University of San Carlos-Technological Center

Nasipit, Talamban, Cebu City

Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE

DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND TESTING OF A MECHANICAL IRRIGATION AND

FERTIGATION SYSTEM FOR DRAGON FRUIT FARM USING JET DEFLECTION

Presented by:

Agustin, Clint James A.

Faburada, Alexander M.

Adviser:

Dr. Michael E. Loretero, PhD

1
 Definition of terms

Bernoulli Equation - is a statement of the conservation of energy principle appropriate

for flowing fluids.

Canopy - The extent of the outer layer of leaves of an individual tree or

plant

Closed Irrigation System - An irrigation system where the water is transported through pipes

Diffuser - Is a device that breaks apart water into smaller droplets by

forcing the fluid to pass thru very small slits or pores.

Hardy Cross Method - a method used to determine the flow in pipe network system

through iterations.

Darcy Weisbach Equation - an empirical equation, which relates the head loss, or pressure

loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average

velocity of the fluid flow

Deflector Plate - a plate that redirects the straight jet water flow from nozzle to the

dragon fruit plant

Free Jets - a jet of water in which the ambient pressure is atmospheric.

Flow Rate - the rate of the fluid which passes through a given cross section

per unit time.

Fertigation - the injection of fertilizers, used for soil amendments, water

amendments and other water-soluble products into an irrigation

system.

Foliar Fertilizer - A type of viscous fertilizer sprayed directly to the plant’s leaves

to encourage fruiting and growth.

2
FAA - Stands for fish amino acid. It has an NPK of 4:1:1. It is a famous

organic fertilizer high in nitrogen and essential minerals for plants.

Liquid Mulch Fertilizer – A type of fertilizer composed of organic matters like fruit peels,

waste vegetables, etc. ground up and mixed with water.

Inoculant – A type of fertilizer and soil conditioner that relies on good bacteria

to break down soil nutrients and make it readily available for plant

absorption.

Inviscid - a fluid exhibiting very little or no viscosity.

Irrigation - an artificial application of water to plants.

Laminar Flow - A phenomenon where the fluid particle moves in layers called

lamina

Mass Flow Rate - is a mass of substance which passes per unit of time.

Nozzle - A cylindrical spout at the end of pipe used to squirt water in

narrow jets or mists

Pipe Grid Network - A series of interconnected pipes consisting of more than one

loop.

Performance Curve - a graphical representation that shows the correlation between the

head and the discharge it can deliver to the system

PPR pipe - a pipe made of a specific plastic resin, specifically polypropylene

Booster Pumps - a type of centrifugal pump that replenishes pressure in a pressure

tank.

Rebar - a long piece of reinforced steel used for structural purposes

3
Reynold’s Number - is the ratio of inertial force to the viscous force acting on the flow

phenomenon.

Spray deflection - a technique where a jet of water is impacted through a deflector

before it hits the plants.

System Curve - the relationship between the flow delivered and the head required

to deliver to the system

Trellis - is a structure that is made to support and display climbing plants.

4
 Nomenclature

HL, R - Head Loss

K - Head Loss per unit Flow

ρ - Density of water

Q - Assumed Flow Rate

d - Inside Diameter of Pipe

f - Friction Factor

γ - specific weight of fluid

μ - viscosity of fluid

Re - Reynold’s Number

l - length of pipe

n - Flow Exponent

Qloop - Flow Rate in the entire loop

Qadj - Adjusted Flow Rate

p - Pressure of the Fluid

g - Acceleration due to Gravity

A - Cross sectional area

A1 - Area at point 1

A2 - Area at point 2

ṁ - Mass Flow Rate

V - Fluid Velocity

V1 - Velocity at Point 1

V2 - Velocity at Point 2

5
θ - Angle of Deflection

z - Elevation

z1 - Elevation at Point 1

z2 - Elevation at Point 2

Table of Contents

6
CHAPTER 1 10
THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE......................................................................................10
1.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................10
1.2 Statement of the Problem...................................................................................................11
1.3 Objectives..........................................................................................................................11
1.4 Significance of the Study..................................................................................................12
1.5 Scope and Limitations.........................................................................................................13
CHAPTER 2............................................................................................................................15
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE............................................................................15
2.1 History and Characteristics of Dragon Fruit Plants...........................................................15
2.2 Dragon Fruit and its Distinctive Properties.........................................................................16
2.2.1 Dragon Fruit Ground and Aerial Roots....................................................................17
2.2.2 Dragon Fruit flowers and Fruits...............................................................................17
2.3 Prospects of Dragon Fruit Farming in the Philippines........................................................18
2.3.1 Rainfall, Humidity, and Irrigation............................................................................18
2.3.2 Light Tolerance.........................................................................................................19
2.3.3 Temperature Tolerance.............................................................................................19
2.3.4 Soil Requirements.....................................................................................................20
2.3.5 Trellis Design and Spacing.......................................................................................20
2.3.6 Fertilizer and Fertigation..........................................................................................21
2.4 Types of Conventional Irrigation System and Their Impact on Dragon fruit.....................23
2.4.1 Surface or flood irrigation........................................................................................24
2.4.2 Sprinkler Irrigation.................................................................................................24
2.4.3 Drip Irrigation.........................................................................................................25
2.4.4 Center pivot irrigation.............................................................................................26
2.4.5 Manual Irrigation....................................................................................................27
2.5 Diseases Common to Dragon Fruits Due to Over-humidification and Excessive
Exposure to Water.....................................................................................................................28
2.6 Closed Irrigation System...................................................................................................29
2.7 Closed Irrigation System Techniques...............................................................................30
2.8 Pipe Designs and Maintenance........................................................................................31
2.9 Jet nozzle flowrate.............................................................................................................32

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2.10 Booster Pump..................................................................................................................32
2.11 Pressure tank...................................................................................................................33
2.12 Potential Contribution of the Proposed Study to the Present Body of Knowledge.......33
CHAPTER 3............................................................................................................................35
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND.......................................................................................35
3.1 Distributions of Flow in Pipe Grid Networks...................................................................35
3.2 Pipe Pressure Head and Free Jets........................................................................................36
3.3 Confined Flows.................................................................................................................37
3.4 Single and Multiple Pipe Systems....................................................................................38
3.5 Flowrate Measurement......................................................................................................40
3.6 Losses in Pipes and Fittings..............................................................................................41
3.7 Pumps...............................................................................................................................43
3.8 Jet Deflection...................................................................................................................44
3.9 Calculations for Mixing of Fluids with Different Density...............................................47
3.10 Measuring and Calculation for Density and Specific Weight..........................................48
CHAPTER 4............................................................................................................................50
METHODOLOGY..................................................................................................................50
4.1 Process Flow......................................................................................................................50
4.2 Vicinity Map......................................................................................................................51
4.3 DESIGN OF THE DRAGON FRUIT IRRIGATION SYSTEM......................................52
4.3.1 Design Schematic....................................................................................................52
4.3.2 Design Flowrate.......................................................................................................53
4.3.3 Pipe Sizing...............................................................................................................54
4.3.4 Jet Nozzle and Deflector Plate Design....................................................................55
4.3.5 Hardy Cross Analysis for the Pipe Grid System.....................................................60
4.3.6 Pump Sizing and System Curve..............................................................................63
4.3.7 Head Loss Design Calculations...............................................................................67
4.3.8 Total Runtime and Pressure Tank Sizing................................................................68
4.3.9 Trellis Design and Canopy......................................................................................71
4.3.10 Safety Features Design..........................................................................................72
4.3.11 Fertigation Pressure Design...................................................................................72
4.4 FABRICATION OF THE DRAGON FRUIT IRRIGATION SET UP..................................
...................................................................................................................................................72

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 4.4.1 Cleaning of Testing Site and Levelling the Ground............................................72
4.4.2 Gathering of Materials........................................................................................73
4.4.3 Assembly of the Main Pipe Grid.........................................................................75
4.4.4 Erecting of the Dragon Fruit Trellis....................................................................76
4.4.5 Assembly of the Nozzle and Deflector Plate......................................................78
4.4.6 Assembly of the Peripherals...............................................................................80
4.4.7 Materials, Equipment, and PPE...............................................................................81
4.4.8 Expected Output......................................................................................................90
4.4.9 Preparation of the Fertigated Fertilizer....................................................................93
4.5 TESTING OF THE DRAGON FRUIT IRRIGATION SYSTEM......................................95
4.5.1 Starting the Irrigation System...................................................................................95
4.5.2 Testing and Measuring the Trellis Irrigation Output...............................................96
4.5.3A Testing the Deflector Plate and Measuring the Water Canopy Coverage Area. . .98
4.5.3B Offset Adjustment of Deflector Plate....................................................................98
4.5.4A Testing the Fertigation Behavior of Various Fertilizer-Water Mixture................98
4.6.1 Raw Data...........................................................................................................100
4.6.2 Actual Testing Data.................................................Error! Bookmark not defined.
APPENDICES.......................................................................................................................109
APPENDIX A: SAMPLES IMAGES OF DRAGONFRUIT.................................................109
APPENDIX B: PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS....................................................................112
APPENDIX D: HARDY CROSS METHOD.........................................................................115
APPENDIX E: SYSTEM CURVE AND PERFORMANCE CURVE CALCULATIONS...126
APPENDIX F: SYSTEM DESIGN SPECIFICATION DIMENSIONS................................128
APPENDIX G: PPR STANDARDS.......................................................................................138
APPENDIX H: WATER PROPERTIES................................................................................139
APPENDIX I: MOODY CHART...........................................................................................140
APPENDIX J: PIPE FITTINGS AND VALVE SYMBOLS.................................................141
APPENDIX K: ASTM STANDARD FOR STEEL METAL STRENGTH...........................142
APPENDIX L: DIFFERENT CONVENTIONAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM........................143
GANTT CHART OF ACTIVITIES.......................................................................................147

9
 CHAPTER 1

THE PROBLEM AND ITS SCOPE

1.1 Introduction

The Pitaya or dubbed the “dragon fruit” is a member of the Cactaceae family from the

genus Hylocereus. It was first introduced to the Philippines during the dawn of Spanish

colonization probably from the trading and exchanging of goods during the 16th century

[ CITATION Eus18 \l 13321 ]. The real origin of the dragon fruit, however, is unknown, but it is

probably native to Central America. It is also known as pitahaya in Mexico, and pitaya roja in

Central America and northern South America (Blancke, 2016). According to DOST-PCAARRD

in 2012, dragon fruit production is part of the country’s lucrative industry mainly due to the

overwhelming health benefits as researchers dubbed it as a “super fruit” (Axe, 2016). As a result,

it has been a booming industry especially in countries like Australia, Central America, Thailand,

Malaysia, and other southeastern Asian countries (Duff, 2015). Dragon fruit production in the

Philippines is also a growing industry. It is considered as a high value fruit crop and recognized

as a regional priority commodity in the Ilocos Region [ CITATION Eus18 \l 13321 ].

Because Dragon fruits are members of the cactus family, they can withstand long periods

of drought. This is true to some extent, although cacti they may be, they do require significantly

more water than other cacti members as they are also classified as a succulent (Grant, 2018).

Throughout the years, the irrigation system of dragon fruit farms usually involves the drip

irrigation system, which is proven to work as it covers more area in irrigating while conserving

the most water (Kek Hoe, 2017). However, some parts of dragon fruit plant cannot tolerate

prolonged water contact as it can be the onset of several diseases and fungal pathogens (He PF

10
et. Al, 2012). In addition, lack of irrigation can cause the dragon fruit to overheat and experience

sun scalding (Grant, 2018). Dragon fruit may also attract ants, beetles and fruit flies, but for the

most part, the dragon fruit has few pest problems in comparison to other crops (Kyung San, et.

