CRIMINOLOGICAL RESEARCH 1

1ST Semester 2021-2022

Course Outline

Johann Paul L. Bugtong

Part 1: Basic Concept and Principles of Research

1. Research Perspective
1.1 Define Research?
Research is a process of executing various mental acts for
discovering and examining facts and information to prove the
accuracy or truthfulness of your claims or conclusion about the
topic of your research.

It requires you to inquire or investigate about your chosen

research topic by asking questions.

Make you engage in top-level thinking of strategies of

interpreting, analyzing, synthesizing, criticizing, appreciating, or
creating to enable you to discover truths about many things you
tend to wonder about the topic of your research (Litchman, 2013).

Is analogous to inquiry, in that both involve investigation of

something through questioning.

1.2 What are values of Research?

The integrity of research is based on adherence to core

values objectivity, honesty, openness, fairness, accountability, and
stewardship. These core values help to ensure that the research
enterprise advances knowledge.

1.3 What are the essential factors for effective research?

An understanding of the basic elements of research is

essential for good research practices. Among the most important
elements to be considered are variables, associations, sampling,
random selection, random assignment, and blinding.

1.4 Define a research problem. What are not research problems?

Research problems are gap between what is and what should

be or ought to be and two or more plausible reasons or answer
what is the problem. In short Researchable problems imply the
possibility of empirical investigation. Non-researchable problems
 include explanations of how to do something, vague propositions,
and value-based concerns.

1.5 Where are research problems found?

Alternatively, research problems can be identified by

reviewing recent literature, reports, or databases in your field.
Often the section of “recommendations for the future studies”
provided at the end of journal articles or doctoral dissertations
suggest potential research problems.

1.6 When is a research problem considered a “good” problem? Cite

some of the characteristics of a good problem.

A good research problem is when there is address to a gap in

knowledge. When it is significant enough to contribute to the
existing body of research. And it should lead to further research.

Some characteristics of a good problem includes the following:

 The problem can be stated clearly and concisely.
 The problem generates research questions.
 It is grounded in theory.
 It relates to one or more academic fields of study.
 It has a base in the research literature.
 It has potential significance/importance.
 It is do-able within the time frame, budget.
 Sufficient data are available or can be obtained.
 The researcher’s methodological strengths can be applied to
the problem.
 The problem is new; it is not already answered sufficiently.

1.7 List down factors in the selection of a research problem.

Discuss briefly each factor.

Personal Inclination
The chief motivation in the way of selecting research problem
is the personal inclination of the researcher. If a researcher has
personal interest in the topic, he would select that problem for his
research work.

Resources Availability
During the selection, a researcher will see to the resources
available. If these resources like money, time, accommodation and
transport are available to the selection place, then the selection of
the problem is easy.
Relative Importance
The importance and the problem also play a vital role in the
selection of research problem. If the problem is relatively
important, then the researcher tends towards the selection of the
problem.

Researcher Knowledge
The researcher knowledge should play a vital role in the
selection of the research problem. The wisdom and experience of
an investigator is required for well collection of the research data.
He can bitterly select a problem.

Practicality
Practicality is also responsible for the selection. The practical
usefulness of the problem is the main motivation for a researcher
to attend it.

Time-lines of the Problem

Some problems take little time for its solution while others
take more time. So, it depends on the time in which we have to
complete his research work.

Data Availability
If the desired data is available to the researcher, then the
problem would be selected.

Urgency
Urgency is a pinpoint in the way of the selection of research
problem. Urgent problem must be given priority because the
immediate solution can benefit the people.

Feasibility
Feasibility is also an important factor for the selection of the
research problem. The researcher qualification, training and
experience should match the problem.

Area Culture
The culture of the area for which a researcher conducts his
research is also responsible for the selection of research problem.
1.8 What is a good researcher? Cite some of the qualifications of a
good researcher according to various authors.

A good researcher must be open-minded and must also

adopt a critical way of thinking. Besides, he/she should be hard
working, diligent, focused and devoted to his/her specific field of
interest.

Some qualifications of a good researcher includes:

 Friendly with Respondents

A good researcher must have the quality to become
friendly with respondents. It should have to talk to them in
the same language in which the responding are answering
and make happy made.

 Least Discouragement
If the people are not co-operate to give correct data,
the researcher should not be discouraged and face the
difficulties, it would be called a good researcher.

 Free From Prejudice

A researcher would be good if he has no prejudice or
bias study about a problematic situation but he is capable of
providing clear information’s.

 Capacity of Depth Information

A researcher should have the capacity to collect more
and more information in little time.

 Accuracy
A researcher would be said to be good, if he is accurate
in his views. His ideas must be accurate one.

 Truthful
A researcher must have to be truthful. Its idea would
be free from false reports and saying information.

 Keen Observer
It is the quality of a good researcher that he may have
the ideas of keen and deep observation.
 Careful in Listening
A researcher would be more careful in listening. He
would have the quality of listening very low information’s
even whispering.

 Low Dependency on Common Sense

A researcher should be called good if he has low
dependency on common sense but keep in observation all
the events and happenings.

 Least time Consumer

Good researcher must have the capacity of least time
consuming. It will have to do more work in a little time
because of the shortage of time.

 Economical
Good researcher must have control over his economic
resources. He has to keep his finances within limits and
spend carefully.

 Low Care of Disapprovals of Society

A good researcher have no care of the approvals or
disapprovals but doing his work with zeal and patience to it.

 Expert in Subject
A researcher would be a good one if he has full
command over his subject. He makes the use of his
theoretical study in field work easily.

 Free From Hasty Statements

It is not expected from a good researcher to make his
study hasty and invalid with wrong statements. Its study
must be based on reality & validity.

 Good in Conversation
The conversation of a good researcher should be
sympathetic and not boring. He must have the skill and art
to be liked by the people.

 Having Clear Terminology

 A good researcher’s terminology would be clear. It
would be free from out wards to become difficult for the
respondents to answer.

 Trained in Research Tools

Research is impossible without its techniques and
tools. So, it should be better for a researcher to know about
the use of these tools.

 Dress and Behavior same to the area

The dress and the behavior of the researcher should
be same as to the study area. it is must for him to convince
the people easily and adopt their dress.

 More Analytical
A researcher would be different from other people of
the society. On the basis of this quality he may observe the
situation very well. Then he should be able to solve the
problems easily.

 Equality and Justice

A good researcher should believe on equality and
justice. As equal to all type of people he may collect better
information’s from the respondents.

