Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Colt 2013
Colt 2013
Aquacultural Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/aqua-online
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: The effects of aeration and alkalinity on water quality and product quality of Nile tilapia (Oreochrmis
Received 20 September 2012 niloticus) were determined for simulated commercial hauling conditions. Three types of aeration were
Accepted 13 March 2013 tested: pure oxygen aeration with a fine bubble diffuser (Oxygen), air aeration with medium bubble
diffusers (Air), and a combination of both pure oxygen aeration with a fine bubble diffuser and air aer-
Keywords: ation with a medium bubble diffuser (Mixed). Simulated transport hauls were conducted at two initial
Fish transport
alkalinities: 1.74 ± 0.11 meq/L (Low) and 8.84 ± 0.55 meq/L (High).
Aeration
The Air treatments resulted in the lowest carbon dioxide concentration, and the highest pH and
Water quality
un-ionized ammonia concentrations. At high alkalinities, the Air treatments were unable to maintain ade-
quate dissolved oxygen levels. The Mixed treatment resulted in reduced carbon dioxide and dissolved
oxygen concentrations. The Oxygen treatment resulted the highest dissolved oxygen, highest carbon
dioxide, and lowest pH and un-ionized ammonia. Un-ionized ammonia concentrations were higher with
the High Alkalinity treatments because of higher pH. Significant mortality was observed in the Air treat-
ments in both the Low- and High-Alkalinity treatments. Mortality in the Oxygen and Mixed treatments
for both low and high alkalinities were comparable to that observed in commercial tilapia transport using
fine bubble diffusers and pure oxygen.
These results indicate that mortality due directly to hauling water quality will not be increased at
high alkalinity, if pure oxygen aeration is used. The potential effects of water quality during haul-
ing on survival and product quality may be less than the impact from (a) physical damage from
loading and un-loading and (b) physiological problems resulting from pH and temperature shock
during the transfer from the hauling tanks to retail holding systems, especially for fish of reduced
fitness.
Published by Elsevier B.V.
or 10
R CO∗ , standard 9
C*
CO2 = ˇO2 CO∗ − 2
(4) 1 mg/L
2 ˛O2 SOTR
8 10 mg/L
pH
where˛O2 = KL a − hauling water/KL a − clean water.ˇO2 =
CO∗ − hauling water/CO∗ − clean water.SOTR = Standard 7 100 mg/L
2 2
oxygen transfer rate (kg/h).CO∗ = 6
2, standard
Standard oxygen saturation concentration (20 ◦ C,1 atm, moist air).
Assuming that ˇ ≈ 1.00 and SOTR = 0.50 kg/h (Boyd and Moore, 5
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
1993), Eq. (4) can be written as:
Alkalinity (ueq/L)
R
CO2 = CO∗ − 18.2 (5) Fig. 1. Impact of carbon dioxide and alkalinity on pH (pure carbonate system, tem-
2 ˛O2 perature = 25 ◦ C, salinity = 0.0 g/kg.).
Action Level
1000 Nile tilapia were obtained from First Ascent Fish Farms, a com-
1,000 ueq/L, C* mercial farm in Central Idaho and delivered to Seattle on November
1,000 ueq/L, 1 mg/L
1,000 ueq/L, 10 mg/L
22, 2011. Fish were fed a 35% protein catfish feed (Silver Cup, Nelson
500
1,000 ueq/L, 100 mg/L and Sons, Murray Utah) at 0.8% of body weight, at approximately
8:00 am 5 days a week.
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (hours) 3.2. Holding system
Table 1
Initial alkalinities and hauling densities.
Experiment Initial alkalinity (meq/L) Fish/Tank (#) Mean weight (g) Hauling density
Massachusetts). Alkalinity (unfiltered) was determined by Hach fish were not fed during the post-haul period. At the end of post-
Digital Titrator and Hach cartridges (Hach Company, Loveland, haul period, the fish were individually examined for scale loss and
Colorado) using Gran function (Rounds, 2006). Total ammonia physical damage. A fish was classified with “Minor Damage” if it
nitrogen (APHA, 1998) was measured using an Orion 95-12 Ammo- had less than four small (<0.5 cm in diameter) areas of scale loss
nia Electrode (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, Massachusetts). and ulceration. In the lighter colored fish, these areas were red and
Un-ionized ammonia nitrogen (UIAN) was computed using the pKa very visible. Fish with extensive fin damage, eye damage, or more
developed by Emerson et al. (1975) and the spreadsheet presented than four areas of scale loss were classified with “Major Damage”.
by Wedemeyer (2001). Carbon dioxide was measured using an Oxy- The number of saleable fish was equal to:
Guard CO2 Analyser (OxyGuard International, Birkerod, Denmark).
