o IAL CIENCE RE EARCH ou~ IL

VOLUME 40 • NUMBER 1 • MARCH 19 6

605 THIRD AVEN E . :\,EW YORK, . '.Y. 10158

Frederic E. Wakeman , Jr. Elected President

of the Social Science Research Council
liE. Co :-: IL.'S 80 RD OF DIRECTORs-acting on the
recommendation of the Executive Committee-ha
elected Frederic E. Wakeman, Jr., profe or of hi -
tor} and former chairman of the Center for Chine e
tudie at the Univer ity of California, Berkeley, a
pre ident f the Council, effective July 1, 19 6. Mr.
Wakeman will ucceed Franci X. utton, who ha
erved a acting pre ident ince October 1, 1985. Mr.
utton had replaced Kenneth Prewitt, who re igned
from the pre idenc in 19 5 to become vice pre ident
for program at the Rockefeller Foundation.
The Council' new chief executive officer, who i 48
year old, i one of the nation' foremo t hi torian of
modern China. He ha authored or edited ix book
on China, including The FaLL of Imperial China (1976)
and The Great Enterprise: The Manchu Reconstruction of
Imperial Order in eventeenth-Century China (two vol-
ume , 1985), and numerou article.
The announcement wa made by Hugh T. Patrick,
R. D. Calkin profe or of international bu ine at
Columbia Univer ity and chairman of the Council'
board of director. In making the announcement,
Mr. Patrick tre ed how fortunate the Council ha
been to have had Mr. utton a acting pre ident dur-
ing thi year of the pre idential earch. He then noted
Frtdtric E. Waktmall, Jr.
that Mr. Wakeman ha "uperb cholarly credential
and an excellent record in cholarly ad mini tration."
Mr. Patrick al 0 tated "that the en e of 10 that the Mr. Wakeman graduated from Harvard College in
Council felt when Mr. Prewitt moved to the Rocke- 1959 and tudied for a year at the In titut d'Etude
feller Foundation will be overcome by thi di tin- Politique in Pari . He received a Ph.D. in Far Ea tern
gui hed appointment." "Both the board and the taff hi tory and Oriental language from the U niver ity of
look fon ard to working in clo e a ociation with Mr. California, Berkeley, in 1965. He ha taught at Berk-
Wakeman," he added. eley for the pa t 21 year .
Almo t every national cholarly a ociation in the
For contents of thi issue, United tate that ha a China program ha benefited
t't' the box on page 2. from Mr. Wakeman' leader hip: the Council, the
American Council of Learned ocietie, the Com-