1.9 What are the characteristics of a good research?

 The research should focus on priority problems.

 The research should be systematic. It emphasizes that a
researcher should employ a structured procedure.
 The research should be logical. Without manipulating ideas
logically, the scientific researcher cannot make much
progress in any investigation.
 The research should be reductive. This means that the
findings of one researcher should be made available to other
researchers to prevent them from repeating the same
research.
 The research should be replicable. This asserts that there
should be scope to confirm the findings of previous research
in a new environment and different settings with a new
group of subjects or at a different point in time.
 The research should be generative. This is one of the
valuable characteristics of research because answering one
question leads to generating many other new questions.
  The research should be action-oriented. In other words, it
should be aimed at reaching a solution leading to the
implementation of its findings.
 The research should follow an integrated multidisciplinary
approach, i.e., research approaches from more than one
discipline are needed.
 The research should be participatory, involving all parties
concerned (from policymakers down to community members)
at all stages of the study.
 The research must be relatively simple, timely, and time-
bound, employing a comparatively simple design.
 The research must be as much cost-effective as possible.
 The results of the research should be presented in formats
most useful for administrators, decision-makers, business
managers, or the community members.

2. The Review of Related Literature and Studies

2.1 What is the purpose of a review of related literature and
studies?

A literature review establishes familiarity with and

understanding of current research in a particular field before
carrying out a new investigation. Conducting a literature review
should enable you to find out what research has already been done
and identify what is unknown within your topic.

2.2 What are the types of related literature and studies?

Argumentative Review
This form examines literature selectively in order to support
or refute an argument, deeply imbedded assumption, or
philosophical problem already established in the literature. The
purpose is to develop a body of literature that establishes a
contrarian viewpoint. Given the value-laden nature of some social
science research [e.g., educational reform; immigration control],
argumentative approaches to analyzing the literature can be a
legitimate and important form of discourse. However, note that
they can also introduce problems of bias when they are used to
make summary claims of the sort found in systematic reviews.

Integrative Review
Considered a form of research that reviews, critiques, and
synthesizes representative literature on a topic in an integrated
way such that new frameworks and perspectives on the topic are
generated. The body of literature includes all studies that address
related or identical hypotheses or research problems. A well-done
integrative review meets the same standards as primary research
in regard to clarity, rigor, and replication. This is the most common
form of review in the social sciences.

Historical Review
Historical literature reviews focus on examining research
throughout a period of time, often starting with the first time an
issue, concept, theory, phenomena emerged in the literature, then
tracing its evolution within the scholarship of a discipline. The
purpose is to place research in a historical context to show
familiarity with state-of-the-art developments and to identify the
likely directions for future research.

Methodological Review
A review does not always focus on what someone said
[findings], but how they came about saying what they say [method
of analysis]. Reviewing methods of analysis provides a framework
of understanding at different levels [i.e. those of theory,
substantive fields, research approaches, and data collection and
analysis techniques], how researchers draw upon a wide variety of
knowledge ranging from the conceptual level to practical
documents for use in fieldwork in the areas of ontological and
epistemological consideration, quantitative and qualitative
integration, sampling, interviewing, data collection, and data
analysis. This approach helps highlight ethical issues which you
should be aware of and consider as you go through your own
study.

Systematic Review
This form consists of an overview of existing evidence
pertinent to a clearly formulated research question, which uses
pre-specified and standardized methods to identify and critically
appraise relevant research, and to collect, report, and analyze data
from the studies that are included in the review. The goal is to
deliberately document, critically evaluate, and summarize
scientifically all of the research about a clearly defined research
problem. Typically it focuses on a very specific empirical question,
often posed in a cause-and-effect form, such as "To what extent
does A contribute to B?" This type of literature review is primarily
applied to examining prior research studies in clinical medicine
and allied health fields, but it is increasingly being used in the
social sciences.

Theoretical Review
 The purpose of this form is to examine the corpus of theory
that has accumulated in regard to an issue, concept, theory,
phenomena. The theoretical literature review helps to establish
what theories already exist, the relationships between them, to
what degree the existing theories have been investigated, and to
develop new hypotheses to be tested. Often this form is used to
help establish a lack of appropriate theories or reveal that current
theories are inadequate for explaining new or emerging research
problems. The unit of analysis can focus on a theoretical concept
or a whole theory or framework.

2.3 What are the sources for literature review? Differentiate

primary source from secondary source.

Sources of literature review includes such reviewed journal

articles, edited academic book, article in professional journals,
Statistical data from governmental websites, and website material
from professional associations.

Primary sources are the original records created by firsthand

witnesses of an event, while on the other hand, secondary sources
are documents, texts, images, and objects about an event created
by someone who typically referenced the primary sources for their
information. Textbooks are excellent examples of secondary
sources.

2.4 Enumerate the guidelines in writing the Review of Related

Literature and Studies.

Rule 1: Define a Topic and Audience

Rule 2: Search and Re-search the Literature
Rule 3: Take Notes While Reading
Rule 4: Choose the Type of Review You Wish to Write
Rule 5: Keep the Review Focused, but Make It of Broad Interest
Rule 6: Be Critical and Consistent
Rule 7: Find a Logical Structure
Rule 8: Make Use of Feedback
Rule 9: Include Your Own Relevant Research, but Be Objective
Rule 10: Be Up-to-Date, but Do Not Forget Older Studies

3. Methods and Procedures

3.1 What are the types of research according to their distinctive
features?
 The research is broadly classified into two main classes
which are the fundamental or basic research and the applied
research. Basic and applied researches are generally of two kinds:
normal research and revolutionary research. In any particular
field, normal research is performed in accordance with a set of
rules, concepts and procedures called a paradigm, which is well
accepted by the scientists working in that field. In addition, the
basic and applied researches can be quantitative or qualitative or
even both (mixed research).

1. Fundamental or basic research:

Basic research is an investigation on basic principles and
reasons for occurrence of a particular event or process or
phenomenon. It is also called theoretical research. Study or
investigation of some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
science are termed as basic research. Basic researches sometimes
may not lead to immediate use or application. It is not concerned
with solving any practical problems of immediate interest. But it is
original or basic in character. It provides a systematic and deep
insight into a problem and facilitates extraction of scientific and
logical explanation and conclusion on it. It helps build new
frontiers of knowledge. The outcomes of basic research form the
basis for many applied research.

