operating at different voltages are also included, all the ohmic
values will have to be reduced to a common base voltage.
Reactances can be converted from one operating voltage to the other by the following relation
E2 2
X2 =
( )
E1
x X1 (6.6)

Where X 1 is the reactance at voltage E1 and X 2 is the reactance at voltage E2.

6.5 Per Unit (PU) Method of Representing Quantities

Absolute values may not give the full significance of quantities. Consider the marks scored by a student in three
subjects as 10, 40 and 95. It will be noted that the student is poor in subject 1, average in subject 2 and good in
subject 3. This is true only when the base for all the marks is 100. If the bases are 10, 50 and 100 for the three
subjects respectively then his marks in percentage are 100, 80 and 95 and thus the conclusions are different.
Thus, there is a need to specify base quantity for meaningful interpretation.
The quantities involved in power system are kVA, voltage, current and impedance of the equivalent circuits of
the various system components. The equivalent circuits are at different voltages and are connected together in
the system by means of transformers and interconnections. Each apparatus is rated in kVA and its impedance in
actual ohms or in percentage value referred to its rated kVA and rated voltage. In power system analysis, it is
usual to express voltage, current, kVA and impedance in per unit of base or reference values of these quantities.
Such a method simplifies the calculations. The per unit value of any quantity is defined as
the actual value of the quantity∈any unit
the base∨reference value∈the same unit

6.5.1 Advantages and Drawbacks of Per Unit (PU) System

Advantages. 1 Calculations are simplified.
2. The characteristics of machines (generators, transformers, motors etc.) when described in per unit system are
specified by almost the same number, regardless of the rating of the machines. In other words, the
characteristics (or parameters) tend to fall in relatively narrow range, making erroneous values conspicuous.
Thus per unit system provides a method of comparison.
3. For circuits connected by transformers, per unit system is particularly suitable. By choosing suitable base
kV's for the circuit the per unit reactance remains the same, referred to either sides f the transformer. Therefore,
the various circuits can be connected in the reactance diagram.
4. This method is useful to eliminate ideal transformers as circuit components since the typical power system
contains hundreds, if not thousands of transformers, and this is a non trivial savings.

Drawbacks. 1. Some equations that hold in the unscaled cases are modified when scaled into per unit. Factors
such as √ 3 and 3 are removed or added by this method.
2. Equivalent circuit of the components are modified, making them somewhat more abstract. Sometimes phase
shifts that are clearly present in the unscaled circuit vanish in the per unit circuit.
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6.5.2. Selection of Bases
For a common representation, base kVA and base voltages are to be chosen. Then the base current and the base
impedance can be expressed as follows:

Base kVA (kV A B )

Base current, I B = amperes (6.7)
Base kV (k A B )

Base voltage∈volts , V B
Base impedance, Z B = ohms
Base current ∈amperes , I B

VB X VB
=
IB X V B

V 2B
=
V B IB

VB VB

=
1000 ( )( )
X
1000
X 1000

V B IB
1,000

( k V B ) ² X 1,000
=
kV A B

(k V B) ²
= ohms (6.8)
MV A B
For a single phase, phase to neutral voltage, kVA per phase are taken as bases while in a three phase system,
three phase line to line voltage and three phase kVA are used as bases. This simplifies the calculations.
The base values in a system are so selected that per unit voltages and currents in the system are approximately
unity. Sometimes the base kVA is chosen equal to the sum of the ratings of the various equipments in the
system or equal to the kVA rating of the largest unit connected in the system. If in the network there is no
transformer present, the same base voltage is used throughout, but if transformers are present, the rule is to
change the base voltage in proportion to the transformation ratio of the transformer when transformer is
reached. Thus, all impedances in the network before the transformer is reached, including the transformer
primary leakage impedance, are expressed in per unit to a new base voltage which is the primary side base
voltage multiplied by the transformer transformation ratio. This is very important.