Al., 2013)

To aid the production and for maximizing the profit of the farmers, improving the

irrigation system through the advancement of engineering is one way to entice farmers to invest

into this attractive business industry (Adriano, 2014). An efficient irrigation system supplying

precise amount of water and conserving the use of energy can have benefits not only by reducing

the operating costs but also by enhancing the farmland productivity (Widiastuti & Wijayanto,

2017). High yield and quality cultivation can also be achieved using an integrated fertigation

technology wherein water-soluble fertilizers are transported along the irrigation system (Lan-

sheng et al., 2012)

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Dragon fruit plants are high-commodity edible cacti that thrive in tropical climates like

the one in the Philippines. However, prolonged droughts and very high temperature can cause it

to experience withering, stunted growth, overheating, sun scalding, and damage to its leaves,

aerial roots, flowers, and fruits. It can also cause the cacti to stop fruiting. On the other hand,

conventional irrigation methods also pose several disadvantages which cause problems like over-

humidification, fungal growth, rotting, flower and fruit damage, waterlogging, diffuser clogging,

and insufficient cooling.

11
1.3 Objectives

Generally, this study aims to incorporate a spray deflection irrigation and fertigation

system for dragon fruit farms. Specifically, the study aims to:

1. Design an irrigation and fertigation system for dragon fruit plants that overcome the

limitations and disadvantages of conventional irrigation systems, and providing an

equal flow rate in all the trellises.

2. Fabricate and assemble a water jet deflector, and nozzle device that limits water

irrigation coverage on the canopy to prevent flower and fruit damage, and avoiding

over humidification.

3. Test the irrigation and fertigation system for transporting fluids like water and several

water-fertilizer mixture even with the presence of solid impurities without clogging..

1.4 Significance of the Study

The beneficiaries of this study are the following:

 The Researchers

The researchers will have a chance to apply theories and concepts from engineering fields, class

discussions, and laboratory exercises into the field of agriculture and to their personal dragon

fruit farm.

 Future Researchers

The data gathered from this study will be of help for future researchers for improving the

irrigation and fertigation systems of dragon fruit farms. The study, however, is specific to closed

irrigation system.

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 Farmers

The study would be a great help for the dragon fruit farmers, specifically those who live

in rural areas. The result of this study will help them mitigate problems caused by over-

humidification, undercooling, waterlogging, clogging, and rotting which are caused by

conventional irrigation systems, or lack thereof.

 Future Investors

The study will promote and encourage future investors to invest on the very lucrative

business of dragon fruit farming since the plant’s survivability, fruit yield, and profitability can

be improved if the ideal conditions are attained using a special irrigation system.

1.5 Scope and Limitations

The main focus of this study is to incorporate a closed irrigation system with water jet

impinging and scattering by means of a deflector in a set up specific to catering dragon fruit

plants and its required ideal conditions while avoiding the side effects of other conventional

dragon fruit irrigation methods. The proposed irrigation and fertigation system is limited only to

the design, fabrication, and testing of a limited number of trellises, and focuses only on one type

of dragon fruit specie. All calculations are done theoretically with constants like friction factor,

fittings and valve head loss, and other variables taken from existing standards and pre-testing

results.

 The experimental set up will be limited to only nine dragon fruit trellises to constitute the

closed irrigation system.

13
 The Dragon fruit specie in study, and its corresponding ideal conditions, is limited only to the

specie Hylocereus costaricensis (Pitaya roja or red-fleshed pitahaya).

 The pumps, pressure vessel, fittings, deflectors, and pipes are selected according to market

availability and standard sizing with the basis of theoretical calculations.

 The research set-up will be conducted inside the premises of the University of San Carlos

Technological Center, specifically at the warehouse and storage area.

 The irrigation system will be exposed above the ground for experimental purposes and ease

of access and assembly.

 The working fluid in testing the fertigation system will be water mixed with a combination of

the following: Foliar fertilizer, fish amino acid (FAA), liquid mulch, and microbial

inoculants.

 Known facts about the dragon fruit, and its ideal requirements, will be taken from existing

studies and research. As such, the assessment of the study will be based on the achievement

of the objectives which aims to address such requirements, and not on the dragon fruit plant’s

actual growth and fruiting.

14
 CHAPTER 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This study presents the related literature and studies regarding the closed irrigation

system and the commercial potential of dragon fruit in Philippines.

2.1 History and Characteristics of Dragon Fruit Plants

Hylocereus costaricensis or the Red dragon fruit is typically the most cultivated vine

cactus belonging to the family of Cactaceae, originating natively from Mexico and America.

Commonly, it is well known under the name of “dragon fruit” or “pitaya”. According to Aztec

literature, Pitahaya fruits date back to the 13th century (Cheah et al., 2016). Malaysia is another

region where you are sure to find the dragon fruit. It was first introduced in 1999 in the Sitiawan,

Johor and Kuala Pilah regions. Colombia and Nicaragua are other places where pitahaya fruit is

grown for commercial purposes. From the centre of its origin, dragon fruit spread to tropical and

sub-tropical America, Asia, Australia and the Middle East. It is cultivated in at least 22 countries

of the tropics, such as, Australia, Cambodia, China, Israel, Japan, Nicaragua, Peru, Philippines,

Spain, Sri Lanka, Taiwan, Thailand, South Western USA and Vietnam (Mizrahi and Nerd, 1999;

Novel and Barrera, 2002). In the Philippines, it was introduced in the 16 th century most probably

through trading and exchange of goods by Spaniards and Filipinos (Eusibio et. Al, 2018).The

fruit normally weighs from 150 to 600 grams (5.3 to 21.2 oz); some may reach 1 kilogram. These

regions attest to the fact that Pitaya cactus fruit requires a warm climate thus prospers well in

semi-arid areas. Planting the fruit has very high prospects since it’s industrially used in juices,

making wine and flavorings, not forgetting its amazing medicinal value which a lot of people

15
have grown to trust (Vaillant, 2011). They rely on nocturnal pollinators such

as bats or moths for fertilization. Self-fertilization will not produce fruit in some species, and

while cross-breeding has resulted in several "self-fertile" varieties, cross-pollinating with a

second plant species generally increases fruit set and quality. However, the plants can flower

between three and six times in a year depending on growing conditions. Like other cacti, if a

healthy piece of the stem is broken off, it may take root in soil and become its own plant.

(Boning, 2006)

2.2 Dragon Fruit and its Distinctive Properties

There are several species of dragon fruit that was cultivated in Indonesia, they are white

dragonfruit or Hylocereus undatus; pink dragonfruit or Hylocereus sp.; red dragonfruit or

Hylocereus polyrhizus; purplish-red dragon fruit or Hylocereus costaricensis; and yellow dragon

fruit or Hylocereus megalanthus (Andoko and Nurrasyid, 2012). The differences of dragonfruit

can be easily known by some distinguishing morphological characters, such as fruit size, fruit

color, and number of spines at the areola that was formed on branch/stem segments. Its canopy is

estimated to branch out approximately 1 meter wide while its flowers and fruit grows on the

plant’s outer periphery (Tran and Yen, 2014). The anatomy of the Dragon fruit consists of a

fleshy, segmented stalk that grow upward like a vine, aerial roots grow from the stalk’s body for

the function of water and nutrient absorption and for anchoring itself to the wall or trellis. Once it

reaches a certain height, the stalks will grow more tendrils that hang from the canopy of the

trellis. As a cacti specie, it has thorny edges along its wave-like profile of whose shape

characteristic is determined by the specie of the plant. The dragon fruit produces big, white

16
flowers that bloom overnight and usually wilt by the morning (Boning, 2006). Sample images of

the dragon fruit is found in Figure A-1 found in Appendix A.

2.2.1 Dragon Fruit Ground and Aerial Roots

Dragon fruits, varied as they are, all produce two types of roots: aerial and ground roots.

The ground roots are the main channels for nutrient and moisture absorption. The aerial roots are

formed in the stem section and are primarily for adhering or anchoring the dragon fruit to a

surface as the cacti branches and vines. The aerial roots, similarly with ground roots, can also

absorb moisture and nutrients (Crane and Balerdi, 2005).

2.2.2 Dragon Fruit flowers and Fruits

According to Luders (2006), Buds are contained in aerioles along the ribbed stem and

emerge in the summer months. Once emerged, the buds then form into branches or flowers. The

scented, white, night-blooming flowers attract bats and moths. Bees and other insects visit the

flowers before dusk as the petals open and after dawn as the flowers begin to close. Flowers only

open for two days, after which, fruit set and development is rapid. Fruit can be harvested

approximately 28 days after the flower closes. The fruit must be fully expanded and have 85%

pink color in the skin. The branches are encouraged to hang down to promote flowering and fruit

set. Healthy plants can flower up to six times a year depending on the growing conditions.

Extended overwatering or harsh application of irrigation can cause the flowers to drop or the

fruit to split or rot (Duff, 2015). Images of dragon fruit are shown in Figure A-2 from Appendix

A.

17
2.3 Prospects of Dragon Fruit Farming in the Philippines

Dragon fruit production in the Philippines is a growing industry. It is considered as a high

value fruit crop and recognized as a regional priority commodity in the Ilocos Region. Area,

annual production, and yield per hectare has been increasing in the last six years due to

government efforts in partnership with private farm owners, growers’ associations, research

institutions, and other key players in the industry. Values are however smaller compared with the

country’s neighboring countries Vietnam, Malaysia, and Indonesia. But farmers in the

Philippines are catching up in terms of technology and market development (Eusebio et al.,

2018)

Dragon fruit commercial plantings can be done at high density with between 1100 and

1350 plants per hectare. The plants are planted around a trellis or a post where the dragon fruit

clings and climbs. Each trellis ideally is surrounded with 3 to 5 dragon fruit plants. It can take up

to five years to come into full commercial production, at which stage yields of 20 to 30 tons per

hectare can be expected. (Eusebio et al., 2018)

2.3.1 Rainfall, Humidity, and Irrigation

The optimal rainfall of the dragon fruit should be between 600-1300mm since excess

rainfall will cause the flowers to either drop or rot, thus reducing the fruit set. The best period for

irrigation and watering is during its fruiting season since the dragon fruit’s fruit contains 86.03%

18
water (Jerônimo et al., 2015). Although irrigation is important, the biggest enemy of the cacti is

waterlogging as it kills it. Equally, excess humidity causes proliferation of soft rot caused by the

Erwina Carotovora bacteria. High humidity also affects the dragon fruit’s pollen and will

eventually rot the flowers as well. A dry rot on the other side is caused by extreme soil moisture.

Some plant diseases caused by waterlogging are Bipolaris fruit rot, anthracnose, stem rot, and

root rot (Valencia-Botín et al., 2013). According to a study from 2007, it was proven that

humidity and temperature plays a large role in the transport and dispersion of fungal spores

(Smilanick & Mansour, 2007)

2.3.2 Light Tolerance

Dragon fruits are advised to be provided with a little shade in conditions that have

excessive light intensity. There are species that are susceptible to bleaching and sun scalding

when exposed to high radiations. . Thus, some species should be grown under net houses or

provided an irrigation system to compensate the heat. Hylocereus costaricensis does fairly well

with high temperature and radiation, but lack of water makes them vulnerable to sun scalding.

There are also species that originate from tropical and subtropical America, while other species

like the H. polyrhizus withstands high light intensity due to their thick waxy skin (Patwary et al.,

2013). Images for sun scalding due to overheating is found in Figure A-5 in Appendix A.

2.3.3 Temperature Tolerance

Dragon fruits are likened to both cactus and succulent. They can withstand bouts of high

temperature and survive short periods of frost due to the high water content on their body.

Although, they can withstand a lot of heat, excessive temperature can damage the Dragon fruit’s

fruit, and can crack the fruit if subjected to high temperature since the fruit’s flesh expands when

19
heated. Optimal temperatures should be between 38-40 degrees Celsius. (Setzer 2014) Some

species like the Hylocereus Undatus are extremely sensitive to high temperature. The effects

include abnormal browning and the stems of the affected plants may end up liquefying.