#Saleable Fish = #Total Fish − #Mortalities − #Major Damage (12)
Soluble reactive phosphorus was determined by U.S. EPA Method
365.2 (USEPA, 1983). One hour prior to the start of the simulated haul, all tanks were
In Experiments 1 and 2, samples for TAN and bacterial oxy- aerated with pure oxygen at 1.5 L/m. After the fish were added, the
gen uptake were frozen (−4 ◦ C) until analysis (approximately 3–4 oxygen flow was stopped in the Air treatments and airflow turned
weeks). In Experiment 3, analysis for TAN, oxygen uptake, KL a was on in the Air and Mixed treatments. The airflows for the Mixed
done on fresh samples. Additional final samples in Experiment 3 and Air treatments were 5.24 ± 0.43 and 138.93 ± 9.55 L/m, respec-
were frozen to evaluate the impact of freezing on bacterial oxygen tively. Four hours after the start, the oxygen flow was reduced to
uptake and KL a. 1.0 L/m.
Samples used for pH and carbon dioxide were returned to the The following simulated transport experiments were con-
individual haul tanks after analysis. To maintain initial hauling den- ducted:
sities, replacement water was added equal to the amount removed
for the total ammonia nitrogen and oxygen uptake samples. 3.9.1. Experiment 1
This experiment consisted of Oxygen, Mixed, and Air treat-
3.6. Bacterial oxygen uptake determinations ments, low alkalinity process water, 24-h simulated transport, and
a 7-day post-haul evaluation.
The bacterial oxygen uptake of an aerated water sample was
determined in a 250 mL BOD bottle. The LDO oxygen probe (with
3.9.2. Experiment 2
the probe guard removed) was inserted directly into the BOD bottle.
Similar to Experiment 1, except a high alkalinity process water
A 2.5 cm magnetic stir bar was used to gently mix the water. Dis-
was used.
solved oxygen values were logged on a 1-min interval for 20 min.
Slope of DO vs. time was determined by linear regression and the
3.9.3. Experiment 3
results adjusted to a base temperature of 20 ◦ C using = 1.047.
This experiment consisted of an Oxygen treatment, low alkalin-
ity process water, 72-h simulated transport, and a 1-day post-haul
3.7. KL a determinations
evaluation. Sampling intensity was reduced to allow analysis of
fresh water quality and oxygen transfer samples.
In Experiment 3, the oxygen transfer coefficients (KL a) were
determined daily. To reduce the impact of biological oxygen uptake
on the oxygen transfer coefficient, 1 mL of 6% sodium hypochlorite 3.9.4. Experiment 4
was added to each sample and allowed to react for 8 h. Next, 7 mL This experiment investigated the impact of aerator type on
of 10% sodium thiosulfate was added and allowed to react for 16 h water temperature over a 24-h simulated haul. No fish or heaters
to remove residual chlorine. Then the samples were aerated for 4 h were used.
to remove any residual sodium thiosulfate.
Approximately, 0.6 L of hauling water was added to a cylindrical 3.9.5. Experiment 5
reactor and the water deoxygenated with nitrogen gas. KL a values This experiment evaluated oxygen uptake and oxygen transfer
were determined by the ASCE method (ASCE, 2007) and corrected coefficient samples that were frozen from Experiments 1 and 2 and
to 20 ◦ C using = 1.047. Duplicate final samples were frozen (−4 ◦ C) fresh samples from Experiment 3.
and re-analyzed after 4, 11, 18, and 32 days.
4. Results
3.8. Statistical analysis
4.1. Experiment 1 – one day transport, low alkalinity
Statistical analysis was performed using Prism 5.0 for Mac OS
X. Significant differences were determined by either analysis of Water quality in the pre- and post-haul periods is presented
variance or analysis of variance for repeated measures followed in Table 2. Compared to the pre-haul period, DO was higher and
by Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons test (P = 0.05). Significant carbon dioxide was lower for the post-haul period. The reduction
differences for survival curves were determined by the log-rank in carbon dioxide resulted in higher pH and un-ionized ammonia
(Mantel–Cox) test. in the post-haul period.