1

CONTENTS OF THIS ISSUE
Frederi E. Wakeman, Jr. Elected Pre ident of the
Social i nee Re arch Coun il
2 The mparative ' tudy of Mu lim Societie
Barbara Dal, Mttcalf
7 rhe ulture of Fear- Joan Dlll5in
12 cce s to Re arch ite broad-Elinor Bar,,"
17 ote on the Origin of "Interdi iplinal)'''-
Dallld L. Sills
19 Coun il Personnel
taff appointments
-Bryce Wood di at 76
20 Recent Council Publication
mittee on cholarly Communication with the People'
Republic of China, and the National Humanitie
Center. At the two Council, he erved as chairman of
their Joint Committee on Chine e tudie (1982) and
a chairman of one of it predece or committee , the
Committee on Studie of Chine e Civilization
(1974-79). He recently pent everal year in China in
variou capacitie: he wa a vi iting profe or at Pe-
king Univer ity and a consultant to the U. . ational
Academy of cience.
The Council' board wa particularly attracted by
Mr. Wakeman' broad range of intere ts in all of the
ocial cience. Hi goal for the Council include the
The Comparative Study of Muslim Societies
TilE S flM 1. S FOR TilE PPOINTME T of a new Joint
Committee on the omparative tudy of Mu lim
ocietie i a growing intere t in many field of chol-
ar hip in defining "Mu lim ocietie a a di tinct field
II
of tudy. Thi intere t ha been fueled by the grm ing
u e of Mu lim ymbol a indicator of loyalt and of
Mu lim paradigm a a guide to behavior and the
haping of in titution . In recent year, the creation
of new links among Mu lim, the e tablishment of
new institution, and the revitalization of old one'
have had ub tantial cultural, economic, and political
effects. he committee and its member are de cribed
in the box on page 3.
For many decade, the ouncil' committee deal-
• Ihe author, a hi torian, i, an editor at the niver ity of Calif01 nia
PIe (Ilel keley).he i the chair of the newly.appointed Joint Committee
on the Comparative 'tudy of "iu lim ocietic .
2 VOL ME
trengthening of the ocial cience a re earch enter-
pri e ; increa ing their application to ocial policy is-
ue ; and improving their interrelation hip with the
humanitie .
Mr. Wakeman i married to Carolyn Wakeman, an
Engli h literature peciali t and China cholar who
coauthored To tM tonn: The Ody try of a RevoLutionary
Chine e Woman (1985), an account of a leading ir,-
tellectual who urvived the Cultural Revolution. He
ha three children, Frederic, Matthew, and arah,
who are age twenty-four, even, and two, re pectively.
The ocial cience Re earch Council i a not-for-
profit organization founded in 1923 "for the purpo 'e
of advancing re earch in the ocial cienccs."
Throughout its hi tory, and particularly ince World
War II, the Council ha been a leading national orga-
nization for international training and re earch.
Jointly with the American Council of Learned
ocietie , it pon or and upports training and rc-
earch on all the major region of the world.
The Council' founding member were the repre-
entative of the even major ocial cience profc '-
ional a ociation: tho e for anthropology, econom-
ic , history, political cience, p ychology, ociology,
and tati tic. ince the early 1930s, all of the Coun-
cil' chief executive officer have been political cien-
ti t or ociologi t . Mr. Wakeman will be the fir, t
hi torian to lead the Council. 0
by Barbara DaLy MetcalJ*
ing with Third World ocietie have been organi/cd
by geographical intere ,in re pon e both to thc
hi toric configuration of world culture and to thc
methodological need, both in the ocial cience. and
in the hi torical and humani ·tic di ciplinc., to intc-
grate 'pecialized reoearch into manageable gco-
graphic context. Thc con iderable achievemcnt of
the area tudie approach are evident, but ccrtain
'ubject cannot be appropriately ,tudied olely in rc-
gional term. uch topic a capitalism, imperialism,
revolution, and urbani/ation-to cite only a fcw-
need to be tudied not only from local tandpoints.
but in tran regional or even global perspective, and
in comparative terms. Similarly, many important a -
p ct ' of Mu limocietie can only be fully under to<xl
when viewed transre rionally, comparatively, and III
hi,torical depth.
40, U f1U.R I
The unity of Muslim society
The common a p cts of Mu lim culture and
ocietie are multiple, and of cour e have deep hi -
torical root. During the fir t centurie of the 1 lamic
empires, a template of belief and in titution wa
created which, through political expan ion, mi-
ionary pro elytization, and va t trading empires and
network became reworked and repli ated in a wide
variety of geographical context . The role of Arabic
a a common acred language, an educational y tern
based on normative cia ic and standardized mode
of in truction, network of peripatetic sufi and other
teacher e pecially as ociated with the long-di tance
mercantile trade route, and the unifying experience
of the hajj (the pilgrimage to Mecca) fo tered, at lea t
for orne member of every Mu lim ociety, bond
that tran cended parti ular time and place. The
ub quent impo ition of European colonial rule over
mo t Mu lim populations, however, weakened or de-
stroyed one of the mo t potent principle of I lamic
identity: the unity of I lam and politic. The obviou
power of the new imperial cultural and political form
eemed to threaten I lamic value and ocial life. At
the arne time, the colonial experience provided new
bonds and timulated wide pread and elf-con iou
rea ertion of the belief, practice , and perceived
norm of the I lami tradition.
Joint Committee on the
Comparative Study of Muslim Societies
In October 1985, the Coun il appointed-jointly
with th Ameri an Council of Learned Societie a
n~w committee, the Joint ommillee on the Compar-
alive tudy of Mu lim oci tie. Funded for an initial
thre -year p riod by a grant from the Ford Founda-
tion, the committee will take a it purview Muslim
ocieties the world over and will encourage interdi -
ciplinary reearch into the relation hip between Is-
lamic y tern of faith and knowledge and the ocial
lives of Mu lims.
The member of the committ e are Barbara Daly
Metcalf, Univer ity of California, Berkeley, chair;
Dale F. Eickclma!" ew York niver ity; Gilles
Kepel, entre d'Etude et de Recher he Inter-
nationales (Pari); Ira M. Lapidus, Univer ity of
California, Berkeley; M. Khalid Ma ud, I lamic Re-
.carch In titute (I lamabad); Jame Pi catori, The
Au tralian ational niver ity; William R. Roff, 0-
lumbia University; and Charles C. t wart, Univer ity
of Illinoi . David 1.. zanton erve as tafr.
MARCil 1986
A profound concern with Mu lim identity and
unity ha b en further timulated by decolonization,
demographic growth, indu trialization, urbanization,
and a changing international economic order a i-
ated with, among other thing, the oil wealth beneath
Mu lim land. The Mu lim population i a rapidly
growing one: there are today orne 850 to 900 million
Mu lim worldwide, with the large t con entration in
the widely- epa rated countrie of Indone ia, Paki -
tan, and Nigeria. Modern communication have
trengthened and elaborated the tie among Mu lim
p ople . There ha b en a steep growth in the num-
ber ~ho make the pilgrimage to Mecca, creating a
~ore mten e en e of common identity among Mu -
Itm from a far afield a China and en gal, Yemen
and Banglade h. Growing number of tudents from
Indone ia, Malay ia, the outhern Philippine, and
Africa are tudying in Middle Ea tern univer itie ,
preading idea and e tabti hing per onal contact
acro national boundarie . There are regular and
increasingly frequent conferences and con ultation
among Mu lim intellectual and uLama (religiou
cholar ) held in uch center a Teheran, Mecca,
and Kuala Lumpur. There are va t number of Mu -
li~s from A ia and Africa, from laborer to highly
killed profe sional and military per onnel, working
ide by ide in the Arabian penin ula. Worldwide
trading and bu ine link are forged among audi
entrepreneur , I maili merchants, and other .
In addition to older form of a ociation, many new
type of tran national linkage are being formed.
There are major new I lamic banks and the largely
Muslim oil cart I, OP C. The Organization of the
I lamic Conference hold regular meeting of head
of tate and foreign minister. The Aga Khan Foun-
dation ha pread a worldwide awarene of Mu lim
tyle in architecture and approache to medical care,
urban planning, and higher education. a ette
( ound, and now video) di eminate mo que ermon
acro international boundarie, 0 that influential
preacher now reach audience far b yond their local
communitie . The Iranian revolution ha offered a
model for new relation hip between the I lamic 0-
cial order and tate politic . Colonel Qadhafi, the
Ayatollah Khomeini, and the audi ruler have epa-
rately upported numerou , often very di tant, re-
gime , partie, movements, and cau e that are be-
lieved to hare their ideological orientation . Each of
the e organization, in titution , individual, and
movements i enriching the flow of information and
re ource among Mu lims.
In the e linkage, Muslim peoples out ide the Arab
Middle Ea t are particularly important. There are
3
2 5 million Mu lim in outh A ia and 230 million in
the Middle Ea t. outhea t A ia ha 165 million; Af-
rica, 90 million; the oviet Union, 40-60 million; and
hina perhap 40 million. In addition, ian and
African Mu lim nation are gaining dominant role in
ariou international forum . At the recent m etin
of the 45-member Organization of the I lamic on-
ference, the Afri an and A ian tate, led b pre i-
dent ekou oure of uinea and Zia ul-Haq of
Paki tan, voted Eg pt back into the conference over
the objection of the Arab tate. The major area of
growth b conver ion are al 0 out ide th Middle
Ea tern heartland; man are in Africa.
Comparative study
A focu on Mu lim OCletle direc our attention to
certain kind of analy i that can only be done on a
comparative ba i . The definition of a field of tudy in
term of a great ci ilization offer unu ual cop for
a king que tion about the wa cultural ideal find
their expre ion in ocial, economic, and p litical
context. We hope to learn about common Mu lim
pattern of ocial and political organization, and of
characteri tic wa of argument and interpretation, a
well a ad ance our under tanding about when and
how the e commonalitie are realized. The commit-
tee' project, therefore, will fo u on I lamic belief,
idea , ideologie, pi ritual e perience , and preferred
or accu tomed in titutional form, a they intera t
\ ith the pe ific ociopolitical and economic condi-
tion under which mo t Mu lim live. Few cholar
debate the need for analy e linking com pIe cultural
and hi toricat phenomena with major economi and
political trend. In practice, however, mo t tudie
empha ize one dimen ion or the other. The a ume,
rather than explore, the complex, multidimen ional
relation hip between the two.
[he unfortunatel pre alent We tern a umption
that "religion" can be con tituted a a eparable, and
on the wh Ie, dependent, domain of ociet promote
a mode of anal i that may do inju ti e to ocietie '
out ide of the We t and, in the ca e of Mulim
ocietie , often eem to do o. In contra t, the com-
mittee will en ourage the treatment of I lamic idea
and in titution not imply a dependent variable, to
be ac ounted for by economi, ial, and political
force or ondition, but a powerful and at leat
pal,tiall indep ndent urce of, or framework for,
peronal identit, ial a tion, and ocial organiza-
tion. B making "I lam" a contant element in the
tudy of otherwi e often radically different C'::letle,
In often ver different circum tance ', we have an
4 VOl. l ' \11:.
opportunity to examine the kind of meaningful con-
tinuity thi world civilization and moral order pro-
vide. To recognize the e Mu lim ocietie a an ap-
propriate field of tudy i not to return to the ideali m
of early rientali m that looked for a reified I lam
and ignored ever day realitie .
The contemporary relevance of religion
A brief re iew of orne contemporar phenomena
rna help to clarif thi per pective. ntil very re-
centl , orne modernization theori t and other ex-
pected "religion" to b come increa ingly marginal a
a political for e, largely be au "modernization" wa
a umed to encourage" ecularization." Thi a ump-
tion ha been hattered both b the Iranian revolution
and by imilar re urgence el ewhere. Buddhist
revival ha occurred in everal countrie of uth and
outhea t A ia, notabl in Burma, ri Lanka, and
Vietnam. Chri tian group ha e become imp rtant
force oppo ed to authoritarian regime in Latin
America and the Philippine. In I rael, religiou par-
tie have emerged a powerful nationali tic force ,
and in India, the p litical a piration of the ikh
have led to violence. I n the 19 4 pre idential electi n
in the nited tate, religiou leader play d a ur-
pri ingl important role. Whether a in truments of
the tate or a force of popular oppo ition, religiou
belief, practice, and in ' titution cannot b ignor d
or regarded a merel derivative; the mu t be un-
der to d a p tent urce and tructure of meaning
and action in pecific hi torical contex
The use of indigenous concepts
The centrality of religion ha alread been em-
bedded in a erie of conferen e , held under ouncil
au pi , focu ed on the internal di cour e, the vo-
cabularie , the concept, and the metaphor u ed b
Mu lim in educational, legal, moral, and p litical
debate. he e conference attempted to I ate these
debate in concrete historical and con temp rary set-
ting. The oal wa ' to interpret continuitie. and
change in dicour e in relation to chan ing economic
and politi al condition and new media te hnologies.
The onference participant weI' a k d to addre..
'hy particular peopl, egment · of ociet, and
movement adopt certain m de ' of discour 'e; how
the dra, on what mi Tht be called an Ilami I'epel'-
t ire; and how values and worldl actualitie hape
each other.
Th committee h pes to build on this approa hand
to look bond the c gniti\e and rationaliz d dimen-
40, U\181:.R I
 ion of culture that are the cu tomary focu of ocial
cience analy i . In recent year, everal of the Coun-
cil ' area committee have directed attention to the
indigenou conceptual y tern -ae thetic, in-
tellectual, piritual~f the ocietie they tudy. In
mo t contemporary re earch, however, the weight of
tudy ha been on what i cognitive, functional, and
y tematic. ince the thru t of We tern intellectual
culture ha been to pre toward the rational and the
objective in philo ophy, in the natural and phy ical
cience , and of cour e in the ocial cience, thi
empha i i not urpri ing. In the proce ,however,
the analytical tool that have been developed have
been Ie well- haped to tudy the ae thetic, the
emotional, and the piritual, a well a alternative
y tern of rationality, which define much of human
life, and which contribute importantly to ocial a well
a to per onal action.
A a re ult of it analytical tool, the We tern ocial
cience ha e often either ignored or found it difficult
to deal with action and con traints derived from
tran cendent y tern of faith, belief, and feeling, and
their re ulting imperative. The emotional power and
degree of commitment of I lam evident throughout
the world today make Mu lim ocietie an obviou ,
indeed important, ubject of tudy for tho e in-
tere ted in exploring the e larger i ue. he in titu-
tion of our own ociety empha ize the eparation of
religion and politic; in tho e countrie where I lamic
idea are powerful, thi eparation i denied. Mu lim
thinker and actor are con tantly debating how to
relate and integrate all a pects of human experience
and all phere of per onal and ocial life. Becau e
the e debate are 0 explicit, and the ucce e and
failure in implementing them have been 0 numer-
ou and varied, the debate and their outcome
hould provide e pecially intere ting data and theory
for tho e concerned with imilar i ue in any ociety.
Research programs
At its fir t meeting in New York on October 1-3,
1985, the committee con idered two kind of activi-
tie , the fir t related to haping re earch, the econd
to creating an infra tructure for encouraging pe-
ciali ts to ee their work in the larger context of Mu -
lim ocietie generally. In its re earch program, the
committee plan to work a a continuing eminar over
the next few year . It ha irlentified two broad theme
that will be the focu of work hop cheduled to fol-
low the 1986-87 fall and pring meeting of the
committee. Additional participants will join the com-
mittee for each of the e work hop , forming a group
MARCH 1986
that will have the opportunity to work together over
everal meeting .
Out of many po ible tarting points, the committee
decided to choo e two theme that will, in different
way, direct attention to the fundamental que tion of
the meaning of being Mu lim. The fir t work hop,
"Movement and Exchange in Mu lim elf-
Definition," will fir t meet following the committee'
April 1986 meeting in ew York. The econd work-
hop, "On Being Mu lim in on-Mu lim Countrie ,"
will follow the fall meeting in Pari .
The two topic are linked by their focu on itua-
tion in which the ignificance of Mu lim ymbol i
heightened either by travel or by the implication of
long-term re idence in a colonized or plural ociety.
uch experience can timulate parochial and ethnic
elf-awarene a well a more univer al tie . The
projects are thu grounded in a concern with the
nature, ource, and hi torical tran formation of in-
dividual and group identity among Mu lim in vari-
ou etting, and the implication of the e identifica-
tion for indi idual , for larger communitie , and for
whole ocietie.
Movement and exchange
Thi project derive from the high cultural value
placed by Mu lim on travel, for example, on the
required pilgrimage to Mecca (hajj), but al 0 on pur-
po ive travel (rihla) , often in pur uit of knowledge,
and on travel to take up re idence in a Mu lim etting
when one i hampered from living a fully Mu lim life
(hijra). Movement ha fo tered continuou exchange
among Mu lim that have erved to communicate,
renew, and re hape the received tradition. The term
"movement" encompa e travel timulated by ritual
law, my tic piety, trade, education, pro elytization
(daCzva) , and migrant employment. Ca e tudie of
uch movement both highlight and define what it
mean to be Mu lim and provide an opportunity to
inve tigate the experience of movement on Mu lim
. elf-dp.finition . The e elf-definition are not only
per onal: they have been ignificant for the develop-
ment of common in titution and for common in-
volvement in ocial and political action. The working
paper for the fir t meeting will all be comparative,
typically working from primary re earch in the main
part ofthe paper, upplemented by analy e ba ed on
econdary ource to ugge t com pari on . There will,
in addition, be at lea t one paper on I lamic legal
theory related to movement, prepared by a Mu lim
cholar.
5
Muslims in non-Muslim countries meet each other and to di cu their projec . The
committee hope that thi occa ion will encourage
hi project will focu on i ue related to educa-
tudents to think about their projects in a larger con-
tion, political theor , and law among Mu lim who
text, perhap to link tudents and other who e work
live under long-term, non-Mu lim admini tration
may have comparative implication , and generally to
(for example in Ru ia and in China, or in land
fo ter exchange with colleague out ide a pecific
under colonial occupation); among Mu lim who
geographical pecialty. We will a k the tuden for
have migrated to non-Mu lim countrie (for example,
ix-month report to be ent to each member of the
to Europe), and among Mu lim living in ocietie
group, and we will encourage tudent to vi it each
with large non-Mu lim population (for example in
other in the field to the extent that thi i practicable.
Lebanon, Nigeria, Malay ia, and Europe). Paper will
The econd of the e projects hope to provide a few
addre a erie of que tion : How doe education
po tdoctoral training grants for cholar who want to
hape and u tain a en e of identity and what kind of
develop experti e in a econd Mu lim area. The
education i regarded a appropriate by Mu lim?
committee' goal i to encourage comparative tudie
What part of the sharica (I lamic law) i followed and
that embrace a multidi ciplinar approach, recognize
what place i given to a common legal code? How i
the methodological and theoretical importance of
political tatu defined and how doe it correlate with
continuitie in Mu lim culture, and focu attention
the nature of the community and the nature of tate
upon influence within and beyond the world of
policy? What i the range of cultural expre ion in
Mu lim that tran cend regional difference . Appli-
the community? In each ca e, the community mu t be
cation form for thi program will be available in the
examined in its in titution ,i degree of integration
fall of 1986. We hope that the training year provided
with the ociety, and its link of whatever kind to
by thi program will be upplemented by a econd
Mu lim organization and ocietie. The fir t meeting
year, in re idence in the area of tudy, upported by
of the work hop will focu on four etting: France,
the Fulbright I lamic Civilization program. The
India, the oviet Union, and We t Africa.
committee al 0 hope to organize po tdoctoral um-
mer in titute (involving vi iting Mu lim cholar) for
Field-building projects
college teacher who offer cour e on I lam or on
The committee ha al 0 planned program de- Mu lim ocietie.
igned to encourage the comparative tudy of Mu lim Finally, the committee al 0 hope to con ider way
ocietie . The fir t of the e projects will be a eminar of reaching a larger public. There i a pre ing need
for graduate tudents who are either about to do for more eriou information about Mu lim ocietie.
predoctoral field work or who have ju t returned. A a cholarly in titution, enriched by the participa-
Mo t will have been trained in area tudie program . tion of Mu lim cholar and committed to open-
Application have b en olicited from uch tudents, minded cholar hip, the committee i well placed to
and it i planned to invite orne of them to join mem- counteract the tereotype of I lam and Mu lim that
ber of the committee for two day in ew York to pervade We tern culture. 0

6 VOLUME 40, NUMBER 1

 The Culture of Fear
A report on a project of
the Joint Committee on
Latin American Studies
byJoan Das in*

S CCE IVE MILITARY TAKEOVER in Brazil and the population. Project re earch focu ed on the con-
outhern Cone countrie of Ar entina, Uruguay, and truction of mechani m for repre ion and the ma-
Chile during the 1960 and 1970 ignalled the nipulation of fear by the military regime, the experi-
emergence of new form of authoritarian rule. The e ence of fear in different ocial group, and the devel-
regime were ocially and politicall repre ive, on the opment of re i tance mo ements which occurred 0 er
one hand, and economically dynamic, on the other, time a fear wa ub tantially overcome. Repre enta-
eeking to further tie between the local economy and tive topic include the method and pha e of repre -
large international ource of capital (Cardo 0 1982). ion in the four countrie (Fagen 1986); fear among
The military ruled a an in titution, rather than a direct victim in Chile ( alamovich 1986); re i tance
individual , expanded the role of the tate, and em- in the Brazilian labor movement (Alve 19 6); and
pha ized technocratic experti e in policy making. intellectual contribution to the 10 of fear (Al-
The e characteri tic led cholar to label the regime tamirano 1986; arlo 1986). ee the box on page 8 for
"bureaucratic-authoritarian," di tingui hing them a Ii t of the participants.
from previou populi t dictator hip in the region he project wa called "The Culture of Fear," a
(O'Donnell 1973; Collier 1979). concept that wa it elf the ubject of much debate
Thi cla ification ha generated exten ive debate, becau e of the difficultie involved in defining pre-
not only becau e the e military regime per i ted into ci ely what a "cultural approach" to fear hould in-
the 1980, but al 0 becau e their emergence chal- clude and in i olating tho e factor that di tingui hed
lenged a central hypothe i of modernization the fear created by the e four military regime from
theory-that more advanced indu trialization would many other hi torical experience of fear produced
re ult in the development of democratic political y- by tate terror. The e que tion were debated in a
tern (Collier 1979). Three principal per pective erie of eminar held in 19 1-82, in which it wa
have been employed in thi di cu ion (Carreton decided to focu ub equent project re earch on
19 5). One approach focu e on the internal charac- Brazil and the three outhern Cone countrie . The
teri tic of the political regime and tend , therefore, et of ca e wa limited in thi way becau e the mili-
to empha ize their repre ive elements. Another tary regime were ideologically imilar, creating "na-
eek to link the gene i of the e regime to the de- tional ecurity tate" which upended civil libertie
mand of a new pha e of economic accumulation re- and permitted authoritie to wage unre tricted war
quired by the proce of capitali t development, while again t internal di enter. The e mea ure were 0 -
a third tre e change in military organization and ten ibly taken to a ure political tability for economic
the expan ion of militar power in Latin America a growth, but were in fact u ed to eliminate oppo ition
the ba i for the analy i of military govern men . to a new economic model ba ed on the concentration
In contra t to much of thi work, which focu e on of income and the exclu ion of worker and the poor.
political regime and th tate, a project pon ored by The project continued in 19 3 with po ition paper
the Joint Committee on Latin American tudie outlining pecific re earch que tion for the countrie
ought to analyze repre ion and wide pread fear a cho en. The re earch wa presented at a conference
ocial proce e and to identify the multiple way in convened in Bueno Aire in 1985.
which in titution and individual in Brazil and the Four major problem were explored in the Culture
outhern Cone countrie were affected by and re- of Fear project: (1) the characteri tic of political fear;
sponded to tate terror. Thi wa defined a the y- the mechani m through which it was induced; and its
tematic threat and u e of violence by governments con equence for individual and collective behavior;
again t both political di enter and the general (2) the difference and imilaritie of repre ive prac-
tice ; (3) the tage of political fear a it wa impo ed
*The author, a peciali t in modern thought and literature, and conte ted; and (4) the legacie left by political
serve as taff for the Joint Committee on Latin American tudi . fear after the re toration of con titutional govern-