Flowering is equally affected by excessive temperatures. Irrigation system can allow the optimal

humidity as the water from the irrigation system cools the area during evaporation. (Patwary et

al., 2013)

2.3.4 Soil Requirements 

The Dragon fruit plant is able to grow in any soil that is well draining and not very

saline, but it prefers to grow in soil that is slightly acidic with a pH level that is between 6 and 7.

Sandy soil is the best option for this plant as it mitigates the possibilities of fruit rot. The dragon

fruit also produces hardy and extensively branching roots which can tolerate a rocky soil

(Patwary et al., 2013).

2.3.5 Trellis Design and Spacing

A trellis is an open framework or post to support the growth of climbing plants. The

common design for a dragon fruit trellis is usually made using concrete supported by

reinforcement bars, PVC or uPVC pipes, or a lower costing bamboo or wood. An intersecting

cross-bar is fixed to the top where the plant can hang and form a canopy. The height of a dragon

fruit trellis is usually around 1.5 to 2.5 meters tall, and can support 3 to 8 plants. A study

conducted by Then Kek Hoe concluded that distancing dragon fruit trellises at 2.5m x 1.8m

20
resulted in a maximized number of trellis per hectare and produced 126.5% more dragon fruits

per hectare as compared to the conventional 3m x 2.4m spacing of trellises (Kek Hoe, 2017). On

another study, Israeli farmers use a spacing distance of 1.5m x 1.5m to further optimize land

usage. This spacing, however, is not applicable for large-scale farms since passage becomes

limited as the canopy becomes too crowded (Merten, 2003). Sample images of Trellis design is

found on Figure A-4 in Appendix A.

2.3.6 Fertilizer and Fertigation

Organic and chemical fertilizers are very compatible with dragon fruits. The

classification of fertilizers is categorized as water-soluble and solid fertilizers. The best period to

apply fertilizers is during the active growing season where the Dragon fruit would require much

needed nutrients and moisture to support the fruit’s growth. Lack of nutrients and water content

in the soil causes the fruits to dwarf in size, and cause some flowers to wilt without fertilizing

into a fruit. (Patwary et al., 2013)

A study was carried out to improve the flowering of red pitaya by foliar fertilizer

spraying. Four types of foliar fertilizers, such as Box-Flower (1% v/v), Folar-K (0.1% v/v),

potassium nitrate (1% w/w) and mono-potassium phosphate (1% w/w) were used in this study.

The fertilizers were sprayed on the branches and aerial roots in weekly interval. (Kek Hoe, 2014)

21
Table 2.3.6a: Total flowers produced of red pitaya after sprayed with different types of foliar

fertilizers as compared to untreated plants. (Kek Hoe, 2014)

Total flower produced and yield was recorded after three months of treatments.

Cumulative flowering records over two years showed Box-Flower, potassium nitrate and Folar-

K sprayed were able to induce highest flowering by 38.0, 33.2 and 27.7% respectively, followed

by mono-potassium phosphate treatment which induced 18.7% more flowers as compared to

untreated plants. (Kek Hoe, 2014)

In the case of drip and spray irrigation methods, solids accumulated can cause reduction of

water flow, and a place for microbes to grow which his result to clogging. When water is

contaminated, this increases the potential for disease[ CITATION Bed94 \l 1033 ]. Common

fertilizers used in dragon fruit farms are foliar fertilizer, microbial inoculants, fish amino acid,

and liquid mulch (Hua Lian Xu, 2008). From the research conducted by David Kariuki on using

different fertilizers of his tea farm, the table below based from his calculations shows the general

specific gravity of the 4 fertilizers to be used in this study.

22
Table 2.3.6b: Various densities from David Kariuki according to his experiments of the various

fertilizers for consumer crops.

Fertilizer Specific gravity (s.p.)

Foliar Fertilizer 1.40
Microbial Inoculants 1.01
Fish Amino Acid 1.10
Liquid Mulch 1.18

2.4 Types of Conventional Irrigation System and Their Impact on Dragon fruit.

Irrigation operations take a large amount of water and energy which impact to total costs

of crop production. Development of an efficient irrigation supplying precise amount of water and

conserving the use of energy can have benefits not only by reducing the operating costs but also

by enhancing the farmland productivity. This article presents an irrigation method that promotes

sustainable use of water and energy appropriate for a developing tropical country. It proposes a

drip irrigation system supported by a combined solar-wind electric power generation system for

efficient use of water in dragon fruit cultivation. (Alaofe H. et al., 2016) Irrigation, in general, is

crucial especially in large scale plantation since periods of drought or consecutive hot days can

damage the plants beyond recovery. Although Dragon fruits are not well-suited for very humid

and wet environments, optimal irrigation can effectively maximize fruit growth and plant

development.

23
2.4.1 Surface or flood irrigation

Surface irrigation or flood irrigation is done when water moves over and across the

surface of the land by simple gravity flow to infiltrate the soil. This usually takes advantage of

existing natural bodies of water like lakes, river, and streams.

Table 2.4.1: Advantages and disadvantages of Surface Irrigation (Pereira,1988)

Disadvantages Advantages
 Uses too much water. Most of the water  Can take advantage of natural bodies of

gets absorbed by the soil or gets water where water capacity is not a

evaporated.. problem without using a pump.

 Causes sedimentation, and carries off  Thoroughly drenches the soil which is

fertilizers and nutrients from the soil. perfect for crops like rice.

 Causes root rot and water logging which  Easy and cheap to make since trenches are

is the onset of bacterial and fungal-related just dug for water transfer. No need of

diseases. piping systems.

 Encourages growth of weeds (Patel,

2018).

2.4.2 Sprinkler Irrigation

It’s a popular method, which pipes with a set amount of water to the fields and then

sprays it directly over the crops with high-pressure sprinklers. The benefit is that the amounts of

water can be controlled.

24
Table 2.5.2: Advantages and disadvantages of Sprinkler irrigation (Pereira,1988)

Disadvantages Advantages
 Big quantities of water lost through  Water can be controlled and equally

evaporative losses. dissipated.

 Causes over humidification that can  Cools down the ambient temperature and

spread bacteria and fungus to the air, and plant surface due to evaporative cooling.

promote their growth.

 Can cause rotting of the fruits due to

bacteria and fungus that thrive on humid

environments.

 Requires higher maintenance and

expensive materials like pumps, pipes,

fittings, etc.

2.4.3 Drip Irrigation

Water is delivered at or near the root zone of plants, drop by drop. This method is the most

water efficient of irrigation.

Table 2.5.3: Advantages and disadvantages of Drip Irrigation (Pereira,1988)

Disadvantages Advantages
 Unequal distribution of water since  Cheaper than sprinkler irrigation since

connection is in series. parts are few and easy to install.

 Can cause clogging due to impurities in  Accurately targets the roots with very

the water and the small size of the outflow little loss due to soil absorption and

25
 diameter. evaporative losses.

 Not effective for carrying water-soluble  Requires very less water.

fertilizers due to the increase of viscosity.

 Waters only the roots of the plant which

leaves the leaves and stem to be hotter and

more prone to scalding.

2.4.4 Center pivot irrigation

It involves a self-propelled system in which a single pipeline moves on wheeled towers in

a circular pattern.

Table 2.5.4: Advantages and disadvantages of Center Pivot irrigation (Pereira, 1988)

Disadvantages Advantages
 Very large quantities of water lost through  Water can be controlled and equally

evaporative losses. dissipated.

26
  Causes over humidification that can  Cools down the ambient temperature and

spread bacteria and fungus to the air, and plant surface due to evaporative cooling.

promote their growth.  Doesn’t require an extensive pipe

 Water droplets are bigger in size which network.

can damage flower pollens.  Frictional and fitting losses are less.

 Requires higher maintenance and

expensive materials like pumps, pipes,

fittings, etc.

2.4.5 Manual Irrigation

This type uses buckets or watering cans. It is a common method used in our backyard

farms but very impractical on large-scale farms.

Table 3.5.5: Advantages and disadvantages of Manual Irrigation (Pereira,1988)

Disadvantages Advantages
 Very laborious.  Most straightforward and simple and

 More expensive on the long-run since irrigation system.

manpower are employed.  Cheap start-up.

 Unequal watering and distribution.

2.5 Diseases Common to Dragon Fruits Due to Over-humidification and Excessive

Exposure to Water

27
 Overwatering, over-humidification, or excessive rainfall can cause the flowers to drop

and fruit and stalks to rot. These are mainly caused by bacteria and fungus take thrive on high-

moisture environments. Also, extended over-watering can cause maturing fruit to split on the

branch, and makes the stalks more vulnerable since the outer layer of its skin becomes softer and

thereby making bacterial or fungal penetration easier (Downer, 2011).

One bacterium is the Xanthomonas campestris which causes the stems to

rot. Dothiorella fungi can cause brown spots on the fruit, but this is not common. Other fungi

known to infect the dragonfruit plant includes the Botryosphaeriadothidea, Colletotrichum

gloesporioides and Bipolaris cactivora. All of these diseases are oftentimes directly related to

very high humidity and watering as both bacteria and fungi propagate quicker with water. In

addition, the water also softens the host plant which lowers the resistance of the Dragon fruit

against these diseases and fungus. The effect of this diseases result in rotting on the roots, stem,

flowers, and fruits. It also stuns the growth and fruiting capacity of the plant (Valencia-Botín et

al., 2013).

Anthracnose is also another humidity-caused disease that cause lesions which are caused

by a fungus, Bipolaris cactvora. This species causes stem and fruit rot of cactus (including

pitahaya) in California, Florida, Europe and Asia. In general, diseases caused by Bipolaris are

favored by humid conditions. Inoculum sources include diseased plants in the field and crop

residue. Conidia are most often spread by wind, irrigation, and rain. (Palmateer et. Al.,2007).

Images of the bacterial and fungal induced diseases are shown in Figure A-3 found in Appendix

A.

2.6 Closed Irrigation System

28
 The closed irrigation system is an on-farm irrigation system which are composed of

pipelines carrying pressurized water. It has been practiced that this irrigation system is proven to

be the most preferred as it has more localized application to the roots of plants and sprinklers can

be easily added into the pipes. According to[ CITATION Adr12 \l 13321 ], closed irrigation systems

are composed of three main parts: water source, main pipeline, and distribution pipelines. Water

sources are both natural (i.e. rivers, lakes and reservoirs) and stored in elevated or pressurized

tanks. Main pipelines supplies the water from the water source to the distribution pipelines.

Finally, the distribution pipelines transmit the water to the sprinkler systems to the roots of

plants. The adaptation of this irrigation system due to various layouts and shapes of farms is also

proven to be practical. Pipe arrangements are easily altered to suit the farm layout, thereby

adding convenience to farmers, as claimed by[ CITATION Gil04 \l 13321 ]. Installation of pressure

gauges to monitor water pressure and valves to control water flow are proven to be less hassle.

With this irrigation system, experimental setups are proven to be the most effective

when it comes to pressurized water storage. This is because water is easily confined to the pipes

and pipes can be sealed shut, according to [ CITATION Joh89 \l 13321 ] . Compared to open irrigation

systems which make use of open canals or conduits as irrigation networks, closed irrigation

systems do not suffer evaporative water loss and contamination mainly due to being confined in

pipes. Diseases carried by mosquitoes, such as malaria, are eliminated, as water do not remain

exposed to open air. Fertilizer and nutrient lose are reduced due to a localized application.

Closed irrigation systems are proven to be a preferred choice of irrigating farms due to these

benefits. In addition, water flow and pressure are easily controlled and calculated by the

observers. Closed irrigation systems yield the highest efficiency factor (EF) and land use ratio

29
(LUR) of irrigation systems, do not deteriorate land reclamation conditions, and allow

automating water distribution over irrigated sites.