The initial and final alkalinity means were 1.74 ± 0.11 and
3.9. Experimental protocols 2.42 ± 0.32 meq/L, respectively (Table 3). Type of aeration did not
have a significant impact on the change in alkalinity (F = 5.968,
Prior to each experiment, fish were acclimated for at least 1 week P < 0.090). The water quality during the simulated haul is presented
at the specific alkalinity. Two days prior to hauling, feed was with- in Fig. 3A for dissolved oxygen, Fig. 3B for carbon dioxide, Fig. 3C
held. At the start of a haul, the fish had not been fed for 2.25 days. for pH, Fig. 3D for total ammonia nitrogen, Fig. 3E for un-ionized
One day prior to transport, the fish were randomly transferred to ammonia nitrogen, and Table 4 for temperature. Dissolved oxygen,
holding tanks (400 L). The fish were weighed prior to transfer to carbon dioxide, and pH were relatively constant over the transport
the hauling tanks. At the end of the simulated haul, fish were trans- period (Fig. 3A, B, and C). Aeration type had similar impacts on dis-
ferred back to the holding tanks. Mortalities were recorded and solved oxygen (Fig. 3A), carbon dioxide (Fig. 3B), and TAN (Fig. 3D):
removed for the following 7 days (except in Experiment 3). The highest for Oxygen, intermediate for Mixed, and lowest for Air.
J. Colt, E. Kroeger / Aquacultural Engineering 55 (2013) 46–58 51
Table 3
Initial, final, and change in alkalinity in Experiment 1a .
Treatment Initial (meq/L) Final (meq/L) Change (meq/L) Mean change (meq/L)
Table 4
Temperature variation during simulated hauling experiments.
1/1-day, low alkalinity 25.18 ± 0.11 25.06 ± 0.12 24.73 ± 0.18 24.73 ± 0.03 24.75 ± 0.19 24.78 ± 0.41 24.88 ± 0.27
2/1-day, high alkalinity 25.81 ± 0.18 25.60 ± 0.24 26.01 ± 0.23 25.70 ± 0.30 25.56 ± 0.31 25.48 ± 0.58 25.72 ± 0.38
3/3-day, oxygen 25.26 ± 0.45 25.12 ± 0.42 N/A N/A N/A N/A 25.19 ± 0.43
Table 5
Product quality at end of 7-day post-haul (Experiments 1 and 2).
Table 6
Initial, final, and change in alkalinity in Experiment 2a .
Treatment Initial (meq/L) Final (meq/L) Change (meq/L) Mean change (meq/L)
45
3A. Dissolved Oxygen
and UIAN (Fig. 5E): lowest for Oxygen, intermediate for Mixed, and
40 Oxygen Mixed Air
35 highest for Air.
DO (mg/L)
30
25 The dissolved oxygen concentration in the Air treatment
20 showed a slow decrease over the hauling period; at the end of the
15
10 haul, the dissolved oxygen was 3.5 mg/L. The carbon dioxide con-
5 centration generally increased over most of the hauling period for
0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 Oxygen and Mixed treatments (Fig. 5B), while the Air only increased
35
30 3B. Carbon Dioxide in the last 3 h. The impact of aeration type on pH was similar to
CO2 (mg/L)
7.5 P < 0.0001), and UIAN (F = 10.57, P < 0.0023). All treatments were
7.0
6.5
6.0
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 45
40 40 Oxygen Mixed Air 5A. Dissolved Oxygen
UIAN (ug/L) TAN (mg/L)
3D. TAN 35
DO (mg/L)
30 30
20 25
20
10
15
0 10
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 5
2000
3E. UIAN 0
1500
35 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
1000 5B. Carbon Dioxide
30
500
CO2 (mg/L)
25
0 20
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
15
Time (hours) 10
5
Fig. 3. Water quality in Experiment 1, low alkalinity process water. (A. dissolved 0
oxygen; B. carbon dioxide; C. pH; D. total ammonia nitrogen; and E. un-ionized 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
9.0
ammonia.) 5C. pH
8.5
8.0
pH
7.5
7.0
6.5
100% 6.0
Air, Tank 3 Air, Tank 6
0 4 8 12 16 20 24
40
Cumulative Mortality (%)
TAN (mg/L)
2000
5E. UIAN
1500
20% 1000
500
0% 0
0 24 48 72 96 120 144 168 0 4 8 12 16 20 24
Time (hours) Time (hours)
100% 40
O 2 or CO2 (mg/L)
7A. Dissolved Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide
Cumulative Mortality (%)
35
80%
30
pH
7.5
Time (hours) 7.0
6.5
Fig. 6. Mortality during post-haul holding; Experiment 2, high alkalinity process
6.0
water. 0 12 24 36 48 60 72
150
7C. TAN
significantly different for dissolved oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH. 125
TAN (mg/L)
For UIAN, both Oxygen and Mixed were significantly different from 100
75
the Air treatment.