MARCH 1986 7

Participants in the
"Culture of Fear" Project
ociologi t Juan E. orradi of ew York Univer-
ity erved a the prin ipal project organizer, working
clo eI with hi torian Patricia Wei Fagen of the Ref-
ugee Policy Center in Wa hington, D. ., and political
ociologi t Manuel Antonio Garreton, of the Latin
Ameri an Faculty of the ocial ience (FLAC 0) in
antiago, Chile. The e three cholar are currently
editing a volume ba ed on the paper pre ented at the
Bueno Aire conference for publication in Engli h,
pani h, and Portugue .
In addition to the organizer, the following indi-
vidual participated in one or more pha e of the
project: arlo Altamirano, cultural tudie, enter
for the tudy of tate and ociety (CEDE ), Bueno
Aire; 1aria Helena Moreira Alve ,political cience,
Amher t College; Marcelo Cavarozzi, politi al ci-
ence, enter for the tudy of tate and ociety
(CEDE ), Bueno Aire ; Joan Da in, cultural tudie,
ocial i nce Re earch Council; Jean Franco, lit-
erature, olumbia Univer it ; Hugo Friihling, law
and philo ophy, Vicariate of olidarity ( antiago);
Cecilia alli, 0 iology, ao Paulo; Albert O.
Hir hman, conomi ,In titute for dvanced tudy
(Princeton, ew Jer e ); Heloi a Buarque de Hol-
landa, literature and communication, Federal ni-
ver it of Rio de Janeiro; Javier Martinez, ociology,
Latin American Faculty of the ocial cience
(FLA 0), antiago; Emilio Mignone, lawyer, Center
for Legal and ocial tudie (CEL), Bueno Aire;
Gi II Munizaga, ommunication, Center of ul-
tural and Arti tic Expre ion and Re earch
(CE E A), antiago; Guillermo O'Donnell, politi al
cience, Brazilian nter for Analy i and Planning
(CEBRAP), ao Paulo, and Kellogg In titute for In-
ternational tudie, niver ity of otre Dame;
arina Perelli, Center for I nformation and the tud
of Urugua (CIE ), Montevideo; Juan Rial, enter
for Information and the tudy of Uruguay (CIE ),
Montevideo; oHa alamovich, Chri tian Churche '
Foundation for ocial Aid (FA IC), antiago; Jorge
Edgardo apia, Univer ity Re earch In titute of Rio
de Janeiro (IUPERJ); Beatriz arlo, literature, a-
tional Univer ity of Bueno Aire; and Lui a Valen-
zuela, noveli t, ew York City.
ment (Fagen 19 6). orne of the central i ue di-
cu ed in connection with each of the e problem and
the direction for further re earch ugge ted by the
project are pre ented blow.
T he nature of political fear
The unprecedented level of per onal in ecurity
that re ulted from tate iolence in Argentina after
the 1976 militar coup provided the initial e idence
for tudying thi problem. Re earch conducted in
Argentina in 1979, when reports of abduction , tor-
ture, and di appearance b the Argentine ecurity
force had already created an international candal,
indicated that individual who in the pa t might have
oppo ed uch practice or conte ted the gov-
ernment' official ver ion of e en howed little
concern (O'Donnell & alli 1979). The re earcher
hypothe ized that the e attitude re ulted from the
generalized fear and confu ion created by the brutal-
ity of the military' campaign again t alleged ter-
rori ts. Although guerrilla violence and death quad
retribution in the immediately preceding p riod had
predi p ed much of the population to accept the
military takeover, official iolence oon upplanted
terrori t iolence. A Juan orradi (19 5) wrote:
"The arbitrarine of ecurit procedure, the tale of
di appearance , the fear that an one could be picked
up, the rumor in one' neighborhood or in the office
that omeone' relative had vani hed or been tortured
oon made denial, rationalization, and mere elf-
regard the out tanding ocial norm ."
Much evidence ugge ts that governments at 0 de-
veloped trategie for pre enting tate t rror to the
public. Corradi (19 3), for example, di cu ed the
modifi ation in public di cour e that "amounted to a
reca ting of collective memor ." he e included an
over implified dichotomy between friend and foe,
who could be overt and covert, actual or potential.
According to the rhetoric of the Argentine regime,
the pre ent table order wa immen ely preferable to
the immediate chaotic pa t, but could be maintained
only through totalloyalt to the regime and igilance
again t its en ernie . Official di cour e al 0 made a
puriou di tinction b tween "violence" and "order."
Thi rhetorical oppo ition rna ked a real connection
b tween tate violence and the fal e "order" it en-
ured, which had b en gained through the uppre-
ion of legitimate conflict and di ent.
Pre cen or hip wa another important mech-
ani m in the ideological manipulation which pro ided
a rationale for repre ion. In Brazil, for example,
elective go ernment cen or hip reinforced the no-
tion that citizen hould empower regime to wage
"total," "global," "permanent," and "apocalyptic" war
again t their internal enemie, ince the media
portrayed a harmoniou country who e path to na-
VOL ME 40, MBER I
tional de elopment wa pre umabl guaranteed by I n Chile, alamovich and Lira (19 5) found that
government vigilance again t di enter. Thi image the ubjective experience of fear mirrored ocial and
wa achie ed by allowing new torie which empha- political factor . In clinical work with the ictim of
ized the overnment' ucce ful campaign again t direct repre ion, they noted a variet of p chologi-
urban guerrilla while imultaneou Iy uppre ing cal ymptom which reflected the traumatic effect of
tho e about the activitie of the ecurity apparatu , torture; of the di appearance or violent death of a
particularly the torture of political u pects and pri - family member; of arbitrary detention; of intimida-
oner . Critici m of the government' economic and tion; and of exile or 10 of employment. While
ocial policie were al 0 cen ored, but laudatory initiall private reaction , the e ymptom were pre -
torie were permitted, creating the impre ion that ent in 0 many people that they ignificantly affected
trong "national ecurity" mea ure had in fact pro- collective behavior.
vided the condition for economic growth and devel-
opment (Da in 19 2).
There were variation in the e pattern of official
Variations in repressive practices
di cour e and in cen or hip practice , but all the re- The comparative tudie of the depth and inten ity
gime depended to orne degree on a elf- of fear in the four countrie rai ed the larger que tion
pre entation which ju tified the abrogration of civil of imilaritie and difference in the policie and
libertie for national ecurit purpo e . According to practice of repre ion. While each militar regime
Corradi (19 3), the overall effect wa "to paralyze the ingled out worker and oppo ition political group,
critical will of the ubjects." ignificant ector of the both violent and nonviolent, a targe for repre ion,
population were thu convinced that it wa nece ary each al 0 depended on a web of "national ecurity"
to upend indi idual right and di mantle civic in- legi lation to complement tate violence. A Patricia
titution in order to create political tability. Both Fagen ob erved (19 6), the e law in tituted tema-
rhetorically and in practice, the e regime turned tic information control; they marginalized in titution
peace into wartime, put civilian under military for legal and ocial a i tance, uch a the court ; the
juri diction, and tran formed ociety into a permitted purge of the regime' opponents from
battleground again t " ubver ion." In thi proce , influential po ition ; and they in titutionalized re-
in titution uch a labor union, political partie, and triction on labor union, tudent organization , and
chool 10 t their traditional function a mediator political partie .
between individual and the tate, lea ing civilian onethele ,there were ub tantial difference in
population ulnerable to the abu e of power prac- the level of repre ion. Con iderably more political
ticed with virtual impunity by the agents of repre ion. activity wa permitted in Brazil, for example, than in
Government effort to rationalize or rna k repre - Chile, yet both ituation had more "protected pace"
ion, however, did not alway di tract people from the for di enter than wa true in Argentina or Urugua ,
fear they felt. On the contrary, fear of tate terror wa where there were more direct victim of repre ion
perva ive and affected many a pects of daily life, a relative to the general population. Political practice
te timonie , per onal interview , and life hi torie ex- and in titution affected the pattern of repre ion in
amined in the cour e of the project revealed. For each country, but could al 0 operate to limit repre ion.
example, O'Donnell and alli (1979) and O'Donnell Thi wa true of the Church and of religiou mo e-
(1983) noted a erie of con equence in Argentina: ment , union , partie , urban and rural "gra root"
depoliticization; a ignificant reduction of a oci- a ociation, and prof~ ional organization in Brazil
ational acti itie ; the denial of evidence regarding (Alve 1981- 2; 19 5; Fagen 19 3). In Chile, the
human right abu e ; and the adoption of aggre ive Church and the medical and legal profe ion have
economic trategie. Political fear appeared to gener- played a major role in defending human right
ate inten e privatization but al 0 cruelty in everyday (Friihling 1985), while the tudent movement wa a
life that reflected the attitude and practice of au- focal point of re i tance in Uruguay (Perelli 1985). It
thoritariani m exerci ed by the tate. Daily activitie wa concluded that the inten ity of the repre ion
were carried out in a climate of intimidation created did not predetermine the degree of re i tance that
by the ecrecy and my tery which hrouded the con- could emerge. In Chile, for example, major in titu-
duct of government bu ine and, in particular, by the tion engaged in prolonged and active oppo ition to
ilence urrounding the activitie of the ecurity ap- the military regime, de pite con tant and relativel
paratu . har h repre ion (Fagen 1986).

