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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to express my sincere gratitude to Almighty God for his divine grace to me during my

years of academic pursuit. Am also grateful to my supervisor Dr. Ani Emmanuel. Whose

comment, suggestions and encouragement served as help in successful completion of this

project.

I also wish to express my gratitude to my project coordinator Dr. Ogunremi A. B. Whose also

comment suggestions and encouragement served as help in successful completion of this

project.

I wish to express my gratitude to my family members who aided me both financially, socially

and also their love to me during my course in the institution.

I will not end my vote of thanks without expressing my profound joy to all our friends and

course mates. I hope to be in their midst all the time because they are rare gem, you all made

out college life a memorable one.

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DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated o Almighty God for starting and ending this part of our

educational career and for granting me strong powers to overcome all mountainous problems

that stood along the way of my academic pursuit.

I also dedicate it to my wonderful parents, family and friends who assisted and contributed

immensely in one way or the other. I express my greetings to them with deep love and pray

that all their good dreams will be crowned with blessing.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Soils may become contaminated by the accumulation of heavy metals and metalloids through

emissions from the rapidly expanding industrial areas, mine tailings, disposal of high metal

wastes, leaded gasoline and paints, land application of fertilizers, animal manures, sewage

sludge, pesticides, wastewater irrigation, coal combustion residues, spillage of

petrochemicals, and atmospheric deposition (Wuana and Okieimen, 2011). Heavy metal is a

general term used to describe a group of metals and metalloids with an atomic density greater

than 5.0 g/cm3 (Duffus, 2002). These elements occur naturally in soils and rocks at various

ranges of concentrations; they are also found in ground and surface water bodies and

sediments (Hutton and Symon, 1986). Unchecked industrial and human activities have

contributed significantly to elevated (pollutional) levels of these metals, in surface and

subsurface soils when compared to those contributed from geogenic or natural processes

(Dasaram et al., 2011). Their pollution of the environment even at low levels and the

resulting long-term cumulative health effects are among the leading health concerns all over

the word (Huton and Symon, 1986). The concern is heightened by their persistence in the soil

and their tendency to bioaccumulate, move along the food chain and also poison soil

microorganisms (Udousoro et al., 2010).

One of the major sources of increase in heavy metal concentration of the ecosystems in

Nigeria is auto mechanic activities (Adewole and Uchegbu, 2010). These auto mechanic

workshops are found in clusters of open plots of land in the vicinity of urban towns and cities

(Nwachukwu et al., 2010; Nwachukwu et al., 2011). Within the clusters are people who

specialize in electrical aspects of auto repairs, while others engage in repairs of brakes and

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steering, automatic or standard transmission engine, and spray painting, recharging of auto

batteries, welding and soldering etc.

Each of these activities generates various types of waste (gasoline, diesel, spent engine oil

and paint) which are disposed of by simply dumping in nearby bushes or surrounding areas.

Pollution effects of mechanic site activities in Nigeria have received limited attention even

though these activities have been shown to produce harmful wastes. Therefore, there is need

to continually monitor their nature, volume, direct harmful effects and current methods of

disposal as well as potential impacts on the environment (Udebuani et al. 2011). The heavy

metals most frequently encountered in this waste include copper, lead, cadmium, zinc,

manganese and nickel, all of which pose risks for human health and the environment. It has

therefore become imperative to monitor the levels of these heavy metals in soils in the

vicinity of two automobile mechanic clusters in Benue state, Central Nigeria, with the view to

assessing the pollution risk they pose to the environment.

Thus, this study is significant in that: The entire work is designed such that for the first time,

data on heavy metals in the two mechanic sites are generated. This data obtained would

provide an adequate idea of the pollution levels of these heavy metals on the environment and

also, serve as a proactive vehicle for selection and design of remediation variables in

modelling.s

1.2 HEAVY METALS

Recently, the interests of researchers regarding heavy metals contamination in the

environment have been on the increase, this may be due to their toxicity and persistence

within the environment. Amo-Asare (2012) defined heavy metals as metals which have their

densities five times higher than that of water and are poisonous at low concentrations even as

elements having atomic number more than 20 or their densities more than 5 g/cm3. One

major source that increases heavy metal concentration in the ecosystems in Nigeria is the auto

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mechanic activities (Adewole and Uchegbu, 2010). These auto mechanic workshops are

found in open plots of land in towns or cities (Nwachukwu et al., 2010, 2011). Within these

workshops are people that specialize in electrical aspect of auto repairs, others engage in

repairs of brakes and steering, automatic or standard transmission engine, spray painting,

recharging of auto batteries, welding and soldering. Each of these activities generates various

types of waste (gasoline, diesel, spent engine oil and paint) which are disposed by simply

dumping in the surrounding areas. Heavy metals in these wastes includes; cadmium (Cd),

nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), arsenic (As), chromium (Cr), tin (Sn), zinc (Zn) and so on

which ends up in the environment (Yahaya et al., 2009). Heavy metals are serious pollutants

because of their toxicity, persistence and non-degradability in the environment. The

increasing pollution of heavy metals in the environment has become a global phenomenon

(Malik et al., 2010; Linnik and Zubenko, 2000). Heavy metals can bio-accumulate and bio-

magnify via the food which are assimilated by humans resulting in adverse health effects.

Some common health effects associated with heavy metal poisoning includes; kidney

damage, blindness and breathing related problems (Agah et al., 2009). Pollution effects of

mechanic site activities in Nigeria has received limited attention in the time past even though

these activities have shown to produce harmful wastes.

Therefore, there is need to continually monitor their nature, volume, direct harmful effects,

current methods of disposal as well as potential impacts on the inhabitants of the

environment. The objective of this research is to determine the concentration of Heavy metals

in the soil from three auto-mechanic dumpsites, to assessed the site contamination using the

criteria of Geo-accumulation index (Igeo), Contamination factor (CF), Pollution load index

(PLI) and to compare their concentrations with world referenced standard upon which

decisions about the site quality will be made.

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1.3 HEAVY METALS CONSTITUTION

Heavy metals constitute a very heterogeneous group of elements widely varied in their

chemical properties and biological functions. The term heavy metals refer to those metals

which have specific weights more than 5g/cm3 (Barron, 1990).

Heavy metals are kept under environmental pollutant category due to their toxic effects on

plants, man and animals. These heavy metals are not metabolized to other intermediate

compounds and do not easily decompose in the environment.

These metals accumulate in food chain through uptake at primary producer level and then

through consumer level. They enter our bodies through foods, drinks, water and air (Barron,

1990). Furthermore, heavy metals are a member of loosely – defined subsets of elements that

exhibit metallic properties and they mainly include the transition metals, some metalloids,

lanthanides and actinides. Many different definitions have been proposed, some are based on

density, some on atomic number or atomic weight, and some on chemical properties or

toxicity (Agency for toxic substances and disease registry (ATSDR), 2005). Heavy metals are

also chemical elements with a specific gravity that is at least 5 times the specific gravity of

water. Specific gravity itself is a measure of density of a given amount of a solid substance

when compared with an equal volume of water (ATSDR, 2005).