50
Post-haul mortality over time is presented in Fig. 6. At the end of
25
the haul, there were three mortalities in the Air treatment (Tank 1).
0
Mortality in the Air treatments was significantly higher during the 0 12 24 36 48 60 72
post-haul period than in the Oxygen treatment (Chi-squared = 116,
Conductivity (mS/cm)
11.0
7D. Conductivity
df = 3, P < 0.0001) or the Mixed treatment (Chi-squared = 117, df = 3,
10.5 Tank 1
P < 0.0001). At the end of the 7-day post-haul period, there were
27 and 34 mortalities in the Air treatments and only seven other 10.0
Tank 2
mortalities in the other four tanks. The impact of aeration on prod- 9.5
uct quality is presented in Table 5. The number of non-saleable fish
9.0
was significantly increased in the Air treatment due to increased 0 12 24 36 48 60 72
mortality and the level of fish with “minor damage” was greater in Time (hours)
Experiment 2 (27% of fish) compared to Experiment 1 (11% of fish).
Fig. 7. Water quality in Experiment 3, low alkalinity process water. (A. dissolved
oxygen and carbon dioxide; B. pH; C. total ammonia nitrogen; and D. conductivity.)
4.3. Experiment 3 – 3 day transport, pure oxygen
The initial and final mean alkalinity were 1.20 ± 0.01 and
6.19 ± 0.31 meq/L, respectively. The water quality during the sim- 26
ulated haul is presented in Fig. 7A–D for dissolved oxygen, carbon 24
dioxide, pH, total ammonia nitrogen, conductivity, and Table 4 for
22
temperature. The impact of aeration on dissolved oxygen and car-
Temperature (C)
20
bon dioxide was similar to Experiment 1. During the first 8 h, pH
18
decreased and then slowly rose over the rest of hauling period
(Fig. 7B). TAN (Fig. 7C) and conductivity (Fig. 7D) showed a linear 16
10
4.4. Experiment 4 – impact of aerator type on water temperature 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
Time (Minutes)
Ambient water temperature for the three aeration types tested Fig. 8. Variation of ambient water temperature for the three aerators tested in
in Experiment 4 is presented in Fig. 8. Aeration type had a signifi- Experiment 4. The Oxygen and Mixed treatment data plot as a single curve. No
cant impact on water temperature (F = 2346, P < 0.0001). The mean fish were present.
decrease in water temperature was significantly larger for the Air
treatment (−14.13 ◦ C) compared to either the Mixed (−4.37 ◦ C) or
Oxygen (−4.28 ◦ C) treatments. During the experiment, ambient air
9.0
temperature was 12.3 ± 1.0 ◦ C.
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
8.5
4.5. Experiment 5 – bacterial oxygen uptake and oxygen transfer
8.0
coefficient
7.5
For a given sample, the bacterial oxygen uptake of the hauling
7.0 Tank 4, Oxygen
water was linear with time (Fig. 9). For both Experiments 1 and 2,
Tank 5, Mixed
the oxygen uptake was highest for Air, intermediate for Mixed, and 6.5
Tank 6, Air
lowest for Oxygen. Type of aeration had no impact in Experiment
6.0
1 (F = 2.98, P < 0.1938) but had a significant impact in Experiment 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
2 (F = 47, P < 0.0054). In Experiment 2, the Air treatments were Time (Minutes)
significantly different from both the Oxygen and Mixed treatments.
