1.

WRITE YOUR ANSWER IN A YELLOW FOR THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS

A. EXAM-GIVE MICROPROCESSOR
1. MODEL(YEAR): Intel Pentium 80501 (1993)
2. NUMBER OF TRANSISTORS: 3.1 to 3.3 million
3. CLOCK RATE: 60 to 66 MHz
4 . MEMORY SIZE: up to 4 GB
5 . FEATURE SIZE: 0.35 to 0.8 microns
6. CACHE: 8kB instruction cache, 8kB data cache

Give the function of each of the the microprocessor 1-40

X1 - re terminals to be connected to an external crystal oscillator which drives an
internal circuitry of the microprocessor. It is used to produce a suitable clock for the
operation of microprocessor.
X2 - re terminals to be connected to an external crystal oscillator which drives an
internal circuitry of the microprocessor. It is used to produce a suitable clock for the
operation of microprocessor.
RESET OUT - indicates that the CPU is being reset.
SOD - is a data line for serial output. The seventh bit of the accumulator is output on
SOD line when SIM instruction is executed.
SID - is data line for serial input. The data on this line is loaded into the seventh bit
of the accumulator when RIM instruction is executed.
TRAP - When any interrupt is recognized the next instruction is executed from a
fixed location in the memory (0024). The TRAP has the highest priority among
interrupts.
RST7.5 - is the restart interrupts which cause an internal restart to be automatically
inserted. When any interrupt is recognized the next instruction is executed from a
fixed location in the memory (003C).
RST6.5 - is the restart interrupts which cause an internal restart to be automatically
inserted. When any interrupt is recognized the next instruction is executed from a
fixed location in the memory (0034).
ST5.5 - is the restart interrupts which cause an internal restart to be automatically
inserted. When any interrupt is recognized the next instruction is executed from a
fixed location in the memory (002C).
INTR - is an Interrupt Request Signal. Among interrupts it has the lowest priority.
The INTR is enabled or disabled by software.
INTA - is an interrupt acknowledgement sent by the microprocessor after INTR is
received.
AD0 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
AD1 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
AD2 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
AD3 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
AD4 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.

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 AD5 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
AD6 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
AD7 - These are time multiplexed address/data bus i.e. they serve dual purpose. They
are used for the least significant 8 bits of the memory address or I/O address during
the first cycle. Again they are used for data during 2nd and 3rd clock cycles.
Vss - ground reference.
A8 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A9 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A10 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A11 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A12 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A13 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A14 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
A15 - These are address bus and are used for the most significant bits of the memory
address or 8-bits of I/O address.
S0 - These are status signals sent by the microprocessors to distinguish the various
types of operation (HALT=0), (WRITE=1), (READ=0), (FETCH=1).
ALE - stands for Address Latch Enable signal. ALE goes high during first clock
cycle of a machine cycle and enables the lower 8-bits of the address to be latched
either into the memory or external latch.
WR - is a signal to control WRITE operation. When it goes low, the data bus' data is
written into the selected memory or I/O location.
RD -  is a signal to control READ operation. When it goes low, the selected I/O
device or memory is read.
S1 - These are status signals sent by the microprocessors to distinguish the various
types of operation (HALT=0), (WRITE=0), (READ=1), (FETCH=1).
IO/M - It is a status signal which distinguishes whether the address is for memory or
I/O device.
READY - It is used by the microprocessor to sense whether a peripheral is ready to
transfer a data or not. If READY is high, the peripheral is ready. If it is low the micro
processor waits till it goes high.
RESET IN - It resets the program counter (PC) to 0. It also resets interrupt enable
and HLDA flip-flops. The CPU is held in reset condition till RESET is not applied.
CLK (OUT) - is a clock output for user, which can be used for other digital ICs. Its
frequency is same at which processor operates.
HLDA - is a signal for HOLD acknowledgement which indicates that the HOLD
request has been received. After the removal of this request the HLDA goes low.
HOLD - indicates that another device is requesting for the use of the address and data
bus.
Vcc - +5 Volts supply.