6.5.3 Determination of Base Impedance

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Voltage, current, volt-amperes and impedances are so related that selection of base values for any two of them
determines the base values of the remaining two. For example for a single-phase circuit we have the following
relations
SB = V B I B (6.9)

VB
ZB = (6.10)
IB
Where S B, V B , I B and Z B represent the base power, base voltage, base current and base impedance expressed in
volt-amperes, volts, amperes and ohms respectively. Thus from the above two equations, if any two of the four
quantities are specified, the remaining two may be determined without any problem. As mentioned earlier, base
kVA and base kV are usually specified. Let kV A B and kV B be the base kVA and base kV, then

Actual kV k V actual
Per unit kV = = (6.11)
Base kV kVB

Base kVA k VA B
Base current, I B = = amperes
Base kV kVB
(6.12)
Actual current
Per unit current, I pu =
Base current

Actual current
= x kVB (6.13)
k VA B

Base kV X 1,000
Base impedance, Z B =
Base current

kVB
= kVB x x 1,000
k VA B

( k V B ) ² X 1,000
= ohms
kV A B

Base power, S B = Base kVA (6.14)

Per unit impedance,

Actual impedance
Z pu =
Base impedance

kV A B
Actual impedance x (6.15)
( k V B ) ² X 1,000
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In a 3 phase system rather than obtaining the per unit values using per phase quantities, the per unit values can
be obtained directly by using three phase base quantities (total kVA, line-to-line voltage and line currents). Let
kV A B be the base kVA (total output of three phases) and k V B be the base line-to-line voltage in kV.
Assuming star connection (equivalent star can always be found)

k VA B
Base current, I B = amperes.
√3 k V B

k V B X 1000
Base impedance, Z B =
√3 X I B

k V B √3 k V B
= x x 1,000
√3 k VA B

( k V B ) ² X 1,000
= ohms (6.16)
kV A B
Per unit impedance,

Actual impedance
Z pu =
Base impedance

Actual impedance X kV A B
=
( k V B ) ² X 1,000
(6.17)
It should be noted that the same expression is obtained for a single phase and three phase systems. In power
system problems the data are given in terms of 3 phase kVA, line-to-line kV, the machine kVA and machine
phase-to-phase (or line-to-line) kV rating.

6.5.4. Change of Base

Normally the per unit impedance of various components corresponding to its own rating voltage and kVA are
given and since we choose one common base kVA and kV for the whole system, therefore, it becomes
imperative to determine the per unit impedance of the various equipments corresponding to the common base
kV and base kVA. If the individual quantities are Z pu old ' kVA old' kV old and the common base quantities are Z pu new '
kVA new and kV new' then making use of Eq. (6.15), according to which per unit impedance is directly proportional
to the base kVA and inversely proportional to the square of the base kV, we have
Per unit impedance to new base,

kVA new ( k V old ) ²

Z pu new = Z pu old x x (6.18)
kVA old ( k V old ) ²

This is very important relation used in power system analysis.

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Example 6.0
Base voltage = 1,100 volts. Base kVA = 106 . What is the base impedance?
Solution
Base kVA = 106

1,100
Base kV = = 1.1kV
1,000

k VA B 106
Base current, I B = =
kVB 1.1

k V B X 1,000 1.1 X 1,000 X 1.1

Base impedance, Z B = = = 0.00121Ω
IB 106

Base impedance can also be determined directly by substituting the values of base kVA ad base kV in Eq. (6.8)

ZB =
( k V B ) ² X 1,000 ( 1.1 )2 X 1,000
= = 0.00121Ω
kV A B 106

Example 6.1
If the resistance in ohms is 5Ω, find the per unit value. Given base kVA = 10 and base kV = 11.
Solution
Resistance, R = 5Ω

( k V B ) ² X 1,000 ( 1.1 )2 X 1,000

Base resistance, R B = = = 12,100Ω
kV A B 10

R 5
Per unit resistance, R pu = = = 0.000413pu
R B 12,100

Example 6.2
A single phase transformer is rated as 2.5kVA, 11/0.4kV. If the leakage reactance is 0.96Ω when referred to low
voltage side, then determine its leakage reactance in per unit.
Solution
Base voltage, k V B = 0.4kV

Base kVA, kV A B = 2.5kVA

Low-voltage side base impedance,

Z BLV =
( k V B ) ² X 1,000 ( 0.4 )2 X 1,000
= = 64Ω
kV A B 2.5

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Leakage reactance in per unit,

