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Annamalai University: M.Sc. Mathematics
Annamalai University: M.Sc. Mathematics
Annamalai University: M.Sc. Mathematics
2021
nd
2 Proof dated 18.10.2021
All Corrected : As on 23.10.2021
Fit for printing after alignment.
By
Dr. P. Manoharan 9994545666
Dr. J. Jayaraj 9994045676
018E1110
1 - 10
ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
M.Sc. Mathematics
First Semester
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
LESSONS : 1 - 10
Copyright Reserved
(For Private Circulation Only)
M.Sc. MATHEMATICS
FIRST SEMESTER
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
Editorial Board
Members
Dr.Nirmala P. Ratchagar
Dean
Faculty of Science and
Professor of Mathematics
Annamalai University
Annamalainagar
Internals
Lesson Writers
M.Sc. MATHEMATICS
FIRST YEAR
ABSTRACT ALGEBRA
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
1.1. INTRODUCTION
In this Lesson basic notations of sets and mapping, cartesion product, Binary
operations, permutation and its degree, equivalence relation, partial order relation,
equivalence class are discussed with suitable examples.
1.2. OBJECTIVES
Sets and mapping, Cartesian product, Binary operations, permutation and its
degree, equivalence relation, partial order relation, equalance class are explained in
detail.
1.3. CONTENTS
1.3.1. Definition : Sets - Mapping
1.3.2 Definition: Cartesian Product
1.3.3 Binary Operation
1.3.4 Definition: Permutation and its degree
1.3.5 Definition: Equivalence relation and Partial order relation
1.3.6 Definition: Equivalence Class
1.3.1 DEFINITION : SETS -MAPPING
The union of the two sets A and B written as AB={ x| xA or xB } is a set
and the intersection of the two sets A and B, written as AB = { x|xA and xB} is
also a set.
For any two sets A, B, the difference A-B = { xA| xB } is a set. For example,
if A = {1, 2, 5, 6, 7} and B = {1, 2, 3, 6, 8} then AB = {1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8},
AB = {1, 2, 6}, A – B = {5, 7} and B – A = {3, 8}.
Given the universal set X and the set A, the complement of A written as A is
the set : { xX | xA}. i.e. A = X – A. Two sets A and B are said to be equal if and
only if A B and B A.
The following fundamental properties of union, intersection and complements
can be easily proved. (Here, A, B, C denote arbitrary sets)
(a) AB = BA and AB = BA (commutativity of and )
(b) A(BC) = (AB)C and A(BC) = (AB)C (associativity of and )
(c) A(BC) = (AB)(AC) (Distributivity of over )
(d) A(BC) = (AB)(AC) (Distributivity of over )
(e) (A B) = A B and (A B) = A B (De Morgan’s law)
1.3.2 DEFINITION: CARTESIAN PRODUCT
Let A, B are two given sets. Then their Cartesian product is defined as the set
of all ordered pairs (a, b) where aA and bB. The Cartesian product is denoted
2
by A B. We declare the pair (a 1, b 1) to be equal to (a2, b2) if and only if a1= a2 and
b1= b2.
A mapping from one set S into another set T is a rule that associates with
each element s in S a unique element t in T. Let φ be a mapping from S to T. We
often denote this by writing.
φ
φ : S T or S T, if tT is the image of sS under φ . We represent this
fact by φ (s) = t. The set of all φ - images of the elements of S will be denoted by
the symbol φ (S).
We may thus write φ (S) = {(x)|xS}. Clearly (S) T. S is called the Domain
and T is called the Co-domain and (S) is called the range of φ .
1.3.2.1 Equality of Mappings
Two mappings φ and f of S into T are said to be equal if and only if φ (s) = f(s)
for every sS.
Definition
The mapping φ :S T is said to be onto if for a given t T, there exists an
element s S such that φ (s) = t.
An onto mapping is also called a Surjective mapping.
Example
Let Z denotes the set of all integers. Define : ZZ by (x)=x+3 for xZ. Then
is onto.
Definition
The mapping of S into T is said to be one-to-one (briefly 1-1), if for any
s1, s2 S such that s1 s2 then (s1) (s2) ( otherwise if (s1) = (s2) then s1 = s2 )
A one-to-one mapping is also called injective mapping.
Example
Let Z denote the set of all integers. Define f: Z Z by f(x) = 2x. Then clearly f is
a one-to-one mapping ( but not onto.).
Definition
A one-to-one and onto mapping of a set onto another set is called a bijective
mapping.
It is easy to see that when a mapping is defined between two finite sets, then
is surjective if and only if is injective. The above result is false when the sets
are not finite.
1.3.2.2 Inverse Mapping
Let f be a one-to-one mapping of a set S onto T. Let y be a member of T. Since f
is onto there exists at least one member x of S such that y = f(x). Since f is one-to-
one, the member x of S is unique for the given y.
3
Thus we can define a mapping of T into S which associates to each yS
(uniqueness and existence of x is seen) such that f(x) = y. This mapping is called the
inverse of f and is denoted by f-1. Clearly f-1 is also well defined, one one and onto.
Thus if f: ST is a one one and onto, then f-1: TS is given by f-1(t) = s where
f(s) = t.
1.3.2.3 Definition: Composition of Mappings
If : S T and : T U, then the composition (also known as the product) of
and is the mapping ( • ) : S U defined by (•) (s) = ((s)) for every sS.
We list below some of the essential properties satisfied by composition of
mappings and they are easily established from definitions.
Property I
: ST and : T U, then
(a) (•) is onto if both and are onto.
(b) is necessarily onto if • is onto.
(c) (•) is one-to-one if both and are one-to-one.
(d) is necessarily one to one if (•)is one-to-one.
Property II
The product of mappings is associative. That is, if : ST, : TU and
: UC then (•)•=• (•)
Property III
If : S T be a one-to-one and onto mapping and -1 is the inverse of then
-1•= iT and •-1 =is where is : SS and iT : TT are identity mappings (in fact
bijective mappings) defined by is(s) = s, it(t)= t, V sS and tT. In particular taking
T = S the inverse of any bijective map : SS has the property -1 • = •-1 = is
With the above properties in mind, one can obtain the following facts relating to the
set A(S) of all bijective mapping of any non empty set S:
(a) If ,A(S) then • A(S).
(b) • (•) =(•) • for any , , A (S)
(c) i•i A (S) and •i = i • = for all A(S)
(d) For any A (S), -1 A(S) such that •-1 = -1•=I.
Because of the above properties, it will be mean later that A(S) becomes a group
under composition as the binary operation. This group A(S) turns out to be an
important example of a group, as much as that any group can be identified later with
one such group A(S) for a suitable set S. You may be aware of notions of binary
operation defined on a set S and also of a group. We will deal with these notions in
detail in the second lesson, though we formally give the definition of Binary operation.
1.3.3 BINARY OPERATION
A Binary operation on a set S is a rule which associates for every ordered pair
of elements a, b in S an element c in S. Thus it is a map from SSS.
4
1.3.4 DEFINITION: PERMUTATION AND ITS DEGREE
A bijective mapping on a finite set S is called a permutation on S. The Degree
of the permutation is nothing but the number of elements in the finite set S. The
set of all permutations of the set S of n elements is denoted by Sn. It may be seen
that the number of members in the set S is n!
If S = (a1, a2 … … … an) then a permutation of S is sometimes conveniently
represented by the symbol
GROUP THEORY
2.1. INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, group, abelian group, cyclic group, multiplication modulo m,
subgroup, right coset, left coset are defined and examples are given. Some problems
are solved. Lagranger’s theorem, Euler’s theorem, Fermat’s theorem are stated and
proved. Some problems related to these are also solved.
2.2 OBJECTIVE
Group, abelian group, cyclic group, subgroup are defined and suitable examples
are given. Lagrange’s theorem is stated and proved. Euler’s theorem, Fermat’s
theorem are also proved. Some problems related to these theorem are also solved.
2.3. CONTENTS
2.3.1 Definition : Group
2.3.2 Definition : Abelian Group
2.3.3 Definition : Cyclic Group
2.3.4 Definition : Multiplication modulo m
2.3.5 Definition : Sub-group
2.3.6 Definition : Right coset of H in G
2.3.7 Definition : Left coset of H in G
2.3.8 Legrange’s Theorem
2.3.9 Corollary : (Euler’s Theorem)
2.3.10 Corollary : (Fermat’s Theorem)
2.3.1 DEFINITION - GROUP
A non-empty set G together with a binary operation ‘.’, is said to be a group, if
(G, .) satisfies the following axioms:
(i) For any a, b G, a.b G (closure)
(ii). For any a, b, c G, a. (b.c) = (a.b).c (associative law)
(iii). There exists an element c G such that a.e. = e.a. = a for all a G (the
existence of an identity in G).
(iv). For every a G there exists an element a-1 G such that a.a-1 = a-1a =
e (the existence of inverse in G).
Note:
1. Notation-- < G, . >
2. The closure axiom (1) is redundant in as much as this axiom is implied even
in the definition of the binary operation ‘.’.
3. A set G together with the binary operation, satisfies the conditions (i) and (ii)
stated above is called a semi-group. We already seen that the set A(S)
together with the binary operation “composition of maps” satisfies the above
8
four conditions and hence A(S) becomes a group under composition of maps.
Still we can find elements ,fA(S) such that •f f•. This enables us to
single out a special class of groups.
2.3.2 DEFINITIONS : ABELIAN GROUP
A group G is said to be an Abelian Group (or commutative group) if a.b = b.a
for every a, b G
The number of elements in a group G is called the order of the group G and
denoted by O(G). If the group G has only a finite number of elements then we say G
is a finite.
Immediate Consequences from the Definition
(1) The following lemma can be proved from the definition.
Lemma 3.2.1
If G is a group then
(a) The identity elements of G is unique
(b) Every a G has a unique Inverse in G.
(c) For every a G, (a-1)-1=a
(d) For all a, b G, (ab)-1 = b-1 a-1.
(II) General Associative Law
Since in a group G, the associative law for three elements is true, it can
be shown that all the possible products of any finite set of elements of G arrived at
by different ways of parenthesizing are equal. For example if we consider an ordered
set {a1, a2, a3, a4} of four elements of G, then the following four products are
equal.
{ { {a1, a2 } a3 } a4 } , {a1 { { a2, a3 } a4 } } {a1 {a2, {a3 a4 }}}. Hence if we consider the
product of n elements each equal to a. This product is independent of the manner
of parenthesizing and there is a unique value of the product. We shall denote this
product by the symbol an.
n
Thus a i a n (n being a positive integer and ai = a for all i)
i 1
n 1
We also define a0 = e and a {( a )}n and we note that the inverse of an is(an)-1
The laws of indices also can be verified, namely;
am. an=am+n = an+m = an.am
(am)n = amn. (Here m and n are any integers)
Example of groups
Example 3.2.2
Let G consist of the integers, 0, 1, 2 … and let the binary operation be the
usual addition of integers. Then G becomes a group in which 0 plays the role of e
and – a that of a-1.
9
Example 3.2.3
The set of all non-zero rational numbers is a group under the binary operation
1
“the usual multiplication”, in which ‘1’ plays the role of e and that of a-1.
a
Example 3.2.4
Let G = {1, -1}. Under the multiplication of real numbers, G forms a group of
order 2.
Example 3.2.5
S3 (the set of all permutations of 3 elements) forms a group under the binary
operation ‘composition’.
Example 3.2.6
Let n be any integer. We construct a group of order n as follows. G will
consist of all symbols ai, i = 0, 1, 2,…(n-1) where we to insists that a0 = an = e;
ai aj =ai+j ; if (i + j) n and ai . aj = ai+j-n ; if (i + j) > n. It can be easily verified that
G is a group. It is a cyclic group of order n, as per the following definition.
2.3.3 DEFINITION: CYCLIC GROUP
In a group, if every element can be expressed as some power of any particular
element of the group, then the group is called cyclic group and that element is
called a generator for the cyclic group. ■
Example 3.3.1
The set of all n, nth roots of unity with multiplication as composition is a finite
cyclic group, n being any positive integer. The following lemma can be easily proved.
Lemma 3.3.2
Given a, b in the group G, then the equations ax = b and ya = b have unique
solutions for x and y in G. In particular, the two cancellation laws au = aw implies
u =w (left cancellation law) and ua = wa implies u = w (right cancellation ) hold in G. ■
Now let us solve some problems.
Problem 1
If G is a group in which (ab)i = ai bi for three consecutive integers i for all
a b G then G is abelian.
Solution
Let (ab)i = ai bi …(1)
Then
(ab)i+1 = ai+1 b i+1 …(2)
Similarly
(ab)i+2 = ai+2 b i+2 …(3)
From the last we have
(ab)i+1 (ab) = ai+2 bi+2
10
ai+1 bi+1 a = ai+2 b i+1 (By (2) and the right cancellation of b)
aib i ba = ai+1 bi+1 (By the left cancellation of a)
(ab)i ba = (ab)i (ab) From (1) and (2).
By left cancellation law, we get
ba = ab. Hence G is a abelian. ■
Problem 2
Let G be a nonempty set closed under an associative operation and satisfies
the following.
(i) There exists an eG such that ae = a for all a G.
(ii) Given a G there exists an element y G such that ay = e
Then G is a group under this product.
Solution
To prove G is a group, it suffice to show that, (1)e is also left identity i.e. ea = a
for all a in G and (2) all right inverse is also a left inverse, i.e. ay = e ya = e.
First we will show that if ay = e then ya = e also. By (ii) for a given y we can
find y1 in G such that yy1 = e.
Consider yayy1 = y(ay)y1 = (ye)y1= yy1 = e
But yayy1 = ya(yy1) = y(ae) = ya
Therefore ya = e
Hence ay = ya = e.
Therefore all right inverse is also a left inverse.
Now we have ae = a. Just now we proved that for given a, there exists y such
that ay = ya = e.
Hence, ea = (ay) a
= a (ya)
= ae = a.
Thus, e is also a left identity. ■
Hence we can take the condition stated in the problem 2 as the alternative
definition of a group.
Thus we have Alternative Definition No.1 (for a group)
Alternative Definition No. 1 for a group: If G is a semi-group in which
atleast one right identity exists and for every element in G, there exists atleast one
right inverse with respect to the right identity, then G is a group.
Note: In the above definition we may replace and word “right” by the word
“left” throughout and we obtain an analogous definition for a group.
Problem 3
Prove, by an example, that the conclusion of the problem 2 is false if we
assume that
11
(a) There exists an eG such that ae = a for all aG.
(b) Given a in G, there exists y in G such that ya = e.
Solution
1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1
f4
2 3
1 2 3, f 1 2 3
, f5
f1 ; f ; f
1 2 3 2 1 3 2 3 3 2 1 2 1 3 2 3 1 6 3 1 2
If H = {f1, f2}, K = {f3, f 5} then H, K are sub-groups. HK = {f1, f2, f 3, f 5}. Since HK
contains four elements and 4 does not divide 6 [6 being the order of S3], we can
immediately conclude from Lagrange’s theorem that HK cannot be a sub-group.
Our aim is to find when this HK will become a subgroup. The following lemma
answer this question.
Lemma 3.10.1
If H and K are subgroups of a group G, then HK is a sub-group of G if and only
if HK = KH.
Proof
First let us assume that HK = KH (i.e.) if hH, kK, then we can find some
h1, h2 H and k 1, k 2 K such that hk = k 1 h1 and kh = k2h2. We will show that HK
is a sub-group. For that we have to show that HK is closed and every element in HK
has its inverse in HK. Suppose x = hk HK and y = hk HK. Then xy = h(kh)k.
Since kh KH = HK, we can find hH and kK such that kh = h1k1. Therefore xy
= h(h1k 1)k = (hh1) (k 1 k) HK [Since h h1 H, k1 kK, H, K being subgroups).
Hence HK is closed. Also x-1 = (hk)-1 = k-1h -1 KH = HK. So x-1 HK. Thus HK is a
subgroup of G.
Conversely let us assume that HK in a sub-group of G.
Now we will show that HK = KH.
For any hH, kK, (h-1k-1) HK and so kh = (h-1k-1)-1 HK, as HK is sub-group.
Thus KH HK . Similarly we can prove that HK KH. Thus HK = KH. ■
Corollary 3.10.2
If H, K are sub-groups of an abelian group G, then HK is sub-group of G.
Theorem 3.10.3
If H and K are finite sub-groups of a group G of orders O(H) and O(K)
respectively then.
O(H)O(K)
O(HK) =
O(H K)
Proof
In this proof, we have two separate cases as HK = {e} and HK contains more
than one element.
Case(i) : Let us assume that HK = {e}. In that case we will show that O(HK) = O(H)O(K).
Suppose this is not true, then among the elements of HK, atleast two elements, h1k1
18
and hk are equal for different elements h,h1H (i.e.) kh = h1k 1. That is h1-1h = k1k-1. Clearly
h1-1h H, since k1 k1-1 K also. Therefore h1-1h H K. Therefore h1-1h=e. Hence h = h1
which is a contradiction. Therefore O(HK) = O(H) O(K).
Case (ii) : Let us assume that HK contains more than one element. Out aim is to
find how may elements are repeated in HK. We will show that it is only O(HK).
Let h1 H K and h H and k K.
Then hk = (hh1 (h1-1k). Clearly hh1 H. Since h1-1 HK, HK being a sub-
group h1-1 K. Hence h1-1H and h1-1kK. Since h1 is arbitrary in HK, hk may be
written in yet another form (hh2) (h2-1k) by taking some other element h1 HK.
Thus hk is duplicated in the product atleast O(HK) times. However if hk = h1k 1
then h-1h 1 = k(k 1)-1 = u and u HK. Now h1=hu, h1 – u-1k so that h1k 1=(hu) u-1k
where u HK. Hence hk is repeated at the most O(HK) times. Thus the number
of distinct elements in HK is the total number in the listing of HK that is O(H).
O(K) divided by the number of times a given element appears, namely O(HK).
O(H)O(K)
Thus O(HK) = ■
O(H K)
Aliter
HK is a subset of G. O(HK) denotes the number of distinct elements of H.
Let L = HK. L is a subgroup of G and L K.
Therefore L is a subgroup of K.
The number of distinct right cosets of L in K is finite and = m (say) ( K is
finite). Let the cosets be
Lk1, Lk2, … Lkm
By Lagrange’s Theorem
O(K)
m=
O(HK)
K = Lk1 Lk2 … Lkm
HK = HLk 1 HLk2 … HLkm
= Hk1 Hk2 … Hkm ( Since L H HL = H)
Claim: Hk1, Hk2 … Hkm are pair wise distinct.
For, if Hki = Hkj k ik j-1 H
k ik j-1 H K (Since ki, k j K kikj-1 K)
k i = kj ( Since Lk1, … Lkm are distinct)
Thus Hk1…Hk m distinct right cosets and so they are pair wise disjoint. The number
of elements in each of them = the number of elements in H. ( Since H itself is a
right coset)
Therefore O(HK) = m × the number of elements in each right coset
19
= m O(H)
O(K )
= O(H)
O(L )
O(H) O(K )
= ■
O(H K )
Corollary 3.10.4
If H and K are sub-groups of G and O(H) > O(G ) , O(K) > O(G ) ,then
H K {e}.
Proof: Since HK G, O(HK) < O(G)
But we have
HOMOMORPHISM
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this Lesson, normal subgroup, coset multiplication, homomorphism, kernel
of homomorphism, Isomorphism, Cauchy’s theorem for abelian group, sylow’s
theorem for abelian group, automorphism, Inner homomorphism, center of a group
are discussed in detail with suitable examples and some problems are solved.
In the previous lesson, we have seen about the right cosets and left cosets of a
subgroup. We can easily see that for some subgroups, the notion of left coset
coincides with that of right coset, whereas for some subgroups these conceptions
may differ. The subgroups for which the right coset and left coset coincide are
distinguished and we will see about them now.
3.2 OBJECTIVES
Normal subgroup, coset multiplication, homomorphism, kernel of
homomorphism, Isomorphism, Cauchy’s theorem for abelian group, Taylor’s
theorem for abelian group, Automorphism, Inner automorphism, Center of a group
are discussed in detail.
3.3 CONTENTS
3.3.1 Normal subgroup
3.3.2 Coset Multiplication
3.3.3 Kernel of a Homomorphism
3.3.4 Theorem : Cauchy’s Theorem
3.3.5 Theorem on Abelian Groups
3.3.6 Automorphism
3.3.7 Inner Automorphism
3.3.8 Center of a Group
3.3.1 DEFINITION : NORMAL SUBGROUP
A subgroup N of G is said to be a normal subgroup of G if for every g in G and
n in N, gng-1 N.
It is clear from the definition that N is a normal subgroup of G if and only if
gNg-1 N for every g in G, where gNg-1 = {gng-1 : n N}.
3.3.1.1 Lemma
N is a normal subgroup of G if and only if gNg-1 = N for every g in G.
Proof
Let gNg-1 = N for every g in G.
Then gNg-1 N and hence N is a normal subgroup of G.
Conversely let N be a Normal subgroup of G.
22
1 1 1 1 1
Then for g G, gNg-1 N and g Ng g N g N g G
Consider N = g g-1 N gg-1 = g(g-1Ng)g1 gNg-1 N. Therefore gNg-1 = N. ■
3.3.1.2 Lemma
The subgroup N of G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if every left coset of
N in G is a right coset of N in G.
Proof
Let N be a normal subgroup of G. Then for every g, gNg-1 = N. Hence
(gNg )g = Ng. So gN = Ng. Hence the left coset gN is same as the right coset Ng.
-1
G
For that, take three elements X, Y, Z .
N
G
Now N = Ne and NNa = (Ne)(Na) = N (ea) = Na
N
G
NNa= Na which shows that N acts as an identity in
N
24
G G
Finally, for any X = Na , the inverse of X is Na-1 ,
N N
G
Thus becomes a group. ■
N
Note: (1). This group of cosets of N in G is called the Quotient group or factor
G G
group of G and is denoted by . (2). This Quotient group is abelian,
N N
whenever G is abelian
3.3.2.3 Lemma
G 0(G)
If G is a finite group and N is a normal subgroup of G, then O = .
N 0(N)
Proof
G 0(G )
If G is a finite group then will have precisely distinct cosets. Hence
N 0(N)
G 0(G )
O = .■
N 0( N )
We shall now study the notion of Homomorphism, by which we mean a
mapping from one algebraic system to a algebraic system which preserves
structure.