Basic research
Seeks generalization
Aims at basic processes
Attempts to explain why things happen
Tries to get all the facts
Reports in technical language of the topic

2. Applied research
In an applied research one solves certain problems
employing well known and accepted theories and principles. Most
of the experimental research, case studies and inter-disciplinary
research are essentially applied research. Applied research is
helpful for basic research. A research, the outcome of which has
immediate application is also termed as applied research. Such a
research is of practical use to current activity.

Applied research
Studies individual or specific cases without the objective to
generalize
Aims at any variable which makes the desired difference
Tries to say how things can be changed
Tries to correct the facts which are problematic
Reports in common language

Basic and applied research, further divided into three types of

research bearing some characteristics feature as follows:

Quantitative research
It is numerical, non-descriptive, applies statistics or
mathematics and uses numbers.
It is an iterative process whereby evidence is
evaluated.
The results are often presented in tables and graphs.
It is conclusive.
It investigates the what, where and when of decision
making.

Qualitative research
It is non-numerical, descriptive, applies reasoning and
uses words.
Its aim is to get the meaning, feeling and describe the
situation.
Qualitative data cannot be graphed.
It is exploratory.
It investigates the why and how of decision making.
Mixed research
Mixed research- research that involves the mixing of
quantitative and qualitative methods or paradigm
characteristics. Nature of data is mixture of variables, words
and images.

Other types of research

Exploratory Research
Exploratory research might involve a literature search
or conducting focus group interviews. The exploration of new
phenomena in this way may help the researcher’s need for
better understanding, may test the feasibility of a more
extensive study, or determine the best methods to be used in
a subsequent study. For these reasons, exploratory research
is broad in focus and rarely provides definite answers to
specific research issues.
The objective of exploratory research is to identify key
issues and key variables.

Descriptive research
 The descriptive research is directed toward studying
“what” and how many off this “what”. Thus, it is directed
toward answering questions such as, “What is this?”.

Explanatory research
Its primary goal is to understand or to explain
relationships.
It uses correlations to study relationships between
dimensions or characteristics off individuals, groups,
situations, or events.
Explanatory research explains (How the parts of a
phenomenon are related to each other).
Explanatory research asks the “Why” question.

Longitudinal Research
Research carried out longitudinally involves data
collection at multiple points in time. Longitudinal studies
may take the form of:
Trend study- looks at population characteristics
over time, e.g. organizational absenteeism rates during
the course of a year
Cohort study- traces a sub-population over time,
e.g. absenteeism rates for the sales department;
Panel study- traces the same sample over time,
e.g. graduate career tracks over the period 1990 –
2000 for the same starting cohort.

While longitudinal studies will often be more time

consuming and expensive than cross-sectional studies, they
are more likely to identify causal relationships between
variables.

Cross-sectional Research
One-shot or cross-sectional studies are those in which
data is gathered once, during a period of days, weeks or
months. Many cross-sectional studies are exploratory or
descriptive in purpose. They are designed to look at how
things are now, without any sense of whether there is a
history or trend at work.

Action research
 Fact findings to improve the quality of action in the
social world

Policy-Oriented Research
Reports employing this type of research focus on the
question ‘How can problem ‘X’ be solved or prevented ?’

Classification research
It aims at categorization of units in to groups
To demonstrate differences
To explain relationships

Comparative research
To identify similarities and differences between units
at all levels

Causal research
It aims at establishing cause and effect relationship
among variable

Theory-testing research
It aims at testing validity of a unit

Theory-building research
To establish and formulate the theory

3.2 What are the three types of research which are widely used
undergraduate and graduate researchers?
Specific to field of study
Graduate students learn about research methods used
in their particular field of study. Whatever methods are
used, there are many resources to support research, and any
number of variations to the basic methods. Choose a
method or variation that is manageable in your first years as
a new faculty member to be certain to get your research
agenda underway. Often the biggest challenge is often to get
started, so establish research priorities early on, and create
a plan to implement them.

Quantitative research
Quantitative research is inquiry into an identified
problem, based on testing a theory, measured with numbers,
and analyzed using statistical techniques. The goal of
 quantitative methods is to determine whether the predictive
generalizations of a theory hold true. We will explore some of
the issues and challenges associated with quantitative
research in this section. Seek the advice of faculty members
who have conducted quantitative studies for advice, support
and encouragement.

Qualitative research
A study based upon a qualitative process of inquiry
has the goal of understanding a social or human problem
from multiple perspectives. Qualitative research is
conducted in a natural setting and involves a process of
building a complex and holistic picture of the phenomenon
of interest. We will explore some of the issues and
challenges associated with qualitative research in this
section. Look for colleagues who engage in qualitative
research to serve as a sounding board for procedures and
processes you may use as a new faculty member.

3.3 What is a descriptive method of research? What are the

classifications?

Descriptive research is defined as a research method that

describes the characteristics of the population or phenomenon
studied. This methodology focuses more on the “what” of the
research subject than the “why” of the research subject.

The descriptive research method primarily focuses on

describing the nature of a demographic segment, without focusing
on “why” a particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it
“describes” the subject of the research, without covering “why” it
happens.

For example, an apparel brand that wants to understand the

fashion purchasing trends among New York buyers will conduct a
demographic survey of this region, gather population data and
then conduct descriptive research on this demographic segment.
The study will then uncover details on “what is the purchasing
pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any investigative
information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for the
apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the
nature of their market is the study’s objective.

Classifications
1. Observational Method
 The observational method allows researchers to collect
data based on their view of the behaviour and characteristics
of the respondent, with the respondents themselves not
directly having an input. It is often used in market research,
psychology, and some other social science research to
understand human behaviour.

It is also an important aspect of physical scientific

research, with it being one of the most effective methods of
conducting descriptive research. This process can be said to
be either quantitative or qualitative.

Quantitative observation involved the objective

collection of numerical data, whose results can be analyzed
using numerical and statistical methods.

Qualitative observation, on the other hand, involves

the monitoring of characteristics and not the measurement
of numbers. The researcher makes his observation from a
distance, records it, and is used to inform conclusions.

2. Case Study Method

A case study is a sample group (an individual, a group
of people, organizations, events, etc.) whose characteristics
are used to describe the characteristics of a larger group in
which the case study is a subgroup. The information
gathered from investigating a case study may be generalized
to serve the larger group.

This generalization, may, however, be risky because

case studies are not sufficient to make accurate predictions
about larger groups. Case studies are a poor case of
generalization.

3. Survey Research
This is a very popular data collection method in
research designs. In survey research, researchers create a
survey or questionnaire and distribute it to respondents who
give answers.