Bioaccumulation can be described as an increase in the concentration of a chemical substance

in biological system overtime, compared to the chemical concentration in the environment

(Specie et al., 1995). It is also the accumulation of contaminants by species in concentrations

that are in order of magnitude higher than the surrounding environment (Beek, 2000).

Poor waste management in most mechanic villages has led to high values of metals in the

vicinity resulting in ecological and public health problems in the environment. Plant crops are

often grown in polluted and degraded environmental conditions.

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In a study of the bioaccumulation of heavy metals in soil and cassava (manihot esculenta

cranzt) cultivated in farms near dumpsites in nekede mechanic village owerri nigeria, Ejiogu

et al, (2017) noted that the high levels of the heavy metals in the soil, in Nekede automobile

mechanic village recorded in this study pose health risks to the inhabitants of such area, and

people who farm around the dumpsites. It also raises significant environmental concern on

the levels of soil contamination which may out of run-off find its way into the nearby river,

“Otamiri River” that serves as source of domestic water at study area.

They also observed that the plants in this study absorbed these heavy metals in their various

parts and these plants are often consumed by man as part of his food; if consumed in high

concentration they can lead to bioaccumulation of these heavy metals in the tissues, and can

also elicit diseases, especially in the immuno-suppressed or immunocompromised

individuals.

1.4 AMARANTHS

Amaranths belong to the dicotyledonous genus Amaranthus L. which is made up of over 70

species, and three subgenera. The word Amaranthus originated from the Greek word

amarantos meaning “one that does not wither” or “never fading”. About 60 Amaranthus

species are native to America while the rest originated from Asia, Africa, Australia and

Europe. The genus Amaranthus contains both cultivated and wild species. Among the

cultivated species, grain amaranths have been grown for more than 8,000 years dating back to

before the Pre-Colombian civilization of Central and South America. The cultivated grain

amaranths include A. caudatus L., A. cruentus L. and A. hypochondriacus L. and their

parental wild species are thought to be A. hybridus L., A. quitensisWilld. ex Spreng. and A.

powellii S.Wats. Grain Amaranths are important subsistence and commercial food crops for

people living in parts of Central and South America. They are expanding in many regions of

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Asia as well as Eastern and Southern Africa (www.amaranthinstitute.org). Other amaranth

species like A. dubious L., A. hybridus and A. tricolor L. are consumed as leafy vegetables.

Meanwhile, A. retroflexus L. (redroot pigweed), A. albus L. (tumbleweed), A. Palmeri S.

Wats. (Palmer amaranth), A. spinosus L. (spiny amaranth) represent weed species. While

many of the latter are cosmopolitan in nature; the vegetable amaranths are commonly found

in Asia and Africa while grain amaranths are native to Mexico and Peru with recent

expansion around the world. Genetic races have been suggested for grain amaranths with

Azteca, Mercado, Mixteca, Nepal and Picos in A. hypochondriacus; Mexican, Guatemalan

and African in A. cruentus; and finally South American and Edulis in A. caudatus. The first

of these two species can hybridize to each other as can all the grain amaranth with their

immediate wild relatives; however, in general most cultivars tend to be self-pollinating

despite being monoecious. In terms of nutritional content, grain amaranths produce seed with

high protein content (17–19% of dry weight) and well-balanced amino acid profiles. The

seeds of grain Amaranths possess double the amount of the essential amino acids (especially

lysine, phenylalanine and threonine) and high minerals (calcium, iron and zinc) compared to

wheat protein. As easy to cook grains, the amaranths show promise for amelioration of

protein or amino acid deficiencies, supplementing mineral content (Fe, Zn) of foods and

providing protein to predominantly or completely vegetarian diets. Grain amaranths are

commonly popped or roasted before milling or mixing with other ingredients; therefore,

several flours can be made from this pseudocereal and provide novel organoleptic properties

and new tastes and flavors. Chemical composition analysis of grain amaranths confirms their

high potential for human nutraceutical uses. Amaranth seed and amaranth seed oil is high in

Vitamin E and squalene, which can be beneficial for people suffering from hypertension or

cardiovascular disease. Regular consumption of grain amaranth can reduce blood pressure,

cholesterol levels and improves antioxidant status and immunological parameters. With

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increasing demand for food and current malnutrition levels, development of amaranths as an

alternative food could be an important boon for people of developing countries suffering

from malnutrition and hunger (Resaee, A., Derayat 2005).

In summary, grain amaranth is a healthy and nutritious food crop that could benefit people if

it was produced and consumed in greater quantities (Resaee, A., Derayat 2005).

1.5 Amaranthus Sp.

Amaranthus Sp. is cultivated as a minor food crop in Central and South America, Mexico

and parts of Asia and Africa. In many tropical countries it is extensively grown as a green

leaf vegetable. Amaranth is one of the oldest food crops in the world. Evidence of its

cultivation dates back to as far as 6700 BC (Itúrbide and Gispert, 1994; RSA, 2010).

Amaranth is considered one of the most commonly produced and consumed indigenous

vegetables on the African continent (Grubben and Denton, 2004). Of the 72,000+ ha of

vegetables planted annually in Tanzania, amaranth constitutes about 6% (NBS, 2004). A

study by Keller (2004) indicates that amaranth is an important traditional leafy vegetable in

northeast Tanzania, and is listed as one of its “upper five” vegetables.

The genus Amaranth consists of nearly 60 species, several of which are cultivated as leafy

vegetables, grains, or ornamental plants, while others are considered as weeds (Maboko,

1999; RSA, 2010). Amaranth is one of the few plants whose leaves are eaten as a vegetable

while the seeds are used in the same way as cereals. There is no distinct separation between

the vegetable and grain types. Leaves of young plants grown for grain are eaten as both

human and animal food, in South America, Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe (Kaul et al.,

1996; Muyonga et al., 2008). Species grown for vegetables are represented mainly by A.

tricolor, A. dubius, A. lividus, A. creuntus, A. palmeri and A. hybridus. Three principal

species considered for grain include, A. hypochondriacus, A. cruentus and A. caudatus.

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(Teutonico and Knorr, 1985; Muyonga et al., 2008; Mlakar et al., 2010). Amaranth leaf can

be used as greens in salads, boiled or fried in oil and mixed with meat or fish. This can be

used as side dish in soups or as an ingredient in sauce and baby food (Mlakar et al., 2010).

