VOLUME CHANGE AND CRACKING IN HIGH-

PERFORMANCE CONCRETE

Terence C. Holland

Synopsis: Because of the nature of the material, high-performance

concrete is believed to be more susceptible to volume-change
related cracking. Volume change can result from rapid drying of
fresh concrete or from temperature differentials, moisture content
changes, or both in hardened concrete. The nature of these types
of volume changes is discussed. Methods to mitigate each type of
cracking are presented.

Keywords: Drying shrinkage cracking, Plastic shrinkage

cracking, Preventing cracking, Thermal cracking
Terence C. Holland is a consultant in the area of concrete
materials and concrete construction practices. His clients include
owners, designers, contractors, and concrete suppliers. He also
provides services as an expert witness. Dr. Holland is a member of
several ACI and ASTM committees, including ACI 318. He is a
past chair of the ACI Technical Activities Committee and a past
president of the Institute.

INTRODUCTION

High-performance concrete (HPC) is not a precisely defined term.

It has many meanings and many interpretations

For this presentation HPC is assumed to have the following

characteristics:

High cementitious materials content

Multiple cementitious materials
Low w/cm
Not necessarily low total water content
Multiple chemical admixtures

All of these factors work in favor of cracking and against

mitigating cracking.

CRACKING IN GENERAL

Cracking may be classified as structural or non structural. This

presentation is concerned with non-structural cracking.

Non-structural cracking is the result of causes other than loading.

Possible causes of non-structural cracking include:
Corrosion
Alkali-aggregate reactions
Freezing and thawing

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 Restrained volume change

Most significant and prevalent cause of non-structural cracking is

restrained volume change.

Without restraint there is no cracking. Restraint comes in various

forms as will be discussed.

Restrained volume change can result from:

Plastic shrinkage
Thermal contraction/thermal differences
Drying shrinkage, early and long term

How to differentiate among the various causes of volume-change

related cracking:
Appearance
Plastic shrinkage and surface crazing relatively easy to
identify
Thermal and drying shrinkage cracking are similar in
appearance and harder to identify

Time of cracking
Hours after placement – plastic shrinkage cracking or
crazing
Days after placement – thermally induced cracking
Weeks after placement – drying shrinkage cracking

PLASTIC SHRINKAGE CRACKING

Mechanism
Rapid loss of water from flatwork; not typically a concern
for formed concrete
Water loss at the surface is not made up by bleeding
Differential moisture contents develop in the concrete
resulting in differential volume changes resulting in cracking
Most serious concern is during the waiting period after initial
finishing operations and final finishing operations

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Use or non use of the ACI prediction chart
ACI provides a chart that presumes to make predictions on
the likelihood of plastic shrinkage cracking (1,2)
The chart is not that reliable and is based upon assumptions
and measurement requirements that are not frequently correct
Probably better to rely on common sense and experience than
absolute rules

Mitigation
Plastic shrinkage cracking is the easiest of volume change
related cracking to over come
Steps that can be taken to eliminate plastic shrinkage
cracking include the following and are typically referred to
as “curing during the placement”
Keep moisture in the concrete by fogging or covering
with plastic between finishing operations
Use an evaporation retarder, but remember that these
materials are not “finishing aids”
Use synthetic fibers, although the evidence for
prevention of plastic shrinkage cracking is somewhat
conflicting

TEMPERATURE-RELATED CRACKING

More frequently associated with massive structures, but that

assumption is not always correct.

Much thermal cracking is frequently misdiagnosed as drying

shrinkage. Knowing when the concrete cracked is essential to
correct diagnosis.

May be a precursor to later cracking in combination with drying

shrinkage.

Two basic cases to consider

Related to heat of hydration of the concrete
Related to changes in temperature of concrete environment

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Heat of hydration related
Heat of hydration causes expansion, typically without
problems
Expansion on the order of 6 to 13 x 10-6/deg C,
approximately 17 mm/30 m/55 deg C
Problems occur as concrete cools and contracts

Internal versus external restraint

Internal restraint results from the center portion of the
concrete expanding while the outside portion is cooling
Internal restraint may also result from reinforcing steel or
other imbedded materials
External restraint results from the fresh concrete being
bonded to other concrete members or to a sub base in the
case of slabs on ground
External restraint is very common in floors in multi-story
buildings where numerous columns and openings occur

Mitigation of heat of hydration related cracking

Cementitious materials selection
Control of maximum concrete temperature
Control of rate of loss of maximum concrete temperature
Be wary of admixtures
Only way to know what is actually happening in concrete is
to use simple instrumentation
Don’t forget impact of cool nights on hot concrete

Externally generated temperature changes

Concrete heats and expands during the day and cools at night
One side of a structure may be exposed to significant greater
solar heating
Typically seen in highly restrained flatwork; pavement blow
ups

You must take differential thermal movement into account during

design.

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 MOISTURE-RELATED CRACKING (SHRINKAGE)

Actually several mechanisms of which drying shrinkage is

certainly predominate
Drying shrinkage, volume change related to loss of moisture
Autogenous shrinkage, volume change without moisture loss
Carbonation shrinkage, shrinkage resulting from carbonation.
Assumed that HPC will not see this type of shrinkage

Shrinkage seen in a structure is usually a combination of these.

Restraint may be either internal or external as with thermally-

induced cracking.

Autogenous shrinkage
Significance directly related to w/cm, lower equates to more of
a problem
Typically not a concern for w/cm > 0.30
Also may be seen as a precursor to later drying shrinkage

Drying shrinkage
Magnitude – 600 x 10-6, approximately 18 mm/30m
Rate – very slow, most likely will not result in early cracking
with exception of surface crazing. Remember that water will
move out of concrete at a very slow rate.
Early surface drying is seen as crazing. Results from
allowing the surface to dry before beginning any curing.
Only significance is appearance.
Influenced by MOE, rate of moisture loss, creep, degree of
restraint, concrete materials properties
Be wary of water-reducing admixtures, some will actually
increase shrinkage
Differential drying shrinkage from top to bottom of a slab
results in curling

Mitigation of drying shrinkage

Reduce total water content
Reduce paste content, remember what is actually shrinking

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 Look carefully at concrete materials, aggregates and
cementitious materials play a role
Increase size and amount of coarse aggregate
Use a minimum w/cm
Consider a shrinkage-reducing admixture for critical
structures
Use appropriate amount of reinforcing steel to distribute
shrinkage cracking. Typically more than code required
“temperature and shrinkage steel”
Consider prestressing for slabs. Tendons must be stressed at
the appropriate strength
Anticipate shrinkage and cracking – design adequate joints

What about curing? Will probably delay but not necessarily

eliminate cracking

SUMMARY

HPC is more susceptible to cracking. More care must be paid to

prevent cracking.

Rules of physics cannot be ignored – volume reduction must be

accounted for.

Some cracking is inevitable. You can control severity and

distribution of cracking.

Remember that test specimens do not always reflect what happens

in the real world. Size effects play a significant role in this area.

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 REFERENCES

1. ACI 305R-99, “Hot Weather Concreting.”

2. ACI 308R-01, “Guide to Curing Concrete.”