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IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL
FreeTrack: Device-Free Human Tracking With Deep
Neural Networks and Particle Filtering
Rui Zhou , Member, IEEE, Mingjie Tang, Ziyuan Gong, and Meng Hao
Abstract—Human tracking is of key importance to a variety of
applications. Different from the previous approaches requiring the
targets to carry electronic devices, this paper proposes a device-free
tracking method based on WiFi channel state information (CSI)
through deep neural networks (DNN) and particle filtering (PF). In
the area covered with WiFi, human movements may cause observ-
able variations of WiFi signals. By analyzing the CSI fingerprint
patterns and modeling the dependency between CSI fingerprints
and locations through DNN, the proposed method is able to local-
ize the targets according to the measured CSI fingerprints through
DNN regression. Localization with DNN is accurate for static tar-
gets, yet unable to form reasonable trajectories of moving targets.
This paper proposes to apply PF on DNN localization results and
form the walking trajectories of the targets. To avoid the trajecto-
ries to cross obstacles, map matching is integrated to constrain the
unreasonable transfer of particles, which further improves the pre-
cision of trajectories. To combat with environmental variants, fine
tuning on DNN is proposed to enhance the adaptivity of the method.
Extensive evaluations in two representative scenarios with only one
pair of WiFi transmitter and receiver achieve the high accuracy of
around half a meter and precise trajectories as well as adaptation
to environmental variants.
Index Terms—Channel state information, deep neural network,
device-free tracking, fine tuning, map matching, particle filtering.
I. INTRODUCTION
OCALIZATION and tracking have been the focus of re-
L search for years. Accurate information on location and tra-
jectory helps enhance building management as well as provides
appropriate information at right locations. A common solution
to these problems is to pinpoint the mobile devices carried by the
targets in WiFi infrastructures, thanks to pervasiveness of wire-
less signals. Such a solution requires the active participation of
mobile devices in order to be localized. However, on many oc-
casions, such as at home or in sensitive areas, the targets may
not carry any electronic devices or power them off. Under such
circumstances, device-free localization and tracking are in need,
which detect and track the targets that do not carry any electronic
devices nor participate actively in the process. Approaches to
Manuscript received November 29, 2018; revised May 7, 2019; accepted June
2, 2019. (Corresponding author: Rui Zhou.)
R. Zhou, M. Tang, and Z. Gong are with the School of Information
and Software Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technol-
ogy of China, Sichuan Sheng 610054, China (e-mail: ruizhou@uestc.edu.cn;
649529440@qq.com; 1455771801@qq.com).
M. Hao is with the College of Computer Science and Technology, Zhejiang
University, Zhejiang Sheng 310027, China (e-mail: 452868118@qq.com).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/JSYST.2019.2921554
1937-9234 © 2019 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission.
See http://www.ieee.org/publications_standards/publications/rights/index.html for more information.
1
device-free localization and tracking include radar-based sys-
tems and vision-based systems. These systems, however, require
specialized hardware and high cost. Due to ubiquitous de-
ployment and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) coverage, device-free
localization, and tracking based on WiFi have gained increasing
attention recently. Research showed that received signal strength
indication (RSSI) could be used to achieve device-free localiza-
tion [1], as RSSI was affected by human movements. However,
complexity of indoor environments, due to shadow fading, mul-
tipath propagation, blockage, etc., causes instability and dec-
lination of localization performance with RSSI. Channel state
information (CSI) is a fine-grained measurement from the phys-
ical layer that describes the amplitude and phase of each orthog-
onal subcarrier in a channel. Research showed that WiFi CSI
provided the capability to benefit from the multipath effect,
thus was suitable for accurate localization [2], [3]. An increas-
ing number of research have been conducted in the field of
CSI-based localization in a device-based [1], [3]–[7] or device-
free [2], [8]–[13] way. These works mainly used signal propa-
gation models or fingerprint classification methods. Due to the
complexity of indoor environments, it is difficult to establish
accurate signal propagation models, hence CSI fingerprinting
outperforms propagation models [3].
Traditional classification algorithms such as Bayesian classi-
fier and support vector machines (SVM) can make good use of
training data, but they belong to the category of shallow learn-
ing, which has limits on fully exploiting the training data, needs
professional experiences to tune the models, and is subjective
on feature selection. Deep neural networks (DNN) imitate the
signal transition process of neurons, are able to approximate ar-
bitrary mathematical functions, and extract features from the
input implicitly thus avoiding manual and subjective feature
selection. Recently there is a trend of employing deep learn-
ing for fingerprint-based localization [4]–[7], [12]. These works
formulated fingerprinting as a classification problem and deter-
mined the target location as the reference point (RP) with the
most similar fingerprint or the average of a group of RPs with
similar fingerprints. Fingerprinting through classification treats
localization as a discrete problem, while localization is by na-
ture a continuous problem estimating the coordinates, which
can be solved by regression. Research proved by experiment
that SVM regression (SVR) achieved better performance than
SVM classification and Bayesian classifier with respect to lo-
calization [13]. Although these approaches provide solutions
to accurate localization, when it comes to tracking moving hu-
mans, the accuracy degrades significantly. There are only a few
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2 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL
solutions tackling this issue by making use of CSI ampli-
tude [14], [15] or Doppler effect [16], [17].