2.7 Closed Irrigation System Techniques

Depending on the location and the potential expandability of the farm, different types of

closed irrigation methods have been developed to cater and adjust to the needs and the

differences in conditions of the setup. Subject to their design, closed irrigation systems are

divided into three types: stationary, semi-stationary and mobile. Stationary closed irrigation

systems have permanent pipelines. Their pipe networks are embedded under the soil

surface[ CITATION CAw30 \l 1033 ] . Permanent hydrants are mounted on them, through which

water is supplied to sprinkling and irrigating machines [CITATION Kha14 \l 1033 ]. Horticultural

plants that are grown on fixed size land, crops with steady demand and house gardens will

benefit this design. Semi-stationary closed irrigation network consists of permanent subsurface

and detachable surface pipelines, to which irrigating equipment is connected [ CITATION CAw30 \l

1033 ]. With the aforementioned applications of stationary closed irrigation but employ closed

loop systems, where the irrigating equipment is electronic and needs to be easily accessible, semi

stationary design is an ideal choice for the matter. Lastly, the mobile closed irrigation systems,

according to Yamato, is the most common out of the three design choices [ CITATION Yam01 \l

1033 ]. All the pipe networks and pipelines are laid on the surface [ CITATION Liu03 \l 1033 ] .

Smaller food crops, shrubs and plants grown on trays use this design. Piping on this design are

easily modified and suited depending on the arrangement. These designs are the most widely-

used and the most popular methods of employing closed irrigation systems as they have been

30
practiced and applied by growers and farmers for a long time now, as claimed by Urshal.

However, depending on the water demand of plants and weather condition, practicality of

choosing water distribution systems for irrigation will vary. Gravity-driven water distribution

systems are advised for plants that have constant water demand since larger tanks are used and

can have greater storage available for extended use[ CITATION Box05 \l 1033 ]. On the other hand,

pressure system has less storage and requires a larger pump that can meet the shorter peak

usages[ CITATION Gow04 \l 1033 ]. This type of water distribution system is preferred for succulent

plants as they do not require large amounts of water [ CITATION Vic99 \l 1033 ] . Along with the

designs of closed irrigation systems, methods of water distribution can affect the efficiency of

the overall setup. It is important to verify these through experimental methods because the

researchers will have a chance to test the various designs. In tropical countries, such as

Philippines, the most preferred type of irrigation system is drip irrigation [ CITATION Ell09 \l 1033 ].

Because of the fact that tropical countries have rainy seasons, most plants don’t require too much

irrigation. The purpose of irrigation systems here in Philippines, according to Atienza (2006), is

to increase yield in order to cater the demands. In sunny tropical seasons, most of the irrigation

systems and practices are done in this season.

2.8 Pipe Designs and Maintenance

In Philippines, the usual pipe design for irrigation with water-nutrient mediums use

PVC[ CITATION Per03 \l 1033 ]. This pipe is proven to be cheap but robust in general purpose

applications. GI pipes are usually left to pure water transport as the moist soils on the farm can

easily corrode them. PVC pipes are maintained by not exposing them to direct sun rays as the

UV rays damage the polymer structures of the plastic[ CITATION Ged67 \l 1033 ]. Proper pipe

31
fittings and joints can also improve water flow [ CITATION Zha03 \l 1033 ] . For high-pressure

application, PPR pipes or Polypropylene Random Copolymer pipes are often used. PPR pipes are

proven to be more leak proof compared to PVC pipes as fusion welding is used to join two PPR

pipes[ CITATION Don05 \l 13321 ] . PPR pipes have higher flexibility and insulates heat better

compared to PVC pipes, making it more suitable in tropical countries where the ground

temperature is mostly unstable due to rainfall and the hot tropical sun, along with the temperature

difference across the surroundings[ CITATION Pas05 \l 13321 ]

2.9 Jet nozzle flowrate

The first practical use of water jet nozzles is the garden hose nozzles. Garden hose with 5

mm jet nozzle attached, typically have a flowrate of 10 liters per minute and can have 20 psi in

the end[ CITATION APh07 \l 13321 ] . This gives the best balance because the nozzle diameter is

large enough not to cause misting, this also causes unwanted humidity and maintains the best

water economy. According to Hunter, the aforementioned pressure is an ideal choice since

pressures above 30 psi can lead to huge pressure losses due to fittings[ CITATION Gre15 \l 13321 ].

2.10 Booster Pump

A typical booster pump is device that will increase the pressure and deliver the required

flowrate to the system[ CITATION Ray10 \l 13321 ]. According to Stepanoff, pumps lower than 30

meters head are considered as low head pumps and pumps with over 100 liters/minute discharge

are high discharge pumps[ CITATION Ale67 \l 13321 ]. The cut on pressure (pressure at which the

pump starts pumping) and cut off pressure (pressure at which the pumping stops). It is also

suggested by Cycle Stop Valves, Inc. that booster pump maximum flowrate should be more or

32
less equal to the volume of draw-down capacity of the pressure tank. This is to prevent frequent

pump cycling if the pressure tank capacity is too small or slow pressure recovery rate when the

pressure tank is larger. Most booster pumps have flow rate range from 5-10,000 gpm and total

head pressures for up to 2,500 ft[ CITATION Lew18 \l 13321 ].

2.11 Pressure tank

The pressure tank, also known as bladder tank, is used to maintain the water pressure of

the system by means of compressed air in a bladder within the tank. The main purpose of

pressure tank is to decrease the number of pump cycles as much as possible as frequent pump

cycles can shorten the lifespan of a booster pump[ CITATION Ros04 \l 13321 ]. According to most

manufacturers such as R.C. Worst Co., the minimum runtime for booster pumps less than or

equal to 1 horsepower is 1 minute. If the pressure is greater than 1 horsepower, then the

recommended runtime is 2 minutes. The pressure tank actual capacity is usually two-thirds the

actual case volume of the pressure tank[CITATION Ste \l 13321 ].

2.12 Potential Contribution of the Proposed Study to the Present Body of Knowledge

The study will have a potential contribution to the field of fluid mechanics in the analysis of a

closed piping grid system as it transport both viscous and non-viscous liquids for the purpose of

both irrigation and fertigation. This study also introduces a new type of irrigation system for

dragon fruits where water exits in a larger outlet and is scattered by means of deflection. This

study may also provide new insight on how to limit or correct the side effects of conventional

irrigation and may be beneficial for farmers and researchers in formulating an irrigation system

33
that best suits dragon fruits and its productivity. The results of this study may be useful in future

studies undertaken for the progression of the current irrigation and fertigation techniques.

34
 CHAPTER 3

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

3.1 Distributions of Flow in Pipe Grid Networks

In a flow distribution system, pipes are usually interconnected so that the discharge flow

from the inlet can be distributed along the outlet that comes from several paths [ CITATION Ben80 \l

13321 ]. Due to several different paths, it is difficult to guess which way the water travel. In a

pipe network, it is important to satisfy the basic relations of continuing energy. First, the flow

into any junction must be equal to the flow going out. Second, the flow into each pipe must

satisfy the pipe-friction laws of flow for each pipe. And lastly, the algebraic sum of the head

losses around any close loop must be zero [ CITATION Gol96 \l 13321 ]. In today’s technology, there

are existing software that can solve and analyze pipe networks. Hand solution for pipe network

analysis is also available. One of the oldest and best known solution method for pipe network

analysis is the Hardy Cross method[ CITATION Cro36 \l 13321 ]. This method is known for

determining the flow in the pipe network systems through iterations wherein the law of mass

conservation is present,

massin = massout (Eq. 1)

The set-up of pipes inside the soil are arranged in a grid pattern where each loop has even

sides and water comes out in each of the intersections (nodes). The flow rate can be calculated on

each loop. Upon knowing the flow rate, the flow rate on each perpendicular pipe over the node

will be verified if its equal on every node during experimentation.

35
 HL = KQn (Eq. 2)

R = nKQn-1 (Eq. 3)

ΣHL = ΣKQn (Eq. 4)

ΣR = ΣnKQn-1 (Eq. 5)

Σ KQ n
ΣQ loop= (Eq.
Σn KQ n−1

6)

Qadj = Q + Qloop (Eq. 7)

Where HL and R are the head loss, K as the head loss per unit flow, Q is the assumed flow rate, n

as the flow exponent, Qloop as the flow rate in the entire loop and Q adj as the adjusted flow rate per

iteration.

3.2 Pipe Pressure Head and Free Jets

To verify the pipe pressure head needed on each of the dragon fruit trellis, Newton’s

second law of motion to fluid flows must be applied. The Bernoulli equation is a very powerful

tool in fluid mechanics especially calculating with the introduction of pumps into the

system[ CITATION Mer67 \l 1033 ]. This equation was derived by Daniel Bernoulli and was

published in his book entitled Hydrodynamics[ CITATION Ber38 \l 1033 ]. In using the Bernoulli

equation four assumptions must be made. First, the viscous effects are negligible. Second, the

flow is steady. Third, the flow is incompressible. And lastly, the equation is applicable along a

streamline. With these assumptions the Bernoulli equation is derived as

36
 1
p+ ρV 2+ γz=constant (Eq. 8)
2

Where p as the pressure of the fluid, ρ as the density of the fluid, V as the fluid velocity, γ as the

specific weight of fluid and z as the elevation.

Between any two points, (1) and (2), on a streamline in steady, inviscid, incompressible flow, the

Bernoulli equation can be applied in the form

1 1
p1 + V 21+ z1= p 2+ V 22 + z 2 (Eq. 9)
2 2

If five of the six variables are known, the remaining one can be determined. Other

equations that base from the law of conservation of mass (Eq.1 to Eq.7) may be introduced in

some instances when using Bernoulli equation. When water in each of dragon fruit trellis reach

the nozzle, it is exited in a straight, narrow and high velocity flow into the air. This principle is

called free jet, where a jet of liquid of diameter d flows from a nozzle with velocity V. The

application of Eq. 9 between points (1) and (2) on such streamline gives

1
γ z1= V 22 (Eq. 10)
2

where if the velocity is isolated, Eq. 9 gives

γ z1
√
V 2= 2
ρ
= √ 2 gh (Eq. 11)

Equation 10 is derived from the following facts that z 1=0, z 2=0, the reservoir is large (V 1 ≅ 0)

and the pressure is atmospheric ( p1=0 ), and the fluid leaves as a free jet ( p2=0 ).

37
3.3 Confined Flows

If the fluid is constrained physically within a device, its pressure cannot be deducted as

was done for the free jets. These cases include pipes and nozzles of variable diameter for which

the velocity of the fluid changes because the area the flow is permitted changes from one section

of the device to the other. For these situations, the Bernoulli equation has to be paired with the

concept of conservation of mass. When the flow is steady such that no additional accumulation

of fluid within the flow occurs, the rate at which the fluid flows into the device must be equal to

the rate at which it flows out of the device. The equation for mass flow rate is given by:

ṁ=ρQ (Eq. 12)

Where ṁ is the mass flowrate, is the fluid density and Q is the volume flowrate. If the flow area

is A and the fluid flows normal to this area with an average velocity V , then the volume flow

rate is given by

Q= AV (Eq. 13)

thus,

ṁ=ρAV (Eq. 14)

By the conservation of mass, the inflow rate must be equal to the outflow rate. If the inlet is

designated as (1) and the outlet as (2), it follows that ṁ1 is equal to ṁ2. Thus,

ρ1 A 1 V 1 =ρ 2 A 2 V 2 (Eq. 15)

If density remains constant between points (1) and (2), then ❑1 is equal to ❑2, and Eq. 15

becomes the continuity equation for incompressible flow and is given by:

A1 V 1= A2 V 2 or Q 1=Q2 (Eq. 16)

38
3.4 Single and Multiple Pipe Systems

Multiple pipe systems are classified into two series of parallel flows. In series flow, the

varying dimensions at different sections of the pipe correspond to a specific velocity of the fluid

at that point. The continuity equation must still be satisfied where the inflow rate is equal to the

outflow rate. If a fluid flows in a pipe with n number of sections with distinct flow areas, the

flowrate in each section will be equal and is given by

Q ¿ =Q 1=Q 2=Q 3 =…=Q n=Q out (Eq. 17)

Where Q¿ is the inflow rate, Q1 is the flowrate of section 1, Q 2 is the flowrate of section 2, Q3 is

the flowrate of section 3, Q n is the flowrate of section n and Q out is the outflow rate. The total

head loss within the pipe series flow is the sum of the individual head losses that occur at each

point. This is given by:

h L(¿−out) =h L1 +h L2 +h L3 +…+ hln (Eq. 18)

Where h L(¿−out) is the total head loss within the pipe. h L1,h L2, h L3 and h ln are

the head losses for sections 1, 2, 3 and n, respectively.

