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Introduction to Masonry Structures

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Masonry structures are those structures which are built from individual units laid in and bound

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together by mortar. The term ‘masonry’ can also refer to the units themselves. The common

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materials of masonry construction are bricks, stones, marble, granite, travertine, limestone, cast

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stone, concrete block, glass block, stucco and tile. Constructing with building stones is the

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simplest and one of the oldest building methods in the world.

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Today masonry is still the most used building material. The earliest masonry structures were

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constructed using primitive form of raw materials such as stone units, rammed earth and adobe.

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The structures often were built by placing blocks together without any bonding. The evolution of

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masonry structures has resulted in development of not only more robust materials over the years

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but also more robust technology. The masonry structures are well known for their simplicity in

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construction and economy compared to steel and reinforced concrete structures.
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Use of Masonry Structures

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Masonry is commonly used building material for structural and non-structural purposes.
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Additionally, there is growing interest for masonry structures because of its 3-phase efficiency –
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in production phase, in construction phase and in operation phase. Masonry structures provide
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more comfortable living environment inside which will ultimately reduce the amount of energy
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spent to improve comfort condition of houses built with other materials such as steel. The
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masonry structures are again gaining currency owing to the growing environmental concern.
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Moreover, the appeal of masonry structures for their user comfortability, aesthetic beauty and
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closeness to the nature has attracted many for masonry buildings.

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• Other uses of masonry structures are in arches, partition walls, retaining walls, dams, coffer
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dams, etc.
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• Masonry is also used for finishing works in buildings and also for cladding and roofing.
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• The Hanging Garden, one of the Seven Wonders of the World, is a typical example of
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masonry structure.
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• The Great Wall of China, the largest man-made object on earth; the Hagia Sophia, one of the
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most beautiful churches ever built; The Great Medieval Castle of Marlboro, Portland, which
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 1 of 17
 )
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is the size of a small town; the Taj Mahal, India; and the 1200 miles of sewers which the

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Victorians built under the city of London are some other examples of masonry structures.
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The oldest serving masonry structure is said to be an arch bridge over Meles River at

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Smyrna, Turkey.

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Advantages of Masonry Structures

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i. The use of materials such as bricks and stones can increase the thermal mass of the

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buildings.

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ii. Most types of masonry typically will not require painting and so can provide a structure

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with reduced life-cycle costs.

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iii. Masonry structures are heat resistant and thus provide good fire protection.

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iv. Masonry walls are more resistant to projectiles, such as debris from hurricanes or
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tornadoes.
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v. Masonry structures built in compression preferably with lime mortars can have a useful life
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of more than 500 years as compared to 30 to 100 for structures of steel or reinforced
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concrete.
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Disadvantages of Masonry Structures

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i. Extreme weather causes degradation of masonry wall surfaces due to frost damage. This
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type of damage is common with certain types of bricks, though rare with concrete blocks.
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ii. Masonry tends to be heavy and must be built upon a strong foundation, such as reinforced
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concrete, to avoid settlement and cracking.

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iii. Save for concrete, masonry construction does not lend itself well to mechanization and
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requires more killed labour than stick-framing.

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Structural Limitation
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Masonry boasts an impressive compressive strength (vertical loads) but is much lower in tensile
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strength (twisting or stretching) unless reinforced. The tensile strength of masonry walls can be
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 )
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strengthened by thickening the wall, or by building masonry piers (vertical column or ribs) at

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intervals where practical, steel reinforcement can be added.

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Brick Bond Patterns Used in Masonry Wall Construction

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A brick bond pattern is an arrangement of bricks. It’s usually overlapping between courses

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(course means a row of bricks). Bond patterns are used to distribute load and provide stability to

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a masonry wall. Bonding can also be used for decorative purpose. To construct brick masonry

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wall we use some bond patterns. Masons are familiar with these bond patterns. As a civil

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engineer, we should have a thorough knowledge of the construction of each bond pattern. Below

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are the simple explanations of the traditional brick bond patterns which are mostly used in brick

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wall construction:

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1. Running or Stretcher bond:

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This is the simplest of all bond patterns and also most commonly used pattern. This pattern
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consists of all Stretcher bricks (full bricks) in courses. The Stretchers in alternate courses are
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aligned vertically. It’s easy to lay with little waste.