Generally, it is used to obtain quick information

directly from the primary source and also conducting
rigorous quantitative and qualitative research. In some
cases, survey research uses a blend of both qualitative and
quantitative strategies.
 Survey research can be carried out both online and
offline using the following methods

Online Surveys: This is a cheap method of carrying

out surveys and getting enough responses. It can be carried
out using Formplus, an online survey builder. Formplus has
amazing tools and features that will help increase response
rates.
Offline Surveys: This includes paper forms, mobile
offline forms, and SMS-based forms.

3.4 Differentiate the following: true experiments, quasi-

experimental research, and pre-experimental designs or non-
experimental designs.

Quasi-experimental designs are similar to true experiments, but

they lack random assignment to experimental and control groups.
Quasi-experimental designs have a comparison group that is
similar to a control group except assignment to the comparison
group is not determined by random assignment. The most basic of
these quasi-experimental designs is the nonequivalent comparison
groups design (Rubin & Babbie, 2017). The nonequivalent
comparison group design looks a lot like the classic experimental
design, except it does not use random assignment. In many cases,
these groups may already exist. For example, a researcher might
conduct research at two different agency sites, one of which
receives the intervention and the other does not. No one was
assigned to treatment or comparison groups. Those groupings
existed prior to the study. While this method is more convenient
for real-world research, it is less likely that that the groups are
comparable than if they had been determined by random
assignment. Perhaps the treatment group has a characteristic that
is unique–for example, higher income or different diagnoses–that
make the treatment more effective.

When true experiments and quasi-experiments are not possible,

researchers may turn to a pre-experimental design (Campbell &
Stanley, 1963). Pre-experimental designs are called such because
they often happen before a true experiment is conducted. Often,
researchers want to see if their interventions will have an effect on
a small group of people before they seek funding and dedicate time
to conduct a true experiment. Pre-experimental designs, thus, are
usually conducted as a first step towards establishing the evidence
for or against an intervention.
 3.5 How does quantitative differ from qualitative method of
research?

In a nutshell, qualitative research generates “textual data”

(non-numerical). Quantitative research, on the contrary, produces
“numerical data” or information that can be converted into
numbers.

Qualitative research is considered to be particularly

suitable for exploratory research. It is primarily used to discover
and gain an in-depth understanding of individual experiences,
thoughts, opinions, and trends, and to dig deeper into the problem
at hand. The data collection toolkit of a qualitative researcher is
quite versatile, ranging from completely unstructured to semi-
structured techniques. While on the other hand, quantitative
research is all about numbers and figures. It is used to quantify
opinions, attitudes, behaviors, and other defined variables with the
goal to support or refute hypotheses about a specific phenomenon,
and potentially contextualize the results from the study sample in
a wider population (or specific groups). As quantitative research
explicitly specifies what is measured and how it is measured in
order to uncover patterns in – for example – behavior, motivation,
emotion, and cognition, quantitative data collection is considered
to be much more structured than qualitative methods.

4. Sampling Design
4.1 Define the following terms
4.1.1 Population
It is a complete set of elements (persons or objects) that
possess some common characteristic defined by the sampling
criteria established by the researcher. Composed of two groups -
target population & accessible population.

4.1.2 Sample
Sample can be used to estimate the same characteristics in
the total is referred to as sampling. Determining the population
targeted is the first step in selecting the sample.

4.1.3 Sampling
Sampling is the foundation of nearly every research project,
the study of sampling design is a crucial part of statistics, and is
often a one or two semester course.
 4.1.4 Topic population
A research population is generally a large collection of
individuals or objects that is the main focus of a scientific query.
This is the reason why researchers rely on sampling techniques. A
research population is also known as a well-defined collection of
individuals or objects known to have similar characteristics.

4.1.5 Respondent population

Respondents are those persons who have been invited to
participate in a particular study and have actually taken part in
the study. This definition applies to both qualitative and
quantitative studies.

4.1.6 Target population

The target population is the entire population, or group, that
a researcher is interested in researching and analysing. A sampling
frame is then drawn from this target population.

4.1.7 Sampling unit

A Sampling unit is one of the units selected for the purpose
of sampling. Each unit being regarded as individual and indivisible
when the selection is made.

4.1.8 Sampling frame

A sampling frame is a list of all the items in your population.
It’s a complete list of everyone or everything you want to study. The
difference between a population and a sampling frame is that the
population is general and the frame is specific.

4.1.9 Sampling design

Sampling design is a mathematical function that gives you
the probability of any given sample being drawn. It involves not
only learning how to derive the probability functions which
describe a given sampling method but also understanding how to
design a best-fit sampling method for a real life situation.

4.2 Give the two basic types of sampling

Probability sampling and non-probability sampling. In
probability (random) sampling, you start with a complete
sampling frame of all eligible individuals from which you select
your sample. In this way, all eligible individuals have a chance of
 being chosen for the sample, and you will be more able to
generalise the results from your study. Probability sampling
methods tend to be more time-consuming and expensive than non-
probability sampling. In non-probability (non-random) sampling,
you do not start with a complete sampling frame, so some
individuals have no chance of being selected. Consequently, you
cannot estimate the effect of sampling error and there is a
significant risk of ending up with a non-representative sample
which produces non-generalisable results. However, non-
probability sampling methods tend to be cheaper and more
convenient, and they are useful for exploratory research and
hypothesis generation.

4.3 What are the probability samplings? Describe each.

1. Simple random sampling

In this case each individual is chosen entirely by chance and

each member of the population has an equal chance, or
probability, of being selected. One way of obtaining a random
sample is to give each individual in a population a number, and
then use a table of random numbers to decide which individuals to
include.1 For example, if you have a sampling frame of 1000
individuals, labelled 0 to 999, use groups of three digits from the
random number table to pick your sample. So, if the first three
numbers from the random number table were 094, select the
individual labelled “94”, and so on.

As with all probability sampling methods, simple random

sampling allows the sampling error to be calculated and reduces
selection bias. A specific advantage is that it is the most
straightforward method of probability sampling. A disadvantage of
simple random sampling is that you may not select enough
individuals with your characteristic of interest, especially if that
characteristic is uncommon. It may also be difficult to define a
complete sampling frame and inconvenient to contact them,
especially if different forms of contact are required (email, phone,
post) and your sample units are scattered over a wide geographical
area.

2. Systematic sampling
 Individuals are selected at regular intervals from the
sampling frame. The intervals are chosen to ensure an adequate
sample size. If you need a sample size n from a population of size
x, you should select every x/nth individual for the sample. For
example, if you wanted a sample size of 100 from a population of
1000, select every 1000/100 = 10th member of the sampling
frame.