3.3.2.4 Definition
Let G = Z be the additive group of integers and G = G. For x G, define such
that (x) = 2x. Then is a homomorphism.
3.3.2.7 Example
Let G be the group of non-zero real numbers under multiplication of real
numbers. Let G = {1, -1} be the group under the same multiplication.
(i) (e) = e where e is the unit element in G and e is the unit element in G .
1
(ii) φ x 1 φ(x) for all x G
(x). (x-1) = e
(x-1)=[(x)]-1 ■
Lemma 3.3.2 tells us that the kernel of any homomorphism will not be empty,
as it certainly contains the unit element of G. The next lemma tells, more about
this kernel.
26
3.3.3.3 Lemma
Let be a homomorphism of G into G with kernel K. Then K is a normal
subgroup of G.
Proof
First let us prove that K is a subgroup. To show this it is enough if we prove
that K is closed under multiplication and has inverse in it for every element
belonging to K. If x, y K, then (x) = e = (y), where e is the unit element in G .
(x) = (y)
(Kx) = (Ky) (by definition of ).
Finally is a homomorphism. Since ((Kx) (Ky)) = (Kxy) = (xy) = (x) (y) =
G
(Kx) (Ky). Thus is an isomorphism of onto G and the claim is established.To
K
G
see the converse, consider the natural mapping : G given by v(x) Kx .Clearly
H
v is surjective and since, for x, y G, v(xy) = Kxy = (Kx) (Ky) = v(x) v(y), v is a
G
homomorphism of G onto . Moreover the kernel of this homomorphism v is K,
K
28
G
since x is in the kernel of v iff vx = K the identity element of which is possible
K
iff Kx = K, which again is possible iff x K. Thus the converse is also established. ■
Note: For xG, since (•v)(x) = (v(x)) = (Kx) = (x), we find that •v = yields
the factorization of the given surjective homomorphism as a product of the
natural homomorphism v and an isomorphism . This fact is exhibited in the
following commutative diagram.
G
G
v
6
G
K
G
When the mapping is not surjective the same p of will show that is
K
isomorphic with (G), the image of G under . Before proving the next theorem, viz.
Cauchy’s Theorem for Abelian groups, let us solve some (five) problems involving
the notions of normal sub-groups quotient groups and group homomorphism.
Problem 1
If N is a normal subgroup of a group G and H is any subgroup of G, prove that
NH is a subgroup of G.
Solution
Since N and H are subgroups of G, to prove that NH is a subgroup of G, it is
enough if we show NH = HN, (in view of a theorem proved in Lesson 2). Now N is a
normal subgroup of G and so for any gG, Ng = gN. Hence, in particular, for hH,
Nh = hN which immediately implies that NH = HN, as desired. Hence the problem is
solved. ■
Note: If H is also normal in G, we can show that NH is also a normal subgroup
of G.
Problem 2
Let A and B are normal subgroups of a group G such that AB = {e}. Prove
that, ab = ba for a A, b B,
Solution
To prove ab = ba, it is enough if we show that a-1 b-1 ab = e.
29
For this reason the element a-1b-1 ab is called the commutator of a and b.
Since AB = {e}, to prove a-1b-1 ab = e, it is enough if we show that a-1b-1 ab AB.
Since a A and A is normal in G, b -1 ab A and a-1 A, A being a subgroup, so
that a-1b-1 ab = a-1(b-1ab) A. Again, since bB, b-1 B and since B is a normal
subgroup of G, a-1b-1a B so that a-1b-1 ab = (a-1b -1a)bB. Thus a-1b-1 ab AB={e},
and hence a-1b -1 ab=e ab=ba for all aA and bB. ■
Problem 3
If a group G has no proper non-trivial subgroup, then show that G must be a
finite cyclic group of prime order.
Solution
First we show that G must be a cyclic group and it can be generated by any
element a of G, provided a e. Then, we will show that G is necessarily finite and is
of prime order. Let a G and a e and so H is a non-trivial subgroup of G. Thus
the group G must be cyclic and can be generated by any element a of G, with a e.
Now we claim that G cannot be an infinite cyclic group. For if a is a generator of G,
then no other power of a other than a and a -1 can generate G. This means, that the
subgroup H = (am), viz. the cyclic subgroup generated by a m where m = 1 or m = – 1
will be a proper, non-trivial subgroup. This is impossible as G has no proper, non-
trivial subgroup. This is impossible as G has no proper, non trivial subgroup. Thus
G must be a finite cyclic group of order, say, n. We claim that this order n must be
a prime, for otherwise, if d is a (positive) proper divisor of n and G = (a) then the
cyclic subgroup generated by ad will be a proper, non-trivial subgroup of G. [This is
because, o a d n
d
n ]. Hence the problem is solved. ■ (The fact proved in this
problem will be used in the proof of Cauchy’s Theorem for Abelian groups ).
Problem 4.
If a group G has an endomorphism : G G defined by (g) = g for g G, prove
that G must be abelian (A homomorphism of a group G into itself is called an
endomorphism of G)
Solution
If a, b G, then (ab) = (a) (b), being an endomorphism of G. This means
that (ab)2 = a2 b2, and hence we can get ba = ab. Hence G is abelian. ■
Similarly it can be shown that if G has an endomorphism : G G defined by
(g) = g-1ng then G is abelian. Here it may be noted that such an endomorphism of
G, if exists, is actually an automorphism of G, i.e. an isomorphism of G onto G.
PROBLEM 5
NM N
If N and M are normal subgroups of G, prove that .
M NM
The result of this problem is some times referred to as the Second
Isomorphism theorem for groups, the first isomorphism theorem being the
fundamental Homomorphism theorem for groups
30
Solution
Since N and M are normal subgroups of G, NM = MN and NM is a (normal)
subgroup of G and hence it is a group . Since M is a normal subgroup of G and
NM
since M NM (obviously) M is a normal subgroup of the group NM, is a
M
quotient group, whose elements are the cosets (nm)M, where n N, m M and
since m M, these cosets can be taken as nM with n N.
NM
Now, consider the mapping : N defined by (n) = nM, for n N. Since
M
NM
any element in is a coset of the form nM, with n N, we find that this
M
mapping is a well defined surjective mapping. Further, if n1, n 2 N then
(n1n 2) = (n1n2) M = (n1M) (n2M) = (n1) (n2) so that this mapping turn to be a
(surjective) homomorphism. If n is in the kernel of , then n (n) = M, the
NM
identity element of nM = M n NM. Thus K = NM and so, by the
M
N NM
fundamental theorem of homomorphism , we get that .■
NM M
3.3.4 THEOREM : CAUCHY’S THEOREM
(Cauchy’s Theorem for Abelian Groups). Suppose G is a finite abelian group
and p divides O(G), where p is a prime number, then there is an element a ( e) in G
such that an = e.
Proof
Let us prove the theorem by the method of induction. We assume that the
theorem is true for all abelian groups having fewer elements than G. Then we will
show that the theorem is true for G also, if G has got more than one element.
If G has no proper subgroups (other than identity subgroup), then G must be a
cyclic group of prime order. This prime must be p, since G has got p elements. Now
we can take any one element a e in G such that ap = a0(G) = e. Hence the theorem.
If G has no proper subgroups, we have proved the theorem. So let us assume
that G has a proper nontrivial subgroup N of G. If P|O(N), by induction hypothesis,
there is an element b N, b e such that bn = e. Since b, n G, b N, is a normal
G G O (G )
subgroup and is a group. Moreover O = . Since p does not divide O(N)
N N O( N )
G G
and p|O(G), p| O . Further < O(G). So by our induction hypothesis, there
N N
G
is an element Nx such that (Nx)p = N. Since Nx N and Nxp = N. we have xp N
N
and x N. Now xpO(N) = e. That is xO(N)p = e. Let c = xO(N). Then cp = e. In order to show
that e is the required element we have to show that x e. If x = e, then xO(N) = e and
31
so (Nx)O(N) = N. We already have (Nx)p=N and p does not divide O(N). Therefore
(Nx) = N and hence x N, contradicting our assumption that x N. Hence x e and
the theorem is proved.■
3.3.5 THEOREM : ABELIAN GROUPS
(Sylow’s theorem for abelian groups). If G is an abelian group of order p and
if p is a prime number such that p |O(G), p+1 does not divide O(G) then G has a
subgroup of order p .
Proof
If = 0, the result is trivial. If 0, then definitely p divides 0(G). By the
previous theorem there is an element a (e) in G such that ap=e. Let
S = { x G: xpn = e, for some integer n}. Clearly S contains not only e but also a. Let
us show that S is a subgroup of G. Since G is finite it is enough if we show that S is
multiplicatively closed. If x, y S, then there exist integers n and m such that
pn pm p(n+m) p(n+m) p(n+m)
x = e and y = e and hence (xy) =x y
x . y
pn
pm
pm
pn m
ep . ep e
n
Hence xy S, So S is a subgroup.
Out next aim is to find O(S). We claim that O(S) = p with is an integer and
O(M)= < . If some prime q | O(S), q p, then by the previous theorem, there is an
pn
element c S, c e such that c = e for some integer n. Since pn and q are
relatively prime, we can find integers , such that q + p n = 1. Hence c = c1 =
c q pn c q
cp
n
e , contradicting c e. Hence q does not divide O(S). So O(S)
= P with 0 < < , since by lagrange’s theorem O(S) | O(G) and p+1 does not divide
G O(G ) G
Suppose < , then O . Since p |O(G) and O(S) = p , p | O .
S O( S ) S
G
Hence by Cauchy’s theorem, there is an element Sx , for x G satisfying
S
Sx S and (Sx)P = S. But S = (Sx)p = Sxp and so xp S.
O(S) P +1
Consequently e = (xp) = (xp)p = x . Therefore x S.
Hence Sx = S contradicting the fact Sx S, Hence = and so S is the
required subgroup of order p ■
Corollary 3.5.1
If G is an abelian group of order O(G) and p | O(G) and p+1 does not divide
O(G), then there is a unique subgroup of order p.
32
Proof
Let T be another subgroup of order p, other than S which we have got from
the theorem. Since G is abelian ST = TS, so that ST is a subgroup of G.
p α
Hence OST O(S) O(T) P , P since S T, O(S T) p α . So O(ST) = pv, v > . Since ST is a
O(S T) O(S T)
subgroup of G, O(ST)|O(G). Thus pv divides O(G), contradicting the fact that p is
the largest power of p which divides O(G). Hence S = T. ■
If there is a homomorphism of a group G onto a group G with kernel K, it is
possible to set up a one-to-one correspondence between subgroups of G which
contains K and all subgroup of G. This fact and other connected results are given in
the following lemma.
Lemma 3.5.2
Let be a homomorphism of G onto G with Kernel K. Let H be a subgroup of
G . Let H = { xG: (x) H }. Then H is a subgroup of G and H K. If H is normal
in G , then H is normal in G. This association H H is a one-to-one
correspondence from the set of all subgroups of G onto the set of all subgroups of
G which contains K.
Proof
First let us show that H is a subgroup. Let x, y H. Then (x), (y) H . Hence
(x) (y) = (xy) H . So xy H. So H is closed in G. Moreover if x H, then
(x) H . Hence [ (x)]-1 H , so that (x-1) H (i.e.) x-1 H. So H is a subgroup.
Clearly K H. So H is a subgroup of G, containing K.
Now let us show that if H is normal, then H is also normal. Let g G and
h H. Let us show that ghg-1 H whenever H is normal.
(ghg-1) = (g) (h) [(g)]-1 H since H is normal, So ghg-1 H. Hence H is
normal too.
Conversely let L be a subgroup of G containing K. Let
L = {x G : x (l ), l L}. Now we have to prove that L is a subgroup. For that let
x, y L . Then there exist l1, l2 L such that (l1) = x and (l 2 ) y. Since l1, l2 L,
K
Proof
G
Since N is a normal subgroup of G , we can talk of the quotient group . Let
N
G
us define the map : G with the help of the given homomorphism : G G .
N
For any g G, let us define (g) = N (g). Clearly is onto.
Consider (g1g2) = Nφg1g 2 Nφg1 φg 2
= Nφg1 Nφg 2
(g) N
g N
Therfore T = N.
G G G
Hence for the homomorphism : G , the kernel is N. Hence .
N N N
G
Since K is the kernel of the homomorphism : G G , we have G and
K
similarly restricting our attention to
G
G K
: N N where (n) N where n N and henceN G , we have ■
N N
K
34
3.3.6 AUTOMORPHISM
Definition 3.6.1
An Automorphism of a group G, is an isomorphism of G onto itself.
For any group G, there exists atleast one automorphism namely the identity
mapping.
Lemma 3.6.2
If G is a group, then A(G), the set of all automorphisms of G is also a group,
under the composition of mappings.
Proof
We have already shown in the first lesson that A(S), the set of all one-to-one
mappings of a set S onto S is a group under composition. Hence A(G) is also a
group, so A(G) A(G). Actually A(G) is going to be the subgroup of A(G). So it is
enough if we show that A(G) is closed under composition and that inverse of any
element in A(G) is in A(G) itself.
Let T1, T2 A(G). We want to show that (T1.T 2 ) A(G). That is we want to show
that (T1.T 2) is an automorphism. Let we prove that (T1.T2) is a homomorphism. So,
let x, y G. Then T1(xy) = T1(x).T1(y) and T2(xy) = T2(x).T2(y)
Hence (T1.T 2)(xy) = T 1[T2(xy)]
= T 1[T2(x)T 2(y)]
= T 1(T2(x))T1(T 2(y))
= (T 1.T2) (x) (T1.T 2) (y)
Hence (T1.T 2) is a homomorphism.
Now let us show that, if T 1 A(G), (T1)-1 A(G).
Since T1 is one-one and onto, (T1)-1exists.
Now let us show (T1)-1is a homomorphism.
For any x, y G,
Consider T1[(T1)-1(xy)] = T1[(T1)-1(x)(T1)-1(y)]
= [ T1(T1)-1 (x)] [T1(T1)-1 (y)]
= xy
[(T1)-1(xy)] = (T1)-1(x))(T 1)-1 (y))
(T 1)-1is a homomorphism.
Hence (T1)-1 A(G).
A(G) is a group under composition of mappings. ■
3.3.7 INNER AUTOMORPHISM
Definition 3.7.1
Let G be a group, For g G, let us define
Tg: G G by T g(x) = g-1xg, for all x G.
35
Now we will show that Tg is an automorphism of G corresponding to g G.
First let us show that T g is onto. For a given yG, there exists xG, such that
x = gyg-1G. Then T g(x) = g-1xg = g-1(gyg-1)g = y. Hence T g is onto.
To prove that T g is a homomorphism
For a,bG, consider T g(ab) = g-1(ab)g
= g-1(agg-1b) g
= (g-1ag) (g-1bg)
= Tg(a)T g(b)
T g is a homomorphism
To prove that T g is one-to-one
Let Tg(a) = Tg(b) g-1ag = g-1bg a = b
Tg is one-to-one
Tg is a one one and on to homomorphism of G on to G
Tg is an automorphism on G. This is called Inner automorphism of G
Note: Hence for every g G, we can have an Inner automorphism T g. Let I(G)
denote the set of all inner automorphisms of G.
Our next aim is to show that this I(G) is a group under usual composition of
maps, and that I(G) is a normal sub-group of A(G).
First we claim that Tg.Tb = Tbg for any Tg, Tb I(G).
For any xG, consider (T g.Tb)(x) = (TgTb(x)) = Tg(b-1xb) where hG
= g-1(b-1xb) g
= (bg)-1x(bg)
= Tbg(x) is true for all x
Tg.Tb = T bg
I(G) is closed.
Since I(G) A(G), it is enough, if we show that inverse for every element in I(G)
exists in I(G) itself. Clearly Tg is the identity element in I(G) where e is the identity
element in G. Let Tg I(G), then the inverse of T g is (Tg)-1 I(G) as Tg (Tg)-1= T g-1g = Te.
Hence I(G) is subgroup of A(G)
To show I(G) is normal in A(G)
Let Tg I(G) and A(G) .
For x G, consider (-1.T g. )(x) = (-1.Tg )((x))
= -1 (Tg((x))
= -1(g-1(x)g)
= (-1(g-1))(-1((x)) -1(g)
= (g)-1x-1(g)
= T-1(g)(x).
Hence (-1.Tg .) =T -1(g) I(G) (-1(g) G).
36
3.3.8 CENTER OF A GROUP
Definition 3.8.1
The center of G, is the set Z(G) of elements in G, such that it commute with
every element of G. Therefore Z(G)= { xG: xy = yx for every yG}
G
Note: Z(G) is a normal subgroup of G. So, we can discuss , which is a
Z(G )
quotient group
Lemma 3.8.2
G
Let G be a group. Then I(G) where I(G) is the set of automorphisms of G
Z(G)
and Z(G) is the centre of G.
Proof
Let : G I(G) defined by (g) = Tg-1 for any gG.
Consider (gh) = T (gh)-1 = T(h-1 g-1)= Tg-1 Th-1 = (g) (h).
Therefore is a homomorphism.
Let K be the kernel of the homomorphism .
Let gK. Then (g) = Te, the identity of I(G) (i.e.) Tg-1 = Te, This means that for
x G, (T g )-1(x) = x. But Tg-1(x) = gxg-1. Hence gxg-1 = x which implies that xg = gx,
Hence g commutes with every element x of G. So g Z(G), whenever g K. So
k Z(G). If g Z(G) then for any x G. Tg(x) = g-1xg = g-1gx = x = Te(x)
for every g Z(G)
Hence T g = Te and hence g K. Hence Z(G) K.
Since we have already shown that K Z(G) we have Z(G) = K.
G
Hence by theorem, I(G) . ■
Z(G )
Lemma 3.8.3
Let G be a group and an automorphism of G. If a G is of order O(a) > 0
then 0((a)) = 0(a).
Proof
Let O(a) = n
Then [(a)]n = (an) [ is an automorphism] = (e) = e.
Therefore O((a)) < n. If [(a)]m = e for some m and 0 < m < n, then
[(a)]m = (am) = e. Since is an automorphism and am=e we arrived at a
contradiction to our assumption that O(a) = n and m<n. Therefore O((a)) cannot be
less than n. Therefore 0((a)) = n = O(a). ■
3.4 REVISION POINTS
Normal sub group, coset multiplication, Homorphism, Kernel of a
homomorphism, Isomorphism, Cauchy’s theorem for abelian group, Sylow’s
theorem for abelian group, automorphism, Inner automorphism, Centre of a group.
37
3.5 INTEXT QUESTION
1. Prove that N is a normal subgroup of G it and only it gNg-1 N for every
g in G
2. Prove that a sub group N of G is a normal subgroup of G if and only if the
product of two right cosets of N in G is again a right coset of N in G
3. If G is a group, N is a normalsubgroup of G, then prove that G/N the
collection of all cosets of N in G, is a group under coset multiplication.
4. If N is a normal subgroup of a group G and H is any subgroup of G, prove
that NH is a subgroup of G.
5. If a group G has no proper non- trivial subgroups, show that G must be a
finite cyclic group of prime order.
NM N
6. If N and M are normal subgroup of G, prove that
M N M
7. If is a homomorphism of G into G with Kernel K, and if N be a subgroup
G G/K
of G where N ={ x G: (x) N }, then prove that
N N/K
G
8. If G is a group, then prove that I(G) , where I(G) is the set of
Z (G )
automrphisms of G and Z(G) is the centre of G.
9. If G is a group and be an automorphism of G and if O(a)> zero, then
Prove that O( (a)) = O(a)
3.6 SUMMARY
Normal subgroup, Coset multiplication, homomorphism, Kernel of
homomorphism, Isomorphism, Cauchy’s theorem for abelian group, Sylow’s
theorem for ablian group, automorphism, Inner automorphism, Center of a
group.
3.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. If A and B are normal subgroups of a group G such that A B = C then
prove that for a A, b B, ab = ba
2. If a group G has no proper nontrivial subgroup show that a must be a
finite cyclic group of prime order
3.8 SUPPLIMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Algebra by Micheal Artin, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1994.
2. Lectures in Abstract Algebra Volumes I, II and III by N. Jacobson, D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1976.
3.9 ASSIGNMENT
1. State and prove Cauchy’s Theorem for abelian group
38
2. State and prove Sylow’s Theorem for abelian group
3. State and prove first fundamental theorem of homomorphism
4. If G is a group, then prove that A(G), the set of all automorphism of G is
also a group under composition of mappings.
3.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOK / SET BOOK:
Algebra – By Michael Artin – PHI Learning P Ltd.
3.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Students are requested to attend the P.C.P Classes and work out the problems
given in the lesson.
3.12 KEYWORDS
Normal subgroup, Coset multiplication, homomorphism, Kernel of
homomorphism, Isomorphism, Cauchy’s Theorem for abelian group, sylow’s
theorem for ablian group, Automorphism, Inner automorphism, Center of a
group
39
LESSON – 4
CAYLEY’S THEOREM
4.1. INTRODUCTION
In this Lesson, Cayley’s theorem is discussed in detail and related problems
are also solved.
From the following Cayley’s theorem, one can see, how any group can be
realised as a subgroup of A(S), the permutation group for a suitable set S.
4.2. OBJECTIVE
Cayley’s Theorem, related lemmas are explained in detail and some related
problem are solved.
4.3. CONTENTS
4.3.1 Theorem (Cayley)
4.3.1 Theorem (Cayley)
Every group is isomorphic to a subgroup of A(S) for some appropriate S.
Proof
Let G be a group and let us take S as the set of all elements in G.(i.e S = G).
Now let us define Tg : SS by tg(x) = gx for every x S and gG
Since for any yS, there exists (g-1y) S such that tg (g-1y)= g(g-1y)= y and
hence tg is onto.
Let tg(x) = tg(y) gx = gy x = y tg is one one and hence tg is one-to-one
Hence tg A(S). Moreover for g, h S, (tg.th)(x) = tg(hx) = g(hx) = (gh)x = tgh(x)
for every xS, Hence (tg.th)= tgh.
Now let us define : G A (S) by (g) = tg.
Consider (gh)= tgh = tg th = (g)(h) is a homomorphism.
Let us find the kernel K of the homomorphism .