MARCH 1986 9
The stages of fear
In tracing the fear experience a it wa haped by
the dynamic of repre ion and re i tance through
the variou tage of the military regime , much di -
cu ion centered on the 10 of or "exit from" fear
(Garret6n 1983). A Corradi (1983) po ed the prob-
lem: "Who wa in ulated from re ocialization and in-
timidation? What proce e led ome to conquer fear?
What type of re i tance developed?"
The project re earch made clear that form of re-
i tance exi ted throughout the period of military
rule. Even when citizen ought afety by retreating to
the private phere of family and friend and avoiding
any con trover ial activitie, they re ponded en-
thu ia tically to coded expre ion of di ent em-
bedded in vanguard poetry, theater, popular mu ic,
and form of humor (Hollanda 1985; Munizaga
19 5). Although cen or hip forced arti ts to u e indi-
rect or allegorical form ,literature and other kind of
art work provided an arena for political debate when
other in titutional channel for the expre ion of di -
ent, uch a political partie, the Congre , the
courts, the univer itie , and the new media were
clo ed down or controlled ( arlo 1985; Altamirano
1985; Oa in 1985).
Overt form of oppo ition al 0 developed. The
main protagoni ts of the e movements were clergy,
law er ,journali t , teacher, and other profe ional
oppo ed to repre ion on humanitarian and civic
ground. In Argentina and Uruguay, in particular,
where the e individual had little in titutional protec-
tion, they them elve became the victim of repre -
ion. Over time, however, their work united people
around pecifically nonpolitical objective, uch a
obtaining information about political u pects who
had di appeared. Often, when the re 'ulting organi-
zation became focal points for many individual who
aw no other outlet for political activitie , human
right or related legal work developed into political
organizing and other prote t activitie (Fagen 1986).
More explicitly political oppo ition to the repre i e
regime emerged later, particularly in Brazilian labor
union (Alve 1981-82; 1985) and in the popular
protest movement in Chile (Martinez 1985).
The different role of human right group in each
of the four countrie i particularly triking. In Chile,
the e group formed quickly and remained impor-
tant; in Brazil, they developed more lowly but had a
key role in the tran ition to civilian rule, e pecially
after 1978. In Argentina, the human righ group
attracted ignificant upport only in the final month
of the military regime, in part becau e the early ac-
10
ttVI t had them elve become victim of crime by
ecurity force. In Uruguay, finally, human righ
group were not an important factor, ince mo t of
the civilian oppo ition, which wa clande tine, wa
ba ed in traditional political partie (Fagen 1986).
There icon iderate debate about whether the ero-
ion of fear and the concomitant emergence of re i -
tance were the key factor in the tran ition to civilian
rule that have occurred in Argentina, Brazil, and
Uruguay. In the Argentine ca e, the military' di-
a trou conduct of the mid-1982 Falkland IMalvina
war clearly precipitated the regime' collap e, and in
all three ca e , economic policie promulgated by the
military were un ucce ful. The e failure gave the
civil oppo ition, particularly economic elite which
had formerly upported the regime , con iderable
clout in pre ing for the end of military rule.
onethele ,in Brazil and Uruguay, e pecially, the
military, even though they were forced to relinqui h
power, al 0 maintained at lea t partial control of
negotiation with oppo ition force. One outcome of
thi ituation i that both in Brazil and in Uruguay-
unlike in Argentina-there have been no trial to
inve tigate human rights abu e committed by ecur-
ity force . That there i no nece ary connection be-
tween the 10 of fear, the ri e of a civilian oppo ition,
and the collap e of the e military regime i made
clear in Chile, where the regime ha not been ou ted,
even though fear ha been widely overcome and there
a trong civilian oppo ition movement (Fagen
1986).
The legacies of political fear
Oi cu ion of the legacie of fear in the e countrie
and the po ibilitie for ocietie without fear gave ri e
to many que tion for further re earch. The political
tran ition to civilian rule in Argentina, Brazil, and
Uruguay, for example, have provided new informa-
tion on the political i ue rai ed by efforts to di man-
tle the tate' repre ive apparatu e . In fact, the trial
of former Argentine junta member had begun ju t
week before the Bueno Aire conference wa con-
vened, providing a dramatic context for the di cu -
ion of the extent to which political terror wa u ed a
an in trument of tate policy during the period of
military rule, and to what degree human rights abu e
would be puni hed. Al 0 con idered were the mech-
ani m that would be u ed to re-e tabli h civillibertie
and the way in which new in titution would be
created or already exi ting tructure would be
adapted to check the power of the military and the
intelligence ervice.
VOLUME 40, N MBER 1
 In more general term, que tion were rai ed about
whether the political pa ivity that had been engen-
dered by fear would per i t; what kind of leader hip
and party tructure would emerge; and how trade
union and other outlawed or debilitated in titution
would re ume functioning. It wa clear that the di -
cu ion of politically-induced fear would be
upplanted by a di cu ion about the nature of demo-
cratic practice , not only on the tate and political
regime level but al 0 a they operate on the many
level of ocial and political relation .
The Culture of Fear project faced everal pecial
challenge. For one, the fact that 0 many of the
re earcher involved were them elve victim or
fir t-hand witne e of repres ion meant that the ex-
periential dimen ion and the human factor were
given pecial weight in the analy e . While the par-
ticipants agreed this wa unavoidable, and fortunately
0, their per onal involvement in the ubject al 0
meant that the generalization and ab traction of indi-
vidual experience fundamental to ocial cience in-
ve tigation was difficult. Commanding the broad and
multifaceted literature relevant to the project, which
included material from ocial and political theory,
psychology, and a growing body of human rights
documentation, as well a finding a common ground
in the variety of di cour e utilized by the different
di cipline , wa an e pecially demanding ta k. Finally,
the very concept of "the culture of fear" wa a prob-
lematic category, ince the understanding of fear as a
perva ive and dynamic ocial proce in the e recent
military regime i till in its initial tage.
Nonethele , the project did collect valuable new data
on the e phenomena in the four countrie tudied. It
added to the under tanding of linkage between the
private and public phere in the e countrie and it
ugge ted new connection between the well-known
pha e of the military regime and the type of
politically-induced fear pecific to each pha e. The
project al 0 ynthe ized approache from variou di-
cipline and created a conceptual convergence
around the e particular fear experience . The per-
pective developed will be of continued u efulne a
more information about these fear experience
emerge in the newly-restored civilian regime. 0
References
Altamirano, Carlo. "Cultura de izquierda, di idencia intelectual y
proce 0 autoritario: la experiencia argentina" ["Culture of the
Left, Intellectual Di idence, and the Authoritarian Proce :
The Argentine Experience"). Paper presented at "The Culture
of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
MARCH 1986
Alve , Maria Helena Moreira." ra root Organizations, Trade
nion and the Challenge to the Controlled A~rtura in BraziL"
Paper pre entedat"TheCultureofFear" eminar ,1981-1982.
- -. "Culture of Fear, Culture of Re i tance: The ew Labor
Movement in BraziL" Paper presented at "The Culture of Fear"
conference, Buenos Aire , 19 5.
Cardoso, Fernando Henrique. "The Authoritarian Regime at the
Cro road: The Case of Brazil." Paper pre ented at a confer-
ence on" he Pro pect of Democratization in the outhern
Cone," Yale niver ity, 19 2.
Collier, David, editor. Tht tw Authoritarianism in Latin Amtrica.
Princeton Univer ity Pre ,1979. publication of the Joint
Committee on Latin American tudie.
Corradi, Juan. "The Cult of Fear." Paper pre ented at "The
Culture of Fear" eminar, 19 1-19 2.
- -. "The Culture of Fear in Civil ociety." Report ubmitted
to the Social Science Re earch Council, 15 December 19 3.
- -. "Toward a Society Without Fear." Paper pre ented at
"The Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Das in, Joan: "Pre Censorship and the Military tate in Brazil,"
in Prt Control ArOUtld tht World, Jane Curry and Joan Da in,
editor. New York: Praeger Pre , 1982, page 149-186. Pre-
ented at "The Culture of Fear" eminar, 1981-1982.
_ _ . "Memoir of the Generation of '68: A Case tudy of Fear
and the Political Text in BraziL" Paper pre ented at "The
Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Fagen, Patricia Wei . "The Organized Agent of Fear. orne
otes and Comparison ." Paper pre ented at "The Culture of
Fear" eminar, 19 1-1982.
_ _ . " ummary of Di cus ion on the Role of the Agents of
Fear." Report ubmitted to the ocial Science Re earch Council,
15 December 1983.
_ _ . "Repre ion in Four Countrie : Method and tage."
Paper presented at "The Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno
Aire , 1985.
_ _ . "Introduction to Fear eminar Volume." Draft, 1986.
Franco, Jean. "The Behaviori tic Body: The cientific Method of
Fear." Paper pre ented at "The Culture of Fear" seminar,
1981-82.
_ _ . "Gender, Death, and Re i tance: Facing the Ethical Vac-
uum." Paper presented at "The Culture of Fear" conference,
Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Friihling, Hugo E. "Limitando la accion coerciva del estado: La
e trategia legal de defensa de 10 derecho humano en Chile"
["Limiting the Coercive Action of the tate: The Legal trategy
for the Defen e of Human Right in Chile"). Paper pre ented at
"The Culture of Fear" eminars, 1981-82.
_ _ . "Reproduccion y socializacion de nuCJeo de re i tencia: La
experiencia de La Vicaria de la Solidaridad en Chile" ["Repro-
duction and Socialization of Nuclei of Re i tance: The Experi-
ence of the Vicariate of Solidarity in Chile"). Paper presented
at "The Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 1985.
Garreton, Manuel Antonio. "Respuesta al miedo y efecto de este
en la tran icion" ["Response to Fear and Its Effect in the
Tran ition"). Report ubmitted to the Social Science Re earch
Council, 15 December 1985.
- - . "Los regimenes militares del Cono Sur y la cultura del
miedo" ["The Military Regimes of the Southern Cone and the
Culture of Fear"). Pre entation at "The Culture of Fear" con-
ference, Bueno Aire, 1985.
Hollanda, Heloi a Buarque de. "Brasil, 1964-1978: Idas e vinda
11
 da cultura de re i tencia." ["Brazil, 1964-1978: Coming and
Going of the Culture of R i tance"]. Paper pre ented at "The
Culture of Fear" confere~ce, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Martinez, Javier. "Miedo al e tado, miedo ala sociedad: obre las
'prote ta 'opo itora en Chile y el problema del miedo" ["Fear
of the tate, Fear of Society: Regarding the Oppo ition 'Protest'
in Chile and the Problem of Fear"]. Paper pre ented at "The
Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Munizaga, i elle. "Miedo y propaganda en el regimen au-
toritario chileno" ["Fear and Propaganda in the Chilean Au-
thoritarian Regime"]. Paper prepared for "The Culture of Fear"
conferen e, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Mignone, Emilio Fermin. " 1as alia de miedo: formas deju ticia y
compensacion. EI ca 0 argentino en per pectiva com parada"
["Beyond Fear: Form of Ju tice and Compensation. The
Argentine Ca e in Comparative Per pective"]. Paper pre ented
at "The Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
O'Donnell, Guillermo. Modtrniz.ation a11d BUTtaUcTatic-
Authoritarianism. tudit i11 outh Awnca11 Politics. Berkeley:
Univer ity of California Pre ,1973.
O'Donnell, Guillermo, and Cecilia Galli. "Adaptations to ial
Change at the 1icro Level." Report to the Social ience Re-
earch Council, 1979.
- - . "La co cha del miedo" ["The Harve t of Fear"]. Ntxo
(Mexico City): 6:6, January 19 3.
- - . "Regimene politico y produccion de miedo" ["Political
Access to Research Sites Abroad
by Elinor Barber, in collaboration with Gretchen Gayle Ellsworth·
CHOL R FROM THE UNITED TATE have long had
the freedom to pur ue their re earch intere ts in re-
gion of the world that were either the colonie of
We tern nation or economically and politically ub-
ervient to the We t. However, ince World War II,
the ituation ha changed dramatically. Many of the
new nation do not allow foreign cholar unre-
tricted acce to vi it and pur ue their tudie. The
po twar emergence of the oviet Union and the
United tate a antagoni tic uperpower ha com-
plicated the i ue further. Among the other barrier
that have been erected worldwide are the withholding
of vi a , clo e crutiny of propo ed projects, and the
negotiation of reciprocal flow of enior cholar and
tudents.
• Elinor Barber, a hi torian, i director of research at the In ti-
tute of International Education (New York). Gretchen Gayle
Ell worth i deputy director, Directorate of International Activi-
tie, The mithsonian In titution. he coordinated the planning
for the conference.
12
Regime and the Production of Fear"]. Commentary at "The
Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 1985.
Perelli, Carina. "La logica del miedo: Un nucleo de re i tencia
e tudiantil en eI Uruguay de 10 ochenta. De la fu ion a la
fi ion" ["The Logic of Fear: A Nucleu of tudent Re i tance in
ruguay of the 19 Os"]. Paper pre ented at "The Culture of
Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
Rial, Juan. "Lo limite del terror controlado: Lo hacedore y
defensore del miedo en el Uruguay" ["The Limits of Con-
trolled Terror: The Maker and Defender of Fear in
ruguay"]. Paper pre ented at "The Culture of Fear" confer-
ence, Buenos ire, 19 5.
alamovich, oria, and Elizabeth Lira. "P icologia del miedo en la
ituacione de repre ion politica" ["The P ychology of Fear in
ituation of Political Repre ion"]. Paper pre ented at "The
Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
apia, Jorge Edgardo. "La produccion de e pacio imbOlicos de
re i tancia: EI ca 0 de Madre de la Plaza de Mayo y familiare
de de aparecido y detenido politico" ["The Production of
ymbolic pace of Re i tance: The Ca e of the Mother of the
Plaza de 1ayo and the Familie of the Disappeared and Politi-
cal Detainee "]. Paper pre ented at "The Culture of Fear" con-
ference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
arlo, Beatriz. "E trategia de la imaginacion literaria"
[" trategie of Literary Imagination"]. Paper pre ented at "The
Culture of Fear" conference, Bueno Aire, 19 5.
A report on a conference
sponsored by the Council and
the Smithsonian Institution
The ju tification for the e barrier are not prima
facie acceptable to tho e who are affected by them, but
both natural and ocial cienti ts in the United tate
have, for the mo t part, come to recognize that ho t
countrie may have valid rea on for impo ing con-
traints on their tudie. On the other hand, the de-
velopment of new knowledge i 0 important that ex-
ten ive efforts mu t be made to counteract countrie '
re triction of acce imply a an exertion of power or
becau e it eem in their elf-intere t, narrowly con-
trued, to do o. Thi al 0 hold true for We tern
countrie , including the United tate. It may be
ea ier to accept carefully-calibrated reciprocitie ( uch
a tho e negotiated by the International Re earch &
Exchange Board for US- U SR exchange ) than to
accept the con traints impo ed by Third World
countrie who e cholar and tudent do not en-
counter comparable re triction in the United tate.
I n order to explore an array of i ue encap ulated
by the horthand term "research acce ,tt a conference
VOL ME 40, MBER 1
with thi title wa held in Wa hington, D.C. on
ovember 18-19, 1985, co pon ored by the Council
and the mith on ian In titution. The term "re earch
acce "i u ed widely to connote how freely and in
what way re earcher of one country can tudy the
topic of their choice in another country. It wa to
under tand better the "acce problem"-the limita-
tion or denial of re earch acce s-and the circum-
tance in which it i more and Ie likely to occur-
that the mith onian conference wa convened. The
conference con idered primarily i ue of re earch
acce in relation to U. . cholar. The participant
are Ii ted in the adjacent box.
Participants
The participant in the conference included chol-