Summarizing the aforementioned works, the following chal-
lenges still exist: 1) the features are selected manually which is
difficult and subjective; 2) moving human tracking is inaccurate
and the estimated trajectories may be unreasonable; 3) it is diffi-
cult to adapt to environmental variants. So to tackle these issues,
we propose a device-free human tracking method, called Free-
Track, exploiting WiFi CSI amplitude information. The method
treats localization as a regression problem and employs DNN
to model the dependency between CSI fingerprints and location
coordinates. The inputs to the DNN model are the CSI finger-
prints and the outputs are the two-dimensional (2-D) location
coordinates. In order to generate precise trajectories of walking
humans, the method applies particle filtering (PF) on the DNN
localization results to correlate consecutive location estimations
and integrates map matching to constrain the transfer of particles
to avoid crossing obstacles (such as a large furniture). To combat
with environmental variants, we propose to apply fine tuning on
the DNN localization model, which proves to be effective. Eval-
uations of FreeTrack in two representative scenarios achieve the
mean distance error of about half a meter and precise trajecto-
ries, outperforming the state-of-the-art. The main contributions
of the paper are summarized as follows.
1) Propose an accurate device-free human tracking method
FreeTrack, exploiting WiFi CSI amplitude fingerprints.
2) Apply DNN to model the dependency between CSI fin-
gerprints and location coordinates and realize accurate
localization through DNN regression, outperforming
commonly used classification algorithms.
3) Apply PF on the DNN localization results to form precise
trajectories of moving humans, in which the state model
and the observation model are for free moving.
4) Integrate map matching to PF to constrain the transfer of
particles and solve the obstacle crossing problem, in order
to form the reasonable trajectories.
5) Apply fine tuning on the DNN model to tackle environ-
mental variants and reduce recalibration efforts.
This paper is an extension of our previous work presented in
[18]. We have significantly improved that paper in the following
aspects: 1) adopt PF and map matching to continuously track
moving humans; 2) adopt fine tuning to enhance adaptivity; 3)
new evaluations were carried out to verify the tracking method.
The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The related
work is first reviewed briefly in Section II. Section III presents
the preliminary of CSI and the rationale behind localization and
tracking. Section IV proposes the device-free tracking method
based on DNN regression and PF with map matching as well as
fine tuning in details. Evaluations and comparisons are reported
in Section V. Section VI concludes the paper.
II. RELATED WORK
Indoor localization and tracking have gained a great deal of
attention in the recent decades. Our interests are in WiFi-based
solutions, in particular, the state-of-the-art of localization and
tracking with CSI and deep learning.
A. Localization with CSI
The FILA [1] system was claimed to be the first to use CSI
for device-based indoor localization. It developed a refined in-
door propagation model representing the relationship between
CSI values and distances and applied trilateration to accomplish
localization. Wu et al. [3] extended the FILA system with a CSI-
based fingerprinting approach using maximum likelihood algo-
rithm, achieving an improved accuracy. Abdel-Nasser et al. [2]
introduced MonoPHY as a single stream device-free localiza-
tion system, which used cluster-based CSI fingerprinting with
maximum likelihood. MonoStream [8] enhanced MonoPHY and
modeled localization as an object recognition problem and ex-
tracted features that could capture small variations in the effect of
human standing at different locations on the CSI vectors. To mit-
igate the issue of prior training, LiFS [9] estimated the locations
by modeling the CSI measurements of multiple wireless links as
a set of power fading-based equations and only the subcarriers
affected by multipath were utilized for localization. By detect-
ing the subtle reflection signals from the human body and further
differentiating them from those reflected signals from static ob-
jects, MaTrack [10] identified the target’s angle and tracked the
walking human without prior training. Qian et al. [11] proposed
Widar that simultaneously estimated human moving velocities
and locations by modeling the relationships between CSI dy-
namics and locations and velocities exploiting Doppler shifts.
Han et al. [19] proposed S-Phaser that utilized calibrated CSI
phase to compute the direct path length between an Access Point
(AP) and terminals and used a geometric positioning algorithm
to determine the target location.
B. Localization With Deep Learning
To fully exploit the training data and avoid subjective manual
feature selection, there is a trend of employing deep learning
for WiFi CSI fingerprinting. Wang et al. presented two device-
based fingerprinting systems: DeepFi [4] using CSI amplitude
information and PhaseFi [5] using calibrated CSI phase infor-
mation. Deep learning was utilized to train the weights of a deep
neural network as fingerprints and then a Bayesian probabilis-
tic algorithm based on Radial Basis Function (RBF) was used
to estimate the location. Wang et al. proposed CiFi [6] which
used deep convolutional neural networks (DCNN) for device-
based localization. They extracted CSI phase information and
estimated angle of arrival (AOA) using phase differences, which
was used to create AOA images as input to train the weights in
the DCNN. The location of a mobile device was estimated based
on the trained DCNN and new CSI AOA images with a prob-
abilistic method as a weighted average of selected candidate
locations. Chen et al. [7] proposed ConFi using convolutional
neural network (CNN) for device-based localization. CSI am-
plitude information was organized into a time-frequency matrix
that resembled image as the feature for localization. The loca-
tion was calculated as the weighted centroid of the RPs with high
output value. Gao et al. [12] proposed device-free localization
and activity recognition by exploiting a radio image processing
approach to characterize the influence of human behaviors on
WiFi signals. They transformed CSI amplitude and phase into
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ZHOU et al.: FREETRACK: DEVICE-FREE HUMAN TRACKING WITH DEEP NEURAL NETWORKS AND PARTICLE FILTERING
a radio image, extracted color and texture features, adopted a
deep learning network to learn optimized deep features, and esti-
mated location and activity of a person using a machine learning
approach.
C. Tracking With CSI
The aforementioned works are localization methods. They
perform well for single point localization, but may degrade
significantly for tracking moving targets and may not produce
precise moving trajectories. Li et al. [16] proposed a device-
free human tracking system IndoTrack, composed of Doppler-
MUSIC and Doppler-AoA. Doppler-MUSIC was to extract
accurate Doppler velocity information from WiFi CSI samples.
Doppler-AoA was to determine the trajectory of the target by
jointly estimating target velocity and location via probabilistic
comodeling of spatial-temporal Doppler and AoA information.