If g0 K, then (go) = tg = I (identity map on S).
o
For any g G, consider the map tg : SS by tg(xH) = gxH for any x tg.
To prove that is tg on to:
It is very obvious that for any (yH)S in the co-domain, there exists (g-1yH)S
in the domain such that tg (g -1yH) = g (g-1yH) = yH and hence tg is on to.
To prove that tg is one one also.
Assume that tg(xH) = tg(yH), where (xH),(yH)S
gxH = gyH
(gy)-1gxH, (Since aH= bH iff b -1a H)
(y-1g-1gx) H.
( y-1x) H
xH = yH. tg is one one and hence tg is one –to-one
Moreover for any xH S and g1, ge G and
(t g1 .t g 2 )(xH) t g1 t g 2 (xH) t g1 (g 2 xH) g1 (g 2 xH) t g1g 2 (xH)
Hence tg1g = tg1. tg2
2
Now let us define a map : G A(S) by setting A(g) = tg for any gG. Since
(gh) = tgh = tgtg = (g)•(h), is a homomorphism. Let K be the Kernel of .
If go K then (go) = tgo is the identity mapping on S. Since S is the set of all left
cosets of H, the above tgo(aH) = aH for every sG. But by the definition of tgo,
tgo (aH) =goaH. Hence we get aH = goaH for every aH.
Hence K = {bG : bxH = xH for all xH}. Since K is the kernel, it is a normal
subgroup of G. We claim K H. For if bK, bxH = xH for every x in G and in
particular for the identity e, Hence beH = eH bH = H b H. Therefore K H
Now in order to show that K is the largest normal subgroup of G contained in
H, we must show that if N is the normal subgroup contained in H then N K.
Let N be a normal subgroup of G contained in H. If n N and x G then
x-1nx N H (x-1nx)H=H. Thus nxH = xH for all x in G. Hence n K by the
definition of K. Hence N K.
So K is the largest normal subgroup contained in H. ■
Lemma 3.1.2
If G is a finite group and H G, is a subgroup of G such that O(G) does not
divide IG(H)! where IG(H) is the index of H in G (that is the number of left cosets of H
in G), then H must contain a nontrivial normal subgroup of G.
41
Proof
Since O(G) does not divide iG(H) = the number of elements in A(S) (where A(S) is
the same A(S) mentioned in the previous theorem), by Lagrange’s theorem A(S) can
have no subgroup of order O(G). But A(S) contains (G) where (G) = { (g) : gG}.
Hence cannot be an isomorphism. That is, the kernel K of the previous theorem is
nontrivial. Hence H must contain a non-trivial normal subgroup K of G.
Example 3.1.3
Let G be a group of order 36 and suppose G has a subgroup H of order 9, then
iG(H) = 4, Hence 4! = 24 < 36, Hence A(S) has got 24 elements. But G has got 36
elements. Hence G must have a non-trivial normal subgroup.
Example 3.1.4
Let H be a group of order 99 and suppose that H is a subgroup of G of order H,
then iG(H) = 9 and since 99 does not divide 9!. G contains subgroups other than (e).
Solved Problems
1. If G is a group and H is a subgroup of Index 2 in G, prove that H is a
normal subgroup of G.
Solution
If a H, then H = aH = Ha
If a H, ah is a left coset different from H
Hence HaH =
Since index of H in G is 2, HaH = G
Hence aH = G – H
Similarly Ha = G – H
Ha = aH
H is a normal subgroup of G. ■
2. Show that the intersection of two normal subgroups of G is a normal
subgroup of G.
Solution
Let H and K be two normal subgroups of G.
Now HK since cHK
Let a, bHK a, bH and a, bK
ab -1H and ab -1K
ab -1HK
HK is a subgroup of G.
Let gG and xHK gG and xH & xK.
Since H and K are normal, gxg-1 H,
Therefore gxg-1H, gxg-1 K
HK is a normal subgroup of G. ■
42
3. If H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G show that HN is
a normal subgroup of H. Show by an example that HN need not be
normal in G.
Solution
Let xHN, and gH.
xN and g H gxg-1 N (N is a normal subgroup)
Also gxg-1 H ( gH and x H)
Hence gxg-1 HN
HN is a normal subgroup of H.
1 2 3 1 2 3
LET G = S3 TAKE N = G AND H = ,
1 2 3 1 3 2
HN = H which is not normal in G. ■
4. Suppose H is the only subgroup of order O(H) in a finite group G. Prove
that H is a normal subgroup G.
Solution
Let O(H) = m
To prove that gHg-1 is also a subgroup of G, where g G.
Consider e = geg-1 gHg-1. Therefore gHg-1
Let x, y gHg-1. Then x = gh1g-1 and y = gh2g-1
xy-1 = (gh1g-1) (gh2g-1)-1
= (gh1g-1) (gh2-1g-1)
= g(h1h2)g-1
gHg-1
gHg-1 is a subgroup of G.
To prove that 0(H) = 0(gHg-1) = m
Consider f: HgHg-1 defined by f(h) = ghg-1
Now f(h1) = f(h2) gh1g -1 = gh2g-1
h1 = h2
f is one one.
Let x = ghg-1 gHg-1. Then f(h) = ghg-1= x. Therefore the pre image of
x is h under f and hence f is on to f is one-to-one.
Hence 0(H) = 0 (gHg-1) = m. But H is the only subgroup of G of order
m. gHg-1 = H H is normal in G.■
5. Let H be a subgroup of G, let N(H) = { gG/gHg-1 = H }. Prove that
(i) N(H) is a subgroup of G, (ii) H is normal in N(H),(iii) If H is a normal
subgroup KG, then K N(H).(iv) H is normal in G iff N(H) = G.
43
Solution:
(i). Let a, b N(H)
aHa-1 = H and bHb-1 = H
Now bHb-1 = H b-1 (bHb-1) b=b -1Hb
H = b-1Hb
Consider (ab-1) H(ab -1)-1 = a(b -1Hb) a-1
= aHa-1
=H
ab-1 N(H)
Thus a,b N(H) ab -1 N(H)
Hence N(H) is a subgroup of G.
(ii). Let h H. Since hHh-1 = H, h N(H)
Thus H N(H). Hence H is a subgroup of N(H)
Let x N(H) xHx-1 = H
H is a normal subgroup of N(H)
(iii). Let k K
Since H is a normal subgroup of K, kHk-1 = H kN(H)
Thus k K k N(H) K N(H)
(iv). Let H be normal in G. Let x G. Then xHx-1 = H x N(H).
Thus x G x N(H) G N(H)
But N(H) G. Hence G = N(H)
Let N(H) = G. We have to prove that H is normal in G.
x G x N(H) ( N(H) = G).
xHx-1 = H. x G.
H is normal in G. ■
6. If N and M are normal subgroups of G, then prove that NM is also a
normal subgroup of G.
Solution:
Since N is a normal subgroup and a normal subgroup commutes with
every element, we have NM = MN NM is a subgroup of G.
Let g G and nm nM. Then n N and m M
Consider g(nm)g-1 = (gng-1) (gmg-1)
NM [ N is normal gng-1 N & M is normal gmg-1 M)
Hence NM is a normal subgroup of G. ■
7. Let N and M are normal subgroups of G and MN = {e}. Show that every
element of N commutes with every element of M.
44
Solution :
Let n N & m M
To prove that nm = mn
Consider the element of nmn-1 m-1
Since N is normal, mn-1 m-1 N. Also n N nmn-1m-1N.
Since M is normal, nmn-1 M. Also m-1 M nmn-1m-1M.
Thus nmn-1m-1 NM = (e)
nmn-1m-1 = e
(nm) (mn)-1 = e
nm = mn ■
8. If a cyclic group N of G is normal in G, show that every subgroup of N is
normal in G.
Solution:
Let N = <a>. Let H be a subgroup of N. We know that every subgroup of a
cyclic group is cyclic. Hence H is cyclic and am will be a generator of H
where m is the least positive integer such that am H.
To prove that H is normal in G.
Let x G & h H
Then h = (am)n where n is some integer.
Consider xhx-1 = x(am)n x-1 where n is some integer.
= x(an)m x-1
= (xanx-1) (xanx-1) …… to m factors
= (xanx-1)m
Now a is a generator of N an N
Also N is normal in G x G, an N xanx-1 N
Hence xanx-1 = an for some integers (a is generator of N)
xhx-1 = (an)m = (am)n H xhx-1 H
(am is a generator of H and x H, h H xhx-1 H)
Hence H is a normal subgroup of G. ■
9. Prove that the centre Z of a group G is a normal subgroup of G.
Solution :
We know that Z = { z G : zx = xz, x G}
Let z1, z2 Z. Then z1x = xz1 and z2x = xz 2 for all x G
Consider z2 x = xz2 x G
z 2-1 (z2x) z 2-1 = z2-1 (xz2)z 2-1
xz2-1 = z 2-1x x G
45
z 2-1 Z.
(z1z2-1) x = z1 (z2-1x)
= z1 (xz 2-1)
= (z 1x) z1-1
= (xz1) z2-1
= x(z1z2-1)
z 1z 2-1 Z.
Thus z1, z2 Z z1z 2-1 Z
Z is a subgroup of G.
To prove that Z is a normal subgroup of G
Let x G, z Z
xzx-1 = (xz)x-1 = (zx) x-1 = z Z
Z is normal subgroup of G. ■
10. Let G be a group and G be the commutator subgroup of G prove that
G
(i) G is normal in G and (ii) is abelian.(iii) If N is normal subgroup of
G
G
G, then is abelian iff G N.
N
Solution:
Let U = { xyx-1y-1 : x, y G }. If G is the commutator subgroup of G, then
G is the smallest subgroup of G containing U.
(i) Let x G & y G
Then x-1yx = yy-1 (x-1yx) = y (y-1 x-1yx) G. ( y G and y-1 x-1yx G)
Hence G is a normal subgroup of G.
G
(ii) Let x, y G. Then Gx, Gy are element of
G
xy x-1y-1 U xyx-1y-1 G (U G)
(xy) (yx)-1 G G (xy) = G(yx).
(Gx) (Gy) = (Gy) (Gx)
G
is abelian.
G
(iii). Let N be any normal subgroup of G.
G
Let x, y G. Then Nx, Ny
N
46
G
Let be abelian.
N
Then (Nx) (Ny) = (Ny) (Nx)
Nxy = Nyx
(xy) (yx)-1 N
xy xy-1 N
U N.
Thus N is a subgroup of G containing U.
Since G is the smallest subgroup of G containing U,
G must be contained in N. i.e. G N.
To prove the converse, let G N.
Then U N (U G)
xyx-1 y-1 N
(xy) (yx)-1 N
Nxy = Nyx
(Nx) (Ny) = (Ny) Nx)
G
is abelian ■
N
11. Show that the group of automorphisms of an infinite cyclic group is of
order 2 and that the group of automorphisms of a finite cyclic group of
order n is of order (n).
Solution :
Let G = <a> is a cyclic group generated by a.
An automorphism T of G is defined by T(x) = xm …(1)
For any integer k, we have that T(xk) = [T(x)]k = (xm)k …(2)
Let y by any element of G.
Since T is a mapping of G onto itself, there must exist an element xk G
such that y = T(xk ) = (xm)k . Thus we conclude that for the mapping T
defined in (1) is an automorphism of G, only if xm must be a generator of
G. If G is infinite, the only generators of G are x and x-1 . So in this case,
the only automorphisms of G are the identity mapping I for which I(x) = x
I(xk) = xk integer k and the mapping T defined by T(x) = x-1. Hence the
group of automorphisms of an infinite cyclic group is of order 2. Suppose
G is finite and of order n. Then xm is a generator of G iff m is prime to n
and < n. So, for each such m, the mapping T defined in (2) is an
automorphism of G.
To prove that T is 1-1:
Let xk1 and xk2 be any two elements of G, where 1 < k1<n and 1 < k2 < n.
47
Then T(xk1) = T(xk2)
[T(x)]k1 = [T(x)]k2
xm (k1-k2) = c
n|m (k 1-k2)
But m is prime to n and 0 < h1 h2 < h
n | m (k1-k 2)
k1 – k 2 = 0
k1 = k 2
xk 1 = xk2
xm(k1-k2) = e
Thus T is 1-1
To prove that T is onto :
Since C is finite and T is 1-1, T must be onto.
Let xk1, xk2 be any two elements of G.
Then T (xk1 xk2) = T(xk1+k2)
= T [(x)]k1+k2
= xm(k1+k2)
= (xm) k1 (xm)k2
= [T(x)]k1 [T(x)]k2
= T(xk1) T(xk2)
Thus T is an automorphism for each positive integer m less than n and prime
to n. Hence the group of automorphism of a finite cyclic group of order n is of order
(n) Where (n) denotes the number of integers less than n and prime to n. ■
4.4 REVISION POINTS
Cayley’s Tehorem, related Lemmas and Problems are solved.
4.5 INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. If G is a group and H is a subgroup of idea 2 in G, prove that H is a normal
subgroup of G
2. If H is a subgroup of G and N is a normal subgroup of G, show that H N is
a normal subgroup of H. Show by an example that H N need not be
normal in G.
3. If H is a subgroup of G, and if N(H) = { g G/gHg-1 = H } the prove the
following.
(i) N(H) is a subgroup of G, (ii) H is normal in N(H), (iii) If H is normal
subgroup of the subgroup K in G then K N(H), (iv) H is normal in G its
N(H) = G
4. Prove that the centre Z of a group G is a normal subgroup of G
48
4.6 SUMMARY
Cayley’s theorem was stated and proved with relevant problems are solved.
4.7 TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. For G = S3 prove that G I(G)
4.8 SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. Algebra by Micheal Artin, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1994.
2. Lectures in Abstract Algebra Volumes I, II and III by N. Jacobson, D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1976.
4.9 ASSIGNMENTS
1. State and prove Cayley’s theorem
2. If N is normal in G and a G is of order O(a), prove that the order m of Na in
G/N is a divisor of O(a)
3. If Z is the centre of G, prove that G is abelian of the quotient group G/N is
cyclic
4.10 SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOK / SET BOOK
Algebra – By Michael, Artin – PHI Learning P Ltd
4.11 LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Students are requested to attend the P.C.P classes and work out the problems
given in the lesson
4.12 KEYWORDS
Cayley’s theorem, Commutator subgroup, Centre of a group
49
LESSON – 5
PERMUTATION GROUPS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In this lesson, permutation group, cycle, another counting principle,
conjucacy, cauchy’s theorem for non abelian group, Sylow’s theorem, P-Sylow
subgroup, are discussed in detail with suitable examples. Some related problems
are solved.
5.2 OBJECTIVES
Permutation group, another counting principle, cauchy’s theorem for non
abelian group, sylow’s theorem, P-Sylow subgroup are explained.
5.3 CONTENTS
5.3.1 Definition - Permutation Groups
5.3.2 Another Counting Principle
5.3.3 Theorem (Sylow)
5.3.4 Definition : p-Sylow subgroup of G
5.3.1 DEFINITION - PERMUTATION GROUPS
We have shown that every group can be represented isomorphically as a
subgroup of A(S) for some appropriate set S and in particular, a finite group G can
be represented as a subgroup of Sn, for some n.
If A(S) = Sn then is a one one mapping of S onto itself and we could write
by showing what it does to every element. For example if we consider S4 and if
T: x1 x3 , x2 x 4 , x3 x 1 , x4 x2 then we write
x x2 x3 x4 1 2 3 4
= 1 and we can briefly write as =
x3 x4 x1 x2 3 4 1 2
Let S be a set and A(S). Given two elements a, b S, we define a = b if and
only if b = ai for some integer i (i can be positive, negative or 0) [Here, contrary to
our earlier notation, we write ai instead of i(a), to denote the image of a under i].
The above relation is an equivalence relation for,
1. a a since a = ao
5.3.2.7 Theorem
If 0(G) = p n where p is a prime, then that Z(G) <e>.
Proof
Let aG, since N(a) is a subgroup of G, O(N(a)) is a divisor of O(G)p n. Therefore
0(N(a)) = pn. Therefore 0(N(a)) = pn where n < n provided aZ(G). If z = 0(Z(G)),
then by the class equation we have
pn
pn z
n n p n
pn
Now p is the divisor of the left hand side. Moreover p | and hence p divides
p n
each term in the and hence
pn
p| p n i. e. p | z
n n pn
Since e Z(G), z>1. Thus z is a positive integer divisible by the prime p. Hence
z > 1. So there must be an element besides e in Z(G).
Hence the theorem is proved. ■
Note
Since p| z, z > p, and z is a power of p, as Z(G) is a subgroup of G.
Corollary
If O(G) = p2, where p is a prime, then G is abelian.
Proof
We will show that Z(G) = G itself so that G is abelian. By the previous theorem
Z(G) <e> is subgroup of G, so that (Z(G)) = p or p2.
If O(Z(G)) = p2 we are done. Suppose that O(Z(G)) = p, let aG, such that
aZ(G). Let us take N(a). Clearly Z(G) N(a) and aN(a), so that O(N(a))>p. But by
Lagrange’s theorem 0(N(a)) | 0(H). O(N(a)) = p2. Hence N(a) = G so that a Z(G)
which is a contradiction. Hence o(Z(G))p
Therefore Z(G) = G itself. Hence G is abelian. ■
5.3.2.8 Theorem
(Cauchy’s theorem for any group G, not necessarily abelian).
If G is a finite group and if p is a prime number such that p|O(G), then G has
an element of order p. ■
55
Proof
Let we prove the theorem by the method of induction on O(G). Let we assume
that the theorem is true for all groups of order < O(G).
Let W be a proper subgroup of G such that p|O(W). Then by our induction
hypothesis there would exist an element of order p in W and hence also exist such
an element in G. Thus we may assume that p is not a divisor of the order of any
proper subgroup of G.
In particular if aZ(G), so that N(a)G, then p cannot divide 0(N(a)). Let us
write down the class equation.
O (G )
O(G) = O(Z(G)) =
O ( N ( a))
Since p| O(G) and p cannot divide O(N(a)), we have
O(G )
p for every a Z(G)
O( N ( a))
O(G )
p . We also have p|O(G)
N ( a )G O( N (a ))
Hence from the class equation p|O(Z(G)). Thus Z(G) is a subgroup of G whose
order is divisible by p. But by our assumption, p does not divide the order of any
proper subgroup of G. Hence Z(G) = G and G is abelian. Since we have already
proved the fact for abelian groups, the result follows. ■
SYLOW’S FIRST THEOREM
We have seen in Lagrange’s theorem that the order of any sub-group of a finite
group G is a divisor of the order of G. We now consider whether the converse is
true. It can be shown by means of suitable examples that the converse is false.
Especially in the case of non-abelian groups. In this connection we have the
following theorem due to Sylow.
Theorem (Sylow)
If p is a prime such that p |O(G), then G has atleast one sub-group of order p .
Proof
We require the following theoretical result of number theory
p m
If n = p m , pr|m but p(r+1) does not divide m then pr| , p (r+1) does not
p
p m
divide , where we write n for n.
p k
p m p m(p m 1) (p m 1)...(p m p 1)
In fact, consider = . We note that
p p (p 1) (p 1)...(p p 1)
pk /(p m-i) if and only if pk|i and hence if and only if pk / p - I, where we assume
56
k< and I<i<p -i. Therefore all powers of p canceled out except the power which
pm
divides m in the expression for . Thus the result follows.
p
Now let us prove the theorem. Let O(G) = n = pm. Let M be the set of all
p m
subsets of G which have p elements. Thus M has elements. Now let us
p
define a relation “~” on M as follows.
For M1,M2, we can write M1~M2 iff there exists an element gG such that
M1=M2g. We claim that this relation is an equivalence relation. Since M1 = M1e
where e is the identity in G, M1 ~ M1 and hence the relation is reflexive.
If M1~M2 then there exists g such that M1 = M2g which implies that
M2 = M1g-1 . Hence M2~M1 and hence the relation is symmetric.
If M1~M2 and M2 ~M3 then there exists g and f in G such that M1 = M2g and
M2 = M3f which implies that M1 = M3fg. Hence M1~M3 and the relation is transitive.
So the relation “~” is an equivalence relation on M.
This equivalence relation gives rise to a partition of the set M into equivalence
classes. We claim that there exists atleast one equivalence class such that the
number of elements in this class is not a multiple of p(r+1). For if p(r+1) is a divisor of
the number of elements in each equivalence class then p (r+1) would be a divisor of
p m
the number of elements in M which is not true since M has elements and by
p
p m
the number theoritical result p(r+1) does not divide .
p
Let M1, M2, …. Mn be such an equivalence class where p(r+1) does not divide t.
Let H = { gG|Mtg = M }. Clearly H is a sub-group of G.
For if a,bH, then M1a = M2a, M2b = M1.
Hence M, ab = (M1ab) = M1b = M1, so that ab H; i.e. H is closed under
multiplication and G being a finite group H becomes a subgroup.
Now we show that O(H) = p so that H turns out to be the required subgroup of
G. We claim that there is a 1-1 correspondence between the elements in the
equivalence class { M1, M2 … Mn } and the right cosets of H in G.
For M1g = M1 g Mg(g)-1=M1
g(g)-1 H
Hg = Hg
O(G )
Hence t = the number of right cosets of H in G =
O( H )
t 0(H) = 0(G) = n = p m.
57
Since p(r+1) does not divide t and p(+r)|t0(H) = n, it follows that p|0(H) and so
0(H) > p.
Moreover, if M1 m1, then for all h H we have m,h M1.
Thus M1 has atleast 0(H) distinct elements. However M1 was a subset of G
containing p elements. ■
Corollary
If pm|O(G), p (m+1) does not divide O(G) then G has a subgroup of order p m.
Definition : p-Sylow subgroup of G
A subgroup of G of order p m where pm | o(G) and pm+1 does not divide 0(G) is
called a p-sylow subgroup of G.
Alternate Proof
We shall prove the sylow’s theorem by induction on O(G) by assuming that the
theorem is true for groups of order less than that of G. We shall show that, it is also
true for G.
Since the theorem is true if 0(G) = 1, we have a basis for induction.
Let O(G) = pmn where p is not divisor of n. If m = 0, theorem is obviously true.
If m = 1, the theorem is true by Cauchy’s theorem. So let m > 1. Then G is a group
of composite order and so G must posses a subgroup H such that H G.
O (G ) O(G )
If p is not a divisor of then pm|O(H). Since 0(G) = pmn = O(H) .