In Experiment 3, the bacterial oxygen uptake rose up to 28 h, Fig. 9. Representative oxygen uptake curves for Experiment 1.
decreased from 28 h to approximately 48 h, and then rose again
54 J. Colt, E. Kroeger / Aquacultural Engineering 55 (2013) 46–58
Table 7
Initial, final, and change in conductivity in Experiment 2a .
Treatment Initial (mS/cm) Final (mS/cm) Change (uS/cm) Mean change (uS/cm)
20% r2 = 0.965
for the rest of the haul (Fig. 10). The oxygen uptake of the frozen
samples was comparable to, or larger than, the fresh sample at the
0%
end of the haul (72 h). Over the 72-h simulated haul, ˛O2 (Eq. (5)) 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
decreased to approximately 73% of the clean water value (Fig. 11). Final Un-ionized Ammonia Nitrogen (ug/L)
Freezing did not appear to change the measured ˛O2 .
Fig. 12. Final mortality for Experiments 1 and 2 vs. final un-ionized ammonia.
5. Discussion
The only parameter that exceeded its action level (Section 2.1)
5.1. Impact of aerator type on water quality
was un-ionized ammonia, although dissolved oxygen was close for
some of the Air treatments. Aerator type had a significant impact on
The aerator treatments (Oxygen, Mixed, and Air) resulted in dis-
the final UIAN in both experiments. The final UIAN concentrations
tinct variations in dissolved oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The
were significantly higher for Air compared to either Mixed or Oxy-
concentrations of these two gases were highest in the Oxygen treat-
gen. There was a highly significant linear relationship between the
ment, intermediate in the Mixed treatment and lowest in the Air
final mortality during the post-haul period and un-ionized ammo-
treatment (Figs. Fig. 33A,B and Fig. 55A,B). The Mixed treatment
nia concentration at the end of the haul (Fig. 12). Final mortality
maintained a relatively high dissolved oxygen concentration (21
was also positively correlated with oxygen uptake (Fig. 13). For
and 25 mg/L) while reducing the carbon dioxide concentration (9
transportation of Nile tilapia, the limiting water quality parameter
and 13 mg/L). The resulting pH was higher in the high alkalinity
appears to be un-ionized ammonia. No clear indication of problems
experiments compared to the low alkalinity treatments (Table 8).
with low pH or high carbon dioxide was found in these experi-
These changes are due to differences in SOTR between the two types
ments. Lower pH and higher carbon dioxide are routinely observed
of aerators used, oxygen content of the gases, and gas flowrates.
in commercial tilapia hauls (Colt et al., 2011).
110%
100%
100%
Tank #1 Final Sample - Frozen
80%
Mortality (%)
90%
Alpha
60%
0 24 48 72 4 days 11 days 18 days 32 days 0%
Time (hours) 0 2 4 6 8
Oxygen Uptake (mg/hour)
Fig. 11. Oxygen transfer coefficient (KL a); values reported at a standard temperature
of 20 ◦ C (1/min). Fig. 13. Final mortality for Experiments 1 and 2 vs. oxygen uptake rate.
J. Colt, E. Kroeger / Aquacultural Engineering 55 (2013) 46–58 55
Oxygen 76
Mixed 11–14
Air 0.53–0.61
tanks were approximately double that found in the simulated Lower gas flow rates are possible in commercial hauling tanks
hauling system. This reduced the pH, which resulted in lower un- because of the impact of water depth on SOTR (Boyd and Moore,
ionized ammonia concentrations in the commercial tanks. On a fish 1993). The use of air aeration is unlikely to have much application
mass/oxygen flow basis, 6–10× more oxygen was used in this study in this type of fish transport unless temperature control systems
than used by commercial haulers (Table 11). While the commer- are used or hauls are very short.