ar in the ocial and natural cience who have done
exten ive re earch abroad, e pecially in Third World
countrie . The e cholar are ba ed in univer itie ,
mu eum , or other re earch e tabli hments. taff
from organization concerned with international
cholarly relation ,area tudie, and field tudie al 0
participated.
Among the fir t group, there were eight cholar
(four ocial cienti ts and four natural cienti ts) who
pre ented ca e tudie ba ed on their own and their
colleague ' experience . The e ca e tudie con ti-
tuted the ba i from which new per pective on the
i ue of re earch acce could be haped. The cov-
ered re earch in the humanitie , archeology, botany,
zoology, geology, hi tory, and other ocial cience.
Bolivia, Brazil, India, Malay ia, Morocco, Mozam-
bique, epal, ri Lanka, and Venezuela were among
the pecific countrie who e policie and procedure
were di cu ed.
Complexity of the problem
The paper and the di cu ion produced in ights
well beyond the conference organizer' earlier con-
ceptualization of the problem of acce in term of the
mutual rights and obligation of re earcher and
ubjects (i.e., countrie ). Through di cu ion, factor
uch a ource of funding and pon or hip, type of
re earch, topic and field of tudy, and charac-
teri tic of the re earcher them elve were di cov-
ered to be very complex.
The di cu ion of the e factor included the fol- com pari on of acce granted to ocial and natural
lowing points. With regard to pon or hip, there wa
general agreement that Department of Defen e up- corded to di cipline within the ocial cience. In the
port of over ea re earch would damage everely the natural cience, projects are large- cale and long-
likelihood of obtaining acce s. In ofar a topic are term, and cultural and political i ue are Ie im-
MARCH 1986
Participants in Council-Smithsonian
Conference on Research Access
Robert McC. Adam, The mith on ian In titution,
cochair
Kenneth Prewitt, The Rockefeller Foundation,
cochair
Benedict R. Ander on, Cornell Univer ity
Peter haw A hton, Harvard Univer ity
Bernard Barber, Columbia Univer ity
Elinor Barber, In titute of International Education
( ew York)
Richard H . Ben on, The mith onian In titution
Paul R. Bra ,U niver ity of Wa hington
Mary Brown Bullock, Committee on cholarly Com-
munication with the People' Republic of China
(Wa hington, D.C.)
David Challinor, The mith onian In titution
William K. Cumming, ational cience Foundation
Gretchen ayle Ell worth, The mith onian In titu-
tion
Robert A. Fernea, Univer ity of Texa
Virginia Feur - agnon, ocial cience Re earch
Council, taff
John D. Gerhart, Ford Foundation
Irving Loui Horowitz, Rutger Univer ity
Allen F. 1 aacman, Univer ity of Minne ota
Allen H . Ka of, International Re earch & Exchange
Board ( ew York)
Herbert . Klein, Columbia Univer ity
Richard D. Lambert, Univer ity of Penn ylvania
Betty J. Megger ,The mith onian In titution
Rhoad Murphey, Univer ity of Michigan
A hi andy, Centre for the tudy of Developing
ocietie ( ew Delhi)
John Paul, U .. Department of Education
Ca andra A. Pyle, Council for International Ex-
change of cholar (Wa hington, D.C.)
John E. Reinhardt, The mith onian In titution
Walter Ro enblith, ational Academy of cience
Robert Ro enzweig, A ociation of American Univer-
itie (Wa hington, D.C.)
u anne H. Rudolph, Univer ity of Chicago
FrederiC E. Wakeman, Jr., Univer ity of California,
Berkeley
Chri ten M. Wemmer, The mith onian In titution
concerned, a variety of i ue developed around
cienti ts and perceived difference in acce ac-
13
 mediate than they are in the ocial cience. Beyond
thi , there i great variation within the ocial cience.
Critical tudie and tudie of" trategic" topic often
are refu ed, while re earch that enhance a en e of a
national pa t or that ha a practical impact i likely to
be welcome. Thus, historian generally have far Ie
trouble in obtaining acce in Latin America than do
other ocial cienti ts. 0 agreement prevailed a to
whether the natural or the ocial cience are likely to
be defined a more threatening to national intere ts,
a often it i not easy to relate the re olution of acce
reque t directly to propo ed topic.
The conferee found that the problem of acce s i
much more complex than wa implied previou lyand
generalization are difficult to make. The problem i
Ie amenable to the removal of pecific ob tacle , or
tractable by the exchange of pecific rewards and
threats. Indeed, it is all too ea y to come to the im-
practical conclu ion that every situation i different,
depending entirely upon which particular cholar i
involved in which particular country. Yet orne gen-
eral pattern do emerge, ugge ting kind of interac-
tions and mea ure that may improve the receptive-
ne of other countrie to U .. re earcher .
The development model
Perhap the mo t important in ight that the con-
ference yielded i that, in many Third World coun-
trie , re earch by American cholars i encouraged
only if it contribute in orne way to the nation' de-
velopment. uch contribution a ume many dif-
ferent form . Among them are re earch on problem
that the government define a e ential for the prac-
tical improvement of condition of life or for the
generation of a en e of cultural-hi torical identity.
Another i the training of local re earcher in field
uch a archeology, fore try, and the ocial cience.
In almo t all developing countries, vi iting researchers
eeking to combine re earch and development aim
mu t adju t their priori tie according to the priori tie
of the ho t-country government or the re earch
community. It al 0 require orne tran fer of re-
ource (training, collaborative arrangements) to the
indigenou lOre ident re earcher ." One way in which
American re earcher can contribute to the develop-
ment of cience in Third World countrie i to draw
their cienti t into new network . Thi can be done
by exchanging publication , arranging visiting ap-
pointments, and inviting Third World cienti ts to
participate in international profe ional meeting.
U.S. cholars may have to acrifice orne of the indi-
14
viduali m they prize in order to encourage com-
plementary and ub tantive contribution .
Reciprocities
During the conference, it became clear that dif-
ferent balance of reciprocity help to facilitate re-
earch aero national boundarie . Indeed, in de el-
oping relation hip between orne countrie it may be
nece ary to di regard formal reciprocity altogether.
The United State and the oviet Union maintain
trict reciprocity in the exchange of cholar, and
re triction or rejection impo ed by one ide meet
with appropriate retaliation on the part of the other.
However, cholarly relation between the United
tate and China are quite different. A one partici-
pant· noted, cholarly relation with China eem to be
at the tage where reciprocity mu t virtually be et
a ide while the relation hip i developed. In between
the e extreme are our relation hip with countrie
that have more and Ie power vi -a-vis the United
tate. In the ca e of India, it i at lea t arguable that
the United tate hould in i t on a greater degree of
reciprocity. U .. reciprocity with countrie that have
weaker cientific communitie often re emble the
development model de cribed above, where re earch
acce i exchanged for the training of re earcher
and for other re earch-related re ouree .
While it i not ea y to enforce formal reciprocity
without governmental backing, the conferee agreed
that governmental involvement in cholarly relation
i be t avoided. However, more informal reciprocity
can be developed on a cholar-to- cholar ba i and
reinforced through the upport of governmental aid
agencie or private foundation. Reciprocity, then,
mu t be defined in term of the re pective trength
of tho e carrying on re earch over ea and tho e
granting acce .
The personal factor
A recurrent theme of the conference was the im-
portance of per onal relation hip in facilitating ac-
ce to over ea re earch ite. Good per onal re-
lation hips are mo t likely to emerge over a long pe-
riod of time. In thi re pect, the well-funded long-
term project more often a ociated with the natural
cienee are a con iderable advantage, but in the 0-
cial cience, the tru t that is ba ed on long-term in-
teraction al 0 can be developed. The per onal factor
extend beyond mere familiarity to such topic a a
foreign re earcher' concern for the intere ts of local
counterparts. This includes an appreciation of both
VOLUME 40, NUMBER 1
the difficultie under which they work and the chol-
arly contribution that they have made. The devel-
opment of effective per onal relation hip with Latin
American archeologi ts, for example, ha depended
upon U.. cholar ' willingne to under tand the
theoretical per pective of their colleague while in-
i ting on the adoption of uniform re earch method .
The participants in the conference noted that an
empha i on per onal relation hip i not entirely
congenial to academic in the United tate. One rea-
on for thi i the fear that departure from univer-
ali m in cience may blur di tinction between high-
and Ie er-quality work. Thi problem eem to be
e pecially acute in the ocial cience . Another rea on
i the concern that relation hip built on per onal tie
may di appear along with tho e who create them.
Empha i on the per onal factor tend to upport the
a umption that en itive, ethical, con iderate indi-
vidual will make all the difference, thu ob curing
the importance of y tematic problem (de cribed
below). Yet all the participant agreed that although
per onal factor have a certain fragility, their im-
portance in fo tering the kind of tru t that come with
continuou and con iderate interaction cannot be
gain aid.
Politics and policy
Politic and policy (foreign policy or economic pol-
ic ) are readily evident and ea ily acknowledged a
affecting the movement of re earcher between the
United tate and the oviet Union or Japan. It
eemed, however, that the conferee had greater dif-
ficulty accepting the influence of politic on their
acce to re earch ite in Third World countrie . The
ca e tudie pre ented by everal of the participants
offered a wide range of example . Political ympathy
with the travail and goal of a newly-e tabli hed re-
gime might help re earcher to accept re triction
impo ed on their re earch. Contrariwi e, political
antagoni m to an exi ting regime may bring about the
expul ion of outspoken re earcher. Further, the
elf-cen or hip often dictated by the unpredictable
re pon e of a Third World government to re earch
propo al directly challenge many American chol-
ar 'belief that a democratic country hould not limit
the acce of U.S. re earcher when their own cholar
may tudyany ubject they wi h in the United tate.
There wa orne di cu ion of the widely-held belief
that the powerful both re i t being tudied and are
better able to avoid being the subjects of re earch. In
thi context, it wa noted that it may be more difficult
to obtain re earch acce in countrie with trong ci-
MARCH 1986
entific communitie than in countrie with weak one .
he main rea on i that cholar in countrie where
the cience are more highl developed are able,
through peer review, to di mi the re earch propo -
al of orne American cholar a being of poor qual-
ity. The fact that knowledge i power wa tre ed at
everal points during the conference, u ually in ref-
erence to acce a politically or economically
threatening. Knowledge i power also in that it per-
mi control of the nature and quality of re earch
carried out in one' country.
There wa di cu ion aloof the perception by
orne re earcher that they are harra ed by a gov-
ernment' incon i tent and arbitrary treatment. It wa
pointed out that ambiguity, delay, capriciou ne ,and
even deception in handling re earch permi ion may
all be part of a con ciou policy-a omewhat ho tile
policy. However, it wa noted that, in orne countrie ,
official policy and unofficial practice may diverge,
and where official policy i more re trictive than un-
official practice, knowledgeable U. . re earcher are
able to exploit thi divergence.
There wa orne di cu ion a to whether countrie
who e policie are explicitly or implicitly ho tile
toward American re earcher hould have imilar
policie directed again t their re earcher in the
United tate. The conferee agreed that the U ..
government hould be brought into the picture only
a ala t re ort. A more effective approach would be to
accept the acce i ue a embedded in a political
proce and to build con en u favorable to acce :
"earning righ ," a it were. Thi may be difficult.
There are indication that nationali t, authoritarian
bureaucracie are likely to make thing wor e for U. .
re earcher before they get better. While orne of the
participants felt that the e bureaucracie are creating
unrea on able academic i olationi m, other felt that
the policie are de igned to protect the rea on able
need of vulnerable new nation .
Systemic problems
The participants in the conference tried to di tin-
gui h between acce problem rectifiable through
the correct actions of individual re earcher and tho e
that are beyond the control of individual . Among the
latter are funding tructure that preclude long-term
projects, even though long-term projec help to en-
courage olid relation hip with re ident cholar and
provide them with orne of the amenities that Ameri-
can re earcher take for granted. More appropriate
funding tructure would facilitate the training of
individual from developing countrie a an inve t-
15
ment to\ ard valuable longer-term cooperation. review that virtually obviate the i ue of acce . The
Other factor include political ten ion between p ible expan ion of thi mechani m wa ugge ted.
countrie that inevitably afC ct relation hip among Another organizational approach i embodied in
the over ea re earch center. In orne ca e , the e
cienti t -e pecially political cienti t , who tend to
be identified with government policie. The di- center help directly in obtaining acce . In other,
mini hing ecurit of faculty-e p cially nontenured they ad vi e American cholar on the be t way to
facult -in U. . univer itie make it very difficult toobtain permi ion to carryon their work. It wa ug-
acrifice individual advantage in favor of developingge ted that the e center al 0 might expand their activ-
aluable "collaborative" relation hip with cholar itie . The operation of the International Council of
o er ea. he priori tie of cientific di cipline in the ientific Union al 0 wa de cribed, with empha i
United tate al 0 po e a type of ob tacle: favoring on the pecial advantage of making bilateral ar-
theoretical over applied cience run counter to the rangemen in the context of a multilateral tructure.
prioritie of developing countrie . Another ob tacle i Inno ation in the U .. in titutional environment
the cata trophic decline in international communica- al 0 might induce cholarly communitie in develop-
tion that ha re ulted from the international debt ing countrie to cooperate. One po ibility i the e -
problem. The con en u wa that uch y temic tabli hment of an organization to deal with a multi-
problem cannot be olved b individual; they mu t plicity of activitie in the field of international educa-
be addre ed by international in titution and offi ialtion (language learning, graduate training program ,
in 01 ed in the allocation of re ource . exchange, re earch). Thi organization could be
modeled after the ational cience Foundation and
might include in its function a concern with re earch
Organizational approaches
acce .
It wa not the mandate of the conference to devi e Adapting In titutional Review Board to interna-
olution to the problem of re earch acce ,but rather tional re earch might help to re olve acce i ue
to bring new per pective to the problem. everthe- related to ethical problem . The e board pre ently
Ie , orne organizational approache were di cu ed. review the ethic of all dome tic re earch that involve
It wa pointed out that it i difficult to de ign an human ubjects. While the board are ba ed in uni-
in titutional mechani m that con ider matter of ver itie , an international board could be attached to
quality and of acce at the arne time. Example of an agency like the planned ational Endowment for
uch mechani m are the area committee jointl ap- International ludie.
pointed b the Council and the American Council of The participant in the conference eemed to con-
Learned ocietie; the Joint Committee on Latin clude that it i important to maintain a much private
American tudie wa de cribed a illu trative. and academic control over international re earch a
he e committee generall include foreign cholar, po ible, ince the expan ion of the domain of the
who participate in reviewing projects and awarding tate and the backwa h from international politic are
grant, thu providing the kind of collaborative peer among the principal thr ats to re earch acce. 0