O( H ) O( H )
pm+1 does not divide O(H). For, if p m+1|0(H), then pm+1|0(G) which is not the
case. Further 0(H) < 0(G). Thus by the induction hypothesis the theorem is true for
H. H has a subgroup of order pm and this will be a subgroup of G.
O(G )
So let us assume that p is a divisor of .
O( H )
Consider the class equation
O(G )
0(G) = 0(Z) +
a Z O( N (a ))
Since a Z, N(a) G, by our assumption
0(G )
P . Also p O(G )
a Z 0( N (a ))
O (G )
Hence, p O (G ) p 0( Z )
aZ O ( N ( a ))
Then by Cauchy’s theorem, Z has an element c of order p where Z is the
Centre. Also N = <c> is a cyclic subgroup of Z of order pN is a cyclic subgroup of
G of order P. Since cZ, N is a normal sub-group of G of order p
58
m
G 0(G ) p n
Let G = . 0(G) = p m1n . Thus 0(G) < 0(G).
N 0( N ) p
Also p m-1 |O(G). But pm does not divide O(G). By induction hypothesis G has
G
a subgroup U of order pm-1. Let f be defined by f: G such that f(x) = Nx
N
is a natural homomorphism with kernel N . Let U = { xG|f(x)U }. Then U is a
U U O (U )
subgroup of G and U O (U ) O
N N O( N )
Thus U is a subgroup of order pm ■
SYLOW’S SECOND THEOREM 2.5.5
Let G be a finite group and p be a prime number such that p|0(G). Then any
two p-Sylow subgroups of G are conjugate.
Proof
Let 0(G) = p mq, where (p, q) = 1.
Then every p-Sylow subgroup of G is of order pm.
Let H be any p-Sylow subgroup of G.
Let M be the set of all conjugates of H in G.
To prove that every p-Sylow subgroup K of G is conjugate to H i.e. kM.
Assume the contrary. That is assume that there exists a p-sylow subgroup K
not conjugate to H. For any p-sylow subgroup P(K), K P
For if K P & O(K) = O(P) K = P.
Hence there exists x (K-P). If x-1Px = x x N(P)
Since x K which is of order p m, x P. This is a contradiction.
Hence x-1Px x and P has more than one conjugate in K.
The number of conjugates of P in K = Index of N(P) in H.
Also Index of Na(P) in K |O(K) = pm
The number of conjugates of P in K = a multiple of p.
Define a relation ~ in M as follows:
If H1, H2 M then H1 ~ H2 there exists x k such that H2 = x-1 H 1x.
This is an equivalence relation on M and it partitions M into equivalence
classes. As before, for any PM, (PK), the number of conjugates of P in K = a
multiple of p. the equivalence class of P determined by the elements in K
contains n elements where p|n. Thus O(M) = a multiple of p
But O(M) = Index of N(H) in G
Index of H in G = q i.e. iG(H) = q
Since H is a subgroup of N(H) & O(H) = pm
RINGS
6.1. INTRODUCTION
In the previous lessons we introduced the basic notion of groups and studied
their important properties, which are highly useful for our further studies in
Modern Algebra. In this lesson and in the subsequent two lessons we introduce the
notion of rings and study their essential properties, besides other relevant facts.
Just as groups, rings are algebraic systems which serve as building blocks for
various structures encountered in Modern Algebra. While the abstract notion of a
group is founded on the set of bijections of a set onto itself, the notion of a ring will
be seen to have arisen as generalizations from the set of integers and the additive
and multiplicative properties of integers. We know that groups are one-operational,
(i.e.) structures in which only one operation (generally called multiplication) is
defined. But in the case of rings, there are two operations usually called addition
and multiplication. Despite this difference, the analysis of rings will follow the same
pattern as for groups. In that we will be interested in studying analogs of
homomorphism, normal subgroup, factor or quotient groups etc. We begin with a
formal and complete definition of a ring.
6.2. OBJECTIVES
Rings, types of rings, related therems, Lemmas and problems are discussed in
detail.
6.3. CONTENTS
6.3.1 Definition : Types of Rings
6.3.2 THEORM : Homomorphism of Ring
6.3.1 Definition : Types of Rings
A ring R < R, +, , > is a system R of double composition, (i.e.) a set R in
which two binary operations + and (respectively called addition and
multiplication) are defined and which associate with every pair of elements a, b
(distinct or otherwise) of R with unique elements of R, viz. (a + b) and (a.b) (or
simply ab) respectively called their sum and product such that the following axioms
are satisfied:
A0 : (a+b)R for every a, bR. (closure property with reference to addition)
A1 : a+(b+c) = (a+b)+c every a, b, c R (associativity of addition)
A2 : There exists an element 0R called the zero or the null element of R
such that a+0 = 0+a = a for every a R (existence of the zero element).
A3 : Corresponding to any element a of R, there exists an element – a in R,
called the negative of a such that a + (-a) = (-a) +a = 0. (existence of the
additive inverse)
A4 : (a+b) = (b+a) for every a, b R. (commutativity of addition)
63
M0 : ab R for every a,b R (closure property with reference to
multiplication)
M1 : a(bc) = (ab)c for every a, b, c R (associativity of multiplication)
D1 : a(b+c) = ab + ac for every a, b, c R (left distributive law)
D2 : (b+c) a = ba + ca for every, a, b, c R (Right distributive law)
Remark on the Above
1. Definition
The axioms A0 – A4 given above shows that, for the ring R, < R, + > is an
additive abelian group. This group is called the additive group of the ring R and is
usually denoted by R+. So also the axioms M0 and M1 shows that <R, > is a semi-
group and this semi-group is called the multiplicative semi-group of the ring R. The
axioms D1 and D2 shows that the multiplication ‘’ in the ring R is both left
distributive and right distributive over addition ‘+’ in R.
In view of the above remark, we may define the notion of a ring more briefly as
follows (one may give this definition for a ring):
2. Definition
A ring R < R, +, > is an algebraic structure in which two binary (or algebraic)
operation viz. addition ‘+’ and multiplication ‘’ are defined, such that (i) <R, + > is
an abelian group (called the additive group of the ring R), (ii) < R, > is a semi-
group (called the multiplicative semi-group of the ring R). and (iii) the multiplication
is both left distributive and right distributive over addition.
We give below some additional axioms, some of which may or may not be
satisfied in a ring R.
M2 : ab = ba for every a, b R (Commutativity of multiplication)
M3 : There exists an element 1R, called the unit element or the identity in
R, such that a.1 = 1.a = a for every a R. (Existence of the multiplicative
identity)
M4 : R has at least two elements and the non-zero elements of the R form a
group under multiplication. (Multiplicative group structure of the non-
zero elements)
M5 : For some non-zero element a of R, there exists element bR such that
ab = 0 or ba =0 where b 0. (Existence of Zero divisors)
M5 : If a, b R and ab = 0 then either a or b or both are zero (absence of
non-trivial zero divisors) ■
3. Definition
A ring R in which axiom M2 is satisfied is called a commutative ring and a ring
R in which axiom M2 is not valid (i.e. in which there are at least two elements a, b
such that ab ba) is called a non-commutative ring.
64
Note: Throughout our lessons, we always mean by a ring, unless otherwise
stated, a non-commutative (associative) ring. Some authors (for instance, refer to
“General Algebra” by A.G. Kurosh) exclude the axiom M1 (viz. Associativity of
multiplication) in the definition for a ring, so that according to them a ring need not
be associative. Examples of rings that are not necessarily associative can be given.
4 Definition
A ring R in which axiom M3 holds good is called a ring with identity (or unity or
unit element).
5. Definition
A ring R in which axiom M4 holds good is called a field (not necessarily
commutative) more precisely a division ring or a skew-field or an S-field. If axiom
M2 is also satisfied (besides axiom M4), then the ring R is called a commutative field
or simply a field.
6. Definition
A ring R in which axioms M2 and M3 satisfied is called an integral domain. In
other words a commutative ring (with at least two elements) which has no non-
trivial zero divisors is called an Integral domain.
Note: Some authors like N. Jacobson (vide: his book Lectures in Abstract
Algebra’, Vol. I) do not insist on the axiom M2 (i.e. commutativity) in the definition
of an integral domain.
We will not give a good many standard examples of different types of rings.
Example 6.1
The set Z of all integers (positive, negative and zero) is a (commutative) integral
domain with identity under the usual operations of addition and multiplication of
integers.
Example 6.2
The set nZ of all multiples of a fixed integer n[ +1 & -1] is an (commutative)
integral domain with identity, the operations being the usual addition and
multiplication of integers.
Example 6.3
All rational numbers, so also all real numbers, all complex numbers form
(commutative) fields Q, R, C the operations being the usual operations of addition
and multiplication of the numbers, rational or real or complex, as the case may be.
Example 6.4
The set Z[i] of all Gaussian integers, viz, all complex numbers of form (a + ib)
where a, b Z and i= 1 , is an (commutative) integral domain with identity under
the usual operations of addition and multiplication of complex numbers. Z[i] is only
an integral domain and not a field, since the inverse of any Gaussian integer (a+ib)
(0) is not a Gaussian integer, unless, the Gaussian integer (a+ib)(0) is not a
Gaussian integer, unless, the Gaussian integer is 1 or i.
65
Example 6.5
All real numbers of the form a+b c , where c is a fixed positive integer which is
not a perfect square and a, b Z form a commutative integral domain, which is not
a field.
Example 6.6
Let < R, + > be any non-trivial additive abelian group. Define the trivial
multiplication ‘.’ on R by setting ab = 0, the zero (or null) element of the group
<R, + >. Then one can easily check that <R, +, > is a commutative ring, every one
of whose elements 0 is a zero divisor.
All the above examples are infinite commutative rings provided in Example 6,
the additive group is an infinite group. We will now give examples of finite rings,
which are either commutative or non commutative.
Example 6.7
Let n be a fixed positive integer and let Zn denote the set of all residue classes
modulo n. For example, if n = 4. = 0, 1, 2, 3 , where i denotes, for i = 0, 1, 2, 3 the
residue class modulo 4 determined by I, viz, the set of all integers which are
congruent to i modulo 4. Now < Zn , > is a finite commutative ring with identity
viz 1, if and respectively are the usual addition and multiplication modulo n,
(Some authors use the notation +n, ×n instead of and ). This ring will turn out to
be a finite field iff n is a prime, while it will contain non-trivial divisors of zero iff n
is not a prime. For example Z5 is a field of 5 elements and Z6 is a commutative ring
with identity containing 2, 3, 4 as the only non-trivial divisors of zero, since
2 3 0, 3 4 0 .
Example 6.8
Let Fn be the set of all n n matrices (aij), where aij are elements chosen from a
field F. For example, F can be taken as Z m, mentioned in the last example, where m
n2
is a prime, in which case Fn will have m elements. Because, matrix multiplication
is both left distributive and right distributive over matrix addition. These facts are
supposed to be known, otherwise one may refer to any standard book on Matrices –
Fn under the usual operations of matrix addition and matrix multiplication
becomes a finite non-commutative ring with identity, viz, the identity matrix (bij)
where bij = 0 if i j and b ii = 1 of the field F. This ring F n contains non-trivial
divisors of zero. For instance, the matrix
1 0 0 ... ... 0
0 0 0 ... ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... ... 0
is a zero matrix
and similarly,
is a zero matrix
Thus the matrix
1 0 0 ... ... 0
0 0 0 ... ... 0
... ... ... ... ... ...
... ... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 ... ... 0
1 u v
inverse being .
A v u
Note: The above mentioned division ring of Quaternion can also be realized as
a non-commutative algebra of dimension 4 over the field of real numbers.
Having listed certain important examples of rings, let us now mention certain
familiar properties of rings.
Lemma 7
If R is ring and a, bR then, (i) a0 = 0a = 0; (ii) a(-b)=(-a)b=-(a b);
(iii)(-a)(-b) = ab. If further R is a ring with identity 1, then (iv) (-1)a = –a;
(v) (–1)(–1) = 1.
Proof
(i) a0 = a(0+0) = a0 + a0, whence a0 = 0 using the cancellation law (or the
property of idempotent) in the group < R, + >. Similarly, 0a = 0 follows:
(ii) 0 = a0 = a [b +(-b)] = ab + a (-b), which yields a(-b) = - (a b) by definition of
inverse in the group < R + > Similarly (-a) b = - (a b) follows.
(iii) Using (2), we get (-a) (-b) =-[a(-b)] =-[-(ab)] = ab (iv) and (v) are only special
cases of (ii) and (iii). ■
Making use of the additive group < R, + > of the ring R, we define as usual,
multiple of any element a R where n is an integer by setting na = a + a ….. + ,
(n times, if n is a positive integer).
= (-a) + (-a) + … + (-a) (-n times, if n is a negative integer)
= 0, where n is a integer 0.
With this familiar notion of a multiple of any element a, we can state the following
(easily proved) facts: If a, b R and m, n be any two integer (positive or negative or
zero) then (i) m (a + b) = ma + mb;(ii) m(-a) = -(m a);(iii) (ma) (nb) = (mn) (ab).
Note: The result (i) above is a consequence of the abelian nature of the
additive group < R, + > of the ring and the result (iii) is a consequence of the two
distributive laws valid in a ring. So also, in order to prove a0 = 0 and 0a = 0 we
need respectively the left and the right distributive laws. The following
generalization of the distributive laws can be easily proved.
Lemma 7.1
If a1, a2 … am, b1, b2, … b n R, where R is a ring, then a1+a2+… +am) (b1+b2 +…+ bn)
= (a1b 1 + a1b2+ ...+a1b n) + (a2b1 + a1b2+ …+a2bn) + … + (amb 1 + amb 2 + … + ambn).
More briefly the above fact may be stated as
m n m n
a i bi a b i i
i 1 i 1 i 1 j 1
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Note that since addition is commutative in the ring R it is immaterial in what order
the terms in the sum on the right hand side of the result (stated above) are written.
Lemma 7.2
Perove that any finite integral domain is a field.
Proof
Let D =< D, +, ∙ > be a finite integral domain. To prove that D is a field it is
enough if we prove that the non-zero elements of D is a field. So, it is enough if we
prove that the non-zero elements of D form a group under multiplication. It suffice
to show that D* = D- {0} is a semigroup under multiplication and that the equations
ax = b, ya = b have solutions x, y D*, given a,bD* (vide alternative Definition
No.2 for a group, mentioned in Lesson 2). From the definition of an integral domain
it follows that if a, b D, (so that a, b D and a, b 0) then a, bD*. Hence D* is a
semigroup under multiplication. Suppose now the finitely many elements of D* are
a1, a2 … an (all distinct). If a is any arbitrary element in D*, consider the elements
aa1, aa2, … aan. Since <D*, * > is a semigroup all the above elements are in D* and
further they are all distinct; for otherwise, suppose a.ai = a.aj then a(ai – aj)
= a [ai+(-aj)] =a.ai+(a.-aj)], by Lemma 1.
= a.ai – a.aj = 0
ai – aj = o, since a 0 and D is an Integral domain. Thus a.ai= a.aj ai = aj.
This shows that all the n elements aa1, aa2, …, aan are distinct and belong to D*.
The above n elements are same as the n elements a1, a2, …, an but for possible
order. That is for given any bD* there exists an element aiD* such that aai = b,
which means that the equation ax = b has a solution x in D*. Similarly we can show
that the equation y.a = b has a solution y in D*. Similarly, we can show that the
equation y.a = b has a solution y in D*. Thus <D*,. > turns out to be a group, as
desired. Hence the Lemma. ■
Note: The above proof must be reminiscent of the proof we have given for
problem 4, in Lesson 2. In fact, if we make use of this problem, namely that any
finite cancellative semi-group this Lemma follows almost automatically in view of
the following:
Remark
A (commutative) ring R with atleast one non-zero element is an integral
domain if and only if the non-zero elements R form a commutative semigroup under
multiplication. In fact, if R is an integral domain and R* = R - { 0 }, then by
definition of an integral domain it follows that <R*, . > is a semi-group (See
condition M5). Further if a R and ab = ac then a(b-c) = ab –ac = 0 which implies
that (b-c) = 0 as a 0, and hence b = c. Thus ab = ac b = c whenever a 0.
Similarly ba = ca b = c whenever a 0. Thus < R*,. > turns out to be a
(commutative ) semigroup. Conversely suppose <R*,> is a (commutative) semigroup.
Then for a, b 0 in R ab 0, which means that R has no non-trivial divisors of zero.
(In other words, for a, b R, ab = 0 always implies that atleast either a or b is equal
69
to zero). Thus R becomes an integral domain. We will now formally define the notion
of divisors of zero or zero divisors in a ring R.
Definition 8
Let R be a ring (not necessarily commutative) and let a R. Then a is said to
be a left zero divisor iff there exists a0 and b 0 in R such that ab = 0. Similarly a
is said to be a right zero divisor iff there exists an element c 0 in R such that
ca = 0. The element a is said to be a two-sided zero divisor or simply a zero divisor if
a is both a left zero divisor and a right zero divisor. (Note that 0 is always a zero
divisor in R, if R has at least one non zero element). We now show in passing that
no field or skew-field contains a non-trivial zero divisor. This property of a field or a
skew-field follows from the following more general result.
Result
If R is a ring with identity e (not necessarily commutative) and a R, then a
has no multiplicative[ left/right] inverse in R if a is a [left/right zero divisor] inverse.
Proof
Suppose a has a multiplicative left inverse, say a-1R such that a-1 a=e. Then a
cannot be a left zero divisor, for otherwise there exists an element b 0 in R such
that ab = 0. But this implies that a -1(ab) = a -10=0, and hence (a-1a) b=0, i.e. eb = 0
or b = 0 which is contradiction to the assumption that b0. Thus a cannot have a
left inverse. Similarly, it can be shown that if a has a right inverse, say a 1-1R, such
that aa1-1=e then a cannot be a right zero divisor. Hence the result. ■
Problem I
Prove that in a ring R the product of any two (and hence the product of any
finitely many) left (right) zero divisors is again a left (right) zero divisor.
Problem 2
The units (or invertible elements) in a ring with identity form a group under
multiplication.
(By a unit in ring R with identity e(say) is meant that an element u which has a
multiplicative inverse v in R, such that uv=vu=e). We have the following important
fact concerning the ring Zn of residue classes modulo n ■.
Lemma 7.3
The ring z n is a field if and only if n is a prime.
Proof
First assume that n is a prime. We show that Z n is a field. The elements of Z n
are the class consisting of all integers (of the form n+i, Z ) which leaves the
remainder i on division by n, (i.e.) which are congruent to i modulo n. Suppose for
a, b Z n , a b = 0 then ab 0 (mod n). Since n is a prime the above implies that
either a or b is a 0 (mod n) or b 0 (mod n) . That is either a or b is equal to o .
70
Zn is a finite (commutative) ring containing no non-trivial zero divisors (i.e.) Z n
is a finite integral domain and hence is a field. Conversely suppose Zn is a (finite)
field. We prove that n must be a prime. Suppose not, then we can write n = pq
where 1 < p, q < n. (i.e) ( p and q are proper divisors of n ) Now pq (mod n) implies
p q 0 and hence p q 0 . But p q 0 , since, 1 < p, q<n. This means that Zn has
non-trivial zero divisors, namely p, q. But Zn being a field cannot contain non-trival
zero divisors and so we have a contradiction. Hence n must be a prime, as claimed.
Definition 8.2
Let R be a ring. Then R is said to be of characteristic m (>0), if m is the least
positive integer such that ma=0 for all aR. R is said be of characteristic zero if
there exists no positive integer m such that ma = o for all aR.
Note: In the case of an integral domain R, if for some integer m and for some
non-zero element aR, ma=0, then mx=0 for all xR. To see this fact, consider
(mx) a = m (xa) (by right distributive law)
= x(ma) (by left distributive law)
= x0 = 0
Hence mx = 0, since a 0 and R is an integral domain.
Thus in the case of an integral domain R, the characteristic of R is the least
positive integer m (if it exists) such that ma = 0 for some non-zero element a in R. If
no such positive integer m exists then R is of characteristic zero. ■
We will now prove the following problem, which gives a definite information
about the characteristic of an integral domain.
Problem 3
Prove that the characteristic of an integral domain is either zero or a prime.
Proof
Let R be an integral domain. If the characteristic is zero, there is nothing to prove.
(However, we may note that when a ring R, not necessarily an integral domain, is of
characteristic zero then R must be an infinite ring). For otherwise if the ring R is finite
and has only finite number of elements, then by a corollary under Lagrange’s theorem
on groups, we get that na = 0 for all aR, which means that the characteristic of R is
either n or less then n. (In fact a divisor of n is not zero). Now, the integral domain R is
of characteristics n 0. Then we claim that n must be a prime. For otherwise, let
n = pq where 1<p, q<n. Then for any non-zero element a in R, we must have
(pa) (qa) = (pq) a2 (using the second distributive laws)
= na2 = 0 ( since n is the characteristic of R)
The above implies that either pa = 0 or qa = 0. However both the possibilities
are impossible since both p, q are < n and pa = 0 will imply that px = 0 for all xR.
So also qa =0 will imply that qx = 0 for all xR. Thus n must be a prime and the
problem has been established. ■
71
The following problem for which the hint given may be used, proves that the
commutativity of addition in a ring R with identity is a consequence of the
remaining axioms which defines R.
Problem 4
Let R < R, +, > be an algebraic system satisfying all the axioms for a ring
with identity with the possible exception of the commutativity of addition +
(i.e.) < R, + > is a group not necessarily abelian, < R , > is a semigroup with
identity (known as a monoid) and multiplication ‘’ is both left distributive and right
distributive over addition ‘+’. Show that R is a ring.
The proof is left to the reader.■
Homomorphism:
Just as for groups, we introduce now the important notion of homomorphism
between rings.
Definition 8.3
A mapping of a ring R into a ring R is said to be a homomorphism of R into R
if
(a+b) = (a) + (b) and
(a.b) = (a). (b), for all a, bR.
In the above definition it must be noted (as in the case of groups) that +
and . that occur in the left hand sides of the above conditions (1) and (2) are those
operations of + and . in the ring R, while the + and . that occur on the right hand
sides are those of the ring R.