The grain of amaranth can also be used in numerous recipes ranging from popped amaranth

snack, porridge, stiff porridge, chapatti (flat bread), bread, creamy soup, pancakes, cakes,

scones, pizza, etc. (Uba, S., et, al. 2008)

Amaranth, a C4 plant, is one of a few dicots in which the first product of photosynthesis is a

four carbon compound. The combination of anatomical features in amaranth and C4

metabolism, results in increased efficiency to use CO2 under a wide range of both

temperature and moisture stress environments. This contributes to the plant's wide geographic

adaptability to diverse environmental conditions (Kaul et al., 1996; Stallknecht and Schulz-

Schaeffer, 1993).

Amaranth both leaves and grains are rich in vitamins A, (2917 IU) and vitamin C (43.5 mg),

iron (2.32 mg), calcium (215 mg), potassium (135-611 mg), phosphorus (50-148 mg), protein

(2.46-3.8 g), and lysine (0.13-0.34 g). Amaranth is an annual crop that grows rapidly and is

harvested within 3–4 weeks after sowing for leaves while grain can be harvested at 60-90

days. The crop is also known for being tolerant to common vegetable disease and pest

incidences and less labour-demanding (AVRDC, 2004; Maundu et al., 2009). Despite its

positive agronomic and nutritional characteristics, majority of cultivated lines of amaranth in

Africa including Tanzania offer low yields relative to its potential (Moinester, 2007).

Through collection and selection programmes, a number of strains have been introduced and

acclimatized in various parts of the World and Africa, but evaluation studies of foliage and

grain yield and its contributing quantitative and qualitative traits are scarce (Shukla et al.,

2006).

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The yield aspects are particularly important as many farmers wish to optimize yields and

profits for their efforts. Therefore improvement of traditional crops such as amaranths

through research and development could produce an easy and cost-effective way of

eliminating malnutrition and promoting the people‟s health as well as attaining food security

(Onyango, 2010).

1.6 HEAVY METALS TRANSFORMATION

Heavy metals are conventionally defined as elements with metallic properties and an atomic

number >20. The most common heavy metal contaminants are Cd, Cr, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn.

Metals are natural components in soil. Some of these metals are micronutrients necessary for

plant growth, such as Zn, Cu, Mn, Ni, and Co, while others have unknown biological

function, such as Cd, Pb, and Hg (Lenntech W. (2009).

Metal pollution has harmful effect on biological systems and does not undergo

biodegradation. Toxic heavy metals such as Pb, Co, Cd can be differentiated from other

pollutants, since they cannot be biodegraded but can be accumulated in living organisms, thus

causing various diseases and disorders even in relatively lower concentrations. Heavy metals,

with soil residence times of thousands of years, pose numerous health dangers to higher

organisms. They are also known to have effect on plant growth, ground cover and have a

negative impact on soil microflora. It is well known that heavy metals cannot be chemically

degraded and need to be physically removed or be transformed into nontoxic compounds

(Lenntech W. (2009).

1.6.1 ARSENIC (As)

Arsenic (atomic number 33) is a silver-grey brittle crystalline solid with atomic weight of

74.9, specific gravity 5.73, melting point 817°C (at 28 atm), boiling point 613°C, and vapor

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pressure 1 mm Hg at 372°C. Arsenic is a semimetallic element with the chemical symbol

“As”. Arsenic is odorless and tasteless. Arsenic can combine with other elements to form

inorganic and organic arsenicals. In the environment, arsenic is combined with oxygen,

chlorine, and sulfur to form inorganic arsenic compounds. Inorganic arsenic compounds are

mainly used to preserve wood. Organic arsenic compounds are used as pesticides, primarily

on cotton plants (Idodo−Umeh et, al. 2010).

Arsenic exists in the −3, 0, +3, and +5 valence oxidation states [9], and in a variety of

chemical forms in natural waters and sediments. Environmental forms include arsenious acids

(H3AsO3, H3AsO3, ), arsenic acids (H3AsO4, , ), arsenites, arsenates, methylarsenic acid,

dimethylarsinic acid, and arsine. Two most common forms in natural waters arsenite () and

inorganic arsenate (), referred as As3+ and As5+. From both the biological and the

toxicological points of view, arsenic compounds can be classified into three major groups.

These groups are inorganic arsenic compounds, organic arsenic compounds, and arsine gas.

It is a hard acid and preferentially complexes with oxides and nitrogen. Trivalent arsenites

predominate in moderately reducing anaerobic environments such as groundwate. The most

common trivalent inorganic arsenic compounds are arsenic trioxide, sodium arsenite, and

arsenic trichloride. Trivalent (+3) arsenates include As(OH)3, , AsO2OH2−, and  [9]. Arsenite

(As(OH)3, As3+) is predominant in reduced redox potential conditions (Idodo−Umeh et, al.

2010).

Arsenic is one of the contaminants found in the environment which is notoriously toxic to

man and other living organisms. It is a highly toxic element that exists in various species, and

the toxicity of arsenic depends on its species. The pH, redox conditions, surrounding mineral

composition, and microbial activities affect the form (inorganic or organic) and the oxidation

state of arsenic. It is generally accepted that the inorganic species, arsenite [As3+] and arsenate

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[As5+], are the predominant species in most environments, although the organic ones might

also be present (Idodo−Umeh et, al. 2010).

In general, inorganic compounds of arsenic are regarded as more highly toxic than most

organic forms which are less toxic. The trivalent compounds (arsenites) are more toxic than

the pentavalent compounds (arsenates). It has been reported that As3+ is 4 to 10 times more

soluble in water than As5+. However, the trivalent methylated arsenic species have been found

to be more toxic than inorganic arsenic because they are more efficient at causing DNA

breakdown. Although As5+ tends to be less toxic compared to of As3+, it is thermodynamically

more stable due to it predominates under normal conditions and becomes the cause of major

contaminant in ground water [14]. Arsenate which is in the pentavalent state (As 5+) is also

considered to be toxic and carcinogenic to human (Idodo−Umeh et, al. 2010).

1.6.2 LEAD (Pb)

Lead (Pb), with atomic number 82, atomic weight 207.19, and a specific gravity of 11.34, is a

bluish or silvery-grey metal with a melting point of 327.5°C and a boiling point at

atmospheric pressure of 1740°C. It has four naturally occurring isotopes with atomic weights

208, 206, 207 and 204 (in decreasing order of abundance). Despite the fact that lead has four

electrons on its valence shell, its typical oxidation state is +2 rather than +4, since only two of

the four electrons ionize easily. Apart from nitrate, chlorate, and chloride, most of the

inorganic salts of lead2+ have poor solubility in water. Lead (Pb) exists in many forms in the

natural sources throughout the world and is now one of the most widely and evenly

distributed trace metals. Soil and plants can be contaminated by lead from car exhaust, dust,

and gases from various industrial sources (Gupta A.K. et, al. 2006).

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Pb2+ was found to be acute toxic to human beings when present in high amounts. Since Pb 2+ is

not biodegradable, once soil has become contaminated, it remains a long-term source of

Pb2+ exposure. Metal pollution has a harmful effect on biological systems and does not

undergo biodegradation (Gupta A.K. et, al. 2006).