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Running or Stretcher bond

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2. English bond:

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This pattern consists of alternate courses of headers and stretchers. The headers are centered on

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the stretchers.And the joints between the stretchers in courses are aligned vertically. This bond is

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the strongest bond for the one-brick-thick wall. But, it’s seldom used in masonry today due to the

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high cost of laying a complex pattern.

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English bond
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3. English cross bond:

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This pattern is similar to English bond. But it differs in that vertical joints between the stretchers
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in alternate courses and not align vertically. Sometimes, this bond pattern is also called Dutch
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bond. But, Dutch bond is a little bit different. I’ll show it in another post.
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English cross bond

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4. Flemish bond:

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This is the beautiful bond. Each course of bricks of this bond consists of alternate stretcher and

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header. The headers of each course centered over the stretchers of the course below.

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Flemish bond
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5. Block or Stacked bond:

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There are no overlapping of units of this bond and this bond consists of only stretchers. Each
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stretcher is laid over the stretcher below it. The vertical joints of this bond are aligned vertically.
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Block or Stacked bond

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 )
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6. Rat trap bond

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Rat trap bond is a brick masonry method of wall construction, in which bricks are placed in

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vertical position instead of conventional horizontal position and thus creating a cavity (hollow

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space) within the wall. Architect Laurie Baker introduced it in Kerala in the 1970s and used it

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extensively for its lower construction cost, reduced material requirement and better thermal

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efficiency than conventional masonry wall, without compromising strength of the wall.

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Rat Trap bond

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In Plane Behavior of Masonry Wall/Structure

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Masonry is used in buildings for load bearing walls, for infill panels in framed construction, for

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piers and columns, and for free standing walls. In load-bearing masonry construction walls are

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required to act as shear walls to transfer lateral forces (from earthquake and wind) to the building

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supports. Also, infill panels in framed construction may interact with the surrounding frames to

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resist shear forces from lateral load. In load bearing masonry construction, masonry shear walls

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are subjected to both vertical and lateral loads in the plane of the wall. The typical failure modes

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of load-bearing masonry shear walls include: sliding, diagonal cracking and rocking.

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The mechanisms depend primarily on the geometry of the wall (height/length ratio), on the

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boundary conditions and on the magnitude of vertical loads, and then on the masonry properties.

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Figure 1: Failure modes of masonary wall: (a) sliding; (b) diagonal cracking (through brick units and
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mortar joints); (c) rocking (with toe crushing)

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1. Sliding: In a wall with poor mortar strength or low pre-compression, failure is likely to occur
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by sliding along the bed joints. Sliding occurs when the frictional resistance along the bed joints
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is overcome. Sliding planes may also be formed by the connection of flexural tensile cracks that
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develop during cyclic motions.

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2. Diagonal cracking: In walls with low aspect ratios (height/length) and high axial loads,
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failure is likely to occur by diagonal cracking. Diagonal cracking may occur through the brick
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units or in a stepped pattern through the mortar joints, depending on their relative strengths.
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Under reversing cycles of lateral loading an X-type crack pattern develops (Figure 2).
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 7 of 17
 )
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3. Rocking: In walls with high moment/shear ratios or improved shear resistance the wall may be

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set into a rocking motion, with a combination of uplift at the heel and crushing at the toe.

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Figure 2: Diagonal cracking under cyclic shear loads

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The diagonal cracking failure mode is considered the least favourable failure mode of a masonry
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wall. It is generally characterised by brittle behaviour with a rapid decrease in capacity and
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limited deformations after reaching the peak load.

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Rocking and sliding (along a single horizontal bed joint), on the other hand, are considered
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adequate failure mechanisms when considering deformation capacity, stability and energy
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dissipation. Two to three-storey load-bearing masonry buildings may be able to resist large
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displacements (and perform adequately during an earthquake event) if the primary failure mode
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is rocking or bed-joint sliding.