If there exist a homomorphism of a ring R onto a ring R, we write R ~ R is a
homomorphic image of R. More briefly, a homomorphism of a ring R into (onto) a
ring R is a mapping of R into (onto) R which preserves the operations. A
homomorphism of ring R onto a ring R is also known as an epimorphism (more
precisely, a ring epimorpism). If the homomorphism of a ring R into a ring R is
one-to-one, (i.e.) (a) = (b) a = b, where a, b R, then the homomorphism is
said to be a monomorphism (more precisely, a ring monomorphism). A
homomorphism : RR which is both a monomorphism and an epimorphism is
called an isomorphism and in such case we write R~R and say that the ring R is
isomorphic with ring R. It is easy to see that any two rings which are isomorphic
have the same algebraic properties pertaining to addition and multiplication. For
instance if the rings R and R are isomorphic, then (i) R is commutative iff R is (ii) R
has identity iff R has, (iii) R is an integral domain iff R is, (iv) R is a field iff R is, (v)
R is finite iff R is and so on. Such a statement as above cannot be made when
there exists only a homomorphism and nor an isomorphism of the ring R into (or
onto) the ring R. We will say more about this a little later.
Let : RR be a homomorphism of a ring R into a ring R. Since preserves
the additive structures of the rings R and R, making use of the known properties
72
of a group homomorphism, we have the following facts: (i) (0) = 0, where 0 in the
left hand side is the zero element in R and 0 in the right-hand side is the zero
element in R, (ii) (-a) = -(a) for all aR.
Definition 8.4
For the homomorphism : R R, the set K = { aR : (a) = 0, the zero in R }
is (as in the case of groups) called the kernel of the homomorphism .
One can immediately notice (from group theory) that is an isomorphism iff K
is trivial i.e. K contains only the zero element of R. Further K, under addition, is a
(normal) sub group of the additive group <R, +> of the ring R. Also for any aK and
rR both ra and ar are in K, since (ra) = (r) (a)=(r)∙0 = 0 and similarly (ar) = 0.
These properties of K are used to define the notion of an ideal in the ring R. This
notion being analogous to the notion of normal subgroups in Group Theory.
Definition 8.5
Let R be any ring. A non-empty subset A of R is said to be a two sided ideal or
simply an ideal of R if
(i) x, y A x – y A (Module property)
(ii) xA, rR rxA (Left-multiple property)
(iii) xA, rR xrA (Right multiple property)
Note: A is said to be a left ideal of R if conditions (i) and (ii) stated above are
satisfied and is said to a right ideal of R if conditions (i) and (iii) are satisfied. Thus
an ideal of R is both a left ideal and a right ideal of R. Also one may prove that
when the ring R is commutative both the notions of left ideal and right ideal
coincide and all ideals in R are only two sided ideals.
Definition 8.6
A non-empty subset A of a ring R is said to be a sub-ring of R, if A is also a
ring under the same operations of R.
It is easy to prove that a non-empty subset A of a ring R is a sub-ring of R iff
(i) x, yA x - yA and (ii) x, yA xy A
For the ring Z of integers, all multiples, of a fixed integer n(say) form the
subset nZ which is clearly a sub-ring of Z. So also all the integers from a sub-ring
of the ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers. The real numbers of the form a+b c where
a, b Z and c, a fixed positive integer which is not a perfect square form a sub-ring
of the field R of real numbers. Many examples of sub-rings can be given. One can
also show that every ideal A in a ring R, (even a one-sided ideal) is a sub-ring of R,
though not conversely. We give below examples of (i) a sub-ring which is not an
ideal (even one-sided) (ii) a left ideal which is not a right ideal, (iii) a right ideal
which is not a left ideal, besides examples of two-sided ideals.
73
Example 8.7
Let F2 denote the (non-commutative) ring of all real 2 2 matrices (vide:
Example 8). Let A be the set of all real upper triangular matrices of the form
a b then one can easily check that A is only a sub-ring of F and is neither a left
2
o c
nor a right ideal of F2. Similarly the set B of all real lower triangular matrices of the
form a o , (which are transposes of the matrices in A) is also, only a sub-ring of F2
b c
and is neither a left nor a right ideal of F2. On the other hand if C is the set of all
real matrices of the form a b , one can easily show that C is a right ideal and not
o c
a left ideal of F2. Similarly the transposes of the above mentioned matrices, viz. the
set D of all real matrices of the form a o is a left ideal and not a right ideal of F2.
b o
Analogous examples can be given from the (more general) ring Fn of all nn real (or
rational or complex) matrices.
Example 8.8
In the ring Z of integers the subset nZ, where n is a fixed integer, is not only a
sub-ring of Z, but even a two sided ideal in Z. It can be shown that every ideal in Z is of
this form, viz. nZ = { nm: mZ } for some fixed integer n. For this reason Z is a principal
ideal ring about which we will mention in greater details in the next lesson.
Example 8.9
Let R be any ring not necessarily commutative. If a is any fixed element in R,
the set aR = { ax: xR } can be shown to be a right ideal of R. In general aR need not
be a left ideal of R. Similarly the set Ra = { xa: xR } is a left ideal of R and is, in
general, not a right ideal of R. Moreover, in general, a need not belong to either the
right ideal aR or the left ideal Ra. For example, if R is the (commutative) ring of all
even integers, the subset 2R (of all multiples of 4) is an ideal of R not containing 2.
However, if the element a in the ring R belong to the centre, viz. the set
Z(R) = { zR: xz=zx, xR }, then aR = Ra will be a two-sided ideal of R.
The following standard problem gives an important characterisation of a
division ring in terms of right or left ideals, (one may also note in passing that, any
ring R, not necessarily commutative but however containing atleast one non-zero
element, always has two ideals viz. the null ideal (0) containing the zero element 0
only and the unit ideal which is the whole ring R.)
Problem 5
Let R be a ring with identity element not necessarily commutative. Then R is a
division ring if and only if the only right (left) ideals of R are the null ideal (0) and
the unit ideal R.
Proof :
Suppose the only right ideals in R are the null ideal (0) and the unit ideal R.
Then we have to show that R is a division ring. It suffice to show that the non-zero
74
elements of R form a group under multiplication. In our present case since R has
the (multiplicative) identity element e (say) it is enough if we show that every non-
zero element in R has a (multiplicative) right (or left) inverse and that the product of
any two non-zero elements in R is again a non-zero element. First we will show that
by assuming that a, bR and a, b are 0. Now aR is a right ideal of R and since
a = ae aR and a0, aR=R as R contains only the 2 ideals viz. (0) and R. Similarly
bR=R. Suppose, if possible, let ab = 0. Then (ab) R = (0). But (ab) R = a (bR) = aR =
R (0). Hence we obtain a contradiction and so ab 0. Thus the non-zero elements
of R form a semigroup under multiplication with identity e. Also since aR = R,
there exists an element a (a right inverse of a) in R such that aa = e. Hence, by
definition number 1 for a group ( vide: Lesson 2 ), the non-zero elements in R form
a group under multiplication, as required. Conversely suppose R is a division ring,
then we prove that R has only two ideals namely the null ideal (0) and the unit ideal
R. Suppose A is a non- null ideal of R and a A, a 0. then for any b R, there
exists an element x R such that ax = b. (This fact follows from we get that b = ax
A). But b is any arbitrary element of R, then it follows that R A R. Thus A = R,
the unit ideal, as desired. Hence the problem. ■
Bearing in mind that the definition of an ideal (left or right or two-sided), it is
not difficult to show that if A and B are both left (or right two-sided) ideals in a ring
R, then A B is also a left (or right or two-sided) ideal in R. More generally the
intersection of any non empty family of left (or right or two-sided) ideals in R is also
a left (or right or two-sided) ideal in R. This being so, we can define the left (or right
or two sided) ideal generated by any non-empty subset M of R as the intersection of
all left (or right or two sided) ideals of R which contain M. The above definition is
meaningful in as much as that there is atleast one left (right, two-sided) ideal in R,
viz, the unit ideal R which contains M. When M is the singleton set {a}, the left
(right, two-sided) ideal generated by M is called the principal left (right, two sided)
ideal generated by the element a and is usually denoted by (a)l (or (a)r, or (a)), as the
case may be. ■
Problem 6
If R is a ring with identity, not necessarily commutative then show that, for
elements aR, aR is the left ideal generated by a. Ra is the right ideal generated by
a and the set of all finite sums of the form ras is the two sided ideal generated
r , sR
by a
However, if R has no identity element then show that
the set { na+ra|nZ, rR } is the left ideal (a)l,
the set { na+ras : nZ , being a finite sum } r, s R is the two sided ideal (a).
75
It may be noted that the left (right, two-sided) ideal generated by the non-
empty subset M of R is the set-theoretically smallest left (right or two sided) ideal in
R which contains M.
Problem 7
If A, B are two left (right, two-sided) ideals in a ring R, not necessarily
commutative, then show that A+B = { a+b : aA, bB } is also a left (right two-sided)
ideal in R, which contains AUB.
Problem 8
Let A, B are two ideals in a ring R. Let AB denote the set of all elements that
can be written as finite sums of elements of the form ab with aA, bB. Then prove
that AB is also an ideal in R and that AB AB.
Note: The above problems 6, 7, 8 which concern the algebra of ideals are almost
straight forward and follow from definition of ideals. So you may try to do them all.
We saw earlier that the definition of an ideal was motivated by the module and
multiple properties of the kernel of any ring homomorphism. Just as for groups,
where we mentioned the close relationship that exists between group
homomorphism, normal subgroup and factor group, we proceed to explain in the
case of a ring, a similar relationship that exists between ring homomorphism, ideal
and factor-ring or residue-class ring. We now introduce the concept factor ring (or
quotient ring or residue – class ring).
Factor ring or quotient ring
Let R be a ring and A be an ideal. ( i.e. a two-sided ideal ) of R, A being a
(normal) subgroup of the additive group <R, +>, we can talk of cosets A + x, xR.
These cosets, which are now called residue classes of A. We know, from a group
under the well-defined addition given by (A+x)+(A+y) = A+(x+y) for x, yR. Now, we
define multiplication of residue classes by setting (A+x)(A+y) = A+(xy). That the above
definition of multiplication of residue classes is well-defined, can be seen as follows:
Suppose A + x = A + x and A + y = A + y where x, y, x, yR.
Then we show (A+x) (A+y) = (A+x) (A+y), i.e. A+xy=A + xy
Now A+x = A+x x-x A …(1)
A+y = A+y y-y A …(2)
Since A is an ideal ( x-x) A (x-x) y A
xy-x y A …(3)
Again (y-y) A x(y-y) A
xy - xy A …(4)
The above implications (1), (2), (3), (4) shows that (xy-xy) + (xy -xy) A.
i.e. xy - xy A, and hence A+xy = A+xy, as desired. ■
R
Now we make the formal definition of factor ring
A
76
Definition 8.9
Let R be any ring, not necessarily commutative and let A be two sided ideal of
R
R. Let = { A+x : xR } be the set of all residue classes of A ( or modulo A ). Define
A
R
addition + and multiplication ∙ on by setting (A+x) + (A+y) = A + (x+y),
A
R
(A+x).(A+y) = A + xy. Then become a ring under the above operation of addition
A
R
and multiplication of residue classes of A and this ring is called the quotient
A
ring or factor ring or residue class ring of R modulo A.
We already know from group theory that, if we restrict ourselves to the additive
R
structures only, then the mapping : R defined by (x) = A + x for xR is the
A
canonical (group) homomorphism. The same mapping turns out to be a ring
R
epimorphism also if we take the ring structures of R and into consideration.
A
Thus we have the following important example of a ring epimorphism.
R
For any two sided ideal A in R the mapping : R defined by (x) = A+x is a
A
ring epimorphism known as the canonical (ring) homomorphism. In fact, for x, yR,
(x+y) = A + (x+y) = (A+x) + (A+y) = (x).(y) so that preserves, both the operations
of addition and multiplication. Moreover is clearly surjective, as every element in
R
is of the form A+x and (x) = A+x.
A
Applying the same procedure as for groups one can establish the following
(analogous) fundamental ring homomorphism theorem.
6.3.2 THEOREM : HOMOMORPHISM OF RINGS
Let : R R be a homomorphism of a ring R onto a ring R and let K be the
R
kernel of . Then K is a two sided ideal of R such that the residue clas ring is
A
isomorphic with R (in other words, any homomorphic image of a ring R is isomorphic
R
with residue class ring where K is the kernel of the homomorphism). Conversely if
K
K is any two sided ideal of R then there exists a homomorphism (viz. the canonical
R R
homomorphism : R of the ring R onto the ring such that the kernel of the
K K
homomorphism is precisely K. ( Write down the proof of this basic theorem ). ■
The following theorem is analogous to the group – theoretical results, namely
Lemma 9 and Theorem 5 of Lesson 3 and its proof is an exact verbatim translation
of the proofs for the above mentioned group theoretical results into the language of
77
rings. So this theorem is also stated without proof and you are invited to write
down the proof.
Theorem 3.2.1
Let : R R be a homomorphism of a ring R onto a ring R and let K be the
kernel of . If A is any sub-ring of R, let A = { xR: (x)A }. Then A is a sub-ring
of R containing K and A is an ideal in R iff A is an ideal in R iff A is an ideal in R.
Moreover there is a one-to-one correspondence between the ideals A of R and the
ideals A (as defined earlier) of R which contain K. Further if the ideals A of R and A
R
of R correspond under the above mentioned one-to-one correspondence, then is
A
R
isomorphic with .■
A
We conclude this lesson with some standard examples of ring homomorphism
and certain observations on them.
Example 3.2.2
Let R and R be two arbitrary rings and let : R R be a mapping defined by
(x) = 0 xR. It is quite easy to see that is (trivially) a homomorphism. This
homomorphism is called the zero-homomorphism and is never an epimorphism
unless R is the trivial ring consisting of the zero element only. Similarly is never a
monomorphism unless R is the trivial ring consisting of the zero element only.
Similarly is never a monomorphism unless R is the trivial ring consisting of the
zero element only.
Example 3.2.3
Let R be a ring and I : R R be the identity mapping given by I(x) = x, xR.
Then clearly I is an isomorphism and is really the identity automorphism of the
ring R.
Note: An automorphism of a ring R is an isomorphism of R onto itself.
Example 3.2.4
Let R Z[i] be the ring (in fact an integral domain) of all Gaussian integers
a + bi where a, b Z. Consider the mapping : RR defined by (a+bi) = a-bi. Then
one can easily check is an automorphism of K, which is not the identity
automorphism. So also, if R is the field C of complex numbers, then the mapping
which maps every complex number z into its conjugate z is an automorphism,
which is not the identity automorphism. Similarly, if R is the ring (in fact, an
integral domain) of all real numbers of the form a+b c ( where a,bZ and c is a
fixed positive integer which is not a perfect square) – vide: Example 5-the mapping
: R R defined by (a+b c ) = a-b c can be easily verified to be an
antomorphism of R, which is not identity automorphism.
78
Example 3.2.5
If, as usual, Z denotes the ring (in fact, an integral domain) of integers and Z n
(where n is a fixed positive integer) denotes the ring of residue classes modulo n-
vide: Example 7, consider the mapping : Z Zn defined by (m) = m where m
denotes the residue class modulo n determined by the integer m, and is the set of
all integers which are congruent to m modulo n. Since n m m for CZ this
mapping is certainly not one-to-one, though however it is onto. Since one can
easily check that p q p q and pq pq where p, qZ, the mapping is a ring
epimorphism, whose kernel is the ideal nZ of Z. Thus Zn is a homomorphic image of
Z, with kernel nZ and hence , using the basic homomorphism Theorem 1 , we are
Z
that Zn . Earlier we had mentioned that Zn is a field if and only if the integer
nZ
n is a prime. Thus by choosing a nonprime n, we find that the homomorphic image
of an integral domain, viz., Z used not be an integral domain, as Zn contains non-
trivial zero divisors when n is not a prime. So also, one can show that the
homomorphic image of a ring with non-trivial zero divisors can be a ring without
non-trivial zero divisors.
Example 3.2.6
Let R be the set of all continuous real valued functions defined on the closed
unit interval I = [0, 1]. Define addition ‘+’ and multiplication ‘.’ on R, as usual, by
setting, (f+g) (x) = f(x) + g(x) and (fg)(x) = f(x) g(x) xI, where f, gR. Then since sum
and product of two real valued continuous functions, one can easily check that R
becomes a commutative infinite ring with identity, under the above defined
operations of ‘+’ and ‘.’ . Now let F be the field of real numbers. Define a mapping
: RF by setting (f) = f() where fR and , a fixed real number in I. (Hence f() is
the value of the function f f(x) when x = ). Then it is not difficult to verify that is
a ring epimorphism, whose kernel consists of all functions in R which vanish at
x = . That is, the mapping is surjective follows from the fact that the ring R
contains all constant functions.
Solved Problems
1. Prove that any field is an integral domain, but not vice-versa.
Solution
The statement suffices to show that a field F has no zero divisors.
Let a, b F such that a o & ab = 0.
ab = 0 a-1(ab) =a-1 0 (since a 0 a-1 exists)
(a-1a) b = 0
1.b = 0
b = 0.
Similarly, let ab = 0 & b 0.
79
Since b 0, b-1 exists & we have
ab = 0 (ab) b-1 = 0.b-1
a(bb-1) = 0
a.1 = 0
a=0
Thus F has no zero divisors.
Hence every field is an integral domain.
But the converse is not true. For example the ring of integers which is
an integral domain is not a field since the only inevertible elements of
the ring of integers are 1 & -1. ■
2. A ring R is said to be a Boolean ring if a2 = a for all aR. Prove that any
Boolean ring is of characteristic 2 and is commutative.
Solution
Let R be a Boolean ring
Now aR a+aR
Therefore (a+a)2 = (a+a) (given)
(a+a) (a+a) = a+a
(a+a) a+(a+a) a=a+a (Left distributive Law)
a2 + a2 + a2 + a2 = a + a (Right distributive law)
2
(a+a) + (a+a) = a+a ( a a )
(a+a) = 0 (Left cancellation Law)
Any Boolean ring is of characteristic 2.
Now (a+b)2 = (a+b)
(a+b) (a+b) = (a+b)
(a+b) a+ (a+b) b = a+b (Left dist. Law)
a2 + ba + ab + b2 = a +b (right dist. law)
(a + ba) + (ab + b) = a+ b (since a 2 = a; b 2 = b)
(a + b) + (ba + ab) = ( a + b) + 0
(commutativity & associativity of addition)
ba + ab = 0 (Left Cancellation law)
ba + ab = ba + ba (Therefore R is of Characteristic 2)
ab = b a (Left Cancellation law) ■
3. If R is a ring and a R. Let r(A) = { xR : ax = 0 aA }. Show that r(A) is
a right ideal of R.
Solution
We know that 0 R is such that a0 = 0r(A)
80
Let x1, x2 r(A) ax1 = 0; ax2 = 0 aA.
Consider a (x1-x2) = ax1 – ax2 = 0 – 0 =0 aA
x1 – x2 r(A)
r(A) is a group under addition
In order to show that r(A) is a right ideal of R, we have to show that
x r(A), yR xy r(A). But x r(A) ax = 0, aA.
a(xy) = (ax)y
= 0y
=0
Hence xy r(A)
Thus xr(A), yR xyr(A)
r(A) is a right ideal of R ■
4. Let A be any ideal in a ring R and let [R:A] denote the set { xR : rxA,
rR}. Prove that [R:A] is an ideal of R and that A [A.A]
Solution
Since 0R is such that r0 = 0A for all rR and hence [R:A] ≠
Let x1, x2 be two elements of [R : A]
Then rx1 A for all rR and rx2A for all rR
Since A is an ideal, rx1 A, rx2 A rx1 – rx2 A
r(x1-x2) A
x1-x2 [R:A]
Let x be any elements of [R:A],r and s be any element of R. Then rx A
for all rR. (rx) sA for all rR
r(xs) A for all rR
xs [R:A]
Also rxA for all rR
(rs) xA (since sR)
r(sx)A for all rR
sx [R:A]
Thus x [R:A], sR xs [R:A] sx[R:A] Hence [R:A] is an ideal of R.
Also y A yr A for all rR
y[R:A]
A [R:A] ■
5. If R is a ring and A is a left ideal of let (A) = {xR: xa = 0, for all aA}.
Prove that (A) is a two sided ideal of R.
Solution
81
Since 0R is such that 0a = 0 aA. Therefore (A)
Let x1, x2 (A). Then x1a = 0 & and x2a = 0 aA
Consider (x1-x2)a =x1a-x2a=0-0=0, aA. x1-x2 (A)
Let x (A): rR
Then xa=0, aA
r(xa) = r0, aA
(rx)a = 0, aA
rx (A)
Also, since A is a left ideal and raA, rR, aA
x(ra) = 0 (x (A) )
(xr) a = 0 aA
xr(A)
Hence (A) is an ideal of R. ■
6. If R is a ring with unit element 1 and is a homomorphism of R onto R,
prove that (1) is the unit element of R.
Solution
Since is a homomorphism of R onto R, R is a homomorphic image
of R. If 1 is the unit element of R, then (1) R.
Let a R. Then a = (a) for some aR ( is onto)
(1) a = (1) (a)
= (1.a)
= (a) = a
Also a (1) = (a) (1)
= (a.1)
= (a)
= a
Hence (1) is the unit element of R ■
7. If R is a ring with unit element 1 and is a homomorphism of R into
an integral domain R such that Kernel of R, prove that (1) is the unit
element of R.
Solution
Let be a homomorphism of a ring R into an integral domain R.
Then, Ker = {x : xR and (x) = 0 R}
Since Ker R, a R such that (a) 0R
We have (1) (a) = (1a) = (a)
Let b be any element of R
82
Now (a) b = (a) b
(1) (a) b = (a) b
(a) [(1)b] = (a) b (R is commutative)
(a) [(1)b] = (a)b = 0
(a) [(1)b–b] = 0
(1)b – b = 0 (since (a) 0 & R is without zero divisors)
(1) b = b = b (1) (since R is commutative)
(1) is the unit element of R ■
6.4. REVISION POINTS
Ring, Homomorphism of ring, Kernel of homorphism, Ideal, Subring, Quotient
ring
6.5. INTEXT QUESTIONS
1. Prove that any finite integral domain is a field
2. Prove that in a ring R the product of any two (and hence the product of
any finitely many) left (right) zero divisors is again a left (right)zero divisor.