cial haulers used similar fine bubble diffusers, greater water depths
(2–3 times the depth of simulated hauling system) resulted in much 5.8. Impact of TAN and phosphate excretion on alkalinity and pH
higher SOTR rates and transfer efficiencies (Boyd and Moore, 1993). estimates
The temperature reduction during simulated transport was
less than that which occurs during some seasons with com- Excreted TAN and phosphates significantly raise the computed
mercial haulers (Colt et al., 2011). Temperature control was alkalinity during the simulated hauls (Table 12). The majority of the
necessary in the simulated hauls because cooling in the Air theoretical increase in alkalinity was due to excreted TAN (94%). In
treatments would have lowered the water temperature below most cases, the computed final alkalinity was higher than the mea-
the action levels. Larger hauling tanks with better insulation sured final alkalinity (Table 12, Fig. 14). Reported alkalinities were
may also reduce temperature changes in commercial tanks. The based on unfiltered samples. In Experiment 1, filtration through
largest potential temperature change in the commercial trans- 0.45 m glass fiber filters raised the alkalinity by only 8 ± 4%. Based
port occurs at the end of trip when fish are transferred to on visual observations, filtration did not appear to remove much of
retail holding tanks, rather than the temperature changes en the mucus from these samples.
route. The increase in alkalinity from TAN and phosphates results in
The pH changes during the simulated hauling experiments a slow raise in the pH from Hour 12 to the end of the haul. This is
are compared with data from commercial farms and haulers especially evident in Experiment 3 where the final measured alka-
in Table 11. The final pH in the Oxygen-Low Alkalinity treat- linity was 416% of the initial alkalinity. In very low alkalinity waters,
ment is comparable with the final pH from commercial transport. it may be necessary to raise the alkalinity to limit this pH shift.
The final pH Mixed-Low Alkalinity and Air-Low Alkalinity treat- Methods for accurate measurement of alkalinity in the presence
ments are higher than the final pH from commercial transport. of high TAN, phosphate, and mucus levels remain to be determined.
The final pH of the High Alkalinity treatments is much higher Accurate prediction of pH will require water quality models that
than that found in commercial hauling. The large increases in consider the reactions of carbonate compounds, ammonia, phos-
pH from pre-haul to post-haul are comparable for the two phates, and mucus. Thus carbonate-only models such as CO2SYS
systems. In contrast, commercial transport exhibits a greater down- (Lewis and Wallace, 1998) are unlikely to give accurate results.
ward shift in pH because of the low pH in some retail holding
systems.
Table 11
Variation in pH during the hauling process and comparison with commercial hauling conditions (Colt et al., 2011).
Experiment Treatment/Farm Pre-haul holding Simulated hauling Post-haul holding Maximum pH increase Maximum pH decrease
Start +1 h Final
Commercial Farm ID Farm Commercial hauling Retail holding Maximum pH increase Maximum pH decrease
Start +1 h Final
Table 12
Contribution of ammonia and phosphate to alkalinity in Experiments 1–3.
Exp. # Treatment Tank Initial Alk (meq/L) Final TAN (meq/L) Final P (meq/L) Final Alk (measured) Final Alk (computed) Mean final Alk (computed)
12 product quality may be less than the impact from (a) physical dam-
age resulting from loading and un-loading and (b) physiological
problems resulting from pH and temperature shock during transfer
10 to retail holding systems, especially for fish of reduced fitness. The
hauling protocols documented in this article can be used as a base-
Computed Final Alkalinity (meq/L)
Acknowledgments
6
This project was supported by Western Regional Aquaculture
Center Grant no. 2008-38500-19230 from the USDA Coopera-
4 tive State Research, Education, and Extension Service (now the
Experiment 1
National Institute for Food & Agriculture (NIFA)). We would like
Experiment 2 to thank Andrew Dickson, Michael Stenstrom, and Steward Rounds
Experiment 3
for advice on analytical protocols.
2
References
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 Abdel Magid, A.M., Babiker, M.M., 1975. Oxygen consumption and respiratory
Measured Final Alkalinity (meq/L) behaviour of three Nile fishes. Hydrobiology 46, 359–367.
APHA (American Public Health Association, American Water Works Association, and
Fig. 14. Comparison of final measured alkalinity with computed alkalinity based on Water Pollution Control Federation), 1998. Standard Methods for the Examina-
tion of Water and Wastewater, 20th ed. American Public Health Association,
initial alkalinity plus contribution of alkalinity from final TAN and P concentrations.
New York, USA.
ASCE, 2007. Measurement of Oxygen Transfer in Clean Water. ASCE/EWRI 2-06.
American Society of Civil Engineers, New York.
6. Conclusions Atwood, H.L., Tomasso, J.R., Webb, K., Gatlin, D.M., 2003. Low-temperature tolerance
of Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus: effects of environmental and dietary factors.