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 B. DISCUSS IN WRITINGS IN MULTIPLE SENTENCES THE FOLLOWING LINKS
C. Links
1. History of intel microprocessors
The first microprocessor sold by Intel was the four-bit 4004 in 1971. It was designed to work in
conjunction with three other microchips, the 4001 ROM, 4002 RAM, and the 4003 Shift Register.
Whereas the 4004 itself performed calculations, those other components were critical to making the
processor function. The 4004 was mostly used inside of calculators and similar devices, and it was not
meant for use inside of computers. Its max clock speed was 740 kHz.
The 4004 was followed by a similar processor known as the 4040, which was essentially an improved
variation of the 4004 with an extended instruction set and higher performance.
2. ALU
The component that performs the arithmetic and logical operations is known as the Arithmetic Logic
Unit, or ALU.
The ALU is one of the most important components in a microprocessor, and is typically the part of the
processor that is designed first. Once the ALU is designed, the rest of the microprocessor is
implemented to feed operands and control codes to the ALU.
It is considered as a multi-operational combinational circuit that performs both logical and arithmetic
operations like logical AND, logical OR, addition and subtraction. The length of the internal data bus
decides the word length of ALU, it is of 8-bits and is managed by timing and control bus. ALU consists of
Adder: Performs all the arithmetic operations such as increment, addition, subtraction, and decrement.
And all these operational results are stored in the accumulator.
Shifter: Performs logical operations such as shift left, shift right, rotate left, rotate right and others.
Status Register: It is even considered a flag register. Various flags are here, and they correspond to
perform their specific operations.
3. Microprocessor architecture-pin configuration
Microprocessor Architecture
The microprocessor is the CPU (Central Processing Unit) of a computer. It is the heart of the computer.
Here, we will describe Intel 8085 as it is one of the most polopular 8-bit microprocessor.
It has following configuration:
It is a 40 pin I.C. package fabricated on a single LSI chip.
The Intel 8085 uses a single +5Vd.c. supply for its operation.
Intel 8085?s clock speed is about 3 MHz; the clock cycle is of 320ns.
8 ?bit data bus.
Address bus is of 16-bit, which can address up to 64KB
16-bit stack pointer
16 bit PC (Program Counter)
Six 8-bit registers are arranged in pairs :BC, DE, HL
Intel 8085 is used in mobile phones, microwave ovens, washing machines etc.
4. ROM Explained - Read only Memory
Read only memory overview
ROM devices are used for storage of data that does not require modification, hence the name ‘read only
memory’. This definition however, has become less clear over the years and now includes devices whose
data are occasionally modified. The original true ROM types are mask programmable ROM and fuse
programmable ROM (or PROM). The mask programmed ROM devices are programmed at the factory
during manufacture whilst the fuse programmed ROM devices are programmed by blowing small fuses
and hence are sometimes called One Time Programmable ROM or OTPROM. Both mask ROM and
OTPROM devices are true read only memory devices which are written only once. Other ROM devices
that are, paradoxically, written more than once are: Erasable PROM (called EPROM) – these devices are
programmed electrically but are fully erased with ultraviolet light; Electrically Erasable ROM (referred to
as EEPROM or E2PROM) – these devices can be both programmed and erased electrically; FLASH
memory – these devices use the same technology as EPROM but not only are they electrically
programmed, they can be erased electrically in a very short time. The great advantage of all these ROM
devices is that they are nonvolatile. This means that when the power is removed the stored data is not
lost.
5. PCB Manufacturing Process, PCB making
Step-1: Patterning or Etching