16 VOL ME 40, N MBER 1

 A Note on the Origin of Interdisciplinary"
WARS ARE OTORIO S for having unintended con e-
quence , and there are countle example of their
acceleration of organizational, cientific, technical, 0-
cial, and political change. World War I wa no excep-
tion, and the year immediately after the war brought
many fundamental change in European and Ameri-
can ociety. Here I will refer only to orne remarkable
development in the organization of ocial and
humani tic re earch in the United tate.
Con ider the e con equential events. In 1919, rep-
re entative of a number of cholarly ocietie e tab-
Ii hed the American Council of Learned ocietie (the
immediate timulu wa to participate in the forma-
tion in Europe of the International Union of
Academie). In that arne year, a unique college
\ a founded in New York, the ew chool for ocial
Re earch. In 1923, there wa an organizational
meeting that initiated planning for the 15-volume
Encyclopaedia of the ocial cience (Macmillan,
1930-35), hailed by many a the fir t major col-
laborative project of American cholar hip. At an-
other meeting, that arne year, repre entative of four
major ocial cience a ociation founded the ocial
cience Re earch Council; when it wa incorporated
the next year, three other profe ional a ociation
al 0 participated. From today' per pective, the e
were perhap the mo t momentou five year in the
organizational hi tory of American scholar hip.
he tated purpo e of all of the e in titution and
enterpri e wa to timulate and coordinate re earch,
particularly what i now called "interdi ciplinary" re-
earch. Accordingly, it i reasonable to expect that the
founding documents and the early tatements of
purpo e would include the word "interdi ciplinary"
in order to de cribe thi intention. But thi eem not
to have been the ca e.
I wa timulated to look into the origin and u e of
the word "interdi ciplinary" by an inquiry from
Roberta Frank of the Centre for Medieval tudie of
the Univer ity of Toronto. Her hypothe i wa that
the \ ord had been invented at the Council. I aid in
reply to her letter that I would look into the matter,
but that my gue wa that the word had entered the
language from the phy ical ciences, and could
perhap be located in the early documents of the
ational Academy of cience in Wa hington.
.The author, a sociologist, i the executive associate of the Coun-
cil. He i the editor of the 1 -volume Intnnational Eru:yclofJtdia of
tht OCUli cimct (Macmillan and Free Pre , 1968; 1979).
M ReH 1986
II
by David L. iLIs*
I turned to earch the record and periodical of
both the Council and the American Council of
Learned ocietie. I al 0 earched the long introduc-
tory e ay in Volume 1 of the Encyclopaedia of the
ocial Science. Nowhere could I find "interdi cipli-
nary" in the publication of the 1920 , although it i
clear that the idea underlying it wa everywhere. The
International Union of Academie encouraged "col-
lecti e re earche ,". while the Council a erted in it
Annual Report for 1925 that "ordinarily the Council
will deal only with uch problem a involve two or
more di cipline ."2 Plainly, omeone had to invent the
word "interdi ciplinary." The rationale for my own
earch for the moking gun wa not antiquariani m,
but rather the opportunity it provided to examine
the e early record and to relive vicariou ly the di -
content of the e founding father with the tatu quo
and their efforts to change it by omehow combining
the method and per pective of the different di ci-
pline . Without Roberta Frank' que tion in mind, I
could not have read the e du ty record with uch
fre h eye and with uch an inquiring mind. 3
My inve tigation led me to the reports of the Coun-
cil' ix famou Hanover conference of 1925-30. In
tho e long ago, nonair-conditioned year , the Coun-
cil' board, taff, and committee , along with a orted
gue ts, would meet in Hanover, ew Hamp hire for
everal week in Augu t and eptember to review the
Council' program and the tate of the ocial cience
more broadly.4 At the 1930 Hanover conference, a
tatement about the Council' program wa formally
adopted by the board. It included the a ertion that
"It i probable that the Council' intere t will continue
to run trongly in the direction of the e inter-
I merican Council of Learned ocietie . Bullttin. umber I,
o tober 1920, page 8.
2 ocial ience Re earch Council. "Report for th Year 1925
Made to the American Political Science Association by Charles E.
Merriam, Chairman," Amnican PoLitical cimct Rrornu, February
1926, page 1 6.
3 The recently-revived poet, Robert W. ' ervice,ju tifying par-
ticipation in the Yukon gold ru h during the 1 90, tated:
"Yet it i n't the gold that I'm wanting
much a ju t finding the gold." (1907)
4 For a brief account of the Hanover conference, ee Itrms,
June 19 0, page 3!).-37. ee alo the biography of one of the
Council' principal founder: Barry D. Karl, Charlts E. Mtrriam
and tht tudy of PoLitics. Univer ity of Chicago Pre ,1974, page
134-136.
17
di cipline inquirie ."5 ot quite "interdi ciplinary,"
but clo e. At lea t I had found an an wer to Roberta
Frank' que tion.
An intere ting equel to the tor ugge ts that the
cour e of interdi ciplinary re earch then (a now) did
not alway run moothly. The Univer ity of Chicago
ociologi t Loui Wirth wa commi ioned by the
Council to prepare a report on i hi tory, activitie ,
and policie ; he ubmitted the report in Augu t 1937.
In it, he had rather har h word to ay about the
Council' ambition for interdi ciplinary re earch:
It rna al 0 be aid the Council ha allowed itself to some e tent
to become ob sed at time by catch phra e and logan which
wer not ufficiently critically e amined. Thu there i orne
ju tification for aying thal much of the talk in connection with
ouncil policy, e pecially in the early year, about cooperation
and interdisciplinary re earch turned out to be a delu ion.'
Eleanor C. I bell, the Council' taff a ociate
emeritu ,called the Wirth report to m attention, and
expre ed the view that there mu t be omething
mi ing in the record thu far e tabli hed between
1930 and 1937. he believe that there mu t be un·
publi hed (or even publi hed) u e of the term during
the e year , eI e Loui Wirth would not have empha-
ized the word 0 much in hi 1937 report. 7 In hort,
"much of the talk" mu t have been written down
omewhere.
Unfortunately, the Wirth report wa never pub-
Ii hed, and hi u e of "interdi ciplinary" cannot be a
true "fir t" in the e etymological Olympic. Later that
5 'ocial cien e Re arch Council. ixlh AnnlU1l RtPort, 1929-
1930, page I .
• ocial ience Re earch Council. "Keport on the Hi tory, Ac-
tivitie and Policie of the Social ience Re earch Council." Pre-
par d by Loui Wirlh for the Committee on Review of Council
Policy. Mimeographed. Augu t 1937, page 145.
7 Letter, Eleanor C. I bell to David L. ill, February ~8, 19 6.
18
year, in December 1937, a notice of the availabilit of
Council fellow hip reprinted in the Journal of Educa-
tional ociology referred to "training of an interdi ci-
plinary nature" (page 251). Thi i currently the ear·
lie t publi hed u e of the word "interdi ciplinary" in
the file of Merriam-Web ter. s
In the meantime, Roberta Frank pur ued her re-
earch into the publication of the National Academy
of cience, with little ucce . he did uncover a 1871
new paper report on Alfred Mayer' ucce ful in-
ve tigation into the "hum of the mo quito' wing"
being attributed to the "interfiliation of eemingly
divergent cience" and the advocacy by the ational
cademy of Science in 1909 of "the cro ing of di ci-
pline ." But he reported to the Council, "You're
till the fir t. "9
The earch continue, and reader are invited to
participate in it and end in their re ults. I earched,
but hardly exhau tively. The founding documents of
the ew chool for ocial Re earch have yet to be
examined, a well a tho e of Yale Univer ity' In ti-
tute of Human Relation, founded in 1929 for the
ex pre purpo e of breaking down di clplinary
boundarie . A nearly-forgotten 1927 book edited by
William F. Ogburn and Alexander A. Goldenwei er,
The ocial Science and Their Interrelations, 10 eem not
to u e the word "interdi ciplinary," but what about
the ource u ed by the author and editors? There i
much re earch yet to be done.
A the Ru ian proverb ha it," ot finding a
needle in a hay tack i no proof." 0
Telephone conversation Wilh Frederick C. Mi h, editorial di-
rector, Merriam-Web ter, March II, 19 6.
• Letter, Roberta Frank to David L. ill, February 21, 19 6.
10
80 ton: Houghton Mifflin, 1927.
VOLUME 40, NUMBER 1
 Council Personnel
Staff appointments
Richard H. Mo will join the Cou ncil taff on June
1 t a a taff a ociate with re pon ibility for the
Council' new program in foreign policy tudie . Thi
program, funded by a grant from the Ford Founda-
tion, eek to extend re earch on foreign policy mak-
ing beyond its conventional focu on the executive
agencie of government. Mr. Mo will also erve on
the taff of the Program in International Peace and
ecurity tudie, with particular re pon ibility for re-
earch planning activitie and evaluation.
Mr. Mo ha been a consultant to the Council'
program in International Peace and ecurity tudie
ince June 1984. Before coming to the Council, he
worked a a program a ociate for Oxfam America in
Harare, Zimbabwe; a taff editor of the Carnegie
Endowment for International Peace; and a an a i-
tant on the taff of Senator Adlai E. Steven on III.
He received hi B.A. from Carleton College in 1977
and i currently completing his doctoral di ertation at
Princeton Univer ity' Woodrow Wil on chool.
Hi own re earch intere t have centered on
action-reaction cycle and the role of misperception
in creating and u taining international conflict. Hi
di ertation i a focu ed ca e com pari on of conflict
piral that a e e the relative importance of mi -
perception and other factor, uch a third-party
conflict and dome tic politic , in generating conflict
between the United tate and the developing coun-
trie .
- oby Alice Volkman, an anthropologi t, will join
X the Council taff on June 1 to erve primarily a taff
for the joint committee on outh and outheast A ia.
Her appointment will make it po ible for David L.
zanton, who currently taff the e two committee ,
to devote him elf to three new committee : the Com-
mittee on ew York City; the Joint Committee on the
Comparative Study of Mu lim ocietie; and the Ad-
vi ory Committee on International Program.
M . Volkman i currently oh the taff of Doc-
umentary Educational Re ource (Watertown, Ma a-
chu ett ), where he has done exten ive re earch and
writing on ethnographic films. She received a B.A. in
art hi tory from the U niver ity of Chicago in 1969
and a Ph.D. in anthropology from Cornell Univer ity
in 1980. he ha done archeological field work in
France and in Alaska; she has worked in the publica-
tion and Far Ea tern art departments of the Met-
MARCH 1986
ropolitan Mu eum of Art (New York); and he ha
taught at both Simmon College and Tuft Univer-
ity. he ha conducted field re earch among the To-
raja of outhern Sulawe i (Celebe ), Indone ia. Her
book ba ed on thi field work, Feasts of Honor: Ritual
and Change in the Toraja Highlands, wa publi hed by
the U niver ity of Illinoi Pre in 1985.
Bryce Wood dies at 76
Bryce Wood, an executive a ociate emeritu of the
Council, died of cancer in Wa hington, D.C. onJanu-
ary 23, 1986.
Bryce joined the taff in 1950 and erved con-
tinuou ly until hi retirement in 1973. He had re-
ceived a Ph.D. in political cience from Columbia
Univer ity and had taught at both Columbia and
warth more. He was the author of two major related
book on Latin America: The Making of the Good
Neighbor PoLicy (1961) wa followed a generation later
by The D · mantling of the Good Neighbor PoLicy (1985).
Loui Wolf Goodman, of the Woodrow Wil on In-
ternational Center for cholars in Wa hington (who
had ucceeded Bryce a the Latin American taff
member at the Council), wrote that the publication of
Bryce' la t book on U.S. policy toward Latin Amer-
ica "could not be more timely."
Shortly after he retired from the Council, Bryce
helped to e tabli h and then to ad mini ter the
Emergency Committee for Aid to Latin American
Scholar , which under hi leader hip enabled many
refugee cholar from Chile and other military re-
gime to continue their career in other countrie .
The Council' foreign area committee flouri hed
from the 1950 onward , and Bryce wa particularly
active in two of them: the Joint Committee o~ . Latjn
American Studie (1959- ) and the Joint Committee
on Contemporary China (1959-81). A staff to the
committee on Political Behavior (1949-64) and
Comparative Politic (1954-72), he contributed
enormou ly to the ucce of the e notably productive
committee. Hi article on "Area tudie" in the Inter-
national Encyclopedia of the ocial ciences (1968) re-
main an authoritative tatement.
Fir t and foremo t, Bryce wa a supportive friend
and colleague to a generation of cholars. Lucian W.
Pye, Ma achu etts In titute of Technology, recall
that he wa the "rna terful helping hand of all com-
19
mittee chairmen." Rob rt E. Ward, tan ford Uni- Famou for hi ta te in French re taurants and fine
er it , wrote that he can think of no one who wa wine, Bryce wa al 0 recalled for hi intere t and kill
"more dedicated, more ophi ticated, more effecti e in bird watching and in hiking on everal continent ;
in the taff role than Bryce." Jo eph LaPalombara, for ailing hi boat WhistLer in race on Long 1 land
Yale niver ity, recall that he ,a "a friend, cholar, ound; and for rowing hi DawdLer during three
amiable colleague, mediator extraordinary, and elf- 200-miJe trip in Puget ound.
Ie promoter of the interdi ciplinary cholarly Hi intere t in the ource of the place name on the
enterpri e." David B. Truman, formerly pre ident i land where he lived re ulted in hi writing an Juan
of Mt. Holyoke College, remember "the rich I Land: Coastal PLace Name and Cartographical Nomm-
friend hip that Br ce ga e u all." And abriel A. ciature during hi o-called retirement.
Almond, tan ford ni er it , recall that Bryce Through hi fine intelligence, hi boundle en-
pia ed a ignificant role "in the etting of tandard , ergy, and hi warm and collegial relation hip to com-
in the di covery of cutting edge , in the earch for mittee member , Bryce wa an exemplar of a Council
talent, and in the codification of re earch finding ." taff member.

