• Minerals

• Rocks

• Rock Cycle
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
• Classify rocks as igneous, sedimentary,
and metamorphic
• Identify common rock-forming minerals
using their physical and chemical
properties
• Identify economically important minerals
• Describe how are minerals are found, mined, and
processed for human use
• Cite ways to prevent or lessen the environmental
impact that result from the exploitation,
extraction, and use of mineral resources
EARTH INTERNAL STRUCTURE CORE – innermost
section, composed
of iron and nickel,
with 2 sections:
INNER CORE – solid
with a very high
material density
OUTER CORE –
thick band around
the inner core
MANTLE – largest
of Earth’s interior
zones, composed of
solid rock matter
(silicate – silicon
and oxygen rocks),
iron and
magnesium
CRUST – solid exterior,
outermost layer
OCEANIC CRUST – composed of
basalt, heavy, dark-colored iron-
rich rock.
CONTINENTAL CRUST –
compromises the major
landmasses on earth that are
exposed to the atmosphere,
thicker than oceanic crust. It
contains granites, light colored
rocks

ASTHENOSPHERE – greek
word = asthenias – without
strength, has a
characteristic of a plastic
solid. Rocks in
asthenosphere can flow
vertically or horizontally
 MINERALS
• Earth is one of the four terrestrial
planets in the Solar System. The
geosphere, which is one of the
four interacting spheres that allow
life to exist, refers to the solid Earth
• It is composed by rock and
regolith which is essentially
aggregates of various minerals.
CHARACTERISTICS OF MINERALS
• A mineral is defined as a
naturally-occurring, inorganic
solid with a definite chemical
composition and an ordered
internal structure. Every mineral is
unique, but they exhibit general
characteristics.
1. NATURALLY-OCCURRING-
minerals exist naturally. Steel and
synthetic diamonds are created
artificially, and therefore, are not
minerals.
2. INORGANIC- minerals are limited
to substances formed through
inorganic processes, and exclude
materials derived from living
organisms which involved organic
processes.
3. SOLID-ALL LIQUIDS AND GASES—
even those that are naturally
formed such as petroleum—are not
considered minerals. Ice formed in
the glaciers is considered a mineral
but water is not.
4. DEFINITE CHEMICAL COMPOSITION-
the chemical composition of
minerals should express the exact
chemical formula with the elements
and compounds in specific ratios.
5. ORDERED INTERNAL STRUCTURE-THE
atoms in minerals are organized in a
regular, repetitive geometric
patterns or crystal structure.
• Volcanic glass, even if it is formed
naturally, is not considered a
mineral because it is amorphous
and has no form.
• Substances that fulfill all the
requirementsbut do not have an
ordered internal structure are
called mineraloids. Examples of
mineraloids are amber, obsidian,
opal, and pearl.
 Composition of Minerals