Qian et al. [17] presented Widar 2.0, a device-free human local-
ization and tracking system. They built a unified model account-
ing for AOA, time of flight (TOF), and Doppler shifts together
and devised an efficient algorithm for their joint estimation. They
then designed a pipeline to translate the erroneous raw parame-
ters into precise locations. Shi et al. [14] presented a device-free
tracking system which adopted CSI amplitude from multiple
pairs of WiFi devices. They applied a probabilistic fingerprint-
based technique using Bayes classifier for localization and ap-
plied principal component analysis (PCA) to filter the most
relevant feature vectors. With Bayesian filtering they could
continuously track the trajectory of a moving target. Karanam
et al. [15] proposed to estimate the AoA of all the signal paths
arriving at a receiver array using only the corresponding received
signal magnitude measurements, based on the spatial correlation
of them, and then utilized a particle filter to show how a moving
target can be tracked.
III. CSI PRELIMINARY AND RATIONALES
A. CSI Preliminary
CSI is fine-grained information from the physical layer
that describes channel frequency response (CFR) from the
transmitter to the receiver, due to orthogonal frequency divi-
sion multiplexing (OFDM) and multiple-input multiple-output
(MIMO) techniques. Leveraging commodity network interface
card (NIC) with modified firmware and driver [20], the am-
plitude and phase of each subcarrier within a channel can be
revealed to the upper layers from each packet in the format of
CSI. The raw data contain the number of transmitting antennas
Ntx , the number of receiving antennas Nrx , packet transmis-
sion frequency f , and the CSI matrix H, which is a Ntx × Nrx
matrix
H = (Hij )Ntx ×Nrx
where Hij is the CSI of the channel formed by transmitting
antenna i and receiving antenna j, containing the information of
Ns subcarriers, expressed as
Hij = (h1 , h2 , . . . , hNs ), i ∈ [1, Ntx ], j ∈ [1, Nrx ].
3
Fig. 1. CSI exhibits different patterns at different locations. (a) Human at
location A. (b) Human at location B.
The kth subcarrier in Hij can be expressed as
hk = |hk |ej∠hk , k ∈ [1, Ns ] (3)
here, |hk | is the amplitude and ∠hk is the phase of subcarrier
k. The phase information contains significant random noise and
shifts, hence is difficult to be leveraged for wireless sensing.
Therefore, we solely adopt CSI amplitude for human tracking.
B. Rationale of Localization
Due to slight frequency delta, separate subcarriers experi-
ence different multipath fading. When small movements have
altered the environment, the individual subcarrier measurements
are more sensitive to the variations. CSI portrays a fine-grained
temporal and spectral structure of wireless channels and exhibits
properties suitable for localization. Fig. 1 illustrates the proper-
ties of CSI for device-free localization, in which the Packet axis
represents the packets over time, the Subcarrier axis represents
each subcarrier, and the Amplitude axis represents the amplitude
of each subcarrier over packets. Different colors represent dif-
ferent amplitude levels. Fig. 1(a) and (b) show the amplitude of
subcarriers over time/packets when a human stands at two loca-
tions one meter apart. The CSI amplitude patterns have obvious
differences between the two locations. Such properties of CSI in-
dicate that there is certain dependency between CSI fingerprints
and locations, making it possible for accurate localization.
C. Issue of Tracking
Localization is to estimate one single location, belonging to
the category of point localization, without relating to the histori-
cal locations. Human moving is a consecutive process, in which
each location is related to its precedents in time sequence. When
applying point localization on a moving human, the estimated
trajectory may be unreasonable. Fig. 6(b) shows a real walking
path and Fig. 7(b) shows the trajectory estimated by DNN local-
(1)
ization. Although the localization accuracy is as high as 86 cm,
the trajectory formed by localization does not reflect the real tra-
jectory at all. Even worse, the estimated trajectory crosses the
furniture many times. Therefore, we propose to apply PF to re-
late the current location estimation with the historical locations
(2) and integrate the map information to avoid crossing obstacles.
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4 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL
Fig. 2. Device-free human tracking with DNN and PF.
IV. DEVICE-FREE HUMAN TRACKING
The proposed method of device-free human tracking based on
DNN and PF is illustrated in Fig. 2. The CSI fingerprints are first
retrieved from the packets sent from the WiFi transmitter to the
receiver. The raw CSI fingerprints go through preprocessing and
are fed into the DNN model, which estimates the location co-
ordinates through 2-D DNN regression. PF recursively updates
the location according to the last location and the current loca-
tion estimation returned by DNN. Map matching is integrated
in PF to constrain the transfer of particles to directly reachable
destinations and help form correct trajectories.
A. CSI Fingerprint Preprocessing
Raw CSI data contain noise and noncontributing information.
We apply the density-based spatial clustering of applications
with noise (DBSCAN) algorithm to reduce the noise and apply
the PCA algorithm to extract the most contributing information
from the raw CSI data.
1) Denoising: Raw CSI data have noise. We apply the DB-
SCAN algorithm to detect and reduce the noise. DBSCAN [21]
is a density-based clustering algorithm, which groups points that
are closely packed together and marks as outliers that lie alone
in low density regions. It does not require to specify the num-
ber of clusters a priori and can be used to detect and reduce
noise. Assume D represents the dataset of the raw CSI data, in
which each CSI fingerprint is regarded as a point, denoted as
p = (h1 , h2 , . . . , hi , . . . , hL ), where hi is the amplitude of sub-
carrier i and L = Ntx × Nrx × Ns is the number  of the subcar-
i j L j 2
riers. The Euclidean distance d(p , p ) = i
k=1 (hk − hk )
is used to measure the distance between two CSI fingerprints
for the purpose of clustering. The outliers are regarded as noise.