Systematic sampling is often more convenient than simple

random sampling, and it is easy to administer. However, it may
also lead to bias, for example if there are underlying patterns in
the order of the individuals in the sampling frame, such that the
sampling technique coincides with the periodicity of the underlying
pattern. As a hypothetical example, if a group of students were
being sampled to gain their opinions on college facilities, but the
Student Record Department’s central list of all students was
arranged such that the sex of students alternated between male
and female, choosing an even interval (e.g. every 20th student)
would result in a sample of all males or all females. Whilst in this
example the bias is obvious and should be easily corrected, this
may not always be the case.

3. Stratified sampling

In this method, the population is first divided into subgroups

(or strata) who all share a similar characteristic. It is used when we
might reasonably expect the measurement of interest to vary
between the different subgroups, and we want to ensure
representation from all the subgroups. For example, in a study of
stroke outcomes, we may stratify the population by sex, to ensure
equal representation of men and women. The study sample is then
obtained by taking equal sample sizes from each stratum. In
stratified sampling, it may also be appropriate to choose non-equal
sample sizes from each stratum. For example, in a study of the
health outcomes of nursing staff in a county, if there are three
hospitals each with different numbers of nursing staff (hospital A
has 500 nurses, hospital B has 1000 and hospital C has 2000),
then it would be appropriate to choose the sample numbers from
each hospital proportionally (e.g. 10 from hospital A, 20 from
hospital B and 40 from hospital C). This ensures a more realistic
and accurate estimation of the health outcomes of nurses across
the county, whereas simple random sampling would over-represent
nurses from hospitals A and B. The fact that the sample was
stratified should be taken into account at the analysis stage.
 Stratified sampling improves the accuracy and
representativeness of the results by reducing sampling bias.
However, it requires knowledge of the appropriate characteristics of
the sampling frame (the details of which are not always available),
and it can be difficult to decide which characteristic(s) to stratify
by.

4. Clustered sampling

In a clustered sample, subgroups of the population are used

as the sampling unit, rather than individuals. The population is
divided into subgroups, known as clusters, which are randomly
selected to be included in the study. Clusters are usually already
defined, for example individual GP practices or towns could be
identified as clusters. In single-stage cluster sampling, all
members of the chosen clusters are then included in the study. In
two-stage cluster sampling, a selection of individuals from each
cluster is then randomly selected for inclusion. Clustering should
be taken into account in the analysis. The General Household
survey, which is undertaken annually in England, is a good
example of a (one-stage) cluster sample. All members of the
selected households (clusters) are included in the survey.

Cluster sampling can be more efficient that simple random

sampling, especially where a study takes place over a wide
geographical region. For instance, it is easier to contact lots of
individuals in a few GP practices than a few individuals in many
different GP practices. Disadvantages include an increased risk of
bias, if the chosen clusters are not representative of the
population, resulting in an increased sampling error.

4.4 What are the non-probability sampling? Describe each.

1. Convenience sampling

Convenience sampling is perhaps the easiest method of

sampling, because participants are selected based on availability
and willingness to take part. Useful results can be obtained, but
the results are prone to significant bias, because those who
volunteer to take part may be different from those who choose not
to (volunteer bias), and the sample may not be representative of
other characteristics, such as age or sex. Note: volunteer bias is a
risk of all non-probability sampling methods.

2. Quota sampling

This method of sampling is often used by market

researchers. Interviewers are given a quota of subjects of a
specified type to attempt to recruit. For example, an interviewer
might be told to go out and select 20 adult men, 20 adult women,
10 teenage girls and 10 teenage boys so that they could interview
them about their television viewing. Ideally the quotas chosen
would proportionally represent the characteristics of the
underlying population.

Whilst this has the advantage of being relatively

straightforward and potentially representative, the chosen sample
may not be representative of other characteristics that weren’t
considered (a consequence of the non-random nature of sampling).

3. Judgement (or Purposive) Sampling

Also known as selective, or subjective, sampling, this

technique relies on the judgement of the researcher when choosing
who to ask to participate. Researchers may implicitly thus choose
a “representative” sample to suit their needs, or specifically
approach individuals with certain characteristics. This approach is
often used by the media when canvassing the public for opinions
and in qualitative research.

Judgement sampling has the advantage of being time-and

cost-effective to perform whilst resulting in a range of responses
(particularly useful in qualitative research). However, in addition to
volunteer bias, it is also prone to errors of judgement by the
researcher and the findings, whilst being potentially broad, will not
necessarily be representative.

4. Snowball sampling

This method is commonly used in social sciences when

investigating hard-to-reach groups. Existing subjects are asked to
nominate further subjects known to them, so the sample increases
in size like a rolling snowball. For example, when carrying out a
survey of risk behaviours amongst intravenous drug users,
 participants may be asked to nominate other users to be
interviewed.

Snowball sampling can be effective when a sampling frame is

difficult to identify. However, by selecting friends and
acquaintances of subjects already investigated, there is a
significant risk of selection bias (choosing a large number of people
with similar characteristics or views to the initial individual
identified).

4.5 How do you determine sampling size?

1. Determine the population size (if known).
2. Determine the confidence interval.
3. Determine the confidence level.
4. Determine the standard deviation (a standard deviation of
0.5 is a safe choice where the figure is unknown)
5. Convert the confidence level into a Z-Score.

4.6 Why is there a need to sample respondents?

Sampling saves money by allowing researchers to gather the
same answers from a sample that they would receive from the
population. Non-random sampling is significantly cheaper than
random sampling, because it lowers the cost associated with
finding people and collecting data from them.

5. Research Instruments
5.1 What is a research instruments?
A Research Instrument is a tool used to collect, measure,
and analyze data related to your research interests. These tools are
most commonly used in health sciences, social sciences, and
education to assess patients, clients, students, teachers, staff, etc.
A research instrument can include interviews, tests, surveys, or
checklists. The Research Instrument is usually determined by
researcher and is tied to the study methodology.

5.2 Why is questionnaire widely used as data-gathering tool?

Questionnaires provide a relatively cheap, quick and efficient
way of obtaining large amounts of information from a large sample
of people. Data can be collected relatively quickly because the
researcher would not need to be present when the questionnaires
were completed.