For parallel flows, a fluid traveling from point A to point B may take any of the paths

provided by multiple pipes. The total flowrate will be equal to the sum of the individual

flowrates in each pipe. If a fluid flows from point A to point B at n number of pipes the

governing equation for the flowrate is given by:

Q ¿ =Q 1+ Q 2+Q 3+ …+Q n=Q out (Eq. 19)

Where Q¿ is the inflow rate at point A, Q1 is the flowrate of pipe 1, Q 2 is the flowrate of pipe 2,

Q 3 is the flowrate of pipe 3, Q n is the flowrate of pipe n and Q out is the outflow rate at point B.

39
The head loss experienced by any fluid flowing between points A and B is the same independent

of the path taken. This is given by the equation

h L1=hL 2=h L3=…=hln (Eq. 20)

Where h L1,h L2, h L3 and h ln are the head losses for sections 1, 2, 3 and n, respectively.

3.5 Flowrate Measurement

The principles of the Bernoulli equation have been applied to devices that are used to

measure fluid velocities and flowrates. These devices are called “flow meters” and they measure

the flowrate through a pipe by placing a restriction within the pipe and measuring the pressure

difference between the low-velocity, high-pressure upstream section (1), and the high-velocity,

low-pressure downstream section (2). There are three commonly used types of flow meters: the

nozzle meter, the orifice meter, and the Venturi meter. All of these flow meters operate based on

the same physical principle; an increase in velocity causes a decrease in pressure. The difference

between these types is a matter of accuracy, cost and how closely the operation obeys the

theoretical flow assumptions.

When the flow is steady, inviscid, incompressible and horizontal that there is no change in

elevation between points (1) and (2), the Bernoulli equation becomes

1 1
p1 + ρV 21=p 2+ ρV 22 (Eq. 21)
2 2

When the velocity profiles at sections (1) and (2) are uniform, Eq. 16 can be written in the form

Q= A 1 V 1= A 2 V 2 (Eq. 22)

40
Where A2 is the small flow area ( A2 < A 1) at section (2). Combining Eq. 21 and Eq. 22 results in a

following theoretical flowrate equation

2( p1− p2 )

23)
Q= A 2

√ [ ( )]
ρ 1−
A2
A1
2
(Eq.

Thus for a given flow geometry ( A1 ∧A 2 ) the flowrate can be calculated if the pressure difference

p1− p2 is measured.

3.6 Losses in Pipes and Fittings

It is important to identify how the flow rate varies with pressure and equivalent loss in a

given piping system. This can be represented by the modified Bernoulli equation

p 1 V 21 p 2 V 22 fl V 2 V2
+ + z 1 = + + z 2+ Σ + ΣK (Eq. 24)
γ 2g γ 2g 2 dg 2g

where p is the pressure of the fluid, is the specific weight of fluid, V is the fluid velocity, g is the

gravity due to acceleration, z is the elevation, f is the friction factor, l is the length of the pipe,

and k is the coefficient of loss due to fittings.

To solve for the friction factor, tabulated empirical equations for the Darcy-Weisbach equation is

presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Darcy-Weisbach Friction Equations

Type of Flow Equation for f Range Eqn. #
64
Laminar f=  Re < 2100 (25)
Re

41
 1 e Re > 4000
Smooth Pipe
√f
=−0.86 ln (
3.7 D ) and e/D 0
(26)

Transitional 1  e 9.85 
=  1.14-2log10  +   Re > 4000 (27)
Colebrook-White Eq. f  D Re  f 
1 e
Turbulent =  1.14-2log10   Re > 4000 (28)
f D

Where Re is the Reynolds number, D is the diameter of the pipe, and e is the roughness of the

pipe. Reynolds number can be computed as:

ρVD
ℜ= (Eq. 29)
μ

where ρ is the density of the fluid, V is the velocity of the fluid flow, D is the diameter of the

pipe and µ is the viscosity of the fluid.

The roughness of the pipe can be identified depending on the type of material. Table 2

shows the roughness of pipe for different materials.

Table 2. Pipe Roughness of various piping materials in millimeters (mm) and inches (in).
Material e, mm e, in
Riveted Steel 0.9 – 9.0 0.035 – 0.35
Concrete 0.3 – 3.0 0.012 – 0.12
Cast Iron 0.26 0.010
Galvanized Iron 0.15 0.006
Asphalted Cast Iron 0.12 0.0048
Commercial or Welded Steel 0.045 0.0018
PVC, Draw Tubing, Glass 0.0015 0.00006
*Courtesy of H. McGovern, Dublin Institute of Technology.

Table 3 provides the loss coefficients for a number of fittings. Table 3 shows the selected

fittings, with their corresponding losses, that will be used in this study.

Table 3. Loss Coefficient for Selected Pipe Fittings.

42
 Fitting Coefficient of Loss, K
90° elbow 0.31
α 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Ball valve 0.2 17. 20
K 0.05 1.56 5.47 2506 485 ∞
9 3 6
D2
Convergent Outlet or Nozzle 0.1 (1-  ) (Eq. 30)
D1

Where K is the loss coefficient, α is the angle between the opening of the ball valve and

the direction of flow, D2 is the pipe diameter of outflow, and D1 is the pipe diameter of the

inflow.

3.7 Pumps

A pump is a mechanical device that moves fluids in a confined flow either by suction or

pressure. Pumps are essential components of piping systems which are designed to convey

liquids. There are three basic types of pumps based on how they move water across in a pipe or

in multiple piping systems: centrifugal pumps, reciprocating pumps and rotary pumps.

Centrifugal pumps are one of the commonly used pumps and they work by using an impeller,

which is a rotating blade to generate suction which then moves fluid through pipes. They are

used in fluids with low viscosity and low solid concentration. Reciprocating pumps uses the back

and forth action of piston in a cylinder to move fluids. Most hand pumps are in form of

reciprocating pumps. And lastly, rotary pumps uses two meshed rotary gears that move fluid in

positive displacement. Rotary pumps are commonly used in automotive and industrial settings

where most of the fluid carried are viscous.

43
 To compute for the pump head required for the system, in accordance to the Bernoulli’s

Law of incompressible fluids, the relationship the total head of the system is.

P L V2
h p =1.5+
ρg (
+ Σf + ΣK
D 2g ) (Eq. 31)

Power output of the pump can be calculated by:

Poutput =ρgQH (Eq. 32)

The overall efficiency of the system is calculated as:

Poutput
ηoverall = (Eq. 33)
Pinput

3.8 Jet Deflection

The purpose of using jet deflection is to spread and redirect the volume of water from jet

to the roots of dragon fruit trellis by increasing its area coverage. Force of impact of water R von

the curved plate is calculated by

−R v =ρV 1 (−V 1 ) A1 + ρ (−V 2 sin θ ) V 2 A2 (Eq. 34)

where ρ is water density, V 1 is the velocity of water just before it hits the curved plate, V 2 is the

water velocity deflected from impact surface, A1 is the cross-sectional area of the nozzle, A2 is

the cross-sectional area of the impact surface and θ is the angle of deflection.

Using the simplifications A=A 1= A2 and V =V 1=V 2, the equation reduces to

R v =ṁV (1+sin θ) (Eq. 35)

44
where ṁ=ρ V 1 A 1=ρ V 2 A 2 CITATION Oba95 \l 1033 (Obara & Bourne, 1995).

Figure 3.8.1: Nomenclature for control volume analysis of the jet

Consider a jet of water coming out of the nozzle, strikes a flat vertical plate as shown in the

Figure 3.8.2.

Figure 3.8.2: Jet of water impinging on a flat surface

45
 The jet after striking the plate will move along the plate. But the plate is right angles to the

jet. Hence, the jet after striking will get deflected by 90°. The component of the velocity of the

jet, in the direction of the jet, after striking will be zero.

−R v =ρV 1 (−V 1 ) A1 + ρ (−V 2 ) V 2 A 2 (Eq. 36)

Since the jet deflector is a flat surface, the diameter of the coverage under the jet deflector is:

4 A2
D 2=
√ π
(Eq. 37)

At the tip of the jet deflector where the water leaves to the air, the idea of the water

flowing in a projectile manner can already be treated in this way, that is, the action of gravity is

now taking a huge effect of how it lands to the dragon fruit canopy.

Figure 3.8.1: Projectile motion leaving in horizontal direction (Courtesy of Tutor4physics)

Since water leaves with an initial velocity V 2, the horizontal and vertical components of velocity

are given as follows:

V x =V 2 (Eq. 38)

46
 V y =¿ (Eq. 39)

Vy V
θ=tan −1 =tan −1 ¿ 2 (Eq. 40)
Vx

Where θ is the angle from the horizontal axis, V x is the horizontal component,V y is the vertical

velocity component and t is the elapsed time at any given point. The coverage height is

expressed as:

γ z1
√
V 2= 2
ρ
= √ 2 gh (Eq. 41)

To compute the partial horizontal distance R covered during the time of the flight, the equation

will be:

R=V 2 t (Eq. 42)

2h
R=V 2
√ g
(Eq. 43)

The coverage diameter will be:

D=x 2 +2 R (Eq. 44)

4 A2 2h
D=
√ π
+2 V 2
g√ (Eq. 45)

47
3.9 Calculations for Mixing of Fluids with Different Density

In mixing two miscible fluids of different viscosity and density, the total density can be

calculated using this equation:

V w ρw +V t ρt
ρm = ( Eq. 46)
Vm

The density of a fluid can also be calculated by measuring the weight and volume of a fluid using

this equation:

m
ρ= ( Eq. 47)
V

The density of the fluid can also be calculated by identifying the kinematic and dynamic

viscosity:

μ
ρ= (Eq. 48)
v

Where:
ρm =density of mixed water∧thickener

ρw =density of water

ρt =density of thickener

V m =Volume of mixed water∧thickener

V w =Volume of water

V t =Volume of thickener

V = Kinematic viscosity

μ=dynamic viscosity

48
3.10 Measuring and Calculation for Density and Specific Weight.

The density of a substance or fluid is the relationship between the mass of the substance and how

much space it takes up. It is expressed in this formula:

m
ρ= (Eq. 49)
V

Accordingly, the specific weight is the weight per unit volume of a material.

mg
γ= (Eq. 50)
V

Where:
ρ=density

m=mass

V =volume

g=gravitational acceleration

49
 CHAPTER 4

METHODOLOGY

4.1 Process Flow

In this chapter, design, measurements, and testing of dragon fruit irrigation system,

trellis, and deflector plate is modeled after the process flow. The flow chart below (Fig 4.1)

should be followed accordingly.

50
 Figure 4.1: Process Flow of the Study

The first part of the study is the design a dragon fruit irrigation system that can deliver

equal fluid discharge and fluid pressure amongst the trellises. Then the exited fluid in each trellis

should be redirected to the dragon fruit plant. The design parameters of the deflector plate, trellis,

and the irrigation system will be modeled using Solidworks software. After the design, the

standard materials required in the fabrication and the assembly of the deflector, trellis, and pipe

network will be gathered. Lastly, the irrigation and fertigation system set-up will be tested and

the data analyzed.