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Damage to shear walls, during an earthquake, is normally observed in the lower storeys of a
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load-bearing masonry building, where the shear loads and compression loads are the greatest. In
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these walls the most common type of damage is the most brittle failure mode: diagonal cracking
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in an X pattern. Unless major openings or discontinuities are present, damage does not usually
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result in wall collapse. However, damage can cause a large reduction in capacity of the wall
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which adversely affects the response of the whole structure.

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In walls with openings (for windows, doors, etc) damage (commonly diagonal X cracking) is
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concentrated around the openings in the masonry piers and spandrels. The consequences of this
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damage to the overall structural behaviour of the building is often severe. Damage in the piers is
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the most common form of in-plane wall failure in a load bearing masonry structure and can lead
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to soft storey effects, which are catastrophic during an earthquake.

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 )
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Infill panels in framed construction may interact with the surrounding frames to resist shear

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forces from lateral loads. The masonry acts as a compressive strut and substantially stiffens the

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frame. Typical failure of the infill masonry, due to in-plane loads, includes: failure of the

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diagonal compression strut by diagonal cracking; and horizontal sliding failure of the panel (see

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Figure 3). Once failure occurs the stiffening effect to the frame is reduced. Framed construction

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with masonry infill walls is generally more effective against earthquakes than load bearing

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masonry buildings.

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Figure 3: Typical failure mechanisms of masonry infilled frames: (a) horizontal sliding failure along a
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single bed joint; (b) horizontal sliding failures along multiple bed joints; (c) diagonal cracking
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 9 of 17
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Out of Plane Behavior of Masonry Wall/Structure

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Lateral loads applied to a masonry wall cause displacement along the top of the wall. The forces

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are applied normal to the surface of the wall and bring about lateral movement. This results in

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out-of-plane bending and deflection. In masonry structures, poor connections between

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orthogonal walls and vulnerable clamping between bearing walls and floors give rise to the local

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damage mechanism characterized by out-of-plane response.

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One of the main reasons lying behind the demolition of masonry buildings is the collapse of out-

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of-plane walls subjected to face loads, when a timber floor and roof are supported by these walls.

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Robustness of connections (between bearing walls) and the interlock (between bearing walls and

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diaphragms), and the type of diaphragm have a significant effect on the performance of the out

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of plane loaded masonry walls. Under out of plane loads, the responses of walls that have

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different type of diaphragm and connections between them are illustrated in Figure 4 below
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Figure 4. a) inferior wall-to-wall connection and no diaphragm, b) good wall-to-wall connection and ring
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beam with flexible diaphragm, c) good wall-to-wall connection and rigid diaphragm.
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In presence of poor connection between gable end wall sitting at the end of buildings with
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pitched roofs and the roof or ceiling, the wall will act as a free cantilever. Therefore, this
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behavior makes it vulnerable to collapse and causes one of the common sorts of out-of-plane
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failure of gable walls. In addition, out-of-plane demands are largest at the upper level of walls,
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but its capacity is lowest in these areas as vertical loads acting on them decreases. Hence, the
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overturning of walls begins from the top if these are not properly connected to the diaphragm.
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 10 of 17
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A possible out-of-plane failure mechanism for walls in buildings with confined masonry wall is

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similar to that characteristic of a two-way slab supported on all sides and subjected to uniformly

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distributed loading, as shown in Figure 5a. When floors or roof of the building act as flexible

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diaphragms, the walls are unable to transfer out of plane loads to the supporting transverse walls

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and the roof/floor diaphragms. As a result, cracking or even overturning (toppling) of the walls

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might take place. Possible mechanisms for seismic response of confined masonry walls in

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buildings with flexible diaphragms are shown in Figure 5b.

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Figure 5. Mechanisms of failure for confined masonry walls under the out-of-plane loads: a) buildings
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with rigid diaphragms/confined masonary, and b) buildings with flexible diaphragms.

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Safety Components for Masonry walls against of plane forces/failures

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or, strengthening of slender wall against potential failure:

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The resistance of confined masonry walls to out-of-plane forces/failures can be enhanced in one

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of the following ways:

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a) by providing a rigid RC tie-beam at the top of the wall,

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b) by providing an intermediate RC tie-beam at lintel/sill levels, or

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c) by connecting the walls to the RC tie-columns through horizontal dowels which are

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specifically designed to transfer the out-of-plane loads.