Recent Council Publications

Content
A ian Amnicans: Growth, Change, and Diver: ity, b
Rob rt W. Gardner, Bryant Robey, and Peter
mith (page 20)
Chine e Rural Droelopmmt: The Great Transfonnalion,
edit d by William L. Pari h (page 21)
The Comparative Evaluation of Longitudinal urvty, b
Robert F. Boruch and Robert W. Pear on (page 21)
A Guide to Univer: ity Based Graduate Training Progrm
in oviet Inlnnational Behavior (page 22)
Relationship and Droelopmml, edited by Willard W.
Hartup and Zick Rubin (page 23)
Asian Americans: Growth, Change, and Diversity,
by Rob rt W. Gardner, Bryant Robey, and Peter
mith. Ba ed upon re earch pon ored by the om-
mittee for Re earch on the 19 0 Cen u . Volume 40,
umber 4 of the Population Builetin, October 19 5. 44
page. Paper, 4.00. Available from the Population
Reference Bureau, 2213 "M" treet, .W., Wa h-
ington, D. . 20037.
he three author of thi bulletin are all member
of the Ea t- We t Population In titute, Ea t- We t
Center (Honolulu). he tabulation on which the
bull tin i ba ed were prepared for a monograph on
ian American pon ored b the ouncil' Com-
mittee for Re earch on the 19 0 Cen u . Me r.
Gardner and mith are coauthor of the monograph,
along with Herbert Barringer, Univer ity of Hawaii,
and Michael Levin, U. . Bureau of the Cen u .
The fir t three paragraph of the bulletin provide a
u eful ummar :
" he 19 0 U. . cen u counted 3.5 million A ian
American, up from 1.4 million in 1970. A ian
American made up ju t 1.5 percent of the total U ..
population of 226.5 million a of April 1, 19 0, but
thi wa the third large t racial or ethnic minority
after black (26.5 million and 11.7 P rcent of the
total) and Hi panic (14.6 million, 6.4 percent of the
total). A ian increa ed far more during the 1970
(141 percent) than black (17 percent) or Hi panic
(39 percent), although Hi panic added the mo t
number of the three minoritie .
"Taking into account natural increa e (birth minu
death ) and continuing immigration, e p cially of
refugee from outhea t A ia, we e timate the A ian
American population at 5.1 million a of eptember
30, 19 5, about 2.1 p rcent of the orne 239 million
total U. . population a of thi date. The gain of
nearl 50 percent in the five and a half year ince the
19 0 cen u reaffirm A ian American ' tatu a cur-
rently the U . .' fa te t growing minority. Barring
ub tantial change in U .. immigration law, A ian
American could total 9.9 million by the year 2000
and approach 4 percent of the U. . population.
" he e new re idents are having an impact on thi
countr that far exceed their number , yet Ameri-
can know urpri ingl little about them. a group,
A ian American do not re emble other racial or
ethnic minoritie . Le well known i the fact that
A ian American vary widely in their characteri tic
according to their cultural origin and when they
arrived in the U. ."

20 VOL ME 40, MBER 1

Chinese Rural Development: The Great Trans- The Comparative Evaluation of Longitudinal Sur-
formation, edited b William L. Pari h. pon ored by veys, by Robert F. Boruch and Robert W. Pear on. A
the joint Committee on Chine e tudie. Armonk, Report ubmitted to the Measurement Method and
• ew York and London: M. E. harpe, 19 5. vii + 27 Data Improvement Program of the National ' ience
page.. loth, 30.00; paper, 14.95. Foundation under the au pice of the Working
Group on the Comparative Evaluation of Longitudi-
The paper in thi volume were fir t pre ent d at a
nal urvey. ew York: ocial cience Re earch
conferen e on "Bureaucrac and hine e Rural De-
Council, 19 5. v + 78 page. Available from the
velopment" held in 19 1 under the spon or hip of
Council on reque t. 2.00 to cover po tage and
the joint ommittee on ontemporary hina, one of
handling.
the predece 'or committees of the joint ommittee
on Chinee tudie , which i pon ored by the oun-
There ha emerged in recent ear a growing con-
ei) and the American ouncil of Learned ocietie.
cern about the u e of relativel large national lon-
In th la t decade, a Chine e agriculture ha
gitudinal urve (i.e., repeated ob ervations of the
moved rapidl from collective to family farming,
arne per on or other init through time). Thi con-
there ha been a tremendou purt in production and
cern ari e in part from a heightened en itivit to the
income. Thi b ok, including report b everal of the
dimini hed upport for new data collection program
few We tern cholar privileged to ob erve this pro-
within the U .. federal tati tical tern and the in-
cess fir thand, comments critically both on pa t
crea ing competition throughout the re earch and
problems that helped create the recent chan e and
policy communitie for what have undoubtedl al-
on the full range of cau e and con equence of the e
way been carce re ource for re earch. The concern
transformation .
with longitudinal urve a a t 01 for under tandin
Although the author di ClI in con iderable detail
the effect of ocial program or for the advancement
the much heralded impact of private incentive, they
of fundamental knowledge in the ial cience al 0
go bond the e to e amine the whole array of other
ari e from a concern that inve tment in the e data
aspect ' of government policy-price, planting
colle tion pr gram have been uncoordinated and
quota ', material upplie, and loan - orne of which
that many uch urvey unnece. arily overlap one
remain Ie s than ideal. The complex con equence of
another.
the new policie , including more income equalit than
De pite the e concern , there have yet to be devel-
would be expected but a 10 of orne ocial benefit
oped tool for evaluating the relative or comparative
that may make the n w program unpopular among
value of longitudinal urvey ' and criteria b which
certain public con tituencie , are al 0 analyzed.
more intelligent deci ion can be made with re pe t to
fhe contributor and their paper are:
whether an ongoing urvey-in com pari on to other
\far Blecher, Oberlin College
urve - hould be continued or terminated.
"Balance and leavage in rban-Rural Relation"
~teven B. Butl r, In titute of Current World ffair (Sali bury At pre ent, the choice of u er and pon ors f
Conn cti ut) , longitudinal urvey are not informed by a rich
"Price i, or and ommune dministration in Po t-Mao under tanding of the comparative advanta e and
China" weakne e ' of alternative data et or alternative ur-
'orma Diamond, niver ity of 1i higan ve de ign. or do user and pon ' r kn w how
"I aitou Revi ited: ' tate Policie and ocial hange"
'ichola R. Lard}, niver it of Wa hingLon
be t to mana e thee large inve 'tment in re earch, or
"~t,lte Intervention and Pea ant pportunities" the condition under which thee intrument pro-
\,inol ce, niver ity of California, anta Barbara duce the large t benefit to the development of cience
"Pea ant Hou ehold Individualism" or to public p lic. learl, legitimate repli ati n rna
William 1.. Pari. h, niver ity of hicago be hard to di tingui h from what 'ome pon or ee a
"Introduction: Hi\torical Ba kground and Current I sue"
\f,uk ~ lden, State niver it of . ew York, Binghamton
unnece ar redundanc. Alth ugh reliance on a
"Income Inequality and the 'tate" ingle data ource invite bia 'ed or inconcluive re-
J()nathan nger, 'niversity of Kan a ults, inve 'tment in imilar or equivalent data 'erie
"Remun ration, Ideology, and Pel' onal Intel'e ts in a hinee are likel to ield dimini 'hing return '. More impor-
\'illage, 1960-19 0" tant, similar data or different anal e of the 'ame
I homa B. Wien., Wa\hingLon, D. .
data have been known to produce perplexingly dif-
.. Pm el t\ and Progres in the Huang and H uai River Ba in "
I).l\id Zweig, 'niver it} of Waterloo (Ontario)
ferent re ult . Put briefl ,ea h additional in trument
"Pca ants, Ideology, and :'IIew Incentive ' tem: Jiang u ma not I ad to an equally \'aluable increment in
PI ()\ ince, I9i8-I9 I" knowledge.