4.2 Vicinity Map

51
 The study will be conducted in the open area located in Guimbal, Compostela, Cebu;

specifically, at the backyard of the site. The area of interest must meet the following conditions:

(1) Availability of water and electricity supply. (2) Soil soft enough for tillage. (3) Ground area

is flat and wide enough to accommodate the piping network. (4) Maximum sunlight exposure.

The said location has been approved by the DMME Chairman, Dr. Michael Loretero.

Figure 4.2.1: Top view perspective of the Vicinity Map (Courtesy of Google Maps)

52
 Figure 4.2.2: Actual photograph of the area of interest for the installation of the set-up

4.3 DESIGN OF THE DRAGON FRUIT IRRIGATION SYSTEM

4.3.1 Design Schematic

The design mainly consists of a pipe grid system to provide water and nutrients in dragon

fruit plants. The network gate valve controls the flow rate from the pump to the system. In case

of the pump exceeding the pressure limit and to provide safety, a pressure relief valve will be

attached to the system. The pressure tank will be attached to the system to reduce the number of

pump cycles, lengthening the lifespan of the pump [ CITATION Ros04 \l 13321 ]. To vary the

pressure and flow rate of the system experimentally, an offset gate valve will be added between

the pressure tank and booster pump. The booster pump provides the necessary water pressure to

create water flow. Lastly, a water source stored in a water tank or reservoir provides water for

the booster pump. The legends used are in accordance to the standard pipe fittings and valve

symbols as shown in Appendix M.

53
 Figure 4.3.1: Schematic of the design

4.3.2 Design Flowrate

In a sprinkler system, the recommended flow rate per nozzle is 15 liters per minute. This

is what Phocaides stated in his book of pressurized irrigation systems as this flow rate can be

flexible in minor changes of discharge in a system such as increased pipe friction as the mineral

particles of the water accumulate on the inside walls of pipes, sprinkler or jet nozzle adjustments

and changes of water viscosity. This study will adopt this flow rate value because part of

experiment is to test the dragon fruit fertigation. This setup will have 9 trellis or dragon fruit

poles so there will be 9 straight get nozzles, each will have a flow rate of 15 L/min. The design

flow rate is equal to the sum of the discharges per trellis.

L
(
Q D=9 15
min )
Q D=135 L/min

The theoretical maximum design flow rate that the whole set up is 135 L/min.

54
4.3.3 Pipe Sizing

According to the Texas Agricultural Extension Service from Texas University, the

velocity within a plastic pipe should not exceed 5 feet per second or 1.5 m/s to prevent pipe

vibrations and water hammer. Given the design flow rate of 135 L/min the pipe size for the pump

discharge is computed using the continuity equation.

Q D= A D V D

QD
A D=
VD

L 1
)( 601 )
√ ( )( 1000
4 135
4 QD min
D D=
√ πVD
=
π ( 1.5 )
m
s

D D=0.0437 m=1.72inches

The discharge pipe size needed to be 1.75 inch or 1 ¾ inch diameter length.

Based from the Hardy Cross corrected internal flow rates in the pipe system, the pipe

whose flow rate is the largest will be taken into account in calculating the pipe size as a safety

margin.

Q G =A G V G

QG
AG =
VG

L 1
)( 601 )
√ ( )( 1000
4 40.88
4 QG min
DG =
√ π VG
=
m
π ( 1.5 )
s

55
D G =0.0240 m=0.94 inch

The pipe size of pipe grid needed to be in 1 inch diameter.

For the individual pipe sizes inside the trellis, the pipe needed to be of smaller size since

the flow rates here are 1/9th of the design flow rate.

Q T =A T V T

QT
AT =
VT

L 1
)( 601 )
√ ( )( 1000
4 15
4 QT min
DT =
√ π VT
=
m
π ( 1.5 )
s

D T =0.0145 m=0.57 inch

The pipe size in the trellis need to be ¾ inch.

4.3.4 Jet Nozzle and Deflector Plate Design

The required flow rate from each of the trellis is 15 L/min. The nozzle will be used has a

cross section diameter of 5 mm. velocity head from the nozzle hole is,

Q
V=
A

15 L/min
V=
π
( 0.005 )2 (1000)(60)
4

V =12.73 m/ s

The mass flow rate of water coming out from each nozzle is,

56
ṁ=ρQ

kg L 1 min 1 m3 ( )
ṁ=997
m 3 (
15
min )( 60 s )( )
1000 L
1.4

kg
ṁ=0.35
s

The deflector plate is used for deflecting and scattering the water jet impinging on its

surface. It will be suspended directly above the nozzle at a safe distance between the range of

12cm and 40cm. This distance is calculated from Eq. 45 and the full calculation is shown in

Appendix G. This distance will limit the coverage of the scattered water to 0.5m to 0.7m as it

falls on the canopy. This is to prevent damaging the flowers and the fruits which grows on the

periphery of the canopy or approximately 0.9m to 1m from the center (Tran and Yen, 2014).

For 0.7 meter coverage:

4 A2 2h
D=
√ π √
+2 V 2
g

2h
0.7 m=0.15 m+2(12.73)
√ 9.81

h=0.376 meter

h=40 cm

For 0.5 meter coverage:

4 A2 2h
D=
√ π √
+2 V 2
g

57
 2h
0.5 m=0.15 m+2(12.73)
√ 9.81

h=0.114 meter

h=12 cm

The deflectors will be fabricated using a circular GI sheet of 1.2mm thickness. From Eq.

32, the size of the plate does not affect the horizontal component of the water when it is

deflected, and the frictional forces at the surface of the plate acting on the deflected water is

negligible CITATION Oba95 \l 1033 (Obara & Bourne, 1995) . For this reason, the diameter of

the plate is assumed as 15cm. It will be welded to four 4mm rebar which is also welded to the

canopy cross bars.

Figure 4.3.4a: A deflector plate modeled using Solidworks

To calculate the force impinging on the deflector plate, the following equation is used.

The deflector plate is flat so θ=0. The minimum force the deflector plate has to overcome is,

58
 R v =ṁV (1+sin θ)

R v =ṁV

0.35 kg m
R v=
s (
12.73
s )
R v =4.31 Newtons

This force is just the vertical force resulting from the impinging of the water jet to the

deflector plate. To account the total vertical force of the plate, the weight of the plate must be

subtracted to the minimum vertical force a plate has to overcome

ΣR=R v −W plate

Since the plate is a galvanized iron plate, the density is already given from the Materials Science

and engineering handbook from Shackelford and Alexander,

ρ plate =7850 kg /m3

The plate has a thickness of 1.2 mm and a diameter of 150 mm. The plate is of circular shape.

π
V plate = ( 0.15 m )2 (0.0012 m)
4

V plate =2.12∗10−5 m2

The weight of the deflector plate can be computed as follows

W plate =ρ plate V plate g

W plate =7850(2.12∗10−5 )(9.81)

W plate =1.63 Newtons

The total vertical force experienced on the deflector plate accounting the weight is

ΣR=R v −W plate

ΣR=4.31newtons−1.64 newtons

ΣR=2.68 newtons

59
 The four smooth rebar rods holding the 15 cm diameter plate in the place each experience

a quarter of the force in the impinging force on the plate. Since the rebars are angled to 30

degrees from the normal, the force experienced on each rebar is,

ΣR 2.68 newtons
F r= =
4 cos 30 4 cos 30

F r=1.25 newton

To calculate the minimum diameter for the four rebar rods, a stress formula can be used in order

to find the diameter. From the American Society of testing and Materials (ASTM), the yield

strength or τ of the regular mild steel rod is 250 MPa in tension. Since the joint is welded and it

is a fillet type of weld, a correction factor K of 0.65 in order to account for the joint efficiency

(Appendix M). For the factor of safety on the rebar itself, a correction factor of 1.5 as the whole

deflector system only experiences dynamic and light shocks, according to the table shown in

Appendix N. A stress formula is used to compute the minimum diameter,

τ F
=
1.5 AK

π F
A= D 2 = (1.5)
4 τK

π 2 1.25(1.5)
D=
4 250∗106 (0.65)

D=1.2 mm

The rebar selected, however, is 8mm because of 4 reasons:

 According to Mr. Satish and Ms. Santha, the size of a fillet weld should not be less than 3

mm or more than the thickness of the thinner part joined [ CITATION Pro14 \l 13321 ].

 The next rebar schedule next to 3mm from the Philippine market availability is 5 mm.

60
 Selecting a thicker rebar ensures the rebar being used will not melt during welding while

supporting the deflector plate from the force of the jet.

 To prevent the deteriorating effects of atmospheric corrosion, the rebar is oversized to 8 mm

as it can withstand more and it increases the service life of the deflection system.

4.3.5 Hardy Cross Analysis for the Pipe Grid System

Hardy Cross method will be applied to pipe network system of the dragon fruit farm. This

is to calculate theoretically how much flow is passing through each of pipes. The flow in any

network must satisfy the basic relations of continuity and energy as follows:

1. The flow going into any of the junction must be equal to the flow going out of it.

2. The flow in each pipe must satisfy the pipe-friction laws for flow in a single pipe.

3. The algebraic sum of the head around any closed loop must be zero.

The first step to be taken in applying the Hardy Cross method is to carefully inspect and

assume the most reasonable distribution of flow that will satisfy the first condition. Also, the

convention of assuming the direction of flow must be consistent. Note: Directions of flow

indicates the sign where clockwise flow is positive (+) and counter-clockwise flow is negative (-)

In order to account the head losses due to pipe roughness and fittings in the , the

following Darcy-Weisbach formulas will are used to calculate the friction factors of the pipes

8 fL
K grid=
π g Dn
2

8 fL Qn
h L=
π2 g Dn

h m=ΣK fitting Q n

61
 In Darcy-Weisbach formula, the n is assumed to be n = 2. So the equation for the head

loss and minor head loss becomes:

8 fL
K grid=
π g Dn
2

8 fL Q 2
h L=
π 2 g D2

h m=Σ K fittings Q 2

To calculate the frictional factor f , the equation for Reynolds number is used to

determine if the flow regime is either laminar, transition or turbulent. The velocity of water is

determined by dividing the required flow rate (60 L/min) with the cross section area of the trellis

pipe (2026.83 mm2)

Q
V=
A

15 L/min
1000 (60)
V=
mm2
2026.83
1000 2

V =0.123 m/ s

Then the velocity can be

ρVD
ℜ=
μ

ℜ=
997 kg /m3 ( 0.123s m )( 0.024 m )(1.4)
2
0.001 Ns /m

ℜ=6229.65

Since Re is greater than 4000 and PPR pipes are classified as smooth pipes with e

approaching to zero, the following Darcy-weisbach factor formula is used:

62
1 e
√f
=−0.86 ln (
3.7 D )
From Table 2 in Chapter 3, PPR pipes are classified as a drawn tubing and has a

coefficient of roughness of 0.0015 mm and the diameter of 24.0 mm.

1 e
√ f grid
=−0.86 ln(3.7 D )
1 0.0015 mm
√ f grid
=−0.86 ln
(3.7 (24.0 mm) )
f grid =0.045

The initial assumption of the flows together with the applied head losses due to pipe

friction and fittings are shown in the figure below.

Figure 4.3.5a: Diagram for assumed initial flows and directions

In order to find the actual and corrected flows of the dragon fruit pipe grid system, an

iterative process using the Hardy Cross Formula together with the head losses are utilized. The

63
series of iterations in finding the ∆ Q loops are shown on the Appendix D. The corrected flow

rates of the pipe system are shown below.

Figure 4.3.5b: Diagram for corrected flows and directions

Given the design flowrate of 135 L/min, the diagram shows the corrected internal flows

of the pipe. This will give the researchers a more insight on the importance of this pipe system.