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In buildings with flexible diaphragms, it is necessary to provide a rigid RC tie-beam at the top of

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each wall. The tie-beam must be able to resist significant lateral load and transfer it to the

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transverse walls, otherwise excessive damage and/or collapse of the wall could take place. This
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can be achieved by limiting the L/b ratio, where L denotes the span of the wall (the distance
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between the adjacent transverse walls) and b denotes its thickness.

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Unless specific design calculations are performed to confirm the out-of-plane wall resistance, the
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following requirements must be followed for confined masonry buildings with flexible
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diaphragms:
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1. Roof and floor must be light-weight, e.g. made of timber or thin cold-formed steel sheets
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(also known as corrugated galvanized iron sheets).

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2. The building height should not exceed two stories for regions of moderate seismic
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hazard, and one story for regions of high and very high seismicity.
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3. The L/b ratio should not exceed the following values:

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a) for regions of moderate seismicity: 25 for one-story buildings, and 20 for two-story
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buildings.
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b) for regions of high or very high seismicity: the limit is set to 20 (irrespective of the
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building height).
Note that L denotes the distance between the adjacent transverse walls when L/h ≥
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1.0, otherwise the wall height h should be used instead of L (see Figure 52 b for the
notation).
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4. The minimum width of a RC tie-beam, b, must not be less than the following values:
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 12 of 17
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•

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20 cm
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L/30 for regions of moderate seismicity, and
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L/20 for regions of high and very high seismicity.

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Out-of-plane resistance of confined masonry wall panels can also be enhanced by providing

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horizontal dowels or intermediate RC tie-beams (bands). It is preferred to provide intermediate

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RC tie-beams shown in Figure 6. It is challenging to ensure adequate embedment of horizontal

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steel dowels in thin mortar joints, and there is a high chance for the occurrence of corrosion.

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Note that the thickness of sill and lintel bands is less than that of RC tie-beams, as illustrated in

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Figure 6.

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Figure 6. Intermediate RC tie-beams (bands) can be provided to enhance the out-of-plane wall
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resistance.
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Also, Pilaster or Buttress are also provided to increase the stiffness of the wall to carry a out of
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plane load as shown in figure 7 below:

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Figure 7. Pilaster and Buttress as part of wall .

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 13 of 17
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Slenderness Ratio of Masonry Wall

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Slenderness ratio is ratio of effective height or effective length to effective thickness of a

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masonry wall.

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Effective Height

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The height of a wall to be considered for calculating slenderness ratio.

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Effective Height of Walls

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S.N. Condition Of Support Effective

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Height

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Lateral as well as rotational restraint (that is, full restraint) at top and

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bottom. For example, when the floor/roof spans on the walls so that

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reaction to load of floor/roof is provided by the walls, or when an

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1 0.75H
RCC floor/roof has bearing on the wall (minimum 9 cm ), art
irrespective of the direction of the span (foundation footings of a wall
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give lateral as well as rotational restraint).

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Lateral as well as rotational restraint (that is, full restraint) at one end
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and only lateral restraint (that is, partial restraint) at the other. For
2 example, RCC floor/roof at one end spanning or adequately bearing 0.85H
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on the wall and timber floor/roof not spanning on wall, but

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adequately anchored to it, on the other end.

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Lateral restraint, without rotational restraint (that is, partial restraint)

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on both ends. For example, timber floor/roof, not spanning on the

3 1.00H
wall but adequately anchored to it on both ends of the wall, that is,
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top and bottom.

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Lateral restraint as well as rotational restraint at bottom but have no

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restraint at the top. For example, parapet walls, on RCC roof with
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4 1.50H
slab having adequate bearing on the lower wall, or a compound wall
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with proper foundation on the soil.

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NOTE 1 -H is the height of wall between centers of support in case of RCC slabs and timber floors. In
case of footings or foundation block, height (H) is measured from top of footing or foundation block. In
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case of roof truss, height (H) is measured up to bottom of the tie beam. In case of beam and slab
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construction, height should be measured from centre of bottom slab to centre of top beam.
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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 14 of 17
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NOTE 2 - For working out effective height, it is assumed that concrete DPC, when properly bonded with

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masonry, does not cause discontinuity in the wall.