• In terms of composition, minerals

can be classified into several
classes which are mainly
composed of elements that are
abundant on Earth’s crust.
1. Silicates are composed primarily of
silicon- oxygen tetrahedrons (SO42-
). Silicates are the major rock-
forming minerals, including olivine
(Mg, Fe)2SiO4) and quartz (SiO2).
2. Oxides consists of metal cations
bonded to oxygen anions. Common
oxide minerals are magnetite (Fe3O4)
and hematite (Fe2O3).
3. Sulfides consist of metal cation bonded
to sulfide (S2-). They are common ore
minerals along with oxides since metals
form a high proportion of the mineral.
Examples of sulfides are galena (Pbs)
and pyrite (FeS2).
4. Sulfates consist of a metal cation
bonded to the SO42- anionic group.
They usually precipitate out of water
near Earth’s surface. An example of
sulfate is gypsum (CaSO42H2O)
5. Halides are composed of a halogen ion,
such as chlorine or fluorine, which forms
halite or rock salt (NaCl) and fluorite
(CaF2) .
6. Carbonates are characterized by the
presence of carbonic ion (CO32-) which
bonds elements such as calcium or
magnesium to form calcite (CaCO3) or
dolomite (CaMg(CO3)2).
7. Native metals consist of a single metal
such as copper (Cu) and gold (Au).
 CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MINERALS
• CRYSTAL STRUCTURE is dependent on the
chemical composition of the mineral.
Minerals that have similar chemical
composition often share the same crystal
structure and generally belong to the
same crystal system.
• There are six crystal systems used in
grouping minerals based on structure:
triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic,
tetragonal, hexagonal, and isometric
structures.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS
• There are around 4000 minerals,
each with a unique set of physical
properties, such as crystal
formation, habit, cleavage,
fracture, luster, color, streak,
hardness, density, magnetism,
taste, feel, and reaction to acid.
 ROCKS
• A ROCK is a naturally-occurring, coherent
aggregate of minerals or solid materials
such as natural glass or organic matter.
Rocks are found in the lithosphere, which
is derived from the Greek word lithos
meaning “stone”.
• The geosphere is the rigid, rocky,
outermost part of Earth, composed of
the crust and uppermost part of the
upper mantle.
 THE ROCK CYCLE
• The rock cycle is a model that
describes all the processes by
which rocks are formed, modified,
transported, decomposed,
melted, and reformed.
• These processes occur both on
Earth’s surface and underneath.
Essentially, it is a dynamic cycle of
processes and products.
• When magma (molten rock beneath
the surface) is exposed to lower
temperature, minerals and amorphous
solids crystallize and solidify, forming
IGNEOUS ROCKS.

• These rocks may then be brought to

the surface through uplift, where they
are exposed to weathering and
erosion. The processes of weathering
and erosion break the rocks down into
smaller pieces called SEDIMENTS.
• LITHIFICATION transforms sediments
into sedimentary rocks. As temperature
and pressure increases due to
continuous burial and tectonic activity,
the sedimentary rocks undergo the
process of metamorphism,
transforming them into METAMORPHIC
ROCKS.
• If temperature continues to increase
and exceeds the melting point of the
rocks, the rocks will eventually undergo
melting, turning into MAGMA.
 FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
• Igneous rocks are formed from the cooling and solidification
of magma or lava. The word “igneous” is derived from Latin
igneus, which means “fiery” or “on fire”.
• There are three ways in which igneous rock can form:
• Below the surface, from slowly cooling magma- This in the
formation of crystals that are visible to the naked eye without
the aid of a magnifying lens
• On the surface, from rapidly cooling magma- This results in
the formation of very small crystals that may not be visible
without the use of a magnifying lens.
• On the surface, from the consolidation of particle erupted by
explosive volcanic activity- When volcanoes erupt violently,
the lava exiting the volcanoes are ripped apart into smaller
pieces by rapidly expanding gases in the lava, just like the
bubbles in a bottle of soft drinks shaken vigorously.
 FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• Sedimentary rocks are the products of the
lithification of particles produced by the
weathering of other pre-existing rocks.
• Thus, sedimentary rocks can have parent
material derived from older igneous,
metamorphic and even sedimentary
rocks. Aside from rock particles, they may
also comprise of mineral fragments and
organic material, or in some cases,
minerals that precipitate from solution.
Collectively, these components are called
sediments.
 FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
• Metamorphic rocks form when pre-
existing or parent rocks
(whetherigneous, sedimentary, or even
metamorphic) are altered by heat,
pressure, and the chemical activity of
fluids.

• These processes collectively called

metamorphism, meaning “change in
form”. Metamorphism usually occurs
underneath the surface, although not
as deep as the igneous environment.
ROCK CYCLE AS BIOGEOCHEMICAL
CYCLE
• Humankind primarily uses rocks for
building and improving
communities. Houses, bridges,
roads, schools, and factories,
among other things, are built on a
rock’s solid foundation.
 References
Spool Man. Scott et al(2016). Cengage Learning-
Earth Science: Rex Book Store, Inc. Manila
Philippines.
Chua, Lovelene et al( 2016).You and Natural
World Series -Earth and Life Science: Phoenix
Publishing House, Quezon, City.