Soil can be contaminated with Pb from several other sources such as industrial sites, from

leaded fuels, old lead plumbing pipes, or even old orchard sites in production where lead

arsenate is used. Lead accumulates in the upper 8 inches of the soil and is highly immobile.

Contamination is long-term. Without remedial action, high soil lead levels will never return

to normal (Gupta A.K. et, al. 2006).

In the environment, lead is known to be toxic to plants, animals, and microorganisms. Effects

are generally limited to especially contaminated areas. Pb contamination in the environment

exists as an insoluble form, and the toxic metals pose serious human health problem, namely,

brain damage and retardation (Gupta A.K. et, al. 2006).

1.6.3. MERCURY (Hg)

Mercury is a naturally occurring metal that is present in several forms. Metallic mercury is

shiny, silver-white, odorless liquid. Mercury combines with other elements, such as chlorine,

sulfur, or oxygen, to form inorganic mercury compounds or salts, which are usually white

powders or crystals. Mercury also combines with carbon to make organic mercury

compounds. Mercury, which has the lowest melting point (−39°C) of all the pure metals, is

the only pure metal that is liquid at room temperature. However, due to its several physical

and chemical advantages such as its low boiling point (357°C) and easy vaporization,

mercury is still an important material in many industrial products. As any other metal,

mercury could occur in the soil in various forms. It dissolves as free ion or soluble complex

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and is nonspecifically adsorbed by binding mainly due to the electrostatic forces, chelated,

and precipitated as sulphide, carbonate, hydroxide, and phosphate. There are three soluble

forms of Hg in the soil environment. The most reduced is Hg0 metal with the other two forms

being ionic of mercurous ion and mercuric ion Hg2+, in oxidizing conditions especially at low

pH. Hg+ ion is not stable under environmental conditions since it dismutates into Hg 0 and

Hg2+. A second potential route for the conversion of mercury in the soil is methylation to

methyl or dimethyl mercury by anaerobic bacteria (Elaigwu et, al. 2007).

Mercury is a persistent environmental pollutant with bioaccumulation ability in fish, animals,

and human beings. Mercury salts and organomercury compounds are among the most

poisonous substances in our environment. The mechanism and extent of toxicity depend

strongly on the type of compound and the redox state of mercury (Elaigwu et, al. 2007).

Environmental contamination due to mercury is caused by several industries, petrochemicals,

minings, painting, and also by agricultural sources such as fertilizer and fungicidal sprays.

Some of the more common sources of mercury found throughout the environment include but

may not be limited to the household bleach, acid, and caustic chemicals (e.g., battery acid,

household lye, muriatic acid (hydrochloric acid), sodium hydroxide, and sulfuric acid),

instrumentation containing mercury (e.g., medical instruments, thermometers, barometers,

and manometers), dental amalgam (fillings), latex paint (manufactured prior to 1990),

batteries, electric lighting (fluorescent lamps, incandescent wire filaments, mercury vapor

lamps, ultraviolet lamps), pesticides, pharmaceuticals (e.g., nasal sprays, cosmetics, contact

lens products), household detergents and cleaners, laboratory chemicals, inks and paper

coatings, lubrication oils, wiring devices and switches, and textiles. Though mercury use in

many of the above items being produced now is restricted or banned, there are still some

existing, older products in use (Elaigwu et, al. 2007).

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Terrestrial plants are generally insensitive to the harmful effects of mercury compounds;

however, mercury is known to affect photosynthesis and oxidative metabolism by interfering

with electron transport in chloroplasts and mitochondria. Mercury also inhibits the activity of

aquaporins and reduces plant water uptake (Elaigwu et, al. 2007).

Mercury and its compounds are cumulative toxins and in small quantities are hazardous to

human health. The major effects of mercury poisoning manifest as neurological and renal

disturbances as it can easily pass the blood-brain barrier and has effect on the brain (Elaigwu

et, al. 2007).

1.7 MECHANISM OF HEAVY METAL UPTAKE BY PLANT

Contaminant uptake by plants and its mechanisms have been being explored by several

researchers. It could be used to optimize the factors to improve the performance of plant

uptake, the plants act both as “accumulators” and “excluders”. Accumulators survive despite

concentrating contaminants in their aerial tissues. They biodegrade or biotransform the

contaminants into inert forms in their tissues. The excluders restrict contaminant uptake into

their biomass.

Plants have evolved highly specific and very efficient mechanisms to obtain essential

micronutrients from the environment, even when present at low ppm levels. Plant roots, aided

by plant-produced chelating agents and plant-induced pH changes and redox reactions, are

able to solubilize and take up micronutrients from very low levels in the soil, even from

nearly insoluble precipitates. Plants have also evolved highly specific mechanisms to

translocate and store micronutrients. These same mechanisms are also involved in the uptake,

translocation, and storage of toxic elements, whose chemical properties simulate those of

essential elements. Thus, micronutrient uptake mechanisms are of great interest to

phytoremediation.

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The range of known transport mechanisms or specialized proteins embedded in the plant cell

plasma membrane involved in ion uptake and translocation include (1) proton pumps (″-

ATPases that consume energy and generate electrochemical gradients), (2) co- and

antitransporters (proteins that use the electrochemical gradients generated by ″-ATPases to

drive the active uptake of ions), and (3) channels (proteins that facilitate the transport of ions

into the cell). Each transport mechanism is likely to take up a range of ions. A basic problem

is the interaction of ionic species during uptake of various heavy metal contaminants. After

uptake by roots, translocation into shoots is desirable because the harvest of root biomass is

generally not feasible. Little is known regarding the forms in which metal ions are

transported from the roots to the shoots.

Plant uptake-translocation mechanisms are likely to be closely regulated. Plants generally do

not accumulate trace elements beyond near-term metabolic needs. And these requirements are

small ranging from 10 to 15 ppm of most trace elements suffice for most needs. The

exceptions are “hyperaccumulator” plants, which can take up toxic metal ions at levels in the

thousands of ppm. Another issue is the form in which toxic metal ions are stored in plants,

particularly in hyperaccumulating plants, and how these plants avoid metal toxicity. Multiple

mechanisms are involved. Storage in the vacuole appears to be a major one (Beek, B. (2000).

Water, evaporating from plant leaves, serves as a pump to absorb nutrients and other soil

substances into plant roots. This process, termed evapotranspiration, is responsible for

moving contamination into the plant shoots as well. Since contamination is translocated from

roots to the shoots, which are harvested, contamination is removed while leaving the original

soil undisturbed. Some plants that are used in phytoextraction strategies are termed

“hyperaccumulators.” They are plants that achieve a shoot-to-root metal-concentration ratio

greater than one. Nonaccumulating plants typically have a shoot-to-root ratio considerably

less than one. Ideally, hyperaccumulators should thrive in toxic environments, require little

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maintenance and produce high biomass, although few plants perfectly fulfill these

requirements (Beek, B. (2000).