4.3.6 Pump Sizing and System Curve

The pump requirements of the set-up are determined by plotting the system curve against

the pump performance curve. The system curve is the graphical representation of the pump head

(hp) that is required to move water entirely in the system. The height of the trellis is 1.5 meters

and the required flow rate for each trellis is 15 liters per minute. Darcy-Weisbach equations are

used to calculate all accounts of frictional losses within the system. The head loss h L is used to

calculate the frictional losses in pipes and the minor losses h m is used to calculate the frictional

64
losses due to fittings. In order to create the system curve equation, the law of conservation of

energy is applied in a form of Bernoulli equation:

1 1
p1 + V 21+ z1 +h p = p2 + V 22+ z 2 +h L + Σh m
2 2

where:

8 fL Q 2
h L= 2
π g D2

Σh m=K fittings Q 2

Since both water pressures at inlet and outlet of the system is equal then the velocity of

the flow is at rest, both the velocity head and the pressure head cancel each other out. The

equation becomes:

h p =z 2−z 1+ hL + hm

The trellis pipe is 1.5 meters high + 0.5 meters from the pump suction pipe, so z 2=2 m

and the pump is ground level then z 1=0.

h p =1.5+ Σh L + Σh m

P L V2
h p =2+
ρg (
+ Σf + ΣK
D 2g )
There are 9 trellis and the pipe networks are branching or in parallel.

QD
V trellis =
9 A nozzle

135 L/min
V trellis =
π
9 ( 60 )( 1000 ) ( 0.005 )2
4

V trellis =12.73 m/ s

The total dynamic pressure head is.

65
 ρV 2trellis
P=
2

1000 m3 m 2
P=
kg (12.73
s )
=81056.95 Pa
2

The pump head equation of the system is,

hfriction
h p =2+8.263+ 2
Q2
Q D

3.563
h p =2+8.263+ Q2
3 2

(0.00225 ms )
h p =10.263+703804.47 Q 2 (Equation F-1)

From the system curve calculations the design head is around 14 meters given the design

flowrate of 135 L/min. The set-up needs a low head and high discharge pump [ CITATION Ale67 \l

13321 ], and ONGA 400 Series Centrifugal Pumps will be chosen in terms of requirement and

availability. Said pump specifications are found on Appendix B (Product B-2). The performance

curve of the ONGA 400 Series Centrifugal Pumps are shown below:

66
 Figure 4.3.6a: Performance curves of different pumps (Courtesy of ONGA Pumps)

Combining the system curve and performance curve, the best pump model of the series

for the set-up is ONGA-417, as the operating point directly intersects the set-up flow and head

specifications. The table of values is found on the Appendix G.

30

25

20
Head (m)

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
Discharge (L/min)

System Curve Performance Curve (ONGA 417 Pump)

Figure 4.3.6b: The operation point of the pump with 1-1/4 in diameter pipe

From the graph, the operation point will be at 135 L/min at 14 meters head. The overall system

efficiency can be calculated given that the shaft power of our pump is 750 watts (Appendix B).

Poutput =ρgQH

67
 kg m L 1 min 1 m3
Poutput =997
m (9.81 2 135
s )(
min 60 s )( )( 1000 L )
(1.4)

Poutput =431.34 watts

Pinput =750 watts (from ONGA pump, see Appendix B)

Poutput
ηoverall =
Pinput

308.1 watts
ηoverall =
750 watts

ηoverall =0.5751=57.5 %

The theoretical overall efficiency of the system is 41.1%.

4.3.7 Head Loss Design Calculations

Table 4.3.7a: K factors of various PPR fittings

Fitting K factor
3-way elbow 0.3
4-way tee 0.2
5-way cross 1.0

Courtesy of J.H. Perry & C.H. Clinton Chemical Engr. Handbook, McGraw-Hill Book Co,

1963.

Friction factor of trellis pipe and pipe grid,

1
√ f trellis
=−0.86 ln ( 3.7e D )
1 0.0015mm
√ f trellis
=−0.86 ln
( 3.7(25.4 mm) )

f trellis=0.051

68
For major losses:

L
Σ hL =Σf
D

9 f trellis Ltrellis 12 f grid Lgrid f source Lsource V 2

Σ hL = ( D trellis
+
D grid
+
D source ) 2g

f grid =f source

9 ( 0.051 )( 1.5 m ) 12 ( 0.045 )( 1.5 m ) ( 0.045 ) ( 8 m ) 1.112

Σ hL = ( 0.0254 m
+
0.0508 m
+ )
0.0508 m 2(9.81)

Σ hL =3.15 m

For minor losses:

Σh m=¿ ¿

1.112
Σh m=( 9 (0.081)+ 9(0.05)+ 10(0.3)+4 (0.2)+ 2(0.15)+ 2(1)+2 )
2(9.81)

Σh m=0.413 m

Total friction loss of the system:

h friction=Σh L + Σhm =3.15+0.413

h friction=3.563 m

4.3.8 Total Runtime and Pressure Tank Sizing

An average sized dragon fruit plant will require 2 liters of water each day [ CITATION PCT14

\l 13321 ]. With the design flow rate of 135 liters per minute and there are a total of 9 dragon fruit

trellis, the water requirement each day would be:

69
 V w =9 ( 2liters/day ) =18liters /day

and given that water volume, the irrigation runtime will be

Vw
T=
QT

18liters 60 sec
T= (
135 L/min 1min )
T =8 seconds

The necessary runtime will take 8 seconds in order to fulfill the daily water requirements

of the dragon fruit farm. For the required pressure tank on the system, the VAREM Butyl

Bladder Pressure Tank will be used in terms of availability. The specifications are shown in

Appendix B (Product B-3).

In order to size the tank, the actual capacity of water of the tank must be determined,

since the bladder can also occupy a certain volume. According to the specifications by the

VAREM Inc., the capacity in liters (shown in the Appendix B) is the actual capacity of the water

can be filled and the rated size of the pressure tank is expressed in gallons.

The water capacity required for the set-up is 19 liters per setting. The recommended

pressure tank model from the said company for the set-up is VAREM – 20 H as it can store 20

liters of water, enough for one setting per day. The maximum handling pressure of the pump

used in the system is 410 kPa (4.1 bars). The maximum handling pressure of the tank is 8 bars,

so the tank can handle the pressure delivered by the pump without bursting.

To determine the cut on and cut off pressures of the pump, the required operating of the

system is determined. For this setup, the best operating pressure for a nozzle-based system is 40

psi at maximum. The max operating head of the ONGA Pump is 410 kpa or 60 psi. Using the

offset flow pipe, the pressure is decreased to 40 psi, thus meeting the requirement operating

70
pressure. The cut off pressure in the pressure switch must be at 40 psi and by convention, the cut

on pressure must be 20 psi less than the cut off pressure

Cut on pressure=40 psi−20 psi=20 psi

The required pressure switch setting is at 40/20. This is done in order to prevent less wear

and tear on the pump but also short enough for the bladder tank not to provide negative pressure

since most bladder tanks have rated factory pressures of 20 psi.

The internal dimensions of the pressure tank chosen based solely on the water capacity of

20 liters are 250 mm diameter and 500 mm height. The minimum shell thickness of the pressure

tank plate can be computed using the shell thickness formula

PD
t P= +C
2 Se−P

where t P is the shell thickness, P is the max operating pressure, D is the inside diameter, S is the

allowable max tensile stress, e is the joint efficiency (Appendix M) and C is the corrosion

allowance. Since the pressure tank is painted and is made of stainless steel, the corrosion

allowance is zero. The theoretical thickness of the require tank for the dragon fruit irrigation

setup will be

60 psi(9.84 inches)
t p=
2 ( 15 psi )( 1000 ) ( 0.65 )−60 psi

t p=0.03∈¿ 0.77 mm

For the Varem-20H pressure tank, the maximum specified internal pressure is 8 bars or

116 psi. The specified thickness will be

116 psi(9.84 inches)

t p=
2 ( 15 psi )( 1000 ) ( 0.65 )−116 psi

t p=0.059∈¿ 1.50 mm

71
 Based from the resulting thickness values of the calculations, it is concluded that this tank

of size with the thickness of 1.50 mm is suitable for this project.

4.3.9 Trellis Design and Canopy

The piping system inside the trellis will be fabricated by means of erecting a 1.5 - meter

tall and 1 inch diameter PPR pipe vertically (Khek Ho, 2017). A detachable jet nozzle of ideally

5mm or 0.2 inch opening is installed at the top end of the pipe [ CITATION APh07 \l 13321 ]. All

PPR pipe connections will be heat welded to ensure no leakage (Dong-Hong, 2005). A 1” by 2”

reducer will transition the PPR trellis pipe to the main grid which is 2” in diameter. A 3-inch

uPVC pipe will be inserted on the trellis pipe; this will serve as the main trellis which supports

the dragon fruit as it vines (Kek Hoe, 2017). A substrate consisting either of sand, gravel, or

cement can be used to fill up the uPVC trellis to reinforce stability. Two 6mm deformed bar of

0.65 meters length will be inserted at a hole drilled at the top part of the uPVC trellis; forming a

cross brace. A used motorcycle tire with the diameter of 0.55 meters will then be placed on top.

This will serve as the canopy support where the dragon fruit’s branches will hang (Boning,

2006).

72
 Figure 4.3.9a: Trellis, nozzle, and deflector plate modeled from Solidworks

4.3.10 Safety Features Design

The setup has some safety features in order to protect the researchers, people nearby and

the environment. Since the system is pressurized, it is equipped with pressure relief valve set to

the maximum operating pressure limit at 45 psi (40 psi plus 5 psi allowance, as recommended

from the seller) as the pressures can build up high enough when the main grid valve is shut. The

pressure gauges are also placed between the pressure tank and pressure relief valve in order to

get the actual reading of the pressure in pressure tank as much as possible as much of the

pressure is built in the pressure tank itself. A check valve will be placed at the source pipe to

ensure the no water backflow when the pump cycles and lastly the 20/40 pressure switch is also

placed between the pump and the pressure tank to monitor the cut down and cut on pressures, for

start of pump cycle and end of pump cycle respectively.

73
4.3.11 Fertigation Pressure Design

As with normal calibration, the application equipment needs to be calibrated to the

different flow rates of different water-fertilizer mixture fertigation. As the density increases than

water, the flow rates at the same pressure as water will be less. Therefore to get the same volume

of fertigated fluid out of the same jet, the pressure will need to be higher.

4.4 FABRICATION OF THE DRAGON FRUIT IRRIGATION SET UP

4.4.1 Surveying of the Test Site and Initial Preparation

The backyard of the residence in Guimbal, Compostela must have an area of at least 9

square meters in order for the dragon fruit farm set up to fit in. In addition, the ground of the site

must be perfectly level in order not to alter the testing results. Cutting of the overgrown shrubs

and tree branches will be done, if necessary.

74
 Figure 4.4.1: Current condition of the testing site, located at the backyard of the residence in

Guimbal, Compostela. A tape measure is used to confirm the perimeter of the testing area which

is at least 3 meters each side

4.4.2 Gathering of Materials

The materials will be bought from the local store and will be transported to the testing

site using a pickup truck. The entire setup will be assembled on the testing site. Proper

precautions will be taken to prevent damage to the testing area and also prevent accidents to the

nearby residents.

Off-site fabrications may be necessary if the components are portable, such as the

connection of few fittings as shown in the photos below.

4.4.2a: The left image shows a ¾ inch PPR tee fitting to be joined by a ¾ inch connector using a

PPR welder. The right image shows the pre-fabricated PPR fittings fabricated off-site.

75
 4.4.2b: Already prepared materials and tools for the experiment. Pipes were bought from the

store near the testing area for easy transport.

4.4.3 Assembly of the Main Pipe Grid

The pipe network would consist of nine trellises that were 1.5m in height (Khek Ho,

2017) so 9 nodes arranged in a 3 m x 3 m fashion with 1.5 meter on each square. The materials

used in the main pipe grid is PolyPropylene Random (PPR). The fittings connect the trellis pipes

to the main grid pipes. The grid pipes consists of 3/4 inch diameter (based from the calculations

in 4.3.3) connected to eight 3/4 inch inner diameter PPR tee for the middle trellises, four 3/4 inch

PPR elbow, and six 1 inch PPR tee in remaining trellises (as shown from the right image in

Figure 4.4.2). All the PPR piping and PPR fittings were assembled and fused using an Electronic

Thermostat PPR Fuser. When the grid was finished, the openings of the grid were temporarily

sealed off with masking tape to prevent soil and dirt entering.