~I\K( II 19 6 21
 In January 1984, the ouncil' Committee on
Problem and Poli y appointed a Working Group on
th Comparative Evaluation of Longitudinal urvey
to giv att ntion to the and related que tion a they
p rtain to the relatively large national longitudinal
survey in which the U .. federal tati tical commu-
nity ha d vot d con id rable re ource and on whi h
many ial ienti t rely for their analy e of ocial
and economic change. The working group wa com-
po d of Robert F. Boruch, orthwe tern Univer ity,
chair; Ri hard A. Berk, niver ity of California,
anta Barbara; Donald Hillman, Lehigh Univ r ity;
an Laird, lIar ard niver ity; and Martin H.
David, Univer ity of Wi con in. Robert W. Pear on
rved a taff. The program of the working group
wa upported by a grant from the National ci nce
Foundation' Program for Measurement Method
and Data Improvement.
The working group recently ompleted i ta k by
ubmitting thi report to th Foundation. The report
con Iud that judging the comparativ value of lon-
gitudinal urvey i an intractable ta, k. The qu tion
of whether one longitudinal sur ey i "better" (Ie
co tly, more informative, Ie . ambiguou) than an-
other i not a que tion for which a ati factory an wer
or valuation technology exi ts. The an wer depend
on a great variety of fa tor, many of which cannot b
known in advance of the collection of the data itself.
Moreover, the rep rt attempts to how that even the
u e of po t hoc compari. n of uch information a
the number of r ulting publication i fraught with
diffi ulty.
The report argue, h wever, that the e difficulti
ugge t that the que tion itself may be inappropriate,
although not the underlying concern that motivate
its a king. Indeed, criteria exi ,t for evaluating the
potential u e and u fuln of parti ular longitudi-
nal ur eys (or other data olle ti n de ign ). And th
report offer, in Parl II, tandard by which the value
of parti ular urvey may b e aluated.
The que tion with whi h the report conclude i
how one can impro e th u e and u efulne of I n-
gitudinal urvey in the social cienc . Although the
que tion i not ea ilyanswer d, the report argue that
th program through whi h this improvement would
likel com about includ s (1) re earch that would
permit a b tt r under tanding of the ocial proc ' e
that imitat formal ,'andom allocation or at lea t pro-
du e th arne re ults; (2) test! of the fea ibility of
combining longitudinal with e p rimental rear h
de 'ign (the report include, a epa rate tion which
di us e ' thi recommendation in detail); (3)upport
of elf-consciou Iy designed obs rvatori in which
22
data collection i conceived a only part of the proce
through which longitudinal urvey can b tran lated
into a richer under tanding of people, organization,
and their interaction; and (4) the y tematic tudy of
the co ts of different means of data collection.
/
A Guide to University Based Graduate Training
Programs in Soviet International Behavior. cond
Edition. Prepared und r the au pice of the ub-
committee on For ign Policy tudie of th Joint
ommittee on ovi t Studie. ew York: ial ci-
ence Re earch ouncil, January 1986. Paper, free.
Available from the oun it.
The univer itie Ii ted in this guide were el ct d
on the ba i of di cu ion with both cholar in the
field and repre entative of univer itie off ring
graduate program in Ru ian and ovi t tudie.
The 17 univer itie are in luded becau th y ati fy
at lea t three of the following criteria: they grant a
certificate ba ed on the completion of a formal pro-
gram; they offer a numb r of cour e in the oviet
foreign policy field; they include a minimum of one
p rmanent faculty m mb r who e primary re earch
intere t is in oviet foreign p licy; and within the la t
fiv year, their graduate have written di rtation
in the field of oviet foreign policy. Th guid
updat d annually.
The universitie who graduate training program
are d crib dare th niver ity of California,
Berkeley; the Univer ity of alifornia, Lo Angel /
Rand Graduate In titute; Columbia Univer ity;
Georg town University; Harvard niv r ity; the
University of Illinoi ; Indiana Univer ity; the niv r-
ity of Kan a ; the University of Mi higan; Ohio tate
Univer ity; Princeton ni er ity; tan ford
sity; Tufts Uni er ity; th Univer ity of Virginia;
Gorge Wa hington niver ity; and the Univer ityof
Wa hington.
Th Joint om mitt e on Soviet tudie wa ap-
pointed in January 1983 by the Council and the
Am rican Council of Learned ocietie in respons to
initiative. from, and after exten ive con ultation
with, . cholars representing the ommuniti of 'Ia ic
and '0 i t studi " Its central charge i the dey lop-
ment of the field of Russian and '0 iet tudie ' in it
blOad ·t en, : the 'limulation of re earch, the re-
cruitment and training of new talent, and the
, tr ngthening of holarl resource.
rhe 19 5-19 6 memb rship of the Sub ommitte
on Foreign P licy ' tudi is Rob rt L gold, Colum-
VOl. \1E 40, lJ 1BfR I
bia Univer ity, chair; Lawrence T. Caldwell, Occi-
dental College; Arnold Horelick, Rand Corporation
(Santa Monica, California); Stephen Meyer, Ma a-
chu. ett In titute of Technology; Mar hall hulman,
Columbia Univer ity; and William Zimmerman, IV,
niversity of Michigan. Blair A. Ruble erve a taff.
Relationships and Development, edited by Willard
W. Hartup and Zick Rubin. Papers from a conference
spon 'ored by the Committee on ocial and Affective
Development During Childhood (1976-85). Hill-
dale, New Jer ey: Lawrence Erlbaum As ociate , .
1986. xv + 219 page. Cloth, 27.50.
It ha become a trui m that the ocial and emotional
development of children emerge from their relation-
hip to other people, e pecially parents, ibling,
teacher, and friend. The central importance of
the'e relation hip ha been a umed by mo t major
theoretical approaches to child development. Psy-
choanalytic theory, for example, view children's
early relation -hip with their parent a the primary
determinant of personality development. Concep-
tions of attachment, as elaborated by John Bowlby
and others, empha ize the importance of the child'
'ocial world. The importance of children's ocial re-
lation hip i a umed by parents, educators, and
other individual concerned with child care. Parents
and teacher are highly attuned to their children's
social adjustment-"getting along" or "relating"-
not only becau e it contribute to a peaceful home or
'chool but al 0 becau e it enriches the child' ocial
and emotional growth.
De pite thi univer al acknowledgment of the cen-
tral role of ocial relationship in children' matura-
tion, tho e who tudy ocial and emotional develop-
ment have applied relatively limited conceptual and
methodological approache to the tudy of early social
interaction. There ha been con iderable re earch on
the nature of parent- infant relation hips, and more
recently a renewal of interest in children' peer re-
lation hip , but for the mo t part tudents of devel-
opment have taken the e relation hip for granted.
They have not y tematically explored the variou
dimen:ions of children' relation hip: the nature of
the measurement of uch variables as intimacy,
hierarchy, reciprocity, and loyalty; the way in which
pecific encounters or interaction are organized in
relation hip over time; the ocial and emotional re-
ource' provided by the e relation hip ; the way in
which the:e relation hip are haped by the phy ical
1 RCII 19 6
environment and the urrounding culture; the ways
in which relation hip are embedded in complicated
ocial network ; and the ways in which relation hip
are altered a children them elve change and de-
velop. Thi volume attempt to correct the lack of
fresh perspective in the tudy of children' ocial
relation hips and pre ents a wide range of new and
relevant re earch.
InJune 1982, the Committee on Social and Affec-
tive Development During Childhood spon ored an
interdi ciplinary conference on "Relation hips: Their
Role in Children's Development." he conference,
organized by the editor of this volume, was held at
Harwich Port, Ma achu etts, on Cape Cod. Theori ts
and re earchers repre enting a wide range of di ci-
pline and perspective were invited to participate.
Thi volume i based on idea that were fir t rai ed
and debated at that conference.
Many of the contributors have been deeply in-
volved in re earch on child development, from in-
fancy through adole cence, while other have con-
ducted their re earch mainly with adults. They repre-
ent the di ciplines of biology, clinical p ychology,
developmental psychology, ocial anthropology, 0-
cial psychology, and ociology. They al 0 have been
identified with a wide range of methodological
orientation, including ethology, qualitative ob erva-
tion and ethnography, clinical interview, que tion-
naire tudie, laboratory experiments, and the quan-
titative analy i of interaction equence. Mo t impor-
tantly, each contributor ha a perspective on social
relation hip that may help to advance our under-
standing of children' relation hip as well a their
social and emotional growth.
Taken together, the contribution to thi volume
provide a u eful beginning for new con ideration of
the nature and dynamic of children's ocial relation-
hips and of the role that the e relation hip play in
children' development.
The contributors to the volume are:
Ellen Ber cheid niver ity of Minne ota
June Flee on niver ity of Minne ota
Willard W. Hartup niver ity of Minne ota
Robert A. Hinde niverity of Cambridge
Joan Steven on-Hinde niver ity of amhridge
George Levinger niverity of Ma sachu etts
Gerald R. Patter 'on Oregon 'ocial Learning enter
(Eugen )
Zick Rubin Brandei niversity
L. Ian roufe niver ity of Minne ota
Barrie rhorne Michigan 'tate niver ity
Thoma S. Weiner niver ity of California, Lo
ngele
Robert '. Weiss niver ity of rfas achu ett
23
 OCIAL CIE CE RE EARCH COU CIL
605 fHIRD AVE!': E., EW YORK, ' .Y. 1015

Tht Coullcil wa\ ilicorpOmltd III lilt Sialt oJ l/IillOll, Dtctmbtr 27, /924, Jor Iht PWpolt oJ adt'allcillg rt tarch ill Iht ooal citllcts. NOlIgovtmmtlllal alld
IIlltrdiICipllllary ill Iwlurt, tht CowlCiI appolllu cOlnllullttl oJ <cholan which ttl! 10 achitvt Iht COUIICil'1 purpolt Ihrough 1M gtlltmlioll oJ Iltw idta! alld tht Imillillg 0/
Icholan. Tht aclit'ilit.! oJ Iht Coullcil art lupporttd primaril) by grallt! Jrom both pm'alt Joulldalion! alld govtmmtlll agtllClt .

DII·tcIO~, 19 ~ 6: RICII RD . BIKK, 'niH:rity of C.. lifornia, ant.. B.. rbar<l; ' n .PII ... s E. FIE'II8ERG, Carnegie-:\iellon Univer ity; How, R()
G.\R()'EK, Veteran dminiMr<ltion \fedk.ll Center (Bo ton); E. MAVI~ HErIlEKI,(.ro" niversity of Virginia; CII KtE' O. jO'E', niver It} of
irginia; R081KI W. K \ IE'. lark t 'ni\el it)'; ('''KD'IR LI'DlE\, Center for dvanced 'tudy in the B havioral ience; HC(.H T. P TRICK, Columbia
nh'el ity; jO''''''11 A. PI.CII\I " fhe Blooking In titution (Wa hington, D.C.);\OH F. SII.VEK\f s, fhe Graduate Center, City Univer it} of '\ew
YOI k; Rooolto TAUSIIA( ..... , EI Colegio de :\1eico; 'TEPIIE' M. 'TI(.UK, ni\er it} of Chicago; FK.\'l/CI" X. l nos, ' ocial ience Re earch
Council; Lon.... . fill \" ew hool for Social Re~ealch; 'lO,n lK8, Harv<lrd Univer ity; HER8UT F. YOKK, Univer it of California, 'an Diego,
O//ictn alld SlaJf: FKA'CI\ X. ' 1 nos, Aclillg P".lidmt; D.\\ I\) L.III', E.\tcillivt A~IQ(lalt; RO'AIO J. Prl ECK, COlllrolltr; V/K(.I'I FEl'RY-(, (.'0',
AWllflllllo lilt Prtlldml; jo.\, DA"I', P. IKIIOKO' DI \\1\Sool KO', Y '\\\lSE EKC,\\,:\1 Krlt . GlPII\K r, ROBERT W. PE K\OS, RI II Rll C. ROCKWEll.,
BI \IR \. Rl'81 E, Lo 'II , II R. II ... KROIl, D,\\ II) l.. ~J''' TO'l/.

24 VOL ME 40, ~l'MBER 1