Metal accumulating plant species can concentrate heavy metals like Cd, Zn, Co, Mn, Ni, and

Pb up to 100 or 1000 times those taken up by nonaccumulator (excluder) plants. In most

cases, microorganisms bacteria and fungi, living in the rhizosphere closely associated with

plants, may contribute to mobilize metal ions, increasing the bioavailable fraction. Their role

in eliminating organic contaminants is even more significant than that in case of inorganic

compounds (Beek, B. (2000).

Heavy metal uptake by plant through phytoremediation technologies is using these

mechanisms of phytoextraction, phytostabilisation, rhizofiltration, and phytovolatilization as

shown in Figure 1.

The mechanisms of heavy metals uptake by plant through phytoremediation technology

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1.8 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

One of the greatest problems that the world is facing today is that of environmental

pollution, increasing with every passing year and causing grave and irreparable damage

to the earth (Beek, B. (2000).

Industrialization is considered vital to the nation’s socio-

Economic development as well as its standing in the international community. Ideally,

the sitting of industries should achieve a balance between socio- economic and

environment considerations (Beek, B. (2000).

In recent years, heavy metal contamination has become a serious problem all over the

world as these metals persist in the soil for longer period due to their non

biodegradability. Since the beginning of the industrial revolution, soil pollution by these toxic

metals has accelerated dramatically and has contributed to a variety of toxic effects on living

organisms. Soils as the major sink have been contaminated by heavy metals and metalloids

through emissions from the rapidly expanding industrial areas, sewage sludge, pesticides,

wastewater irrigation, coal combustion residues, spillage of petrochemicals, and

atmospheric deposition. Heavy metal pollution of the soil is caused by various metals,

especially Cu, Ni, Cd, Zn, Cr and Pb (Beek, B. (2000).

Heavy metal contamination of soil may pose risks and hazards to humans and the

ecosystem through: direct ingestion or contact with contaminated soil, the food chain

(soil-plant-human or soil-plant-animal human). Lead is a highly toxic metal whose

widespread use has caused extensive environmental contamination and health problems in

many parts of the world. The decontamination of soil and wastes polluted with anthropogenic

chemical is a global problem that has consumed considerable economic resources.

Many species of plants have been successful in absorbing heavy metal pollutants such

as lead, cadmium and others from the soil and water (Arias, et, al. 2005).

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The health risks posed by these metals have continued to be of global concern, and have

made the European Union to place thirteen metals on the High-Risk-Monitor level. These

include Arsenic, Cadmium, Cobalt, Chromium, Copper, Mercury, Manganese, Nickel, Lead,

Tin, and Thallium (Arias, et, al. 2005).

Lead, Cadmium, Zinc and Cobalt have been used in this work to study the ability of two

nonedible African plants – Sida acuta and Duranta erecta – to phytoremediate soils

polluted with the metal ions in their +2 oxidation states (Arias, et, al. 2005).

1.9 OBJECTIVES

1.9.1 OVERALL OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to detect heavy metal accumulation potential of Amaraithus

species from mechanic village

1.9.2 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES

i. To generate yield information in heavy metal accumulation potential of Amaraithus species

from mechanic village

ii. To conduct participatory research as a demand-driven strategy in heavy metals.

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CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION OF AMARANTH

Amaranth is the collective name for the domesticated species of the genus Amaranthus

(family Amaranthaceae). It is one of the oldest food crops in the world with evidence of

cultivation dating back to over 6700 years in Puebla, Mexico (Itúrbide and Gispert, 1994;

Onyango, 2010). Its Centers of diversity are Central and South America, tropical and South

Africa, and Australia (Kadereit et al., 2003). Amaranth is cultivated as a minor food crop in

Central and South America, Mexico and parts of Asia and Africa and is extensively grown as

a green leaf vegetable in many tropical countries (Maboko, 1999). At present Amaranthus

cruentus is a widespread traditional vegetable in all countries of tropical Africa. It is the main

leafy vegetable in Benin, Togo, and Sierra Leone, and very important in many lowland areas

e.g. Southern Nigeria, Democratic Republic of Congo, Kenya and Tanzania (Grubben,

2004b).

2.2 DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT

Mature plant

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Amaranth species are erect or spreading annuals with a rough or prickly appearance. Grain

amaranths vary in flower, leaf and stem colour, but maroon or crimson colouring is common

in all three plant parts. Some varieties have green flowers and some are more golden. Some

of the deep crimson varieties can be very striking when in full bloom. The height of the plant

varies between 0, 3 m and 2 m, depending on the species, growth habitat and environment.

Stems

Stems are usually longitudinally grooved. Grain amaranth plants are about 1,524 m to 2,134

m tall when mature and are dicots (broadleaf) plants with thick, tough stems similar to those

of sunflowers.

Leaves

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The leaves are variable in size, green or purple, with slender stalks. These are alternate,

usually simple, with entire margins and distinct markings, depending on species.

Flowers

Tiny green flowers are borne in dense, elongated clusters, usually on the tips of the branches.

They are borne in spikes or plumes and are white, green, pink or purplish in colour.

Seed

The small seeds are usually shiny black in colour, in contrast to those of grain types which

are cream-coloured. There are up to 3 000 seeds per gram. The tiny, lens shaped seeds are

usually pale in colour. Essential parts Leaves and grain are the essential parts of the amaranth

crop. Climatic requirements Temperature Amaranth is highly tolerant of an arid environment.

Amaranth seeds need soil temperatures of between 18 °C and 25 °C to germinate and an air

temperature above 25 °C for optimum growth. The growth ceases at temperatures below 18

°C. The number of growing degree days during the growing season is a major determinant of

amaranth plant growth. Lower temperatures and shorter days will induce flowering with a

subsequent reduction in leaf yield. Frost damage should not be a problem because the crop

grows during summer with the start of the rains. However, frost plays an important role in the

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harvesting of the crop. Because amaranth is an annual crop, it does not mature completely in

areas with a short growing season. Frost is necessary to terminate the crop’s growth.

2.3 TAXONOMICAL CLASSIFICATION

Family

Amaranthaceae

Species

Amaranthus spinosus L.

Details

Eppo_code AMASP

Family Amaranthaceae

Species Amaranthus spinosus L.

Meaning_of_the_name Amaranthus - derives from the greek word "amarantos" meaning

immortal or unfading and "anthos" meaning flower, and refers to

long lasting qualities of of the flower; spinosus: spiny.