3. If A, B are two left (right, two-sided) ideals in a ring R, not necessarily
commutative, then show that A+B = { a+b : aA, bB} is also a left (right
two-sided) ideal in R, which contains AUB.
4. A ring R is said to be a Boolean ring if a2 = a for all aR. Prove that any
Boolean ring is of characteristic 2 and is commutative.
5. If R is a ring and A is a left ideal of R and let (A) = {xR : xa = 0, for all
aA}. Prove that (A) is a two sided ideal of R.
6. If R is a ring with unit element 1 and is a homomorphism of R into an
integral domain R such that Kernel of R, prove that (1) is the unit
element of R.
6.6. SUMMARY
Ring, Types of rings, Homomorphism of ring, Kernel of Homomophism, Ideal,
Subring, Quotient ring are explained
6.7. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. An element a in a ring R is said to be nilpotent if an = 0 for some positive
integer n. Does the Z108 of all residue classes modulo 108 have non-zero
nilpotents? If so, what are they?
2. If R is a non commutative ring with a unique left identity, i.e. an element e
such that ea = a for all a R, then show that the left identity is also the
identity for R.
3. Let R be a ring with identity1. Define new operations and on R by
setting a b = a+b+1, ab = a+b+ab and let R { R, , }. Prove that R is
also a ring with identity and R is isomorphic with R .
83
6.8. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Algebra by Micheal Artin, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1994.
2. Lectures in Abstract Algebra Volumes I, II and III by N. Jacobson, D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1976.
6.9. ASSIGNMENT
1. Prove that the ring Zn is a field if and only if n is a prime
2. Theorem : Homomorphism of Ring
6.10. SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERECNE BOOK
Algebra – By Michel Artin – PHS Learning P Ltd
6.11. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Students are requested to attend the P.C.P classes and work out the problems
given in the lesson.
6.12. KEYWORDS
Ring, Homonorphism, Kernel, Ideal, Subring, Quotiant ring
84
LESSON – 7
IDEALS
7.1. INTRODUCTION
In this Lesson we propose to study certain special types of ideals and rings
and discusses some of their important properties.
The theorem 1 on ring homomorphism (given in the last lesson) gives us a
complete information about all the possible homomorphic images of a given ring.
Applying this theorem and recalling the fact that the only ideals in any division ring
are the trivial ones, viz., the null ideal (O) and the unit ideal of R. We can state that
any division ring (and in particular, any field) has only trivial homomorphic images,
namely itself and the zero ring, consisting of only the zero element. Thus a field is
the most desirable kind of ring, in that it cannot be simplified further by applying a
homomorphism to it. Now we define two types of ideals in a commutative ring R
and indicate their inter relations, apart from suitable examples to illustrate these
ideals, it happens that the residue class ring modulo, one of these types of ideals, is
always a field.
7.2. OBJECTIVES
Ideal, Maximal ideal,Imbedding, Euclidean ring, Principla ideal ring, greatest
common divisor, Commutative ring with identity, prime, relatively prime are
discussed in detail.
7.3. CONTENTS
3.1 Definition – Ideal
3.2 Definition – Maximal ideal
3.3 Definition - Imbedded
3.4 Euclidean rings
7.3.1. DEFINITION - IDEAL
An ideal P in a commutative ring R is said to be a prime ideal if P is not a unit
ideal and whenever abP, where a, b R then at least one of the factors a or b is
in P. ■
7.3.2. DEFINITION – MAXIMAL IDEAL
An ideal M in a ring R is said to be a maximal ideal of R, if M is not the unit
ideal and whenever N is an ideal in R such that M N R, then either N = M or
N = R. ■
The meaning of maximal ideal (given above) is that an ideal of R is maximal if
it is impossible to squeeze an ideal between it and the whole ring R. It can be
proved, by using Zorn’s Lemma or axiom of choice, that any commutative ring with
identity has at least one maximal ideal. In fact, any ideal is contained in a unique
maximal and this can be proved. Moreover, a ring may possess many maximal
ideals and this fact will be illustrated with the help of the ring Z of integers.
85
Theorem 3.2.1
If R be a commutative ring, then an ideal P of R is a prime ideal iff the residue
R
class ring is an integral domain.
P
Proof
R
Let be an integral domain. We have to prove that P is a prime ideal. It
P
suffices to show that xy P implies that at least one of the factors x or y is in P (by
definition of a prime ideal). Now xy P implies xy + P = P, which in turn implies
R
(x+P)(y+P)=P ( Here note that the elements of are residue classes x+P where xR
P
R
and that (x+P)(y+P) = xy+P ). But P is the zero element in the ring , which is
P
assumed to be an integral domain. Hence either x+P = P or y+P=P which means
that either xP or yP as desired. Therefore P is a prime ideal. Conversely, assume
R
that P is a prime ideal. We shw that is an integral domain. For this it is enough
P
R
if we show that (x+P)(y+P) =P (the zero element in ) implies that either x + P = P or
P
y + P = P. Now (x+P) (x+P) =P implies xy+P=P, and hence xyP. Since P is a prime
ideal, this means that either x or y is in P and hence either x+P or y+P is same as P,
R
as required. Thus becomes an integral domain. (Note that R being
P
R R
commutative, is also a commutative ring and so the ring is a commutative
P P
integral domain, as required in the definition of an integral domain). ■
Before obtaining the important result concerning the “iff” condition for an ideal
to be a maximal ideal of a commutative ring with identity (vide: Theorem 2), we list
a few examples of prime ideals and non prime ideals in the ring Z. Incidentally
these examples will justify the term “Prime ideal”.
Take the ring Z of integers. If A is a null ideal of Z, we show that A is a
principal ideal, generated by some suitable integer aA. Since A is a non-null ideal,
A contains non-zero integers. Of the two integers m and – m, one of them is
certainly positive. Thus A contains positive integers. Let a be the smallest of the
positive integers in A. (Such an integer a exists, as the set of all positive integers is
known to be well ordered). We now claim that this positive integer a generates the
ideal A. For, if mA then, by division algorithm available in Z, we can find two
integers q and r such that m = qa + r where o < r < a. Since m, a A and A is an
ideal, we find that m - qaA. i.e., rA. Hence r = 0 for otherwise there exists a
positive integer r < a in A, contradicting the fact that s is the least positive integer
in A. Thus r = 0 and thus we get m = qa, which means that A = aZ is the principal
86
ideal in Z generated by a. Because of this property of Z viz. that any ideal in Z is a
principal ideal. Z is a principal ideal ring-this concept of a principal ideal ring will
be defined subsequently. Now we show that an ideal P in Z is a prime ideal iff it is
generated by a prime number. Suppose P = pZ is the ideal generated by the prime
p and suppose ab P where a, bP. then p|b. This mean that either a or b is in
P = pZ. Hence, by definition, P becomes a prime ideal. On the other hand any
ideal A of Z generated by a non-prime is not at prime ideal. In fact, suppose A = aZ
is an ideal generated by a which is not a prime then we can choose two integers x
and y such that a|xy , a does not divide either x or y. For example, suppose a = 12
(a non prime) we can choose x =4, y =9 so that a|xy, though a divides neither x nor
y. Hence the ideal A cannot be a prime ideal, as xyP but for both x and y. Hence
the ideal A cannot be a prime ideal, as xyP but for both x and y are not in P. Thus
we see that any ideal in X is prime ideal iff it is generated by a prime number. This
property is one of the important properties of any Euclidean ring, a concept to be
defined subsequently and we will see later that Z is an Euclidean ring. Similarly in
the case of the ring Z[x] of all polynomials in x over Z.
Ring Z[x] will be considered in the next lesson – any ideal is a prime ideal iff it
is an ideal generated by an irreducible polynomial.
Now we will obtain the “iff” condition for an ideal M to be a maximal ideal in R.
In this connection we have the following important theorem.
Theorem 3.2.2
If R be a commutative ring with identity, then an ideal M in R is a maximal
R
ideal iff the residue class ring is a field.
M
Proof
R
Let M be an ideal of R such that the residue class ring is a field. Since a
M
field has only two ideals, viz. the null ideal and the unit ideal, the residue class ring
R
is . Now by theorem 2 in Lesson 5, there is one-to-one correspondance between
M
R
the set of ideals of and the set of ideals of R which contains M. The ideal M of R
M
R
corresponds to the zero ideal M of and the unit ideal R of R corresponds to the
M
R R
unit ideal of . Hence there is no ideal between M and R other than these two,
M M
which follows that M is a maximal ideal. Conversely, let M be a maximal ideal.
R
We must show that is a field. By the one-to-one correspondence mentioned
M
above, it follows that (since there is no ideal between M and R other than these two)
R
the residue class ring has only two ideals, namely the null ideal M and the unit
M
87
R R
ideal. Hence is a division ring and since R is a commutative ring turns out
M M
to be a field. This concludes the proof of the theorem. ■
Corollary 3.2.3
In any commutative ring with identity every maximal ideal is a prime ideal.
Proof
Let R be a commutative ring with identity and let M be a maximal ideal of R.
R
Then by the above theorem is a field and an integral domain. Therefore, by
M
theorem , M turns out to be a prime ideal and hence the corollary ■
Note: Even though any maximal ideal (in a commutative ring with identity) is
always a prime ideal, the converse of the statement is false. In fact, we can give an
example of a commutative ring with identity, in which not all prime ideals are
maximal. However, in the case of the ring Z of integers and also in the case of any
finite commutative ring (with identity), all prime ideals are also maximal. These
facts are proved in the following problems.
Problem 1
Give an example of a commutative ring with identity in which not all prime
ideals are maximal.
Solution
Let Z[x] (as usual) denote the set of all polynomials in the indeterminate (or
variable) x over Z (i.e. with coefficients from the ring Z of integers). One can easily
see that Z[x] becomes a commutative ring with identity, under the usual operations
of addition and multiplication of polynomials. Let P denote the sub set of Z[x]
consisting of all polynomials in Z[x] which are divisible by x ; i.e. polynomials which
lack the constant term. One can easily verify that P is an ideal in Z[x]. In fact it is
the principal ideal generated by the polynomial x. This ideal P is moreover a prime
ideal, because, whenever uv P, u,v R[x], it is easy to see that at least one of
the polynomials u or v must lack the constant term. Let N be the set of all
polynomials in Z[x], whose constant term n is either zero or an even integer. It is
not difficult to check that N is an ideal (even a prime ideal) in Z[x], with
the property that P N Z[x], so that N turns out to be a proper ideal in Z[x],
FERMAT’S THEOREM
8.1. INTRODUCTION
In the last lesson, we introduced the concept of a Euclidean ring and
established some of its properties, many of which resemble the familiar properties
of integers. At the end of the lesson we have shown that the ring Z[i] of all
Gaussian integers a+ bi, where a, b Z is a Euclidean domain, by prescribing a
suitable d-value. Now we apply the properties of a Euclidean ring to this ring Z[i]
and derive Fermat’s theorem in number theory , viz. that any prime number of the
form 4n + 1 can be exhibited as a sm of two squares. Before proving this theorem
we require lemmas.
8.2. OBJECTIVES
Polynomial rings, properties of polynomial rings, polynomials over the field of
rational numbers, primitive polynomial, Gauss Lemma , Unique factorization
domain and the Eisenstein’s Criterion are explained.
8.3. CONTENTS
8.3.1 Polynomial Rings
8.3.2 Properties of R(x)
8.3.3 Polynomials over the field of rational numbers
Lemma 3.1
Let p be a prime number. Suppose c is an integer relatively prime to p and
suppose there exist integers x and y such that cp = x2 + y2. Then p can be written
as the sum of two square. That is p = a2 + b 2 for some pair of integers a and b.
Proof
Since an (ordinary) integer can be considered as Gaussian integer with
magnify part absent, we find that the ring Z of integers is a sub-ring of the ring Z[i]
of Gaussian integers. It may happen that an integer p which is a prime element in
Z(i.e. prime number) need not be prime in Z[i] . For instance, the prime numbers 2
is not prime in Z[i] for we can write 2 = (1+i) (1-i) and both (1+i) and (1-i) are neither
units, nor associates of 2 in Z[i], since the only units in Z[i] are 1-1, i, -i as can be
easily shown. Now, we claim that the prime number p considered in the Lemma is
not a prime in Z[i] . Suppose not, then cp = x2 + y2 = (x+yi) (x-yi), this factorization
being possible in Z[i] , by Lemma 6 of the last lesson that since p is a prime divisor
of the L.H.S. and hence of the R.H.S., p must divide at least one of x + yi or x – yi.
If p|(x+yi), then (x+yi) = p(u+vi) which clearly implies (by taking complex conjugates
of both sides or otherwise) that (x-yi) = p(u-vi). Here (x+yi)(x-yi) = p 2 (u+vi)(u-vi).
Thus p 2|(x2+y2) = cp and it follows p|c. However this is not possible as, by
assumption, p and c are integers which are relatively prime. Hence p is not be a
divisor of x+yi. Similarly p cannot be a divisor of x-yi. Thus p cannot be a prime
element in Z[i] as claimed. We can therefore take p=(a+bi) (m+ni) where a+bi,
m+ni, Z[i] and both a+bi, m+ni are not units. One can easily show that the
105
Gaussian integer + i is a unit Z[i] iff 2 + 2 = 1. We find that a2+b2 and m2 + n2
are > 1, as both a + bi and m + ni are not units in Z[i] . Now from p = (a+bi) (m+ni),
by taking complex conjugates of both sides or otherwise, we get p = (a-bi)(m-ni).
Hence p2 = (a+bi)(m+ni)(a-bi)(m-ni) = (a2 + b2)(m2 + n2). Therefore (a2+b2) is a divisor
of p2. But the only possible (positive) integer divisors of p 2 are 1, p and p2, p being
a prime. Hence a2 + b2 = 1 or p or p2. But a2 + b2 > 1. So a2 + b2 > 1. So a2 + b 2 1.
Further a2+b 2 = 1 or p or p 2. But a2+b2 > 1. So a 2+b 2 1. Further a2+b 2 cannot be
p2 then m2+n2=1 which cannot be, since m2+n2 > 1. Thus the only possibility is
that a2+b 2 = p = m2+n2. Hence the lemma. ■
Now, if an odd prime number is divided by 4 the remainder can be either 1 or
3 only, as it cannot be clearly 0 or 2. Thus the set of odd numbers can be divided
into two disjoint classes viz. (i) those odd primes of the form 4n+1, which on
division by 4 leave remainder 1 and (ii) those odd primes of the form 4n+3, which
on division by 4 leave remainder 3. We prove in the main theorem that any odd
prime number of the form 4n + 1 can be exhibited as a sum of two squares and we
leave it as an exercise to show that no odd prime number we require the following
lemma which concerns number theory and in the proof of this lemma we make use
of the well-known Wilson’s theorem on number theory.
Lemma 3.2
If p is any prime number of the form 4n + 1 then, there exists an integer x
such that x2 +1 0 (mod p).
Proof
p 1 p -1
Take x = 1, 2, 3, … . Hence is an even number since p = 4n + 1, for
2 2
p 1
some integer n. Therefore, we can also write x = (-1) (-2) (-3) … . Now p – k
2
– k (mod p), so that we get
p 1 p -1
x2 = (-1) (-2) (-3) … . 1.2.3
2 2
p 1 p -1
(p-1) (p-2) (p-3) … p 1,2,3 ... (mod p)
2 2
p 1 p -1
(p-1) (p-2) (p-3) … 1.2.3 ... (mod p)
2 2
p 1 p 1 p 3
1.2.3. … . ...(p 2) (p - 1) (mod p) (by rearrangement)
2 2 2
p 1
(mod p)
2
-1 (mod p). by Wilson’s theorem
106
|p-1 -1 (mod p). p being a prime.
Thus the integer x, has the property x2 + 1 0 (mod p) as required and the
lemma has been established. ■
As an illustration for the above lemma, take p = 4.4 + 1 = 17, a prime of the
form 4+1. Then, one can check by actual verification that x = 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.
p 1
here 8 , viz, x = 40320 13 (mod 17) satisfies the congruence relation
2
x2 132 - 1 (mod 17)
Theorem 3.1
If p is any prime number of the frm 4n + 1, then d can be expressed as a sum
of two squares; i.e. p = a2 + b2 for some integers a, b.
Proof:
By the above lemma we can find an integer x such that x2 -1 (mod p). We
p
claim that, we can choose this integers x such that |x| < and also x2 - 1
2
(mod p). In fact, if the integer x we had initially taken, is > p, we can divide x by p
and obtain the remainder r. Then r < p and x r (mod p), so that x2= r2. Let
p p p
r < . Suppose r > then (p-r) < and since p-r -r (mod p), we get that (p-r)2
2 2 2
(-r) (mod p). This integer (p-r) will then serve our purpose. Thus we can determine
2
p
an integer x such that |x| < and x2 + 1 is divisible by p i.e., x2 + 1 = cp for some
2
p
integer c. But x2 + 1 < ( )2 + 1, by our choice of x and hence we find that cp = x2 +
2
1 < p2. Thus c < p and p being a prime c and p are relatively prime. Therefore we
can now apply Lemma 1 and conclude that p = a 2+b2 for some integers a, b. The
theorem is therefore proved. ■
8.3.1 POLYNOMIAL RINGS
We have seen already in the last lesson that how the ring Z of the integers
and the ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers can be recognized as Euclidean rings. We are
now going to obtain yet another important example of a Euclidean ring. By Z[x] we
denote the set of all polynomials in x (an indeterminate) over Z. i.e., with
coefficients from Z and it is not difficult to show that Z[x] is a commutative ring
with identity (even an integral domain) under the usual (high school) operations of
addition and multiplication of polynomials. However this ring Z[x] is not a
Euclidean ring and this fact will be proved later. If instead of Z, we take either Q,
the field of rational on R, the field of reals or C, the field of complex numbers and
consider the set Q(x) or R(x) or C(x) of all polynomials in x over Q or R or C as the
case may be and we obtain rings, under the usual operations of addition and
multiplication of polynomials and these rings Q(x), R(x), C(x) are all Euclidean rings,
a suitable d-value being by the degree of the polynomial. More generally we can
107
construct the ring F[x] of all (so called) polynomials in x over a field F and prove
that F[x] is an Enclidean ring. So also we can construct the ring R[x] of all
polynomials over any ring R and study its properties. We propose to study about
these things in this lesson. These ideas will be necessary for the purpose of Galois
theory which will be treated in the last Lesson in Algebra.
Definition 3.1.1
Let R be any ring and let x denote any indeterminate (or variable). Let R[x]
denote the set of all symbols or sums of the form a0+a1+a2 x2+…+anxn where ai R
for i = 1, 2,… ,n, n an arbitrary non-negative integer. The operations of addition ‘+’
and multiplication ‘.’ are defined on R[x] as follows: If f(x), g(x) R[x] where
f(x) = a0+a1x+…+an, xn, g(x)= b0 + b1 x + …+ bm xm, then f(x) + g(x) = h(x) = c0 + c1x +
c2x2 + … + cpxp, with ci = ai + bi for all i and p is the maximum of the integers n and
m ( taking a i = 0 if t > n, bi = 0 if t>m) and f(x), g(x) = k(x) d0 + d1x + d2x2 + …+…+
dm+n xm+n where di = a0 bi + a1 b i-1 + … + at b i-t +…+ ajb o for all i (with the same
convention as earlier, viz. ai = 0 if t > n, b = 0 it t > m). Then it is possible to show
that R[x] is ring under the above defined operations of addition ‘+’ and
multiplication ‘.’. This ring R[x] is called the polynomial ring or more precisely, the
ring of polynomials in x over R. The elements of R[x] are called polynomials in x
over R. ■
Remark
In the above definition, it is understood that for the polynomials f(x) and g(x),
the coefficient an and bm are not zero in R. So that the definition of f(x) + g(x) can be
precisely given. We may also point out here that the expressions for elements in
R[x] , like a0 + a1 xn are only formal sums (or symbols) since no meanings as such
can be attached to the terms ai xi as also to the sum of such terms. To avoid this
difficulty, we may denote any element in R[x] as an infinite-tuple like
(a0, a1… …am …) where all ai R and all but a finitely many ai are zero. With this
form for any element in R[x], addition and multiplication on R[x] are then defined
as follows:
(a0, a1, … au …) + (b0, b1, … bm …) = (c0, c1, … cp …) where ci = ai + bi for all i;
(a0, a1, … an …).(b 0, b1, … b m …) = (d0, d1, … dr …)
i
where d i = a i b i - j for all i.
j 0
With these definition of addition and multiplication, one can show that R[x] is
a ring. Further, if we denote by x the infinite–tuple (0, 1, 0, 0, …) on the
assumption that the ring R has identity 1, we can easily check that for any positive
integer i, xi = (0, 0,…0, 1, 0, …) form a sub-ring of R[x] isomorphic with R. So if we
identify such an element (a0, 0, 0, …) with the element a0 we can write an
arbitrary element (a0, a1, … an, 0, 0, …) of R[x] in the form of polynomial
a0+a1x+a2x2 + … + anxn. However, we avoided this method of introducing the notion
of R[x] in order to present the ideas in a less abstract manner.
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We will now derive certain familiar and important properties of the ring R[x]. We will
omit the proofs of some of the properties, as these properties can be easily established
from the definition of R[x] from the immediate consequences of the definitions.
8.3.2 PROPERTIES OF R(X)
1. The ring R can be embedded in R[x] for, all the so called constant
polynomials, say a0 x0 – a0 together with the zero polynomial 0 from a sub-
ring of R[x] which is obviously isomorphic with R.