2) Contributing Information Extraction: Each CSI finger-
print has L = Ntx × Nrx × Ns dimensions. Each dimension
may have different contribution to localization, hence we ap-
ply PCA to extract the most contributing information as well
as to reduce the dimensionality. PCA [22] converts a set of
possibly correlated variables into a set of linearly uncorrelated
variables, called principal components, through orthogonal
transformation. The first principal component has the largest
possible variance, and each succeeding component in turn has
the highest possible variance and orthogonal to the preceding
components. PCA aims to find l (l < L) new variables, with
each one being a linear combination of the original variables,
so that the new variables can reveal the nature of the origi-
nal ones and compress them. Applying PCA on the CSI ma-
trix H, we obtain the transformation matrix T , the transformed
matrix S and the variable weights W = (w1 , w2 , . . . , wL ) in
descending order, wherein L is the dimension of the original
CSI fingerprint.
 The cumulative
 contribution rate Ci is defined
as Ci = ( ij=1 wj )/( L j=1 w j ). If Cl ≥ Cc , which means that
the cumulative contribution rate of the first l new variables equals
to or is greater than the predefined threshold Cc , we extract the
first l new variables as the contributing information. The first l
rows of the transformed matrix S constitute the principal com-
ponent matrix R, which will be used as the CSI fingerprints for
the subsequent model training and tracking.
B. Localization With DNN Regression
Device-free localization is to estimate the location coordi-
nates of the targets, without participation of mobile devices. It
can be solved as a regression problem by establishing the de-
pendency between CSI fingerprints and location coordinates.
DNN have been proved to be very effective in implicit feature
extraction and have gained vast application in pattern recogni-
tion. We model the dependency between location coordinates
and CSI fingerprints with DNN and formulate localization as
a regression problem. The inputs to the DNN model are the
preprocessed CSI fingerprints and the outputs are the location
coordinates.
Localization through DNN regression consists of the training
stage and the localization stage. In the training stage, a large
number of CSI fingerprints are collected from a person at each
RP in the area of interest. The DNN model is then trained by
using the CSI fingerprints of all the RPs labeled with their loca-
tion coordinates. Training of the DNN model is to determine the
structure of the deep neural network and the weights and biases
of the neurons. In the localization stage, the CSI fingerprint is
collected from the person at the unknown location. After prepro-
cessing, the CSI fingerprint is fed into the trained DNN model,
which outputs the 2-D location coordinate.
Assume n is the number of the labeled training samples and
l denotes the dimensionality of a CSI fingerprint. Each labeled
sample consists of a pair (ri , (xi , yi )), where ri ∈ Rl is a vector
representing a CSI fingerprint after preprocessing and (xi , yi ) ∈
R2 denotes the location coordinate where ri is measured. DNN
model training is to establish the DNN model using the training
dataset {(ri , (xi , yi ))|i = 1, 2, . . . , n}. Assume (r, (x, y)) is a
testing sample, with r ∈ Rl representing the CSI fingerprint,
localization is to determine the value of (x, y) by the trained
DNN model.
1) Structure of DNN: We employ a fully connected deep
neural network to fulfill the task of localization with CSI fin-
gerprints. The DNN model has M fully connected hidden lay-
ers, plus one input layer, and one output layer, as shown in
Fig. 3. Each hidden layer has k1 , k2 , . . . , ki , . . . , kM neurons,
respectively. The input to the DNN model is CSI fingerprint
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ZHOU et al.: FREETRACK: DEVICE-FREE HUMAN TRACKING WITH DEEP NEURAL NETWORKS AND PARTICLE FILTERING
Fig. 3. Structure of DNN for device-free localization.
r = (h1 , h2 , . . . , hl ), and the output of the DNN model is loca-
tion coordinate (x, y), which is the result of 2-D DNN regres-
sion. During training, the CSI fingerprints of all the RPs are fed
into the deep neural network in batches to train the weights and
biases of the neurons. During localization, the CSI fingerprint of
the unknown location is fed into the deep neural network, which
outputs the 2-D location coordinate (x, y).
2) Activation Function: The activation function introduces
nonlinearity into DNN and is an important factor in performance.
We choose Rectified Linear Units (ReLU) as the activation func-
tion, which is expressed as f (x) = max(0, x).
3) Loss Function: We use the error loss function based on
back propagation to train the weights and biases of the neurons.
The loss function is employed to measure the difference between
the ground truth and the output of the DNN model, which we
define as the mean distance error
m
1 
floss = (x̂i − xi )2 + (ŷi − yi )2
m i=1
where m is the batch size, (xi , yi ) and (x̂i , ŷi ) represent the
true and the estimated coordinates of sample i, respectively. By
minimizing the value of floss , the neuron weights and biases are
updated with adaptive moment estimation (Adam) algorithm,
until the value of floss converges.
C. Tracking With Particle Filtering
As aforementioned, point localization may not form reason-
able trajectories. For the problem of human tracking, we can treat
the human moving as a stochastic process, in which we regard
the human location as the state of the dynamic system and regard
the estimated location by DNN regression as the observation. We
propose to apply PF to track the trajectory of a moving human.
Suppose sk represents the system state (i.e., the human location)
at iteration k, suppose zk represents the observation (i.e., the es-
timated location by DNN regression) at iteration k, PF [23] is to
recursively estimate the posterior distribution p(sk |z1:k ) of the
system state sk given the observations (z1 , z2 , . . . , zk ).
1) Particle Filtering: Filtering is applied widely in naviga-
tion, tracking, control, and information fusion. Its objective is to
estimate the state of a dynamic system from the noisy observa-
tions with probabilistic tools. The state and observation models
5
of the dynamic system can be expressed as

sk = f (sk−1 ) + vk−1
(5)
zk = h(sk ) + wk
where sk represents the system state, zk represents the obser-
vation, f (·) and h(·) represent the state transition function and
the observation function of the dynamic system, vk and wk rep-
resent the system noise and the observation noise, respectively.