Global_description Amaranthus spinosus is an erect, many-

branched annual herb growing up to 1.5 m. The stem is smooth,

robust, cylindrical and often reddish. The leaves

are simple and alternate, glabrous or with sparse hairs on the main

veins below, often diamond-shaped, long petiolate, up to 9 cm. They

are dotted with numerous translucid spots; the venation is well

marked. The leaf axils bear pairs of fine and slender spines. The

small green flowers are grouped in clusters in the axils of the leaves

and in branched terminal spikes. The fruit is a dehiscent capsule that

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splits open at maturity (dehiscent); it contains a single smooth, black,

lens-shaped seed.

Similar_species Can be confused with several other species in the family

Amaranthaceae.

Cotyledons Cotyledones are linear to lanceolate, usually red to purple

underneath, 10 mm long and 2 mm wide.

First_leaves Long-stalked, simple and alternate. The lamina is obovate shaped for

the first 2 or 3 leaves, then elliptical or oval for the following leaves.

Apices are mucronate and the lower surfaces are usually purple.

Habit An upright, erect annual herb, many branched. Grows up to 1 m high.

Underground_system Taproot.

Stem Cylindrical and smooth, it can be green or red. A pair of strong

spines, reddish and swollen, are inserted at the base of the leaf stalk

(petiole).

Leaves Leaves are simple and alternate. The lamina is oval, 5 to 10 cm long

and 2 to 5 cm wide. The apex is deeply notched. The margin is entire.

Each leaf has 8 to 10 slightly curved lateral veins that are clearly

visible below. Both sides are smooth, with many small translucent

dots. The upper side is green, the lower side often purple.

Inflorescence Flowers are grouped in sessile clusters, arranged into spikes at the tip

of thick branches, or in glomeruli in the axils of the leaves.

Flowers The flowers are very small and green, unisexual. They have no petals

but five scarious sepals. The female flowers are located at the base of

the spikes, the male flowers at the tip. Male flowers have five

stamens.

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Fruits Capsule ovoid , 2 mm x 1 mm, splitting along a transverse circular

line (circumscissile) at maturity, one-seeded.

Seeds Seeds are lenticular, smooth, shiny, reddish brown, 0.8 mm in

diameter.

Biology A. spinosus is an annual weed. It reproduces by seeds. The seeds are

spread by water and wind.

Ecology It occurs on roadsides, villages, disturbed areas, along the livestock

holding areas. It is a weed of crops. It prefers rich soil in organic

matter and nitrogen.

Origine Native to tropical America.

Use It is traditionally used to treat chest.

References Grard, P., T. Le Bourgeois and H. Merlier (2010). Adventrop V.1.5

Les adventices d'Afrique soudano-sahélienne. Cirad, Montpellier,

France.

Le Bourgeois, T., A. Carrara, M. Dodet, W. Dogley, A. Gaungoo, P.

Grard, Y. Ibrahim, E. Jeuffrault, G. Lebreton, P. Poilecot, J. Prosperi,

J. A. Randriamampianina, A. P. Andrianaivo and F. Théveny (2008).

Advent-OI : Principales adventices des îles du sud-ouest de l'Océan

Indien. Cirad. Montpellier, France.

-Australian Tropical Rainforest Plants

-Bromilow C. 2010. Problem plants and alien weeds of South Africa.

Pretoria: Briza Publications. p. 206.

- Hyde, M.A., Wursten, B.T. & Ballings, P. (2013). Flora of

Zimbabwe: Species information: Amaranthus spinosus.

-Pacific Island Ecosystems at Risk (PIER)

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-Swaziland’s Alien Plants Database

2.4 USES AND NUTRITIVE VALUE OF AMARANTHS

Amaranthus spp. is utilized for food in diverse geographical areas. Vegetable types (also

leaves of grain one) are usually picked fresh, used as greens in salads or blanched, steamed,

boiled, fried in oil, and mixed with either meat, fish, cucurbit seeds, groundnut or palm oil.

Cooked greens can be used as a side dish, in soups or as an ingredient in sauce and baby food

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etc. (Grubben, 2004; Mlakar et al., 2010). Amaranth grain, mostly rolled or popped can be

used in muesli and in granola bars. Grain can also be germinated for sprouts, malted for beer

production. Amaranth like maize and buckwheat can be popped through intense, short and

dry heat without addition of fat. Ground grain can be used as flour ingredient in different

mixtures for pancakes, bread, muffins, dumplings, crackers, cookies, pudding etc. (Early

1990; Bejosano and Corke 1998; Mlakar et al., 2010).

On the other hand different amaranth species have been used for medicinal purposes in

Africa. A. graecizans is used in East and West Africa to manufacture a local salt, where by

the plants are dried and burned to ashes and used as a substitute for common salt. In Uganda

the leaves are chewed and the liquid swallowed to treat tonsillitis. In Senegal, the leaves are

used as an anthelmintic (Maundu and Grubben, 2004).

In Nigeria A. blitum is used as medicine against lung disorder (Grubben, 2004). Use of A.

cruentus as medicine is reported in different parts of Africa. In Senegal the roots are boiled

with honey as a laxative for infants. In Ghana the water of macerated plants is used as a wash

to treat pains in the limbs. In Ethiopia it is used as a tapeworm-expeller. Sudan, the ash from

the stems is used as a wound dressing and in Gabon heated leaves were used on tumours

(Grubben, 2004).

Vegetable amaranths are recommended as a good food with medicinal properties for young

children, lactating mothers and for patients with constipation, fever, haemorrhage, anaemia

and kidney complaints. In general medicinal uses of amaranth in Africa are many and

diverse.

The consumption of vegetable amaranth helps balance vitamin and mineral intake (Shukla et

al., 2005). Per 100g portion, seed of grain amaranth is composed of water 75.16g, energy 102

kcal , protein 3.80g, total lipid (fat) 1.58, carbohydrate 18.69g, fiber 2.1g, calcium 47mg, iron

2.1mg, magnesium 65mg, phosphorus 148mg, potassium 134mg, sodium 6mg, zinc 0.86mg,

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thiamin 0.015mg, riboflavin 0.022mg, niacin 0.235mg, vitamin B-6 0.113mg and vitamin E

(alpha-tocopheral) 0.19mg. Proteins have high digestibility (approx. 90%) and are rich with

lysine, 0.34 g Lys/g N (which usually appears in grains as limiting amino acid). Amaranth

seed is also a rich source of tryptophan and amino acids containing sulphur. These usually do

not appear often enough in grains (Mlakar et al., 2010; USDA, 2010).

Amaranth leaf is highly nutritious vegetable both in raw and cooked form. Its nutritional

value is much higher than cabbage and Chinese cabbage (Ebert et al., 2011). Each 100g

portion of raw amaranth leaves contains; water 91.69g, energy 23 kcal, protein 4.8g, total

lipids (fat) 0.7g, carbohydrates 2.02g, calcium 246mg, iron 3.0mg, magnesium 55mg,

phosphorus 50mg, potassium 611mg, sodium 20mg, zinc 0.9mg, vitamin C 43.3mg, thiamine

0.027mg, riboflavin 0.158mg, niacin 0.658mg, vitamin A 2917 IU and vitamin K 1140 µg

(Lyimo et al., 2003; USDA, 2010).