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NOTE 3 - Where membrane type damp-proof course or termite shield causes a discontinuity in bond, the

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effective height of wall may be taken to be greater of the two values calculated as follows:

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a) Consider H from top of footing ignoring DPC and take effective height as 0.75H

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b) Consider H from top of DPC and take effective height as 0.85H.

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NOTE 4 - When assessing effective height of walls, floors not adequately anchored to walls shall not be

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considered as providing lateral support to such walls.

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NOTE 5 - when thickness of a wall bonded to a pilaster is at least two-thirds the thickness of the pilaster

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measured in the same direction, the wall and pilaster may be deemed to act as one structural element.

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Effective Length

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It is the length of a wall to be considered for calculating slenderness ratio.

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Effective Length of Walls
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S.N. Condition Of Support Effective

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Height
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Where a wall is continuous and is supported by cross wall, and there

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is no opening within a distance of H/8 from the face of cross wall

1 0.8L
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OR
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Where a wall is continuous and is supported by pilaster /buttresses.

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Where a wall is supported by a cross wall at one end and continuous

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with cross wall at other end

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2 OR 0.9L
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Where a wall is supported by a pilaster /buttress at one end and

continuous with pilaster /buttress at other end.
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Where a wall is supported at each end by cross wall

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3 OR 1.0L
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Where a wall is supported at each end by a pilaster /buttress

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 15 of 17
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Where a wall is free at one end and is continuous with a cross wall at

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the other end

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4 OR 1.50L

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Where a wall is free at one end and continuous with a pilaster

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/buttress at the other end

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Where a wall is free at one end and supported at the other end by a

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cross wall

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5 OR 2.0L

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Where a wall is free at one end and supported at the other end by a

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pilaster / buttress.

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NOTE – 1. In case there is an opening taller than 0.5 H in a wall, ends of the wall at the opening shall be

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considered as free.

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Effective Thickness
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It is the thickness of a wall to be considered for calculating slenderness ratio. Effective thickness
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to be used for calculating slenderness ratio of a wall or column shall be obtained as below:
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a) For solid walls, faced walls or columns, effective thickness shall be the actual thickness
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b) For solid walls adequately bonded into pilaster /buttresses, effective thickness for determining
slenderness ratio based on effective height shall be the actual thickness of wall multiplied by
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stiffening coefficient as given in Table below. No modification in effective thickness, however,

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shall be made when slenderness ratio is to be based on effective length of walls.

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Stiffening Coefficient For Walls Stiffened By Pilasters, Buttresses or Cross Walls

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Stiffening coefficient
S.N. Sp/wp
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tp/tw = 1 tp/tw = 2 tp/tw = 3 or more

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1 6 1.0 1.4 2.0

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2 8 1.0 1.3 1.7

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3 10 1.0 1.2 1.4

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4 15 1.0 1.1 1.2

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5 20 or more 1.0 1.0 1.0

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 16 of 17
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where

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Sp = centre-to-centre spacing of the pilaster or cross wall,

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tp = the thickness of pilaster
tw = actual thickness of the wall proper

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wp = width of the piers pilaster in the direction

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of the wall or the actual thickness of the

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cross wall.
NOTE - Linear interpolation between the values given in this table is permissible but not

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extrapolation outside the limits given.

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c) For solid walls or faced walls stiffened by cross walls, appropriate stiffening coefficient may be

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determined from Table above on the assumption that walls are equivalent to pilaster of width

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equal to the thickness of the cross wall and of thickness equal to three times the thickness of

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stiffened wall.

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d) For cavity walls with both leaves of uniform thickness throughout, effective thickness should be
taken as two-thirds the sum of the actual thickness of the two leaves.

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e) For cavity walls with one or both leaves adequately bonded into piers, buttresses or cross walls

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at intervals, the effective thickness of the cavity wall shall be two-thirds the sum of the effective

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thickness of each of the two leaves; the effective thickness of each leaf being calculated using a or

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Collected & Prepared By: Er. Sanjay Kumar Sah (Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering, Pulchowk Campus) Page 17 of 17