2. R[x] is a commutative ring MR is and this fact is easily proved.
3. If R has identity 1, R[x] has also identity, viz. 1 x0 1 itself.
4. If R is an integral domain so is R[x] and conversely.
Proof of (4)
For the purpose of the proof of this property, we define the notion of degree of
any polynomial in R[x]. If f(x) is a non-zero polynomial and f(x) a0 + a1 x + a2x 2 +
… + anxn, we say that f(x) is degree n, provided a n 0. For the zero polynomial we
do not assign any degree. We now make the claim that the degree of the product of
polynomials f(x) and g(x) which are of degrees n and m respectively cannot exceed
n+m and that it is precisely n + m when R is an integral domain. In fact, let f(x) be
the same as the polynomial earlier mentioned and g(x) be the polynomial b0 + b 1 x +
b2x2 + … + bmxm, where bm 0, the degree of g(x) being m. By the definition of
multiplication in R[x], we find that the coefficient of xn in the product f(x).g(x) is
t
a i , b t -i . Now a i = 0 whenever i > n and b i = 0 whenever j > m. Let t>m + n.
i 0
If 0 i n, then t – i > m so that bt-i = 0 hence, a1b t-i = 0. On the other hand, if
t i > n then ai = 0, so that again aibt-i = 0. Thus when t>m+n all the terms in
t
a i , b t - i are zero and hence the coefficient the degree of f(x)g(x) is atmost m+n
j 0
and the highest degree co-efficient in this product is obviously anbm. Even this
coefficient may be absent, if the ring R has non trivial divisors of zero and anbm are
chosen in R such that an 0, bm 0. But nbm = 0. In such cases the degree of the
product of two polynomials will actually be less than that the sum of the degree of
the two polynomials. However, when R is an integral domain the degree of f(x).g(x)
is precisely m+n, is an bm 0. Since both an and bm are 0. incidentally this shows
that the product of any two non-zero polynomials in R[x] can never the zero
polynomial. Hence R[x] is an integral domain. ■
Further it is evident that when R[x] is an integral domain, so is R. Thus we
have shown that the ring R[x] is an integral domain iff R is.
Now we have the following theorem, which incidentally furnishes us with many
examples of a Euclidean ring.
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Theorem 3.2.1
For any field F, the ring F[x] of all polynomials in x over F is an Euclidean ring.
Proof
Since F is a field, it is also an Integral domain and hence, as we have seen earlier,
the ring F[x] is also an integral domain. So in order to show that F[x] is a Euclidean
ring it is enough if we are able to assign a d-value to each non-zero polynomial f(x)
F[x] such that the d-value (which must be a non-negative integer) has the required two
properties mentioned in the definition of the Euclidean ring, namely (i) If f(x), g(x) be
any two non-zero polynomials in F[x] , then d(f(x). g(x)) both d (f(x)) and d(g(x)), and (ii)
given any pair of polynomials a(x), b(x) in F[x], where a(x) is non-zero, then there must
exist polynomials q(x), r(x) in F[x] such that we can write b(x) = q(x) a(x) + r(x) where
either r(x) is the zero polynomial or d(r(x)) < d(a(x)). For this purpose we take the degree
of any non-zero polynomial f(x) as d(f(x)). Then it is clear that d(f(x)) is a non-negative
integer and since d(f(x).g(x)) = d(f(x)) + d(g(x)) both d(f(x)) and d(g(x)) the property (i)
required of the d-value is satisfied. It remains for us to show that property (ii) viz.
division algorithm is also by this d-value. We establish this property (ii) by induction bn
d(b(x)). For the sake of fixing out ideals, let us assume that a(x) = a0 + a1x + … + anxn
with an 0 and b(x) = b0 + b1x + … + bmxm, with bm 0. Then d(a(x)) = n and d(b(x)) =
m. When m < n, the property is trivially satisfied, since we can obviously write b(x) =
q(x) + r(x) where q(x) is the zero polynomial and r(x) = b(x) so that d(r(x)) = d(b(x)) < d
(a(x)), as required. Therefore we have now a basis for the induction proof. So we may
assume as induction hypothesis that the property is true whenever d(b(x)) < m and
then prove the truth of the property when d(b(x)) = m. Now let m n, where n is the
degree of a(x). Since an 0 in F, there exists the inverse an-1 in F such that an-1 an = 1,
the identity in the field F. A straight forward simplification will show that the
polynomial b(x) = bm.an–1 xm-n a(x) is of degree m – 1. By using our induction
hypothesis, we can write b(x) = bman-1 xm-n. a(x) = q1(x) a(x) + r(x) where q1(x), r(x) F(x)
and either r(x) is the zero polynomial or d(r(x)) < d (a(x)). This means that we can write
b(x) = q(x) + r(x) where q(x) = bman-1xm-n+q1(x) F[x] and r(x) is as earlier mentioned.
Thus the property of division algorithm has been proved when d(b(x)) = m. This
completes the induction and the theorem follows■
Now that we have proved that the ring F[x] is a Euclidean ring whenever F is a
field, F[x] has all the properties ( we obtained in last lesson ) of a Euclidean ring.
We state most of those properties of F[x] as below.
(i) F[x] is a principal ideal ring: That is, if A is any ideal in the ring F[x] then
there exists a polynomial p(x) F[x] such that every element in A is a multiple of
p(x) i.e. in the from (x) p(x) F[x].
(ii) Any two non-zero-polynomials f(x) and g(x) in F[x] have a greatest common
divisor d(x) F[x] and there exist polynomials (x), (x) in F[x] such that we can
write d(x) = (x) f(x) + (x) g(x). In fact this g.c.d. d(x) is the generator of the ideal
generated by f(x) and g(x).
110
(iii) It is easy to show that the (non-zero) constant polynomials (i.e. polynomials
of degree 0) in F[x] are the only units in F[x], so that we can define a prime element
in F[x] – the prime element being now called an irreducible polynomial – as the
polynomial p(x) with the property that whenever p(x) = a(x) b(x) then one of a(x) or
b(x) is a constant polynomial, the other being called an associate of p(x). For
instance in the case of the ring Q[x], x2-2 is an example of an irreducible
polynomial, so also in the case of the ring R[x], x2+1 is an irreducible polynomial.
However, one may note that the polynomial x2-2 which is irreducible over Q is
not irreducible over R. For that we can factories x2-2 as (x+ 2 ) (x– 2 ) over R.
With the definition of an irreducible polynomial having been given, we can
state that any polynomial f(x) in F[x] can be written uniquely as a product
of irreducible polynomials, unique but for the order of the factors and unit
factors.
(iv) Ideal A in F[x] is maximal (and hence prime) if and only if A is generated by
an irreducible polynomial p(x) in F[x]. Also any prime ideal in F[x] is maximal and
vice versa. Before proceeding further with our lesson we consider two important
and standard problems.
Problem 1
Let F and K are two fields and F K. (i.e. K is an extension of the field F)
Suppose f(x), g(x) F[x] are relatively prime in F[x], then prove that they are
relatively prime in K[x] also.
Solution
Since F K, it is clear that F[x] K[x]. Moreover both F[x] and K[x] are
Euclidean rings. Since f(x) and g(x) in F[x] are relatively prime in F[x], their g.c.d. in
F[x] is 1, the identity in F[x] being 1, the identity in F. So there exist polynomials
(x). (x) F[x] such that (x). f(x) + (x). g(x) = 1. This relation holds good in K[x]
also since all the polynomials (x), (x), f(x), g(x) are in K[x] also. Hence if d(x) is any
common divisor of f(x) and g(x) in K[x] is also 1 or any unit. Therefore f(x) and g(x)
continue to be relatively prime even in K[x] ■
Problem 2
F[x]
Let F be the field of real numbers. Prove that is a field isomorphic to
x2 1
the filed of complex numbers.
Solution 2
Let A denote the ideal <x2 + 1>, generated by x2+1, in the Euclidean ring F[x].
Then A = { (x2+1) f(x) : f(x)F(x) }. The residue classes modulo A in F[x], i.e. the
F[x]
elements in can be taken as A+(a+bx) where a, bF. In fact if p(x) F[x] then
A
the residue class A+(a+bx) is same as A + (a+bx) where a + bx is the (unique)
remainder obtained on dividing p(x) by (x2 +1). Since F[x] is a Euclidean ring, the
division algorithm exists and we can determine q(x), r(x) F(x) such that p(x) = q(x)
111
(x2+1) + r(x) where r(x) is the zero polynomial or the d(r(x)) = degree of r(x) is less
than 2, which is the degree of x2 + 1. Thus r(x) can be taken as a + bx where a, bF
and both a and b are zero, if r(x) is the zero polynomial. Now p(x) – r(x) < x2 + 1 >
and so the residue classes p(x) + <x2 + 1 > and r(x) + <x2 + 1> are the same. Hence
F(x )
any residue class in can be taken as r(x) + <x2 + 1> where y(x) = a+bx, a,
x2 1
b F. We may denote these residue classes modulo A as
F(x)
a bx, so that {a bx} a, b F. Now we claim that the mapping
A
F( x )
: C (where C denotes the field of complex numbers) defined by (a bx ) =
A
F( x )
a+ bi is an isomorphism of the field on to the field C. Clearly the mapping is
A
‘onto’. Also is one to one and well defined and this fact is seen by the following
“iff” conditions.
= (a bx ) (c dx )
which shows that preservers addition.
And, ((a bx ).(c dx )) [(a bx )(c dx )]
where each p i(x) is a primitive, irreducible polynomial in R[x] and ci, d i R for
all i = 1, 2, … k. the above equation gives d 1d 2…dkf(x) = c1c2 …ck pi(x) p2(x)
…pk(x). Now by data f(x) is primitive and the product of primitive polynomials is
also primitive over R (by Lemma 4). Therefore equating the contents of both sides
of the last equation, we get d1d2 … dk = c1 c2 … ck and so we obtain f(x) = p1 (x) p2(x)
… p k(x). That is we have factored f(x) as a product of irreducible polynomials p i(x)
in R[x]. Further this factorization is unique to within order and unit factors, since
F[x] is a U.F.D. (as earlier mentioned) and each pi(x) in R[x] being primitive and
irreducible over F. Hence the lemma follows ■
Now we have all the necessary materials for the proof of our main theorem,
which we now state and prove.
[Note: For the proof of this main theorem, one must first establish the Lemma
5 and 6 and then prove the theorem; Lemma 4 may also be quoted].
Theorem 3.8.5
If R is a U.F.D then so is R[x].
Proof
Let f(x) be any arbitrary polynomial over R. Then we can write f(x) in a unique
way as f(x) = c(f) f1(x) where c(f) is the content of f(x) and f1(x)is a primitive
polynomial in R[x]. Now c(f) is in R and is unique but for unit factors. Also, since
f1(x) is primitive, by the last lemma f1(x) can be factored in a unique but for the
order of the factors and the associates of the factors. Again since c(f) is in R and R
is a U.F.D. c(f) admits a unique factorization as a product of prime elements in R
and we claim that this is the only factorization for c(f) when it is factored over R.
(i.e. as an element of R[x]. In fact, suppose we factorize any element of R, in
particular c(f) over R and obtain c(f) = a 1(x) . a2(x) … a m(x). Then equating the
degree of both sides, considering c(f) as an element of R[x], we get
0 = deg (a1(x)) + deg(a2(x)) + …+ deg. (am(x)). Since the degree of any non-zero
polynomial is a non-negative integer the above equation implies that each ai(x) is a
polynomial of degree 0. i.e. each a 1(x) is an element of R. Hence the only possible
factorization of c(f) are those it can have as an element of R. Hence we have
obtained the unique factorization of f(x) by putting together the unique factorization
of c(f) as an element of R and the unique factorization of the primitive polynomial
f1(x) over R. This concludes the proof of the theorem. ■
Just as we defined the ring R[x] of all polynomials in a single indeterminate
x over R, we can define the ring [x1 x2 … xn] of all polynomial in n in determinates
(or variables) x1, x2, … xn over R. This can be defined successively as follows.
Let R1 R(x1) be the ring obtained from R by the (ring) adjunction of one variable x1.
Again by adjoining another indeterminate x 2 to R1, we obtain another ring
R2 = R1[x2] R[x1] [x2]. We denote this ring R2 by R[x1, x2] and call it the ring of all
120
polynomials in the two variables x1, x2 with coefficients in R. Similarly we may
adjoin yet another variable x2 to R2 and obtain the ring R3 = R2[x2]. We denote this
ring R2 by R[x1, x2] and call it the ring of all polynomials in the two variables x1, x 2
with coefficients in R. Similarly we may adjoin yet another variable x 3 to R2 and
obtain the ring R3 = R2[x2] and this ring R3 is denoted by R[x1, x2, x3] … and in
general R[x1, x2 … xn] are all integral domains.
Similarly by successive application of the last theorem the corollary follows.
Corollary 3.8.3
If R is a U.F.D. so is R [x1, x2, … xn].
Again when F is a field it is known that F[x1] is a Euclidean domain and so is a
U.F.D. Hence by successive application of the theorem we obtain the following
corollary also.
Corollary 3.8.4
If F is any field then the ring F[x1, x2, … x n] is a U.F.D.
Solved Problems
1. Find all the units of the ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers.
Solution
We know that Z[i] = {a+ib : a, b Z} is the ring of Gaussian integers.
Here 1 + 0 i is the unit element.
Let x + i y be a unit & x + i y be its inverse.
Then (x + iy) (x + iy) = 1 + 0i (x x – yy) + i (xy + yx) = 1 + oi
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
x x - y y = 1 and x y + yx = 0
Squaring and adding, we get
x2 x2 + y2 y2 + x2 x2 + y2 x2 = 1
(x2 + y2) (x2+y2) =1
(x2+y2) = 1 (Since the product of two positive integers can be
equal to 1 iff each of them = 1).
x2 = 0, y2 = 1 or x2 = 1, y2 = 0
Thus x = 0, y = 1 or x = 1, y = 0
Therefore the only units of Z[i] are 0 i, 1 + 0 i. i.e. 1, -1, i, -i
2). If R is an integral domain and if F is its field of quotients, prove that any
g( x )
element f(x) in F[x] can be written as where g(x) R[x] and a R.
a
Solution
p
We know that F = : p R, 0 q R
q
121
a 0 a1 a
Let f(x) F(x). Then f(x) = x ... n x n where a0, a1, … an R. and
b 0 b1 bn
b 0, b1 … bn are non-zero elements of R. Now b0, b1, … bn are non-zero
elements of F. Therefore b0, b1, … b n is also a non-zero element of F and so is
invertible.
b 0 b1... b n a 0 a1 a
f (x ) x ... n x n
b 0 b1 ... b n b 0 b1 bn
g( x )
= where g(x) = (a0 b1 b2 … b n) + b 0 a1 … bn)x + … R(x)
a
and a = b0 b1 … bn R
3) Prove that x4+2x+2 is irreducible over the field of rational numbers.
Solution
Let f(x) = 2 + 2x + 0 x2 + 0 x3 + 1 x4
Now f(x) is a polynomial with integer coefficients. Also 2 is a prime number
such that 2 divides each of the coefficients of f(x) except the coefficient 1 of the last
term x4. Also 2 2 is not divisor of f(x) is irreducible over the field of rational
numbers.
8.4. REVISION POINTS
Polynomial ring, polynomial over the field of rational numbers, primitive
polynomial, Gauss Lemma, unique factorization domain, The Eisenstein’s
Criterion.
8.5. INTEXT QUESTION
1 Let F and K be two fields and FK. (i.e. K is an extension of the field F)
Suppose f(x), g(x) F[x] are relatively prime in F(x), prove that they are
relatively prime in K[x] also.
F[x]
2 Let F be the field of real numbers. Prove that is a field isomorphic
x2 1
to the filed of complex numbers.
3 Prove that the polynomial 1 + x + x2 + … + xp-1 where p is a prime number, is
irreducible over the field F of rational numbers.
4 Find all the units of the ring Z[i] of Gaussian integers
5 If R is an integral domain and if F is its field of quotients, prove that any
g( x )
element f(x) in F[x] can be written as where g(x) R[x] and a R.
a
6 Prove that x4+2x+2 is irreducible over the field of rational numbers.
122
8.6. SUMMARY
Polynomial rings, polynomial over the field of rational numbers, primitive
polynomial, Gauss lemma, the Critenion unique factorization domain are discussed
in detail with relevant examples, Eisenstein’s Criterion, problems, lemmas and
theorem.
7. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Show that the units in a commutative ring with identity form a group
under multiplication.
2. Prove that the set N of all polynomials in Z[x] whose constant (terms are
either zero or a fixed prime p is a prime ideal in the ring Z[x]. Is this ideal
N, a maximal ideal?
3. Prove that, in an integral domain R with identity, two elements a, b of R
generate the same ideal iff a and b are associates.
4. Prove: (i) N is an ideal of R
R m
(ii) In R = , if x 0 for some m, then x =0
N
(Here x = N + x R with x R)
5. Let R be a commutative ring and suppose that A is an ideal of R.
Let N(A) = { x R | xn A for some n}. Prove that
(i) N(A) is an ideal of R which contain A.
(ii) N(N(A)) = (A)
Note: N(A) is often called the radical of A.
6. Prove that no prime of the form 4n + 3 can be written as a2 + b2 where a
and b are integers.
7. Prove that x2 + x + 1 is irreducible over F, the field of integers mod 2.
8. Prove that a principal ideal ring, is a unique factorization domain.
9. If Z is the ring of integers, show that Z[x1, x2, …, xn] is unique factorization
domain
8. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Algebra by Micheal Artin, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1994.
2. Lectures in Abstract Algebra Volumes I, II and III by N. Jacobson, D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1976.
9. ASSIGNMENTS
1. If p be a prime number. Suppose c is an integer relatively prime to p and
suppose that there exist integers x and y such that cp = x2 + y2. Then
prove that p can be written as the sum of two square. That is p = a2 + b2
for some pair of integers a and b.
123
2. If p is any prime number of the form 4n + 1 then prove that there exists an
integer x such that x2 +1 0 (mod p).
3. If p is any prime number of the form 4n + 1, then prove that d can be
expressed as a sum of two squares; i.e. p = a2 + b 2 for some integers a, b.
4. If F is any field, prove that the ring F[x] of all polynomials in x over F is a
Euclidean ring.
5. The product of any two primitive polynomials in Z[x] is also primitive.
6. If R is a U.F.D. then prove that the product of any two primitive
polynomials in R[x] is also primitive.
7. If R be a U.F.D. and f(x) in R[x] be primitive purpose F is the field of
quotients of R, in which R can be imbedded. Then prove that f(x) is
irreducible over F ( i.e. as an element in F[x] ), iff it is irreducible over R
(i.e. as an element in R[x] ).
8. If R is a U.F.D. so is R[x].
10. SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOK / SET BOOK
Algebra –By Michael Artin. PHI Learning P Ltd
11. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Students are requested to attend the PCP classes and work out the problems
given in the lesson
12. KEYWORDS
Polynomialrings, Polynomial over the field of rational numbers, Primitive
polynomial, Gauss Lemma, The Eisenstein’s Criterion, Unique factorization
domain.
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LESSON - 9
VECTOR SPACES
9.1. INTRODUCTION
Up to this point we have been introduced to groups and to rings, the former
has its motivation in the set of one- to – one mappings of a set onto itself, the latter
in the set of integer. The third algebraic model which we are about to consider
vector space can in large part, trace its orgins to topics in geomentry and physics.
Vector space differs from these previous two (group and ring) structures in
that one of the product defined on it uses elements outside of the set itself. It own
their importance to the fact so many models arising in the solutions of specific
problems turn out be vector spaces.
In this lesson, vector space over afield F, subspace homomorphism, Internal
direct sum, Linear combination over F, linear spen of G, Finite dimensional,
Linearly dependent over F, Basics of V, Dimension of the vector space, Dual space,
Second dual of V, annihilator of w, are defined with suitable examples, Lemmas,
theorems and problems are given.
9.2. OBJECTIVE
Vector space, subspace, homomorphism, Internal direct sum, Linear
Combination over F, Linear space of S, Finite dimensional over F, Basics of V,
Dimension of the vector space, dual space, second dual, annihilator the explained.
9.3. CONTENTS
9.3.1 Vector Space
9.3.2 Definition: Subspace
9.3.3 Definition : Vector Space
9.3.4 Theorem : Internal Direct Sum
9.3.5 Dual Spaces
9.3.1 DEFINITION – VECTOR SPACE
A non-empty set V is said to be a vector space over a field F, if V is an abelian
group under the operation denoted by ‘+’ and if for every F, vV, there is defined
an element, written as v in V satisfying the following conditions
(1) (v + w) = v + w
(2) ( + )v = v + v
(3) (v) = ()v
(4) 1.v = v
For all , F and v, w V and 1 represents the unit element of F under
multiplication.
Note (1) The ‘+’ in condition (1) above is that of the group <V, +>, while the ‘+’ in the
left hand side , condition (2) is that of the field F and the ‘+’ in the right
hand side is that of the group <V, +>.
125
Note (2) If V is a vector space over F, the there is a mapping satisfying the above
four conditions. This mapping is usually called scalar multiplication. We
often refer to the elements of F as scalars and the elements of V as vectors.
We shall consistently use the following notations:
a. F will be a filed.
b. Lowercase Greek letters will be elements of F; we shall often refer to
elements of F as scalars.
c. Capital Latin letters will denote vector spaces over F.
d. Lowercase Latin letters will denote elements of vector space. We shall
often call elements of a vector spaces as vectors.
Example 3.1.1
Let F be a field and let K be a field which contains F as a sub-field. We
consider K as a vector space over F, using the ‘+’ of the vector space the addition in
the elements of K, and by defining, for F, vK, v to be the product of and v as
elements in the field K. The axioms (1), (2), (3) for a vector space are the
consequences of the right distributive law, left distributive law and associative law
respectively which hold for K as a ring.
Example 3.1.2
Let F be a field and let V be the totality of all ordered n-tuples (1, 2, …n)
where i F. Two elements (1, 2, …n) and ( 1, 2, … n) of V are declared to be
equal if and only if i = i for each i = 1, 2, …n. We now introduce the operation ‘+’
in V as (1, 2, … n) + ( 1, 2, … n) = (1+ 1, 2+ 2, … n+ n). (Component wise
addition). Then V becomes an abelian group under this addition ‘+’. Now let us
define the map FV V (i.e. scalar multiplication in V) by γ(1, 2, …n) = (γ1, γ2,
… γn) where γ F. One can easily verify that V is a vector space over F and this
vector space is usually denoted by F(n).
Example 3.1.3
Let F be any filed and let V=F[x], the set of polynomials in x over F. We choose
to ignore , at present, the fact that in F[x] we can multiply any two elements, and
merely concentrate on the fact that two polynomials can be added and that a
polynomial can always be multiplied by an element of F . With these natural
operations F[x] is a vector space over F.
9.3.2 DEFINITION: SUBSPACE
If V is a vector space over F and if W V, then W is a subspace of V if under
the same operation as for V, W itself , forms a vector space over F. Equivalently, W
is a subspace of V iff w1, w1 W and , F always imply that w1 + w2W.