2.5.0 AGRONOMY OF AMARANTHS

2.5.1 CLIMATE AND SOIL REQUIREMENT

Amaranth grows well in both hot humid and hot dry climates. The plant prefers temperatures

between 25 and 30°C. Amaranth is photoperiod-sensitive and most species will flower when

day lengths are shorter than 12 hours. Amaranth grows best in loam or silty-loam soil with

good water-holding capacity, but it can grow on a wide range of soil types and soil moisture

levels. Some species are tolerant to drought for example A. blitum, A. spinosus. Amaranth

can tolerate a soil pH from 4.5 to 8.0 (Palada and Chang, 2003; Ebert et al., 2011).

2.5.2 PEST AND DISEASES

Insects are serious problem in amaranth. Caterpillars (Hymenia recurvalis, Spodoptera litura,

Heliothis armigera) and sometimes grasshoppers are the most harmful pests. The larvae of the

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stem borer Lixus truncatulus may cause much damage due to growth retardation. Many other

insects such as aphids, leaf miners, stinkbugs, mole crickets as well as mites attack amaranth

but generally cause only minor damage (Grubben, 2004). In well drained soil, amaranth does

not suffer disease problems of economic importance. However, some amaranth lines are

susceptible to soil-borne organisms associated with damping-off and stalk-rot caused by

Pythium, Fusarium and Bacterium (Grubben, 2004). Damping-off caused by Pythium and

Rhizoctonia may be serious in seedbeds. Good drainage and light dense-sowing will help to

reduce this problem. Wet rot or stem rot caused by Choanephora curcubitarum is a major

fungal disease on A. cruentus, while A. tricolor and A. dubius are much less susceptible

(Ebert et al., 2011). Some amaranth species are reported to host some virus and fungi

pathogens. For example, A. graecizans act as host plant of Verticillium fungi and A. blitum is

a natural host for turnip mosaic virus and tobacco leaf curl virus (Grubben, 2004; Maundu

and Grubben, 2004). Alternaria leaf spot has been reported in A. cruentus in Tanzania while

it is hardy or not susceptible to nematode damage (Grubben, 2004).

2.5.3 BREEDING OF AMARANTHS

In amaranth breeding the following factors are taken into account, high productivity of leaf,

large flower head, seed colour, stem height, low seed shattering, satisfactory nutritive and

utilization properties (Weber, 1990; Svirskis, 2003). Breeding of amaranths is limited to

selection of landraces in many places of the World. For example in Benin and Nigeria,

selection of landraces resulted in a popular and productive cultivar known as „Fotete‟ in

Benin (Grubben, 2004b). In Peru selection in landraces has led to the release of the A.

caudatus cultivar “Noel Vietmeyer”, “Oscar Blanco” and “Alan Garcia”. In Tanzania two

new varieties (Madiira 1 and Madiira 2) of vegetable amaranth has been selected by AVRDC

scientists and released by HORT-Tengeru. Furthermore genetic studies have identified

marker loci for traits such as pigmentation patterns, inflorescence morphology and seed

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characters in A. caudatus and other grain amaranth (Agong, 2006), where A. Graecizans

might be used as genitor of resistance gene (Maundu and Grubben, 2004). However there is

no breeding work reported on A. blitum and A. hypochondriacus as leafy vegetable, while in

A. hypochondriacus all efforts are directed towards development of good seed cultivar

(Jansen, 2004). Amaranth breeding is constrained by the fact that various forms of amaranth

readily cross, though hybrids of more distant species are often sterile. Various types of

amaranth are still insufficiently investigated, and the developed varieties are imperfect

(Meyers, 1996).

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CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1. STUDY AREA

The study area is Iponri, Lagos State, Nigeria (6.4872° N Latitude, 3.3641° E Longitude.

Iponri's climate is classified as tropical. During most months of the year, there is significant

rainfall in Iponri. There is only a short dry season. The Köppen-Geiger climate classification

is Am. The average temperature in Iponri is 26.7 °C | 80.0 °F. Precipitation here is about

1645 mm | 64.8 inch per year. (Nigeria Metrological Agency Report, 1980 - 2007).

IPONRI

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3.2. COLLECTION AND IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT SAMPLES

Fresh and healthy plant materials (Amaranthus Sp.), were used for this study. The plant

sample was collected from a mechanic village at Iponri, Lagos state, Nigeria. The plant

samples were then taken to Yaba College of Technology for Identification. The plant was

collected in October 2021 and was transported to the Research Laboratory, Yaba College of

Technology, Yaba Lagos State, Nigeria, for further analysis.

3.3 SAMPLE PREPARATION

Amaranth samples were separately chopped into smaller pieces and washed with distilled

water to get rid of sand particles. The samples were oven dried at 80oc for 8 hours. The dried

Amaranth samples were later grounded into fine powder with the aid of a Binatone blender

(BLG-555) and stored in a polythene bag for further treatment. Soil samples were air dried,

passed through a 2-mm sieve, and analyzed for the physio-chemical parameters according to

AOAC (1998).

3.4 DIGESTION OF SAMPLES

Amaranth samples were digested following the procedure established by American Public

Health Association (APHA, 1992). 2g of dried Amaranth sample was transferred into a

digestion tube and 40ml of concentrated nitric acid (HNO3) and perchloric acid (HClO4)

with 3:1 were added to the sample. The sample was later digested at 120oc for 2 hours until

the solution became transparent. The samples was then cooled and diluted with 0.1 M HNO3.

The solution was filtered into a 25ml volumetric flask through Whatmann No 1 filter paper.

The digested samples were stored in screwed sample bottles. 1g of air-dried soil samples

were weighed and digested with HNO3 and HCl (1:3). The mixture was heated on a sand

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bath and the digested samples were treated with 20ml of 10% HNO3, filtered and made up to

standard volume in a 25ml volumetric flask.

3.5 DETERMINATION OF HEAVY METAL CONCENTRATION

Heavy metal contents (Pb, Mn, Zn, Cu, Cd) in vegetable and soil samples were determined

using Atomic Absorption Sectrophotometer (AAS Buck Scientific 2010 VGP) according to

Doherty et al., 2012.

3.6 ORGANIC MATTER CONTENT

Organic matter content was determined following established protocols. The soil samples

were sieved with a 2mm mesh. 1g of the soil sample was weighed and transferred into 250ml

conical flask. 10ml of 0.167M of Potassium Heptaoxodichromate VI (K2Cr2O7) was added to

the soil and swirled to mix. 20ml of concentrated Tetraoxosulphate (VI) acid (H 2SO4) was

rapidly added, shaken and allowed to stand for 30mins. The mixture was diluted with 100ml

of distilled water and later titrated with 0.5M Iron(II)sulphate (FeSO4).