Actual reactance 0.96

Z pu = = = 0.015pu
Base impedance 64

Example 6.3
Determine the per unit impedance of a transmission line having an impedance of 30 + j110Ω on 100MVA and
132kV base voltage.
Solution
Impedance of line, Z = 30 + j110Ω

Base kVA, kV A B= 132kV

Z X kV A B
Per unit impedance, Z pu =
( k V B ) ² X 1,000

30+ j 110 X 100000

= = 0.172 + j0.631pu
( 132 )2 X 1000
Example 6.4
A three phase 500MVA, 22kV generator has winding reactance of 1.065Ω. Find its per unit reactance.
Solution
22²
Base impedance = = 0.968Ω
500

1.065
Per unit reactance = = 1.1002.
0.968

6.6 Per Unit Quantities on a Different Base

Sometimes, knowing the per unit impedance of a component based on a particular base values, the per unit
value of the component and based on some other based values are meant to be found. From Eq. (6.15), which
could also be noted that the per unit impedance is directly proportional to base MVA and inversely proportional
to (base kV)².
Base MVA
i.e per unit impedance = actual impedance x
(Base voltage , kV )²

Therefore, to change from per unit impedance on a given base to per unit impedance on a new base, the
following equation applies:
base MVA new base kV given 2
Per unit Z new = per unit Z given
base MVA given
x ( )
base kV new
(6.19)

Example 6.5

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The reactance of a generator is given as 0.25 per unit based on the generators of 18kV, 500MVA. Find its per
unit reactance on a base of 20kV, 100MVA.
Solution
100 18
From Equ. (6.19), New per unit reactance = 0.25 x
500
x ( )
20
² = 0.0405.

Example 6.6
A single phase 9.6kVA, 500V/1.5kV transformer has an impedance of 1.302Ω with respect to primary side.
Find its per unit impedance with respect to primary and secondary sides.
Solution
0.0096
With respect to primary, per unit impedance = 1.302 x = 0.05
(0.5)²

With respect to secondary, impedance = 1.302 x ( 1.5

0.5 )
² = 11.718Ω

0.0096
Per unit impedance = 11.718 x = 0.05
(1.5)²
Per unit impedance of the transformer is same referred to primary as well as secondary.

Example 6.7
A 300MVA, 20kV three-phase generator has a subtransient reactance of 20%. The generator supplies a number
of synchronous motors over 64km transmission line having transformers at both ends shown in Fig 6.7. The
motors, all rated 13.2kV, are represented by just two equivalent motors. Rated inputs to the motors are
200MVA and 100MVA for M 1 and M 2 respectively. For both motors X”= 20%. The three phase transformer T 1
is rated 350MVA, 230/20kV with leakage reactance of 10%. Transformer T 2 is composed of three single phase
transformers each rated 127/13.2 kV, 100MVA with leakage reactance of 10%. Series reactance of the
transmission line is 0.5Ω/km. Draw the impedance diagram, with all impedances marked in per unit. Select the
generator rating as base in the generator circuit.

Fig. 6.7 One line Diagram

Solution
Base MVA = 300

Base voltage at generator side = 20kV

Line to line voltages in transmission line = 230kV

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Line to line voltages of transformer T 2: √ 3 x 127/13.2 = 220/13.2kV

13.2
Base voltage at motor side = 230 x = 13.8kV
220

Base MVA and base voltages at different sections are marked.

Per unit reactance of generator = 0.2

300
Per unit reactance of transformer T 1 = 0.1 x = 0.0857
350

300
Per unit reactance of transmission line = 0.5 x 64 x = 0.1825
230²

Per unit reactance of transformer T 2 = 0.1 x ( 200

230 )
² = 0.0915

300 13.2
Per unit reactance of motor M 1 = 0.2 x
200
x ( )
13.8
² = 0.2745

300 13.2
Per unit reactance of motor M 2 = 0.2 x
100
x ( )
13.8
² = 0.549

Per unit impedance diagram is shown in Fig. 6.8

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Fig. 6.8 Per unit Impedance Diagram

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