PF approximates the system state sk and the posterior distribu-
tion p(sk |z1:k ) with a set of particles in the state space, able
to approximate any dynamic systems. Assume np denotes the
number of particles, {(sik , ωki )|i = 1, 2, . . . , np } represents the
set of particles at iteration k, in which sik represents the state of
particle i and ωki represents its weight. The system state sk and
its posterior distribution can be approximated by the particles:
 np i i
sk = i=1 ωk s k
np i (6)
p(sk |z1:k ) ≈ i=1 ωk δ(sk − sik )
np i
in which δ is Kronecker delta function and i=1 ωk = 1.
2) Initialization of Particles: Suppose the set of particles at
iteration k is {(sik , ωki )|i = 1, 2, . . . , np }. As the system state sk
is location coordinate for the human tracking problem, the set of
particles at iteration k can be expressed as {((xik , yki ), ωki )|i =
1, 2, 3, . . . , np }, in which (xik , yki ) represents the state of parti-
cle i (i.e., the location coordinate) and ωki represents its weight.
Initial values of the particles are set to follow the Gaussian dis-
tribution, with the mean value of z0 = (xz0 , y0z ), which is the first
location returned by DNN regression. The initial weight of each
particle is set as 1/np .
3) State Model and Observation Model: A person may walk
(4)
indoors at any velocity. Without the aid of external equipments
to supply motion information, we model the system as free walk-
ing, i.e., the person may walk at any speed in any orientation.
As the sampling rate is not less than 10 Hz, the time interval
between two consecutive observations is not more than 0.1 s,
within which the person usually can walk not more than 0.2 m
even in a fast pace. Hence, we assume that the location of it-
eration k equals to the location of iteration k−1, and model
the location change as system noise. The system state can be
modeled as
   
xk xk−1
sk = = +v (7)
yk yk−1
in which v represents the system noise assumed to be Gaussian.
We use the location (xz , y z ) estimated by DNN regression as
the observation. Thus the observation model can be expressed
as
 
xzk
zk = . (8)
ykz
4) Weights Update and Resampling: Each time a new ob-
servation is obtained, i.e., a new location estimation is returned
by DNN, the particle weights are updated and normalized. The
particles are then resampled according to the updated weights,
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6 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Fig. 4. Obstacle crossing of particles.

keeping the particles with larger weights and discarding the ones Fig. 5. Fine tuning of DNN localization model.
with less weights.
The weights are updated according to the new observation.
By using the reachability factor cik , if there is a direct path from
The particles that are nearer to the new observation are regarded
the last state (xik−1 , yk−1
i
) to the current state (xik , yki ) of the
more important and assigned larger weights. Hence we update
particle i, the transfer is possible, otherwise the transfer is for-
the weights with a Gaussian distribution, in which the centroid
bidden. After map matching, the obstacle crossing problem can
is the new observation and the input is the distance between the
be reduced significantly, as Fig. 7(d) illustrates.
particle and the new observation
1 d2
E. Fine Tuning to Fit Environmental Variants
ω̄ki = √ e− 2σ
i
(9)
2πσ DNN perform well on the assumption that the training and
wherein σ is the covariance of the observations, di is the distance testing data are from the same domains, with same feature spaces
between the particle sik = (xik , yki ) and the new observation zk = and same probability distributions. A DNN model trained in a
(xzk , ykz ), calculated as domain may not perform well in a different domain. For WiFi-
 based localization and tracking, the environment may have vari-
di = (xik − xzk )2 + (yki − ykz )2 . (10) ants, such as different people and different walking styles, which
The updated weights are then normalized as cause differences in probability distribution. Consequently, the
DNN model needs to be rebuilt from the scratch in the varied
ω̄ i environment. However, it is expensive to recalibrate the model,
ωki = np k . (11)
j=1 ω̄kj as a large number of WiFi fingerprints need to be collected and
labeled.
5) System State Update: After updating the states and
To reduce the recalibration effort, we propose to adapt the
weights of the particles, the system state sk is updated as
    DNN model trained in the source domain to the target domain
np
xk  xik by means of fine tuning. Assume D = {F, P (F )} represents
i
sk = = ωk . (12) a domain, in which F represents the feature space and P (F )
yk yki
i=1 represents the probability distribution. Its task T = {C, f (·)}
The current location of the human is (xk , yk ). consists of a label space C and a prediction function f (·),
which predicts the label f (r) ∈ C of a new sample r ∈ F . The
D. Map Matching DNN model is trained to approximate f (·), by learning from
the training data. Suppose the source domain data are denoted
PF solves the sequential problem of locations, thus can pro-
as Ds = {(r1s , cs1 ), . . . , (rns s , csns )} and the target domain data
duce relatively precise trajectories. However, the trajectories
are denoted as Dt = {(r1t , ct1 ), . . . , (rnt t , ctnt )}, where ris and rit
may still cross the obstacles, as Fig. 7(c) shows, which should
represent the features (CSI fingerprints), csi and cti represent the
be corrected. We propose to apply map matching to solve the
labels (location coordinates). Given Ds , T s , and Dt , the objec-
obstacle crossing problem. The basic idea is to constrain the
tive of adaptation is to improve the learning effect of f (·) in T t
transfer of the particles by exploiting the indoor digital map.
based on Dt using the knowledge in Ds and T s [24].