Quality Assurance: appropriate safety measures and quality assurance procedures were

followed to ensure the reliability of the test results.

3.7. STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

All data were statistically analyzed using the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS

Version 20.0). Statistical means were separated using Turkey’s test (P< 0.05).

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CHAPTER FOUR

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 TABLE OF RESULT

S/N SAMPLE ID Cr Pb Zn Fe Cu
1 ISL 0.36 0.18 46.00 282.00 16.00
2 KJA 0.27 0.17 46.00 276.00 16.00
3 ALM 0.35 0.09 52.00 338.00 13.00
4 SML 0.42 0.20 55.00 290.00 18.00
5 SLR 0.19 0.09 52.00 227.00 17.00
6 AGG 0.20 0.08 46.00 305.00 18.00
7 BDG 0.30 0.16 50.00 286.00 12.00
8 KRD 0.30 0.25 46.00 315.00 15.00
9 APP 0.27 0.12 48.00 258.00 17.00
10 EPE 0.08 0.06 51.00 244.00 19.00
11 ISL SD ND ND 7.20 32.00 3.70
12 IKJ SD 0.01 0.01 7.00 30.00 4.40
13 ALM SD ND ND 6.10 25.00 2.50
14 SLR SD ND 0.02 6.00 30.00 3.20
15 SML SD ND 0.02 6.80 35.00 2.00
16 AGG SD 0.05 0.04 6.90 29.00 2.70
17 BDG SD 0.01 ND 7.80 34.00 3.30
18 KRD SD 0.02 0.02 7.20 30.00 3.00
19 APP SD 0.02 0.01 7.90 35.00 2.60
20 EPE SD ND ND 7.80 41.00 3.10
21 ISL LA ND ND 8.10 26.00 4.20
22 KJA LA 0.02 0.01 7.00 28.00 5.20
23 ALM LA ND 0.01 7.00 26.00 4.00
24 SML LA 0.02 0.01 7.60 30.00 2.60
25 SLR LA ND ND 7.40 31.00 2.80
26 AGG LA 0.10 0.05 7.20 29.00 3.20
27 BDG LA 0.01 ND 7.40 29.00 3.90
28 KRD LA 0.02 0.03 7.60 26.00 5.10
29 APP LA 0.01 0.01 7.90 32.00 3.80
30 EPE LA ND ND 7.80 30.00 3.40
31 ISL CM 0.01 ND 8.20 28.00 2.60

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32 KJA CM 0.01 ND 6.30 33.00 2.00

33 ALM CM ND ND 6.50 31.00 2.60
34 SML CM 0.02 0.02 7.20 35.00 3.90
35 SLR CM ND ND 6.20 41.00 3.80
36 AGG CM 0.03 0.02 6.20 26.00 3.90
37 BDG CM ND 0.01 7.90 28.00 3.60
38 KRD CM 0.06 0.03 6.80 29.00 2.60
39 APP CM 0.01 0.04 5.90 34.00 3.70
40 EPE CM ND ND 5.10 26.00 3.50

4.2 DISCUSSION

The extent of absorption of elements by plants depend on the nature of the plants, chemical

constitution of the pollutants, concentration of the elements in the soil, pH and interaction

with other elements in the soil (Zurera et al., 1989). The chemical forms of heavy metals are

directly related to their solubility in the soil and these control its bioavailability or mobility

(Xian, 1989). The soluble forms of heavy metals have high relation to the uptake by plants

(Miller and Mcfree, 1983). The exchangeable and acid extractable fractions bound to organic

matters are mobile fractions that are easily bioavailable to plants stages 1 and 4. The risk

assessor generally can categorize metal bioavailability and uptake based on soil pH and

organic matter. It may be difficult to achieve a pH = 2 (for acid extractable fractions) in the

environment because the soil was not acidic (the pH ranges from 7.1 to 8.3), but in places

where there is heavy industrial presence or gas flaring, it is possible, therefore, the

concentration of metals at this stage will be much lower in the environment than what was

obtained for the calculation of plant uptake in this study. Thus, other sources of pollution and

contamination might have been responsible for this elevation in concentrations such as

atmospheric deposition, vehicular emission during their production, transportation and

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marketing (Sharma et al., 2009) and polluted water used for irrigation. Aerial deposition on

leaf surfaces and metal accumulation on the hairy and rough surfaces are exposure routes for

plants, because the transportation of ionic metals from the leaf surface via ionic channels to

other locations in the plant depend on the mobility of the metal in the xylem and phloem

(Marschner, 1995). Atmospheric deposition had been attributed to the increase in the heavy

metals in Amaranths collected in the mechanic village at Iponri, Lagos Sate, Nigeria.

Aerial deposition on leaf surfaces and metal accumulation on the hairy and rough surfaces

are exposure routes for plants, because the transportation of ionic metals from the leaf surface

via ionic channels to other locations in the plant depend on the mobility of the metal in the

xylem and phloem (Marschner, 1995).

From this study, it was noted that for most metals analyzed, the metal concentration were

within the permissible range or level in the plants most especially in the edible part of the

plants, this results supported the findings of (Akubugwo et al 2007), this Plant contained low

level of toxicants. The concentration of iron (Fe) is generally high in all the plots but less than

20.0 μg/g of WHO (2005) of metals in medicinal plants. The value obtained in this study was

more than the recommended maximum concentration of trace metals in water for crop

production FAO (1985 and 1995) of 5.0 mg/L. The permissible level of zinc (Zn) is 60.0

μg/g, but the tables show a less concentration in all the plots with no exception. Lead (Pb)

value is much lower as expected because of the reduction in the use of leaded gasoline

compared with WHO/FAO (2007) limit of 5.0 μg/g. The Cadmium (Cd) values were below

the recommended value of 0.2 μg/g. In the case of Manganese (Mn) the permissible level has

not yet been ascertain the value within 44.6 to 339 μg/g (Sheded et al. 2006).

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CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

5.1 CONCLUSION

The metals available for plants uptake in the soil are the exchangeable and the acid

extractable fractions, which is largely dependent on soil pH and the amount of organic matter.

The total metal concentrations found in the vegetables are more than the uptake from the soil

indicating other sources of pollution were responsible for the increase. The order of decrease

of metal concentration in the vegetables followed the order of decrease of the metals in the

soil, showing that the major source of this metals in the vegetables were the soils on which

they were planted. The concentrations of the metals analyzed in this study falls within

FAO/WHO permissible limit. However, metals bioaccumulates in vital organs of the body

and have no good mechanism for elimination. The build-up over time and cumulative effects

may result in health related problems. Therefore, there should be a continuous monitoring of

these, and similar sites to ensure that the concentrations of the metals in the soil and

vegetables do not rise above the acceptable limits.

38