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Majority of printed circuit boards are manufactured by applying a layer of copper over the entire surface
of the PCB substrate material either on one side or both sides. This creates a blank printed circuit board,
with the copper everywhere on the surface. From here the unwanted copper is removed by subtractive
methods.
Step-2: Photoengraving
The photoengraving process uses a mask or photomask combined with chemical etching to subtract or
remove the copper areas from the circuit board substrate.
Step-3: Lamination
Many printed circuit boards are made up of multiple layers; these are referred to as multi-layer printed
circuit boards. They consist of several thin etched boards or trace layers and are bonded together
through the process of lamination.
Step-4: Drilling
Each layer of the printed circuit board requires the ability of one layer to connect to another, this is
done through drilling small holes called “VIAS“. These drilled holes require precision placement and are
most commonly done with the use of an automated drilling machine. These machines are driven by
computer programs and files called numerically controlled drill or NCD files also referred to as excellon
files. These files determine the position and size of each drill in the design.
Step-5: Solder Plating (Solder Resist)
Pads and lands which will require electronic components to be mounted on are plated to allow
solderability of the components. Bare copper is not readily solderable and requires the surface to be
plated with a material that facilitates soldering. In the past a lead based tin was used to plate the
surfaces, but with RoHS (Restriction of Hazardous Substances) compliance enacted newer materials are
being used such as nickel and gold to both offer solderability and comply with RoHS standards
Step-6: Silk Screen
When visible information needs to be applied to the board such as company logos, part numbers or
instructions, silk screening is used to apply the text to the outer surface of the circuit board. Where
spacing allows, screened text can indicate component designators, switch setting requirements and
additional features to assist in the PCB assembly process.
Step-7: Testing
Unassembled circuit boards are subjected to a bare board test where each circuit connection is verified
as correct on the finished circuit board. In high volume circuit board production, a bed of nails tester or
fixture is used to make contact with the copper lands or holes on one or both sides of the board to
facilitate testing. Computers are used to control the electrical testing unit to send a small current
through each contact point on the bed of nails and verify that such current can be detected on the
appropriate contact points.
6. RAM Explained - Random Access Memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) is the hardware in a computing device where the operating system (OS),
application programs and data in current use are kept so they can be quickly reached by the device's
processor. RAM is the main memory in a computer. It is much faster to read from and write to than
other kinds of storage, such as a hard disk drive (HDD), solid-state drive (SSD) or optical drive.
Random Access Memory is volatile. That means data is retained in RAM as long as the computer is on,
but it is lost when the computer is turned off. When the computer is rebooted, the OS and other files
are reloaded into RAM, usually from an HDD or SSD.
7. Microprocessor number of transistors
The transistor count is the number of transistors in an electronic device. It typically refers to the number
of MOSFETs (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistors, or MOS transistors) on an integrated
circuit (IC) chip, as all modern ICs use MOSFETs. It is the most common measure of IC complexity
(although the majority of transistors in modern microprocessors are contained in the cache memories,
which consist mostly of the same memory cell circuits replicated many times). The rate at which MOS
transistor counts have increased generally follows[citation needed] Moore's law, which observed that
the transistor count doubles approximately every two years.
8. Microprocessor clocke rate
A CPU with a clock speed of 3.2 GHz executes 3.2 billion cycles per second. (Older CPUs had speeds
measured in megahertz, or millions of cycles per second.)
Sometimes, multiple instructions are completed in a single clock cycle; in other cases, one instruction
might be handled over multiple clock cycles. Since different CPU designs handle instructions differently,
it’s best to compare clock speeds within the same CPU brand and generation.

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For example, a CPU with a higher clock speed from five years ago might be outperformed by a new CPU
with a lower clock speed, as the newer architecture deals with instructions more efficiently. An X-series
Intel® processor might outperform a K-series processor with a higher clock speed, because it splits tasks
between more cores and features a larger CPU cache. But within the same generation of CPUs, a
processor with a higher clock speed will generally outperform a processor with a lower clock speed
across many applications. This is why it’s important to compare processors from the same brand and
generation.
9. Microprocessor memory size
the microprocessor can address (28) 256 bytes of memory, and it can read or write 8 bits of the memory
at a time. Let's assume that this simple microprocessor has 128 bytes of ROM starting at address 0 and
128 bytes of RAM starting at address 128. the microprocessor can read or write to those bytes
depending on whether the RD or WR line is signaled.
10. How CPU works
The CPU of a computer, or central processing unit, is frequently compared to the human brain since it's
the central control of the computer. The CPU performs computer operations by rapidly executing
program instructions. The speed of the CPU plays a large part in determining the power of a computer.
Each new generation of microprocessors features a more powerful CPU that can execute instructions
more quickly than the previous generation.
The working of the CPU is defined as a three-step process. First, an instruction is fetched from memory.
Second, the instruction is decoded and the processor figures out what it's being told to do. Third, the
instruction is executed and an operation is performed. These three steps repeat in a cycle that begins
again with the CPU fetching the next instruction. The steps are referred to as the instruction cycle of the
CPU.
The CPU uses a program counter to keep track of which instruction to fetch next. The counter is the
address of the memory location that holds the next instruction to be executed. It's stored in a register,
which is a dedicated memory location in the CPU itself. The program counter is incremented to point to
the next instruction after each fetch in the instruction cycle.