5.3 What are the do’s and don’ts for the interviewer?
  Make sure the research question is clear.
 Develop a check list of the questions to be asked during the
interview.
 Express clearly the purpose of the interview.
 Start with a neutral question to facilitate free flow of
information.
 Use open-ended questions so that the respondent can choose
his answer.
 Limit the content of each question with a single idea to avoid
confusion.
 Reduce questions that give responses of `yes' or `no', because
they give limited information.
 Do not influence the respondent by asking leading questions.
 If you have not understood the response ask the respondent to
repeat and clarify.
 Do not assume answers.
 Do not pass judgements.
 Avoid irrelevant discussions.
 When you change the tack, inform the respondent that you are
doing so.
 Keep the interview short.
 At the end of the interview summarise the points reported and
ask the respondent if the summary is correct.

5.4 When is a research instrument valid and reliable?

A research is valid when there is accuracy in measure and it
is reliable when there is consistency in measure.

5.5 What are the types of validity? Compare each.

Construct validity is about ensuring that the method of

measurement matches the construct you want to measure. If you
develop a questionnaire to diagnose depression, you need to know:
does the questionnaire really measure the construct of depression?
Or is it actually measuring the respondent’s mood, self-esteem, or
some other construct? To achieve construct validity, you have to
ensure that your indicators and measurements are carefully
developed based on relevant existing knowledge. The questionnaire
must include only relevant questions that measure known
indicators of depression.

Content validity assesses whether a test is representative of

all aspects of the construct. To produce valid results, the content
of a test, survey or measurement method must cover all relevant
parts of the subject it aims to measure. If some aspects are
 missing from the measurement (or if irrelevant aspects are
included), the validity is threatened.

Face validity considers how suitable the content of a test

seems to be on the surface. It’s similar to content validity, but face
validity is a more informal and subjective assessment. As face
validity is a subjective measure, it’s often considered the weakest
form of validity. However, it can be useful in the initial stages of
developing a method.

Criterion validity evaluates how closely the results of your

test correspond to the results of a different test. To evaluate
criterion validity, you calculate the correlation between the results
of your measurement and the results of the criterion
measurement. If there is a high correlation, this gives a good
indication that your test is measuring what it intends to measure.

5.6 What are the types of reliability? Compare each.

There are two types of reliability which are the internal and
the external reliability. Internal reliability assesses the consistency
of results across items within a test. While external reliability
refers to the extent to which a measure varies from one use to
another.

5.7 How can an instrument be reliable?

Reliability can be assessed with the test-retest method,

alternative form method, internal consistency method, the split-
halves method, and inter-rater reliability. Test-retest is a method
that administers the same instrument to the same sample at two
different points in time, perhaps one year intervals.

6. Statistics
6.1 What is statistics? Is statistics needed in research? Justify
your answer.
Statistics is the science concerned with developing and
studying methods for collecting, analyzing, interpreting and
presenting empirical data. Any measurement or data collection
effort is subject to a number of sources of variation.
Statistics is needed in research because statistical
knowledge helps the researcher the proper methods to collect the
data, employ the correct analyses, and effectively present the
results. Statistics is a crucial process behind how we make
discoveries in science, make decisions based on data, and make
predictions.
6.2 How are data characterized and classified?

In order from lowest to highest, the four levels of statistical

data are nominal, ordinal, interval and ratio. Data with a level of
measurement either nominal or ordinal is qualitative data. On the
other hand, quantitative data can have either an interval or ratio
level of measurement.

6.3 What is qualitative research? Quantitative research?

Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-
numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts,
opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights
into a problem or generate new ideas for research. Qualitative
research is the opposite of quantitative research, which involves
collecting and analyzing numerical data for statistical analysis.
Qualitative research is commonly used in the humanities and
social sciences, in subjects such as anthropology, sociology,
education, health sciences, history, etc.

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and

analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and
averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and
generalize results to wider populations. Quantitative research is
the opposite of qualitative research, which involves collecting and
analyzing non-numerical data (e.g. text, video, or audio).
Quantitative research is widely used in the natural and social
sciences: biology, chemistry, psychology, economics, sociology,
marketing, etc.

6.4 Differentiate parametric from non-parametric statistics?

Descriptive from inferential statistics?

Parametric statistics are based on assumptions about the

distribution of population from which the sample was taken.
Nonparametric statistics are not based on assumptions, that is,
the data can be collected from a sample that does not follow a
specific distribution.

Descriptive statistics summarize the characteristics of a data

set. Inferential statistics allow you to test a hypothesis or assess
whether your data is generalizable to the broader population.
6.5 What are the statistical techniques used to treat research
data?
Statistical Treatment in Data Analysis
Treatments are divided into two groups: descriptive
statistics, which summarize your data as a graph or summary
statistic and inferential statistics, which make predictions and test
hypotheses about your data.

6.6 Give atleast four (4) basic criteria in choosing a test.

OBJECTIVITY
An objective test measures a variable independent of the
people conducting the test and the circumstances of the test. In
other words, the test has to be fair.

Objective selection methods guarantee unbiased measures of

the rower's ability. They all start with giving each rower the same
information and encouragement. A good example of an objective
test for selecting a single is all competitors racing off over 2,000 m
in singles.

VALIDITY
A test is valid if it measures a specified ability. It is a
challenge to find valid test methods to select a crew from a group
of athletes. Rowing requires a complex set of qualities that qualify
someone as a valuable crew member.

For instance, an ergometer test measures power per stroke,

ability to focus, certain aspects of good rowing (such as stroke
length and proper sequencing), length, leg drive, and relaxation.
Therefore, an ergometer test is a valid procedure to evaluate
specific rowing skills, which is why it presents important
information for crew selection. However, an ergometer test cannot
answer all selection questions in rowing. For example, when it
comes to assessing a rower's boat-moving qualities, the most valid
test would be an evaluation in the targeted boat because it
accurately measures all of the variables in rowing. Though a race-
off in a single is a valid method to select the single and to identify
general boat-moving abilities, many would debate that selection
races in singles are a valid method to select a double or quad as
well. Therefore, no one method is completely valid for crew
selection.
 RELIABILITY
A test is reliable if it accurately measures a quality and is
repeatable. In past years, USRowing introduced open trials in
which crew selection is decided by whoever wins two out of three
events. This is done to increase the reliability of the selection
process, since crews have to demonstrate that they can repeat
their performance. In this way, their win isn't just a random
occurrence.

Therefore, if one chooses to use seat races as a selection

model, the results should be the same if repeated. Though the
times of seat races can be measured accurately, the time over a
certain distance may vary for a crew, especially if rowers are not
experienced or row in combinations that they have not practiced
before. Also, wind conditions could have an influence on seat-
racing results. Consequently, one has to set up a seat race
carefully to make it reliable for crew selection.