During the update of the particle state and weight, we evaluate
We first establish the DNN localization model approximat-
the possibility of the transfer between the last state (xik−1 , yk−1
i
)
i i ing f (·) with the training set in the source domain Ds . For
to the current state (xk , yk ). If the transfer crosses an obstacle,
each environmental variant, we consider it as a target domain,
as Fig. 4 illustrates, the line segment connecting (xik , yki ) and
for example, a different walking style is regarded as a target
(xik−1 , yk−1
i
) crosses the obstacle, we set its reachability factor
domain, a different person is regarded as another target do-
ck as 0, otherwise cik is set as 1. The updated weight ω̄ki is then
i
main. For each target domain, we collect a small number mt
adjusted as
(mt << ns and mt << nt ) of new training samples to con-
ω̌ki = ω̄ki · cik (13) stitute the target domain data Dt = {(r1t , ct1 ), . . . , (rm t
t
, ctmt )},
t
in which ri = (h1 , h2 , . . . , hl ) represents the CSI fingerprint,
and then normalized as
cti = (x, y) represents the location coordinate. We apply the new
ω̌ i training data Dt on the DNN localization model built with the
ωki = np k . (14)
j=1 ω̌kj source domain data Ds and retrain the DNN model to adjust the
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ZHOU et al.: FREETRACK: DEVICE-FREE HUMAN TRACKING WITH DEEP NEURAL NETWORKS AND PARTICLE FILTERING
Fig. 6. Evaluation scenarios. The dashed lines are the walking routes. (a) Laboratory. (b) Laboratory. (c) Hall. (d) Hall.
neuron weights and biases, as shown in Fig. 5, thus to tune the
source model to fit the environmental variants.
V. EVALUATIONS
A. Experimental Setup
The infrastructure of device-free human tracking is composed
of a WiFi transmitter and a WiFi receiver, both can be com-
modity wireless devices supporting OFDM and MIMO. The
experiments were conducted in two representative scenarios: a
cluttered research laboratory (6 m × 8 m) and an empty hall
(5 m × 5 m), as shown in Fig. 6. In each testbed, we em-
ployed two laptops equipped with Intel Wireless Link 5300
(IWL5300), one acting as transmitter and the other as receiver,
working in 5-GHz band, each with three antennas. The firmware
and driver of IWL5300 were modified to export CSI from each
packet to the upper layers [20], which contains 30 groups of
subcarriers.
1) Research Laboratory: The CSI data were extracted from
the packets sent from the transmitter to the receiver during which
the volunteer traversed the area. The walking route is shown in
Fig. 6(b) as the dashed lines. For training, the route was walked
20 times, each with about 240 samples, thus about 4800 training
samples altogether. For testing, the route was walked once, with
240 testing samples.
2) Hall: The CSI data were collected from the packets sent
from the transmitter to the receiver during which the volun-
teer traversed the area. The three walking routes are shown in
Fig. 6(d) as the dashed rectangles. For training, the large outside
rectangle was walked 32 times, each with about 630 samples;
the medium middle rectangle was walked 15 times, each with
about 480 samples, and the small inside rectangle was walked 15
times, each with about 320 samples, altogether more than 32 000
training samples. For testing, each of the three routes was walked
once, with 633, 477, and 313 testing samples, respectively. The
localization model of the hall was trained with all the training
samples and tested with the three routes of testing samples.
B. Tracking Performance
Through the training of the DNN localization model, an opti-
mal set of parameters is identified. The DNN localization model
has 5 hidden layers with [256, 512, 1024, 512, 256] neurons.
7
TABLE I
TRACKING ACCURACY OF FREETRACK
The learning rate is set as 10−4 . 100 particles are used to ap-
proximate the system state. We use three metrics to analyze the
tracking performance: 1) accuracy represents the mean distance
error between the true locations and the estimated locations; 2)
standard deviation represents the standard deviation of distance
errors; and 3) precision represents the cumulative distribution
function (CDF) of distance errors.
1) Research Laboratory: The tracking results in the research
laboratory are shown in Table I and Fig. 7. Table I lists the accu-
racy and the standard deviation of distance errors. Our method
FreeTrack (DNN with PF and map) achieves the accuracy of
54 cm and the standard deviation of 58 cm. DNN achieves the
accuracy of 86 cm. Combining with PF, the accuracy is improved
by 33.7% to 57 cm. By integrating map matching, the accuracy is
improved further by 5.3% to 54 cm. Fig. 7(a) illustrates the pre-
cision of tracking, in which FreeTrack outperforms DNN with
PF, which outperforms DNN. The distance error of FreeTrack
is within 20 cm with the probability of 29%, within 50 cm 75%,
within 80 cm 89% and within 1 m 93%. The tracking trajectories
are illustrated in Fig. 7(b)–(d). As shown in Fig. 7(b), DNN can-
not form a trajectory due to point localization. Fig. 7(c) shows the
trajectory formed by DNN with PF, which improves the accuracy
significantly and forms a relatively correct trajectory. Fig. 7(d)
shows the trajectory formed by FreeTrack, which improves the
performance further by removing the obstacle crossing problem.
2) Hall: The tracking results in the hall are shown in Table I
and Fig. 8. Since the hall is an empty space, map matching is
not integrated. Table I lists the accuracy and the standard devi-
ation of distance errors of walking the large outside rectangle.
FreeTrack achieves the accuracy of 54 cm and the standard de-
viation of 31 cm. Compared with DNN, the tracking accuracy
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8 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

Fig. 7. Tracking precision and trajectories in the research laboratory. (a) Precision. (b) DNN. (c) DNN+PF. (d) DNN+PF+Map.

Fig. 8. Tracking precision and trajectories in the hall. (a) Precision. (b) Large rectangle. (c) Medium rectangle. (d) Small rectangle.

Fig. 9. Tracking precision and trajectories of random routes. (a) Precision. (b) Ground truth. (c) N-shape. (d) V-shape.

is improved by 5.3% from 57 to 54 cm. Fig. 8(a) illustrates
the tracking precision of the large outside rectangle, in which
FreeTrack outperforms DNN. The distance error of FreeTrack
is within 20 cm with the probability of 28%, within 50 cm 64%,
within 80 cm 85% and within 1 m 90%. The tracking trajectories
of all the three routes formed by DNN and DNN with PF are il-
lustrated in Fig. 8(b)–(d), in which Fig. 8(b) shows the estimated
trajectories of the outside route, Fig. 8(c) shows the trajectories
of the middle route and Fig. 8(d) shows the trajectories of the
inside route, by DNN and DNN with PF, respectively. For all
the three routes, DNN localization cannot form reasonable tra-
jectories due to point localization, while DNN with PF can form
relatively precise trajectories.