The Air treatments resulted in lowest carbon dioxide, high- Aquaculture Research 34, 241–251.
Bosworth, B.G., Small, B.C., Mikschke, C., 2004. Effects of transport water tempera-
est pH, and highest un-ionized ammonia concentrations. At high ture, aerator type, and oxygen level on channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus fillet
alkalinities, the Air treatment was unable to maintain adequate quality. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 35, 412–419.
dissolved oxygen levels. Compared to the Air Treatment, the Mixed Boyd, C.E., Moore, J.M., 1993. Factors affecting the performance of diffused-air aer-
ation systems for aquaculture. Journal of Applied Aquaculture 2, 1–12.
treatment resulted in increased carbon dioxide and dissolved oxy-
Carmichael, G.J., Tomasso, J.R., 1988. Survey of fish transportation equipment and
gen concentrations. The Oxygen treatment resulted the highest techniques. The Progressive Fish-Culturist 50, 155–159.
dissolved oxygen, highest carbon dioxide, lowest pH, and lowest Clarke, E.R., Harman, J.P., Forster, J.R.M., 1985. Production of metabolic and waste
products by intensively farmed rainbow trout, Salmo gairdneri Richardson. Jour-
un-ionized ammonia. There was more un-ionized ammonia in the
nal of Fish Biology 27, 381–393.
High Alkalinity treatments because of higher pH. Colt, J., 2006. Water quality requirements for reuse systems. Aquacultural Engineer-
Significantly increased mortality was observed in the Air treat- ing 34, 143–156.
ments in both the Low- and High-Alkalinity treatments. The Colt, J., 2012. Dissolved Gas Concentration in Water–Computation as Functions of
Temperature, Salinity, and Pressure, Second ed. Elsevier, Amsterdam.
mortality in the Oxygen and Mixed treatments was comparable to Colt, J., Lamoureux, J., Patterson, R., Rogers, G., 2006. Draft reporting standards for
that observed in commercial hauling of tilapia. These results indi- biofilter performance studies. Aquacultural Engineering 34, 377–388.
cate that direct hauling mortalities will not be increased at high Colt, J., Momoda, T., Chitwood, R., Fornshell, G., Schreck, C., 2011. Water quality in
tilapia transport: from the farm to the retail store. Journal of the Fisheries Board
alkalinities if pure oxygen aeration or mixed aeration is used. of Canada 73, 426–434.
These experiments were designed to document water quality Colt, J., Watten, B., 1988. Application of pure oxygen in fish culture. Aquacultural
and survival under relatively good conditions: low capture and Engineering 7, 397–441.
Colt, J., Watten, B., Pfeiffer, T., 2012a. Carbon dioxide stripping in aquaculture – part
loading stress, limited pH and temperature shock during trans- II: development of gas transfer models. Aquacultural Engineering 47, 47–59.
fer, and using fish of exceptional physiological condition. The Colt, J., Watten, B., Pfeiffer, T., 2012b. Carbon dioxide stripping in aquaculture – part
potential effect of water quality during hauling on survival and III: model verification. Aquacultural Engineering 47, 38–46.
58 J. Colt, E. Kroeger / Aquacultural Engineering 55 (2013) 46–58
Dickson, A.G., 1981. An exact definition of total alkalinity and a procedure for the Mahdi, M.A., 1973a. Studies on factors affecting survival of Nile fish in the Sudan.
estimation of alkalinity and total inorganic carbon from titration data. Deep Sea III. The effect of oxygen. Marine Biology 18, 96–98.
Research 28A, 609–623. Mahdi, M.A., 1973b. Studies on factors affecting survival of Nile fish in the
Dickson, A.G., Sabine, C.L., Christian, J.R. (Eds.), 2007. Guide to Best Practices Sudan. I. The effects of hydrogen ion concentration. Marine Biology 18,
for Ocean CO2 Measurements. PICES Special Publication, 3, 22 Apr. 2010. 89–92.
http://cdiac.ornl.gov/oceans/Handbook 2007.html Popma, T., Masser, M., 1999. Tilapia–Life History and Biology. Southern Regional
DOE, 1994. In: Dickson, A.G., Goyet, C. (Eds.), Handbook of Methods for the Analysis Aquaculture Center, SRAC Publication No. 283.
of the Various Parameters of the Carbon Dioxide System In Sea Water, Version Rounds, S.A., 2006. Alkalinity and Acid Neutralizing Capacity (ver. 3.0). U.S. Geologi-
2, ORNL/CDIAC-74. Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, cal Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, Book 9, Chap. A6., Sec.
Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1 Nov. 2009, http://cdiac.ornl.gov/oceans/handbook.html 6.6, Accessed January 15, 2012. http://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A6/
El-Shafai, S.A., El-Gohary, F.A., Nasr, F.A., van der Steen, N.P., Gijzen, H.J., 2004. Saeed, M.O., Al-Thobaiti, S.A., 1997. Gas bubble disease in farmed fish in Saudi Arabia.
Chromic ammonia toxicity to duckweed-fed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Veterinary Record 140, 684–862 (Abstract only).
Aquaculture 232, 117–127. Shephard, K.L., 1994. Functions for fish mucus. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries
Emerson, K., Russo, R.C., Lund, R.C., Thurson, R.V., 1975. Aqueous ammonia equilib- 4, 401–429.
rium calculations: effects of pH and temperature. J. Fish. Res. Bd. of Canada 32, Smart, G.R., Knox, D., Harrison, J.G., Ralph, J.A., Richards, R.H., Cowey, C.B.,
2379–2383. 1979. Nephrocalcinosis in rainbow trout Salmo gairdneri Richardson, the
Farrell, A.P., Tang, S., Nomura, M., Brauner, C.J., 2010. Toward improved public con- effects of exposure to elevated CO2 concentrations. Journal of Fish Disease 2,
fidence in farmed fish: a Canadian perspective on fish welfare during marine 279–289.
transport. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society 41, 225–239. Stenstrom, M.K., Gilbert, R.G., 1981. The effects of alpha, beta, and theta factors upon
Forsberg, J.A., Summerfelt, R.C., Barton, B.A., 1999. Effects of ram-air ventilation the design, specification and operation of aeration systems. Water Research 15,
during transportation on water quality and physiology of fingerling walleye. 643–654.
North American Journal of Aquaculture 61, 220–229. Stumm, W., Morgan, J.J., 1981. Aquatic Chemistry, 2nd ed. Wiley, New York.
Good, C., Davidson, J., Welsh, C., Snekvik, K., Summerfelt, S., 2010. The effects of car- Treasurer, J.W., 2012. Change in pH during the transport of juvenile cod
bon dioxide on performance and histopathology of rainbow trout Oncorhynchus (Gadus morhua L.) and stabilization using buffering agents. Aquaculture 330,
mykiss in water recirculation aquaculture systems. Aquacultural Engineering 42, 92–99.
51–56. USEPA, 1983. Methods for Chemical Analysis of Water and Wastes. EPA/600/4-
Grøttum, J.A., Staurnes, M., Sigholt, T., 1997. Effect of oxygenation, aeration and pH 79/020. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research
control on water quality and survival of turbot, Scophthalmus maximum (L.), kept and Development, Washington, D.C. http://nepis.epa.gov/Exe/ZyPURL.
at high density during transport. Aquaculture Research 28, 159–164. cgi?Dockey=30000Q10.txt
Haskell, D.C., Davies, R.O., 1958. Carbon dioxide as a limiting factor in transportation. Van Ginneken, V.J.T., van Eersel, R., Balm, P., Nieveen, M., van den Thillart, V., 1997.
New York Fish & Game Journal 5, 167–183. Tilapia are able to withstand long-term exposure to low environmental pH,
Lewis, E., Wallace, D.W.R., 1998. Program Developed for CO2 System Calcula- judged by their energy status, ionic balance and plasma cortisol. Journal of Fish
tions. ORNL/CDIAC-105. Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge Biology 51, 795–806.
National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 15 Nov. Wedemeyer, G.A. (Ed.), 2001. Fish Hatchery Management. , Second ed. Ameri-
2009, http://cdiac.ornl.gov/oceans/co2rprt.html can Fishery Society, Bethesda, Maryland, Table 9, Appendices, 1 Jan. 2012
Lewis, W.K., Whitman, W.C., 1924. Principles of gas absorption. The Journal of http://fisheries.org/hatchery
Industrial Chemical Engineering 16, 1215–1220.