It is possible to ensure the reliability of a test by carrying out

more than one assessment. If all goes according to plan, the
results of the second test should support those of the first test.

ECONOMY
A test is economical if its overall costs are manageable for
the program. Those costs could be money but also include time
involved, necessary equipment, and personnel.

This criterion is easy to understand, and in a practical

rowing setting, this may be an influential consideration. To
conduct seat races, for instance, one needs fair water conditions,
equal equipment, correct preparation of the rowers, and a
manageable number of rowers. Therefore, such a selection method
becomes too costly if the program has, for example, 40 rowers with
not enough fours or pairs of equal quality. One would need to buy
or bring in boats and would likely need 2 weeks of racing. This
method may cost too much money and take too much time, in
which case it would not work in this situation. In other words,
testing and selection has to be achievable.

Every test needs to satisfy all four criteria (objectivity,

validity, reliability, and economy) in order to select the best rowers.
To apply these guidelines, the following are required:

6.7 What are the measures for parametric and non-parametric

data?
 Parametric tests are those that make assumptions about the
parameters of the population distribution from which the sample is
drawn. This is often the assumption that the population data are
normally distributed. Non-parametric tests are “distribution-free”
and, as such, can be used for non-Normal variables.

6.8 Differentiate independent variable, dependent variable,

moderator variable, control variable, and intervening variable.

Independent variables
An independent variable is a singular characteristic that the
other variables in your experiment cannot change. Age is an
example of an independent variable. Where someone lives, what
they eat or how much they exercise are not going to change their
age. Independent variables can, however, change other variables.
In studies, researchers often try to find out whether an
independent variable causes other variables to change and in what
way.

Dependent variables
A dependent variable relies on and can be changed by other
components. A grade on an exam is an example of a dependent
variable because it depends on factors such as how much sleep
you got and how long you studied. Independent variables can
influence dependent variables, but dependent variables cannot
influence independent variables. For example, the time you spent
studying (dependent) can affect the grade on your test
(independent) but the grade on your test does not affect the time
you spent studying.

Moderating variables
A moderating or moderator variable changes the relationship
between dependent and independent variables by strengthening or
weakening the intervening variable's effect. For example, in a study
looking at the relationship between economic status (independent
variable) and how frequently people get physical exams from a
doctor (dependent variable), age is a moderating variable. That
relationship might be weaker in younger individuals and stronger
in older individuals.

Control variables
Control or controlling variables are characteristics that are
constant and do not change during a study. They have no effect on
other variables. Researchers might intentionally keep a control
 variable the same throughout an experiment to prevent bias. For
example, in an experiment about plant development, control
variables might include the amounts of fertilizer and water each
plant gets. These amounts are always the same so that they do not
affect the plants' growth.

Intervening variables
An intervening variable, sometimes called a mediator
variable, is a theoretical variable the researcher uses to explain a
cause or connection between other study variables—usually
dependent and independent ones. They are associations instead of
observations. For example, if wealth is the independent variable,
and a long life span is a dependent variable, the researcher might
hypothesize that access to quality healthcare is the intervening
variable that links wealth and life span.

6.9 Describe input, process and output.

Inputs are the conditions that exist prior to group activity,

whereas processes are the interactions among group members.
Outputs are the results of group activity that are valued by the
team or the organization.

6.10 How are hypotheses classified?

A hypothesis is an approximate explanation that relates to

the set of facts that can be tested by certain further investigations.
There are basically two types, namely, null hypothesis and
alternative hypothesis.

7. Writing a Research Report

7.1 Define the following terms:
7.1.1 Title Page

This page contains the title of the study, name of school,

degree, name of student, and month and year of completion. The
title should be brief (10-12 words) excluding articles, clear, catchy
and specific. It should reflect the main objective or purpose of the
study. The title of the study should be typed in an inverted
pyramid.

7.1.2 Acknowledgement
 This part contains the researcher’s appreciation/gratitude to
the person who became part of the research undertaking. It should
observe the given sequence, written in paragraph form and using
the third person pronoun:
a. The Creator/God Almighty
b. Madam Margarita Cecilda Bulaquena – Rillera,
MBA, President of the Baguio Central University.
c. Dean of the Graduate School;
d. Adviser;
e. Panel of Examiners; (i.e. SDS, Company Head,
Head of Office, etc.); At the end of the
acknowledgment, the initials of the researchers
should be indicated (i.e. JPLB)
f. All those from the university whom the researcher
wishes to express gratitude;
g. All those from outside of the university

7.1.3 Dedication
Freestyle and personal

7.1.4 Thesis abstract

This page contains an overview of the research report,
main objective of the study, local and population, method
used, salient findings, and the conclusions derived from the
study. The specific problems of the study must not be stated
in the abstract. It must be composed of 150 to 250 words.
Keywords are also found after the abstract.

Keywords are salient words repeatedly used in the

study which are not found in the title which should consist
of at least six words. It should be confined within a single
paragraph. Unlike in other paragraphs in the paper, the first
line of the abstract should not be indented and should be
double spaced. The list of keywords should follow after the
abstract paragraph, and the word Keywords should be
italicized, indented five spaces from the left margin, and
followed by a colon. There is no period at the end of the list
of keywords.

7.1.5 Conceptual framework

A conceptual framework is a written or visual

representation of an expected relationship between variables.
 Variables are simply the characteristics or properties that
you want to study. The conceptual framework is generally
developed based on a literature review of existing studies
and theories about the topic.

7.1.6 Theory

Theories are formulated to explain, predict, and

understand phenomena and, in many cases, to challenge
and extend existing knowledge within the limits of critical
bounding assumptions.

7.1.7 Theoretical framework

The theoretical framework is the structure that can

hold or support a theory of a research study. The theoretical
framework introduces and describes the theory that explains
why the research problem under study exists.

7.1.8 Assumption
This is any statement that is believed to be true in
each of the specific problems identified. A benchmark based
on the data cotegorizion is used.

7.1.9 Hypothesis
Is merely a proposition that is presented or put
forward by a researcher to explain a natural phenomenon.

7.1.10 Delimitation of the study

The delimitations of a study are the factors and
variables not to be included in the investigation. In other
words, they are the boundaries the researcher sets in terms
of study duration, population size and type of participants,
etc

7.2 What is the purpose of the review of related literature?

The purpose of a literature review is to gain an

understanding of the existing research and debates relevant to a
particular topic or area of study, and to present that knowledge in
the form of a written report. Conducting a literature review helps
you build your knowledge in your field.
7.3 Differentiate conceptual framework from theoretical
framework.