3) Random Routes: We also conducted experiments of ran-
dom walking in the hall, to evaluate the performance of Free-
Track on random routes that are not pretrained. The testing
routes are an N-shape route and a V-shape route, as shown in
Fig. 9(b), which are different from the training routes. The esti-
mated trajectories of them by FreeTrack are shown in Fig. 9(c)
and (d). DNN localization cannot form reasonable trajectories
due to point localization, while FreeTrack (DNN with PF) can
form relatively precise trajectories. Table I lists the accuracy and
the standard deviation of distance errors of the two routes. For
the N-shape route, FreeTrack achieves the accuracy of 85 cm
and the standard deviation of 52 cm. Compared with DNN, the
accuracy is improved by 29.2%. For the V-shape route, Free-
Track achieves the accuracy of 78 cm and the standard devia-
tion of 55 cm. Compared with DNN, the accuracy is improved by
27.8%. Fig. 9(a) plots the precision of the two random routes, in
which FreeTrack outperforms DNN significantly for both routes.
For the N-shape route, the distance error of FreeTrack is within
20 cm with the probability of 4%, within 50 cm 31%, within
80 cm 54% and within 1 m 63%. For the V-shape route, the
distance error of FreeTrack is within 20 cm with the probabil-
ity of 3%, within 50 cm 21%, within 80 cm 56% and within
1 m 76%.
C. Variants and Parameters
We investigate the impact of environmental variants and pa-
rameters on the performance of tracking. Most comparisons
were made on the large rectangle route in the hall.
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ZHOU et al.: FREETRACK: DEVICE-FREE HUMAN TRACKING WITH DEEP NEURAL NETWORKS AND PARTICLE FILTERING
Fig. 10. Tracking precision with different variants and parameters. (a) Walking style. (b) Human diversity. (c) Route diversity. (d) Walking distance. (e) Number
of antennas. (f) Sampling rate. (g) Training times of routes. (h) Number of particles.
TABLE II
TRACKING ACCURACY WITH DIFFERENT VARIANTS AND PARAMETERS
1) Walking Style: People may walk at different paces, hence
we carried out experiments to validate the tracking method on
different walking styles. The model is trained with normal walk-
ing data, and tested with slow walking and fast walking as well
as normal walking. As the training set contains only normal
walking data, the tracking performance of slow walking and
fast walking degrades. Therefore, we apply fine tuning on the
DNN model with eight training routes of slow walking and eight
training routes of fast walking, the accuracy can achieve 77 cm
for slow walking and 81 cm for fast walking. The tracking results
are illustrated in Table II and Fig. 10(a).
9
2) Human Diversity: To validate the impact of human diver-
sity, three volunteers conducted the same experiments with the
same setup. The model is trained with one person (tester 1), and
tested with the other two persons (tester 2 and tester 3). As the
training set contains only the data of tester 1, the tracking perfor-
mance of tester 2 and tester 3 degrades. By applying fine tuning
on the DNN model with 5 training routes for each of the other
persons, the accuracy can achieve 63 cm for tester 2 and 72 cm
for tester 3. The tracking results are illustrated in Table II and
Fig. 10(b).
3) Route Diversity: We tested three different routes in the
hall to validate the impact of route diversity: a large rectangle, a
medium rectangle, and a small rectangle, as shown in Fig. 6(d).
The tracking results are illustrated in Table II and Fig. 10(c). All
the routes can achieve high accuracy and precision.
4) Walking Distance: To validate the impact of walking dis-
tance on tracking performance, we tested three distances on
the same route. As shown in Fig. 6(d), the first distance is
the full of the outside rectangle, the second is half of the
outside rectangle, and the third is one fourth of the outside
rectangle. The tracking results are illustrated in Table II and
Fig. 10(d). The tracking performance does not depend on the
distance.
5) Number of Antennas: More antennas provide more infor-
mation in a CSI fingerprint, thus we tested the impact of the
number of antennas: one TX and one RX antennas (1TX-1RX
containing one antenna pair), two TX and two RX antennas
(2TX-2RX containing four antenna pairs), and three TX and
three RX antennas (3TX-3RX containing nine antenna pairs).
The tracking results are illustrated in Table II and Fig. 10(e).
As each antenna pair contains 30 groups of subcarriers, with the
number of antenna pairs increasing from one to four to nine, the
dimensionality of a CSI fingerprint increases from 30 to 120 to
270. More dimensions provide more information, thus the track-
ing accuracy improves from 160 to 64 to 54 cm. From 1TX-1RX
to 2TX-2RX, the dimensionality increases three times, hence
the accuracy is improved significantly. From 2TX-2RX to 3TX-
3RX, the dimensionality increases 1.25 times and 2TX-2RX can
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10 IEEE SYSTEMS JOURNAL

provide relatively adequate information to distinguish different

locations, thus the accuracy is improved marginally.
6) Sampling Rate: Higher sampling rate brings more sam-
ples, which benefits both DNN and PF, thus we tested the impact
of different sampling rates: 10, 20, and 40 Hz. The tracking re-
sults are illustrated in Table II and Fig. 10(f). With the sampling
rate increasing from 10 to 20 to 40 Hz, the tracking accuracy im-
proves from 156 to 89 to 54 cm. Higher sampling rate achieves
higher accuracy.
7) Training Times of Routes: The amount of training data
plays an important role in deep learning. Hence, we tested the
impact of the training times of routes on tracking performance.