Lemma 3.2.1
If V is a vector space over F, then
(1) . 0 = 0
(2) 0. v = 0
126
(3) (-) v = - (v)
(4) If v 0, then v 0 implies that = 0,
where F , v V, 0 represents the zero for addition in V and 0 represents the
zero for addition in F.
Proof
(1) Since 0= (0+0) = 0 + 0 we get 0 = 0.
(2) Since 0v = (0+0)v = 0v +0v we get 0v = 0.
(3) Since 0= [ + (-)] v = v + (-) v, (-) v = -(v).
(4) If v = 0 and 0,then 0 = -1 0= -1 (v) = (-1) v = 1.v = v.
Let V be a vector space over F and let W is a subspace of the vector space V
(Over a field F) then since (V, +) is an abelian group, we can construct the quotient
group V/W; its element are the cosets of W in V viz, v+W where vV. The
commutativity of the addition, from group theory assures us that V is an abelian
W
group. We intented to make of it a vector space. If F , v +W V , we define
W
( v +W) = v +W . Then we show that this product is also well defined; that is , if
v+W = v΄+W than (v+W) =( v΄+W).
Now because v+W = v΄+W then v- v΄ is in W; Since W is subspace of V it
implies that ( v- v΄) must also in W. Using previous lemma says that v v W
and also v W v W . Thus (v W ) v W v W (v W ) ; the
product has been shown to be well defined. The verification of the vector space
axioms for V is routine. Now V can be realised as a vector space over F, as the
W W
following lemma shows.
Lemma 3.2.2
Hence L( S ) L(T ) L( S T ) .
Note: If W1 and W2 be two subspaces of the vector space v, it is easy to see that W1
+ W2 = (w1 + w2 / w1 w1, w2 W2) is a subspace of V, called the sum or join
of the two sub-spaces W1 and W2. One can also check that W1 + W2 is same
as L(W1W2) and that W1 W2 is not in general a subspace of V.
(3) Now let us show L(L(S)) = L(S). Let w be any element in L(S) then w
L(L(S)) since w = 1.w where 1 F and w L(S). Hence L(S) L(L(S)). Let us take
any element v L(L(S)) then v = 1w 1+ 2w2 + …+ nwn where i F and wi L(S).
Since wi L(S) w i = i1 si1 + i2 si2 + ….+ ik sik
where ij F and sij S for j = 1, 2, … k
v = 1( 11 s11 + … + 1k s1k) + …+ n ( 1n s1n + … + nk snk)
= (1 11) s 11 + … + ( 1 1k) s1k + … + (n 1n) s1n …+ (n nk) s nk
Hence L(S), i.e., L(L(S)) L(S)
Hence L(S) = L(L(S)).
Definition 3.4.5
The vector space V is said to be finite dimensional (over F) if there is a finite
subset S in V such that V = L(S).
Note F(n) is finite – dimensional over F. For if S consists of the n vectors (1,0,0,….0),
(0,1,0,….0),……. (0,0,0,….1), then V = L(S)
Definition 3.4.6
If V is a vector space and if v1 … vn are in v, we say that they are linearly
dependent over F if there exist elements 1, 2, … n in F, not all of them 0, such
that
1 v1 + 2v2 + … + nvn = 0
130
If the vectors v1…. vn are not linearly dependent over F, they are said to be
linearly independent over F.
It is clear from the definition of linear dependance that the vectors v1, v2, … vn
of the vector space V are linearly independent over F iff any linear relation of the
form 1v1 + 2v2 +… + nvn = 0 always implies that 1 = 2 = … = n = 0.
In F (3) it is easy 0 verify that (1, 0,0) (0, 1, 0) and (0, 0, 1) are linearly
independent.
But (1, 1, 0) (3, 1,3) (5, 3, 3) are linearly dependent because
–– 2 (1, 1, 0) –1 (3, 1, 3) + 1 (5, 3, 3) = (0, 0, 0)
Lemma 3.4.7
If v1, v2, … v n V are linearly independent then every element in their linear
span has a unique representation in the form 1v1 + … + n vn with i F.
Proof
By definition, every element in the linear span is of the form 1 v1 + … + nvn.
To show uniqueness we must show that if 1 v1 + … + n vn = 1 v 1 + … + n vn then
1 = 1 , 2 = 2 , …, n = n
If 1v1 + .. + nv n = 1 v1 + … + n v n then ( 1 - 1) v1 + … + (n - n) vn = 0.
Since v1, v2, … v n are linearly independent, 1- 1 = 0,…………., n-n = 0. So i = i
for i = 1, 2, … n.
Theorem 3.4.8
If v1, v2 … v n are in V, then either they are linearly independent or some vk is a
linear combination of the preceding ones, v1, v2, …. vk-1.
Proof
If v1, v2, … vn are linearly independent, there is nothing to prove. Therefore
suppose that 1 v1 + 2 v 2 + … + n v n = 0 where not all the s are 0. Let k be the
largest integer for which k 0. since i 0 for i > k,
1v1 + 2v2 + … + k vk = 0, since k 0.
Lemma 3.4.16
If V is finite dimensional, and if W is a subspace of V , then W is finite-
dimensional , dim W dim V and dim V dim V dim W .
W
Proof
Since V is finite dimensional. Let n = dim V. Then (n+1) elements in V are
linearly dependent. In particular, any n+1 elements in W are linearly dependent.
Thus we can find a largest set of linearly independent elements in W ; w 1, w2, … wm
and m < n.
133
If wW, then w1, w2, … wm, w is a linearly dependent set. Hence w+ 1w1 + …
+ m wm = 0 and not all the i ‘s are 0. If = 0, by the linear independence of the wi
we would get that each i = 0 , a contradiction. Thus 0 and so w = - -1 (1 w 1 +
… + m wm). Since w is any vector in w1, w2, … wm span W. So W has a basis of m
elements where m < n. Hence dim W < dim V.
Now let w1, w2,…, w m be a basis of W. We can fill this out to a basis w 1, w2, …
wm, v1, … ,vr of V where m+r = dim V and m = dim W.
Let v1 , v2 ,...v r bet the images , in V W of v1 , v 2 ,...v r . Since any vector vV is of
the form v = 1 w1 + 2 w2 + … + m wm + 1 v1 + r vr where ’s and ’s F, then v ,
the image of v is of the form v 1v1 2 v 2 ... r v r ,(since w1 w2 ... wm 0 )
Thus v1 , v 2 ,...v r span V W . We claim that they are linearly independent. For if
1v1 2 v 2 ... r v r 0 then 1 v 1 + … + r vr W and so 1 v1 + … + r v r = 1w1 +
… + m wm which by the linear independence of the set w1, … wm, v1 … vr forces 1
= … = r = 1 = … = m = 0. Hence we have shown that V W has a basis of r
Since Hom (V, F) = V is a vector space over F we can form. How (V , F ) which
Hence T v1+v2 = Tv1 + Tv2. Therefore (v1+v2) = (v1) + (v2). Similarly we can
show that for F, ( v) = Tv = T v = (v). Hence is a vector space
We can show that A(W) is a subspace of V . In fact, for any f and g V and ,
F we find that f + g A (W). Since for w W; (f + g) (w) = (f) (w) + (g)
(w) = f(w) + g(w)
= 0 + 0 (since f, g A(W))
=0+0=0
Theorem 3.5.10
If V is finite dimensional and W is a subspace of V, then W is isomorphic to
V
and dim A(w) = dim V – dim W.
A(W )
Proof
We now claim that the mapping T is onto W . For that we must show that
given any element h W , then h is the restriction of some f V so that h = f .
If w1 … wm is a basis of W, that it can be expanded to a basis of V of the form
w1 … wm, v1 … v r where r + m = dim V. Let W1 be the subspace of V spanned by v1
… vr. Thus V = W W1. If h W , define f V as follows: Given any v V which
can be written uniquely as v = w + w 1 where w W and w1 W1 define f(v) = h(w).
Then it is clear that f is in V and that f = h. Thus h=T(f) and so T maps V on to W .
Since the kernel of T is A(W).
V
Hence T is onto So W
A(W)
dim A( A(W )) dim V dim A(W ) dim V (dim V dim W ) dim W . Since
W A( A(W )) and they are of the same dimension, it follows that W A( A(W )) .
We close this lesson after providing solutions to some standard problems.
Problem 1
Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let A & B be subspace of V. Then
AB B
is isomorphic to
A AB
Solution
We know that A+B is a subspace containing A (by problem)
AB
Hence is also vector space over F.
A
139
AB
An element of is of the form A+ (a+b) where a A
A
But A+a = A if a A.
AB
an element of is of the form A+b
A
AB
Consider T : B defined by
A
T(b) = A + b
clearly T is onto.
T(b1+b2) = a + (b1+b2)
= (A + b 1) + (A+b2)
= T(b1) + T(b2)
T(b) =A+b
= (A+b)
= T(b)
Therefore T is a linear transformation
Let K be the kernel of T.
Then K = { b: bB, A+B = A}
= { b : b B, B is contained in A} ( Since bA A+b=A)
= AB
B AB
By the homomorphism Theorem, =
AB A
9.4. REVISION POINTS
Vector space over a field, subspace, homomorphism, internel direct sum,
linear combination over F, linear span of S, Finite dimensional, Linearly dependent
over F, Basis of V, Dimension of the vector space, dual space, second dual of V,
annihilator of w.
9.5. INTEXT QUESTION
1. If T is an isomorphism of a vector space V into a vector space W (both over
the same field F), prove that T maps any basis of K onto a basis of W.
2. If V is a finite dimensional vector space and T is an isomorphism of V onto V,
prove that T must map V onto V.
3. Let Vn = [p(x) F(x)] deg p (x) < n]. Define T by T(0 + 1x + … + n-1 x n-1) =
0 + 1 (x+1) + 2 (x+1)2 + …n-1 (x+1)n-1. Prove that T is an isomorphism of
Vn onto itself.
4. Prove that the community of addition and the axiom (4), viz 1, v = are
consequences of other axioms in the definition of a vector space V, provided
given any v V, there exist scalars 1, 2, … n in F and vectors v1, v1, … vn
in V (not necessarily unique) such that v = 1v1, 2v2 + … + nvn.
5. If F is the field of real numbers, show that the set of real valued continuous
functions on the closed interval [0, 1] forms a vector space over F.
140
6. Prove that the intersection of two subspaces of V is a subspace of V, but the
union of two subspaces of V need not be a subspace of V.
7. If U and W are subspaces of V, prove that
U + W is a subspace of V
U + W = (UW)
8. Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let A & B be subspace of V. Then
AB B
is isomorphic to
A AB
6. SUMMARY
Vector space, subspace, homomorphism, Internel direct sum, Linear
combination over F, Linear space of S, Finite dimensional over F, Basic of V,
Dimension of the vector space, Deal space, second dual, annihilator, are explained
in detail.
7. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. If V is finite-dimensional and W is a subspace of V such that dim V = dim
W, prove that V = W.
2. If V is finite dimensional and T is a homomorphism of V into itself which is
not onto prove that there is some v 0 in V such that T(v) = 0.
3. Let W = [0 + 1 x + … + n-1 xn-1 F(x) / 0 + 1 + … + n-1 = 0). Show
that W is a subspace of Vn and find a basis of W over F.
4. Let v1, vn be a basis of V and let w1, … wn be any n elements in V define T
on by T (V1 v1 + … + Vn vn) = 1 w1 + …+ nWn.
(a) Show that T is a homomorphism of V into itself.
(b) When is T an isomorphism?
5. If V is finite dimensional and W is a subspace of V, prove that there is a
subspace W1, of V such that V = W W1.
(Hint: V being finite dimensional and W being a subspace of V, W is also
finite dimensional with a basis, say, [w1, w2, … wr) where r n, the
dimension of V. Extend this basis to a basis of V, by adjoining n-r
elements, say v1, v2, …vn-r. Then the subspace of V spanned by these n-r
elements will be the required subspace W1)
6. If S, T (V, W) and S(vi) = T(vi) for elements, vi of a basis of V, prove that
S = T.
11. If f and g are in V such that f (v) 0 implies g (v) 0 , prove that g f
for some F .
9.8. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
1. Algebra by Micheal Artin, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1994.
2. Lectures in Abstract Algebra Volumes I, II and III by N. Jacobson, D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1976.
9.9. ASSIGNMENT
1. If n > m, prove that there is a homomorphism of F(n) onto F(m) with a
Kernel W which is isomorphic to F(n-m).
2. If v 0 F(n) prove that there is an element T Hom (F(n), F) such that
T(V) 0. (Hint: Apply Lemma 10).
3. If T is a homomorphism of V onto V with Kernel W prove that there is a
one-to-one correspondence between the subspaces of V and the subspace
of U which contains W. (This Problem is similar to Lemma 9 in Lesson 3)
4. Let T be a defined on F(2) by T(x1, x2) = (x1+x2, x1, + x2 where , , ,
are some fixed elements in F.
(a) Prove that T is a homorphism of F(2) into itself.
(b) Find necessary and sufficient conditions on , , , so that T is
an isomorphism
9.10. SUGGESTED READINGS / REFERENCE BOOK / SET BOOK
Algebra – By Michael Artin – PHI Learning P Ltd
9.11. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
Students are requested to attend the P.C.P classes and workout the problems
given the Lesson
9.12. KEYWORDS
Vecotr space, subspace, Homomorphism, Internal direct sum, Linear
combination, Linear Span, Finite dimensional Linearly dependant, Basis, Dueal
space, Second dual
142
LESSON – 10
= (v, u) (u, w)
= (u, v) + (u, w)
143
Example 3.1
In F(2), let us define for u = (1, 2) and v = ( 1, 2)
(u, v) = 1 1 + 1 2
= (1 + 1) 1 + (1 + 1) 2
= (1 1 + 2 2 ) + ( 1 1 + 2 2 )
= (u, w) + (v, w)
This property (3) is also verified So (u, v) as taken in this example serves as an
inner product for F(2).
Here-after let V denote an inner product space over F.
10.3.2 DEFINITION : LENGTH
If v is in V, then the length of v (or norm of v) written as v is defined by
v = (v, v)
Lemma 3.2.1
For u1, u2, v1, v2 V and 1 2, 1 2 F, we have
(1 u1 + 1v1, 2 u2 + 2v2) = 1 1 (u1, u 2) + 1 2 (u1 , v 2 ) + 12 (v1, u2) + 1 2
(v1, v2). In particular (u + v, u + v) = (u, u) + (u, v) + (v, u) + (v,
v).
Proof
(1u1 + 1v1, 2u2 + 2v2) = 1 (u1, 2 u2 + 2v2) + 1(v1, 2 u2 + 2v2)
by condition (3).
u u
Proof
2
u (u ,u )
(u , u ) (By lemma 1, taking = 0 in the particular case)
2 2
u
Hence u u
Lemma 3.2.2
If a, b, c are real numbers such that a > 0 and a2 2b c 0 for all real
2
numbers then b ac .
Proof
a2 2b c can be written as follows:
1 b2
a2 2b c = (a b )2 c
a a
b
since the value is 0 for all values of , (in particular when = - ) we have
a
b2
c- >0. Since a > 0, we get b2 < a c.
a
Theorem 3.2.1
If u , v V then u, v u v
Proof
Let denote the zero vector in V. By the property (3) of an inner product, we
find that for any v in V, (, v) = (+,v) = (, v) + (, v) whence we see that (, v) =
0. Similarly (v, ) = 0. therefore if u = , or v = , then (u, v) = 0 and u v 0 .
Hence the result is true when u = or v = . Now let assume that u and v
and for the moment let us assume (u, v) to be real.
We have 0 < (u+v, u+v)
= 2(u, u) + 2 (u, v) + (v, v) (By lemma 1)
Let a = (u, u), b = (u, v) and c = (v, v) Hence by lemma 2,
b2 < ac Hence
(u, v)2 < (u, u) (v, v)
2 2
u v
145
Hence u, v u v
u
Suppose now (u, v) = (say) is not real. By assumption (u, v) 0 so that is
meaningful. Hence by the property (3) of the inner product, we get
u 1 (u, v )
, v u, v 1
(u, v )
Since we have proved the inequality for reals.
u u
1= ,v .v
1
= .u . v
= i
Thus i = 0 for each i, as required.
If w = 1 v1 + … +nvn then we find (w, vi) = i, as above,
Lemma 3.3.3
If {v1, v2, … vn } is an orthonormal set in V and if w in V then
u = w – (w, v1) v1 - (w, v2) v2 - …- (w,vi)vi - … - (w, vn)vn is orthogonal to each of
v1, v 2, … vn.
Proof
Consider
(u, vi)= (w, vi) – (w, v1) (v1, vi) – (w, v2) (v2, vi) – …– (w, vi) (vi, vi) – … – (w, vn) (vn, vi)
= (w, vi) – 0 – 0 – … -(w, vi)- … - 0.
(since (v1, v2, … vn) is an orthonormal set)
= (w, vi) – (w, vi) = 0
Hence u is orthogonal to vi. Similarly u is orthogonal to all vi’s.
Theorem 3.3.1
Let V be a finite – dimensional inner product space. Then V has an
orthonormal set as a basis.
(Gram – Schmidt orthogonalization process).
Proof
Since V is of finite dimension let us assume that the dimension of V over F is n
and let v1, v2, … vn be a basis of V. Using this basis let us construct an
orthonormal set w1, w2, … wn such that each wi is of length 1 and (wi, wj) = 0 if i j.
v1 v1 v 1
Let w1 = . Then (w 1 , w 1 ) ,
v1 v
1 v1
2
1 v1
= 2
(v 1 , v 1 ) 2
1
v1 v1
Thus { w1, w2, …, wi+1 } is an orthonormal set. Hence from the given set { v1, v2,
… vn }. Since we have already shown that an orthonormal set is linearly
independent, we have thus formed the basis { w1, w2, … wn } which is orthonormal.
Theorem 3.3.2
If V is a finite dimensional inner product space and if W is a subspace of V,
then V = W W┴ (i.e. V = W + W┴ and W W┴ = (0)). We say that V is the direct
sum of W and W┴.
Proof
Since V is finite dimensional, W is also finite dimensional and hence by the
previous theorem, we can construct an orthonormal set { w1, … wr } in W which is a
148
basis of W. Given any v in V we show that we can write v as a sum of two elements
one from W and the other from W┴. In fact, let
v0 = v – (v1 w1) w1 – (v, w2) w2 - … - (v, wr) wr
Then v0 is orthogonal to each wi. Hence v0 is orthogonal to every element in W.
Hence v0 W┴
Now we write
v = [ (v, w1) w1 + (v, w2) w2 + … + (v, wr) wr] + v0
= v1 + v0 where v1 = (v, w1) w1 + … + (v, wr) wr W and v0 W┴. We have
already shown that W W┴ = (0).
Hence V = W W┴.
Solved Problems
1. Let V be the set of all continuous complex valued functions on the closed
interval (a, b).
b
Solution
b
i. (f , g) = f(t) g(t) dt
a
= f(t) g(t) dt
a
= g(t) f(t) dt
a
= (g, f)
b
b b
= (f, h) + (g, h)
iii. f(t) f (t ) = [a0 + ib0) + (a1+ib 1) t + …] [a0-ib 0)+(a1-ib 1) t+…
= (a02 + b02) + 2(a0 a1 + b0 b 1) t + …
= F(t) say.
Where F(t) is real valued continuous function in t
149
b b
p(t) q(t) dt starting from the basis (1, t, t2) in V, obtain an orthonormal
0
basis.
Solution
Let [1, 2, 3] = (1, t, t2)
Choose 1 = 1 = 1
1
2 2
1 1 ( 1 , 1 ) (1,1) 1.1 dt 1
0
( 2 , 2 )
Let 2 2 2
1
1
1
1
Here 2 = t, 2 = 1 (2, 2) = (t, 1) = t.1 dt 2
0
1 1
2 t - 1 t
2 2
1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 2 2 . 2 (t , t ) (t )(t )dt (t )3
2 2 0 2 2 2 2
0 12
(3, 1) (3, 1)
3 3 2
1 2
2
1 1
3 = t2 . 1 = 1, 2 = t-½
1
2 1
(3, 1) = (t2, 1) = (t .1) dt
0 3
1
2 1
(3, 2) = (t2, t-½) = (t (t ) dt
0 2
1
t4 1 t3 1 1 1
=
4 2 3 0 4 6 12
1 1/12 1 1 1 1
3 t 2 1 2 2
t t t t t
3 1/12 2 2 3 6
2 1 1 1
3 3 , 3 t 2 t t 2 t dt
6 6 180
150
Hence
1 2 3 1 2 1
, , i.e. (1,2, 3(t - ), 6 5 (t t )
1 2 3 2 6
10.6. SUMMARY
Studetns will get clear idea about, Inner product space, Length, orthonal,
orthogonal complement, orthonormal, Gram Schmidt. Orthogonolization process,
module – right R – Module, cyclic, fimitely generated minimal generating sets
rank.
151
10.7. TERMINAL EXERCISES
1. Let V be the set of all continuous complex valued functions on the closed
interval (a, b).
b
p(t) q(t) dt starting from the basis (1, t, t2) in V, obtain an orthonormal
0
basis.
10.8. SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIAL
1. Algebra by Micheal Artin, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 1994.
2. Lectures in Abstract Algebra Volumes I, II and III by N. Jacobson, D. Van
Nostrand Co., New York, 1976.
10.9. ASSIGNMENT
1. Prove that the following defines an inner product in the respective vector
space:
(a) In F(n) define, for u = (1, … n) and v = ( 1, … n)
(u, v) = 1 1 2 2 ....... n n
(b) In F(2), given u = (1, 2) and v = ( 1, 2) define
(u, v) = 2 1 1 1 2 2 1 2 2
(c) If F is the real field, find all 4-tuples of real numbers (a, b, c, d) such
that f u = (1, 2) v = ( 1, 2), v = ( 1, 2) in F(2) define (u, v) = a1 1 +
b2 2 + c1 2 + d2 1.
2. If dim V = n and if (w1, w2, … wm) is an orthonormal set in V prove that
there exist vectors wm+1, … Wn such that (w1, w2, … wm, wm+1 … Wn) is an
orthonormal set.
d2y
3. Let V be real function y = f(x) satisfying 9y 0
dx 2
(a) Prove that V is two-dimensional real vector space.