Conceptual framework is developed by the researcher to

solve a particular problem that he wants to find solution whereas
theoretical framework is based on theories or general
representation of relationship between various things.

7.4 Describe the following terms:

a. Summary

A research summary is a type of paper designed to provide a

brief overview of a given study - typically, an article from a peer-
reviewed academic journal. A research summary typically
preserves the structure/sections of the article it focuses on.

b. Major findings

A summary of the main conclusions drawn from the data

previously discussed in the findings.

c. Conclusions

The conclusion is the part of the research paper that brings

everything together in a logical manner. As the last part of a
research paper, a conclusion provides a clear interpretation of the
results of your research in a way that stresses the significance of
your study.

d. Recommendations

Recommendations are used to call for action or solutions to

the problems you have investigated in your research paper. Your
recommendations highlight specific solutions and measures to be
implemented based on the findings of your research.

7.5 What are the types of bibliography? How should bibliography

be written?

Bibliographies include all the sources you consulted in your

research whether or not you cite or mention them at all in your
research paper.
Bibliography Entry for a Book
A bibliography entry for a book begins with the author’s
name, which is written in this order: last name, comma, first
name, period. After the author’s name comes the title of the book.
If you are handwriting your bibliography, underline each title. If
you are working on a computer, put the book title in italicized type.
Be sure to capitalize the words in the title correctly, exactly as they
are written in the book itself. Following the title is the city where
the book was published, followed by a colon, the name of the
publisher, a comma, the date published, and a period. Here is an
example:

Format: Author’s last name, first name. Book Title. Place of

publication: publisher, date of publication.

Examples:

A book with one author: Hartz, Paula. Abortion: A Doctor’s

Perspective, a Woman’s Dilemma. New York: Donald I. Fine, Inc.,
1992.
A book with two or more authors: Landis, Jean M. and Rita J.
Simon. Intelligence: Nature or Nurture? New York: HarperCollins,
1998.

Bibliography Entry for a Periodical

A bibliography entry for a periodical differs slightly in form
from a bibliography entry for a book. For a magazine article, start
with the author’s last name first, followed by a comma, then the
first name and a period. Next, write the title of the article in
quotation marks, and include a period (or other closing
punctuation) inside the closing quotation mark. The title of the
magazine is next, underlined or in italic type, depending on
whether you are handwriting or using a computer, followed by a
period. The date and year, followed by a colon and the pages on
which the article appeared, come last. Here is an example:

Format: Author’s last name, first name. “Title of the Article.”

Magazine. Month and year of publication: page numbers.

Examples:

Article in a monthly magazine: Crowley, J.E.,T.E. Levitan and R.P.

Quinn.“Seven Deadly Half-Truths About Women.” Psychology
Today March 1978: 94–106.
 Article in a weekly magazine: Schwartz, Felice
N.“Management,Women, and the New Facts of Life.” Newsweek 20
July 2006: 21–22.

Signed newspaper article: Ferraro, Susan. “In-law and Order:

Finding Relative Calm.” The Daily News 30 June 1998: 73.

Unsigned newspaper article: “Beanie Babies May Be a Rotten Nest

Egg.” Chicago Tribune 21 June 2004: 12.

Bibliography Entry for a Web Site

For sources such as Web sites include the information a
reader needs to find the source or to know where and when you
found it. Always begin with the last name of the author,
broadcaster, person you interviewed, and so on. Here is an
example of a bibliography for a Web site:

Format: Author.“Document Title.” Publication or Web site title.

Date of publication. Date of access.

Example: Dodman, Dr. Nicholas. “Dog-Human Communication.”

Pet Place. 10 November 2006. 23 January 2014
<http://www.petplace.com/dogs/dog-human-communication-
2/page1.aspx>

8. Indicate all your reference materials under this section.

Bhandari, Pritha. “An introduction to qualitative research”.June 19,

2020.https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwi17e
TEr4bzAhWSPJQKHZRxAF0QFnoECAMQAQ&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.scribbr.com%2Fmethodology%2Fqualitative-research
%2F&usg=AOvVaw3WOF--B2_a8hawUqu00Aox

Carbonell, Charles Vincent. “Practical Research 1 Outline”.

file:///C:/Users/pc/Downloads/toaz.info-practical-research-1-outline-
pr_e77c6fc1d7a6c92ec8c9137977f727e9.pdf

Farnsworth, Dr. Bryn. “Qualitative vs Quantitative Research – what is

the difference?”.June 11, 2019.https://www.google.com/url?
sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwinkJ
jyrobzAhW0IqYKHVanB3IQFnoECAwQAw&url=https%3A%2F%2Fimotions.com
%2Fblog%2Fqualitative-vs-quantitative-research%2F%23%3A~%3Atext
%3DThe%2520core%2520difference%2Ccan%2520be%2520converted
%2520into%2520numbers.&usg=AOvVaw0re2j5xXtHo-QZgvgPGw_Q

IBM Corporation 2014, 2019.https://www.google.com/url?

sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjUn-
6WsIbzAhUFVpQKHRfZDSMQFnoECA8QAw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fwww.ibm.com%2Fdocs%2Fvi%2FSS6NHC
%2Fcom.ibm.swg.im.dashdb.analytics.doc%2Fdoc%2Fr_statistics.html
%23%3A~%3Atext%3DParametric%2520statistics%2520are%2520based
%2520on%2Cnot%2520follow%2520a%2520specific
%2520distribution.&usg=AOvVaw2VmKjNtnYzVhiZ4pxgG9qQ

Lavrakas, Paul J. “Sample Design”.2008.https://www.google.com/url?

sa=t&rct=j&q=&esrc=s&source=web&cd=&cad=rja&uact=8&ved=2ahUKEwjV3s
fsrobzAhUiGqYKHZ5SA0oQFnoECBIQAw&url=https%3A%2F
%2Fmethods.sagepub.com%2Freference%2Fencyclopedia-of-survey-research-
methods%2Fn503.xml%23%3A~%3Atext%3DA%2520sample%2520design
%2520is%2520the%2Cof%2520a%2520survey%2520as%2520well.%26text
%3DThe%2520sample%2520design%2520provides%2520the%2Ccan%2520be
%2520simple%2520or%2520complex.&usg=AOvVaw2keQHxOI_B-
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