We set the training times of the large rectangle in the hall as
16, 24, 28, and 32, and evaluated the performance. As shown
in Table II and Fig. 10(g), the tracking performance improves
with the training times. When the training times approach 32,
the accuracy does not improve much. We conducted similar ex-
periments in the research laboratory and set the training times
as 10, 15, 18, and 20. The tracking performance improves with
the training times too. When the training times approach 20, the
accuracy does not improve much. The hall is an empty space, in Fig. 11. Tracking precision with different methods. (a) Laboratory. (b) Hall.
which the fingerprints of neighboring locations are similar, thus
TABLE III
it requires more training times than the laboratory. TRACKING ACCURACY WITH DIFFERENT METHODS
8) Number of Particles: More particles take more computing
time. We set the particle number as 20, 50, 100, and 200, and
tested their effect on tracking performance and computing time.
As shown in Table II and Fig. 10(h), with the increase of the
particle number from 20 to 50 to 100, the tracking accuracy
improves from 74 to 64 to 54 cm, while the single tracking
time increases from 4 to 5 to 8 ms. When further increasing the
particle number from 100 to 200, the tracking accuracy does not
improve, but the single tracking time increases from 8 to 18 ms.

D. Method Study
FreeTrack exploits DNN, PF, and map to track moving hu-
mans. To investigate the impact of each component, we sep-
arately replace DNN with SVM regression, replace PF with
Kalman Filtering (KF), replace CSI with RSSI, and compare
them with FreeTrack. Finally we compare FreeTrack with the
state-of-the-art. The comparisons were made on the route in the
laboratory and the large rectangle route in the hall.
1) Compare With SVM: SVM is a classic statistical tool for
classification and regression. We replace DNN regression with
SVM regression, and apply SVR with PF and map to track the
moving human using the same training and testing datasets. The
tracking results in the laboratory and in the hall are illustrated
in Fig. 11 and Table III. SVR with PF and map achieves an
accuracy of 79 cm in the laboratory and 74 cm in the hall, both
are less accurate than FreeTrack.
2) Compare With Kalman Filtering: Kalman Filtering is a
widely adopted filtering tool. We replace PF with Kalman Fil-
tering and apply DNN with KF (cannot integrate map matching)
to track the moving human using the same datasets. The tracking
results are illustrated in Fig. 11 and Table III. In the laboratory
DNN with KF achieves an accuracy of 70 cm, worse than DNN
with PF and map. In the hall DNN with KF achieves an accuracy
of (43, 37, 37 cm) for the three routes illustrated in Fig. 6(d),
while DNN with PF (empty hall without map) achieves (54,
21, 36 cm). As we model the tracking problem as a linear sys-
tem, both PF and KF can solve the problem well, hence the
performance of PF and KF are comparable. But in complicated
scenarios such as cluttered rooms, with the aid of maps, PF out-
performs KF.
3) Compare With RSSI: RSSI is a commonly used measure-
ment of signal quality, characterizing the overall received signal
power in a channel. We replace CSI with RSSI and apply the
same method to track the moving human. The tracking results
are illustrated in Fig. 11 and Table III. RSSI achieves an accu-
racy of 198 cm in the laboratory and 274 cm in the hall, both
are far less accurate than CSI, as RSSI is a coarse measurement
unable to deal with multipath. Hence compared with RSSI, CSI
is more appropriate for human tracking.
4) Compare With State-of-the-Art: We compare our method
FreeTrack (DNN with PF with map) with the method proposed
by Shi et al. [14], which applied the Bayesian probabilistic al-
gorithm based on CSI fingerprint to infer locations and contin-
uously tracked the trajectory of a moving human with Bayesian
filtering. We reimplemented the method of Shi et al., which
 This article has been accepted for inclusion in a future issue of this journal. Content is final as presented, with the exception of pagination.
ZHOU et al.: FREETRACK: DEVICE-FREE HUMAN TRACKING WITH DEEP NEURAL NETWORKS AND PARTICLE FILTERING
achieves an accuracy of 100 cm in the laboratory and 76 cm in
the hall. FreeTrack outperforms it by a large margin, as shown
in Fig. 11 and Table III.
VI. CONCLUSION
OFDM and MIMO enable to access fine-grained physical
layer information of multiple links and individual subcarriers
from commodity wireless devices, thus trigger the use of CSI
to achieve accurate device-free localization and tracking. This
paper presents a device-free human tracking method based on
CSI amplitude fingerprints with only one pair of commodity
WiFi transmitter and receiver. By exploiting DNN, the features
are extracted automatically and human localization is accom-
plished through 2-D regression. To track moving humans, PF
integrated with map matching is applied on DNN localization,
which proves effective in forming precise moving trajectories.
To combat with environmental variants, the DNN localization
model is fine tuned with a small number of samples from the
varied environments. Evaluations demonstrate the effectiveness
of the method, achieving the tracking accuracy of about half
a meter and precise trajectories as well as easy adaptation to
environmental variants.
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Rui Zhou received the Ph.D. degree from the University of Freiburg, Germany,
in 2010.
She is currently an Associate Professor with the University of Electronic
Science and Technology of China, Sichuan Sheng, China. Her research interests
include pervasive computing, Internet of Things, and machine learning.
Mingjie Tang is currently pursuing the B.S degree in the University of Electronic
Science and Technology of China, Sichuan Sheng, China.
His research interests include localization and machine learning.
Ziyuan Gong received the B.S. degree from Southwest Jiaotong University,
Sichuan Sheng, China, in 2018. He is currently working toward the M.S. degree
with the University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Sichuan
Sheng, China.
His research interests include wireless sensing and machine learning.
Meng Hao received the B.S. degree from the University of Electronic Science
and Technology of China, Sichuan Sheng, China, in 2018. She is currently
pursuing the M.S. degree with Zhejiang University, Zhejiang Sheng, China.
Her research interests include image processing and machine learning.