76
Figure 4.4.3a: The ¾ inch grid pipes were cut down to size. Each grid pipe is 1.5 meters length

so the entire grid alone is 3 m x 3 m.

Figure 4.4.3b: Pipe grid assembled in the testing site. Each side is 3 meters long.

77
4.4.4 Erecting of the Dragon Fruit Trellis

After the pipe grid connections on the fittings are set, the ¾ inch 1.5 meter long PPR

pipes would be inserted to the 9 upward openings of the grid. The ¾ inch trellis PPR pipe would

be attached to the ¾ inch PPR tee in the pipe grid using a PPR fuse welder. As the ¾ inch pipe is

being attached to the ¾ inch PPR tee, one researcher would see to it that the pipe is perfectly

vertical using a level secured to topmost part of the trellis pipe. The ¾ inch trellis pipe has the ¾

inch PPR to screw-in connector for the nozzle is already attached. The ¾ inch trellis pipes were

self-supporting. To increase stability and for the dragon fruit support to be attached, nine 3 inch

dia x 1.25 meters length PVC pipes were inserted to each of the ¾ trellis pipes Then the trellis

assembly were covered with soil to increase the rigidity of the trellis and to ensure that the whole

trellis assemble is directly upright. The whole process was repeated until the 9 trellises are

complete.

Figure 4.4.4a: The ¾ inch trellis pipes attached to the 3m x 3m pipe grid.

78
 Figure 4.4.4b: (left) ¾ screw to PPR connector were attached to the ¾ trellis pipe. (middle)

Actual process of attaching the ¾ trellis pipe to the ¾ tee connector in pipe grid. (right) a plane

level was used to ensure that the ¾ pipe was upright.

Figure 4.4. The whole trellis and pipe grid setup with the nodes covered in soil for added

stability.

79
4.4.5 Assembly of the Nozzle and Deflector Plate

After the concrete is set, the screw type 0.5 inch to 3/4 inch reducer will be fuse welded

to the protruded ¾ inch diameter trellis pipe, protruding around 0.25 meter. An externally

threaded reducer will also serve as a male connector to the 0.5 inch pressure gage adaptor which

will be used for the testing. Four 0.6 cm adjacent holes, 0.5 meters down from the tip of the ¾

inch pipe will be drilled on the sides of 3 inch diameter uPVC pipe filled with concrete for the

attachment of the four 0.6 cm diameter 0.2 meter long smooth rebars. Then a regular bicycle tire

of 0.55 meter in diameter will be attached to the 4 ends of the rebars.

For the jet deflector system, a 0.15 m diameter 1.2 mm thick GI sheet plate will be

attached by four 0.4 cm 0.75 smooth rebars, angled 30 degrees from normal by spot welding the

ends both to the tip of the flat GI plate to the 0.6 cm rebar on the canopy support. The whole

process is repeated in the rest of the 9 dragon fruit trellises.

80
 Figure 4.4.5a: The nozzle with ¾ inch screw is screwed in to the ¾ inch trellis connector

Figure 4.4.5b: Deflector plate is attached using spot welding and the 0.55 meter bicycle tire is

attached to the ends of the four 0.6 m rebars modeled in Solidworks.

4.4.6 Assembly of the Peripherals.

After the whole assembly of both the main pipe grid and the dragon fruit trellis structures,

the assembly of the peripherals will begin. Based from the pipe sizing calculations in section

4.3.3, the general size of the pipe from the source to the main grid is 1.75 inches diameter. A

1.75 inches PPR network gate valve will be fuse weld at the end of the 1.75 inches 1 meter long

main pipe. Then another ¼ meter 1.75 inches long PPR will be fuse weld to the PPR pressure

gage adaptor. Then the pressure gage adaptor is attached with another ¼ meter pipe will be

attached to the 1.75 inches PPR pressure relief valve with a pressure setting at 45 psi. For the

81
pressure tank, a 1.75 inches PPR tee fitting will be used for the three attachments of main grid,

pressure tank and the pump lines. An offset pipe with offset gate valve will be attached in

between of the pressure tank line and pump check valve to vary the pressure during testing. The

water exited will be recovered back to the reservoir to reduce the wastage of water by using a

tarpaulin laid on the ground to form a ditch of which water is channeled back to the reservoir. A

1.75 inch PPR check valve to lock the pressure in the pressure tank when the pump cycle ends.

The pump line will use 1.75 inches pipe with a PPR reducer from 1.75 to 1.25 inches since the

suited pump has an outlet with only 1.25 inches diameter. Another ¼ inch is attached to the

pump but this time a 1.25 PPR-GI adaptor is used since the pump has a GI outlet. The pump with

1 horsepower will be used for the setup and the drum reservoir with around 1300 liters capacity

will be used in the experiment.

Figure 4.4.6a: The peripherals assembly modeled using Solidworks

82
 Figure 4.4.6b: Exploded view of the peripherals modeled in Solidworks

4.4.7 Materials, Equipment, and PPE

The experimental set up will consist of the following: (1) PPR pipes, (2) Valves, (3)

Pressure Gage, (4) Bucket of known volume, (5) Stopwatch, (6) Pump, (7) Pressure tank, (8)

PPR pipe welder, (9) Straight Jet Nozzles, (10) Deflectors, (11) Dragon fruit farm setup, (12)

Plumbing Tools, and (14) Pipe fittings.

4.4.7.1 PPR Pipes

The PPR pipes will be used for the system. PPR pipes are easily available on the market

and compared to PVC, it can sustain higher pressures while ensuring no leakage in the

connections

83
 Figure 4.4.7.1: PPR pipes

4.4.7.2 Valves

The pipe valves will be used are: Gate valves, check valves, and pressure relief valves.

The gate valves will be used for the adjusted flows, check valves will be used to prevent the

backflow of the water from the pump down to the water source and a pressure relief valve will be

used in case if the pressure exceeds the normal limit. All fittings are to be compatible with the

PPR pipe and fusion welded to ensure no leakage.

Figure 4.4.7.2: From left to right: gate valve, check valve and pressure relief valve

84
4.4.7.3 Pressure Gage

A pressure gauge will be utilized to both determine the pressure from the system and the

water pressure output of each dragon fruit trellis. A detachable pressure gage will be used for the

outlet and a fixed pressure gauge will be attached at the pressure tank.

Figure 4.4.7.3: A detachable pressure gage and a fixed pressure gage, respectively.

4.4.7.4 Bucket or container of known volume

A bucket of known volume will be used in order to confirm the amount of discharge in

each dragon fruit trellis using the “bucket method”.

Figure 4.4.7.4: A 5 gallon bucket showing calibration

85
4.4.7.5 Stopwatch

A stopwatch is used to count the elapsed time when filling the bucket up to a certain

volume. That way we can divide the volume of water in a bucket or container to get the actual

discharge rate of each dragon fruit trellis.

Figure 4.4.7.5: A stopwatch

4.4.7.6 Pump

A pump will be used to provide the necessary hydraulic lift to irrigate the dragon fruit

plants. A centrifugal pump will be used in this case due to higher volume flow rate. In the

fertigation process, the density of water increases due to the added fertilizers. To counteract the

added demand of water power, the pump is designed to have an allowance of at least 10 psi.

Since the operating pressure of our setup is set to 40 psi for regular water, the added allowance

pressure of 10 psi will be included in the future calculations of the system head. This particular

pump selected is also oversizing for experimental purposes and has an allowable max pressure of

60 psi (410 kpa). The selected pump can also tolerate solid particulates with a maximum

diameter of 0.712mm. The pump specifications can be found in the pump product specifications

section within Appendix B.

86
 Figure 4.4.7.6: A pump

4.4.7.7 Pressure Tank

A pressure tank will be utilized in order to maintain water pressure in the system. This

can prevent frequent pump cycling which can decrease the lifespan of the pump. To be specific,

a bladder type tank will be selected for the setup.

Figure 4.4.7.7: A pressure tank

4.4.7.8 PPR Pipe Welder

A PPR pipe welder will be used in order to join pipes together with fittings. The weld

will be a fusion weld type.

87
 Figure 4.4.7.8: A PPR pipe welding apparatus

4.4.7.9 Straight Jet Nozzles

In order to create a straight water jet, a straight jet nozzle will be used. This type of

nozzle can also increase the velocity of the water in a single direction.

Figure 4.4.7.9: A straight jet brass nozzle

4.4.7.10 Plumbing Tools

These are the tools will be needed for piping workarounds such as tightening loose

fittings, clamping and cutting pipes to desired dimensions.

88
 Figure 4.4.7.10: Tools needed for plumbing (courtesy of amazon.co.uk)

4.4.7.11 Pipe Fittings

Pipe fittings are the necessary components used to join one or more pipes. All fittings

will be joined by means of heat welding. These are the fittings that will be used in the set-up:

Figure 4.4.7.11a: coupling

89
 Figure 4.4.7.11b: union

Figure 4.4.7.11c: 3-way elbow fitting

Figure 4.4.7.11d: Reducer

90
 Figure 4.4.7.11e: 3-way tee

Figure 4.4.7.11f: 2-way elbow

4.4.7.12 Personal Protective Equipment

The researchers will be wearing a water-proof foot wear, rain coat, gloves, goggles, and a

mask to avoid contact from the fertilizers being fertigated in the system. The fertilizers being

used contain harmful bacteria or chemicals that can be dangerous in long-term skin contact,

inhalation, and ingestion.

91
4.4.8 Expected Output

The expected output of the set-up is shown below, along with the entire dimensions:

Figure: 4.4.8a: The entire view of the setup modeled using Solidworks.

Figure 4.4.8b: Dimensions of the main pipe grid

92
 Figure 4.4.8c: Dimensions of each trellis

Figure 4.4.8d: Dimensions of the entire setup

93
 Figure 4.4.8e: Components of each trellis.

Figure 4.4.8f: Components of the peripherals

94
4.4.9 Preparation of the Fertigated Fertilizer

The fertigated fertilizers will be a mixture of water and the following fertilizers: foliar,

Inoculants, liquid mulch, and fish amino acid (FAA). The density of the mixed fluid is measured

by taking a sample and determining its volume and mass to calculate for its density and specific

weight as expressed in Eq. 49 and 50.

4.4.9.1 Foliar Fertilizer

Foliar fertilizer are applied directly to the leaves and is slightly viscous to ensure

adhesion to the leaf surface. The fertilizer will be selected from market availability and mixed

with water in the reservoir in proportion to the fertilizer’s specifications and mixture ratio.

4.4.9.2 Inoculants

Inoculants are partially water-soluble fertilizers that are comprised of concentrated good

bacteria. To activate the said bacteria, it is to be mixed with water. The inoculant to be used is

the DOJO organics. It has a ratio mixture of 1 gram is to 1 liter. But the more concentrated, the

better. The DOJO will be mixed with the reservoir. However, the fertilizer will have a sandy

ingredient which does not dissolve in water.

Figure 4.4.9,2: DOJO Microbacterial fertilizer

95
4.4.9.2 Liquid Mulch

The liquid mulch is made up of fruit peels, vegetable waste, and other plant-based waste.

It is to be ground up using a blender and mixed with water for at least 3 days. The ratio of the

mixture is 1kg of solid mulch for every 50 liters. The nutrient-rich water will then be filtered to

filter the solid mulch. However, tiny particles of solid mulch will be allowed into the reservoir

for experimental purposes.

4.4.9.2 Fish Amino Acid (FAA)

The fish amino acid or FAA is prepared by mixing molasses and cut up fish parts/waste

in a ratio of 1 liter molasses is to 1kg of fish. The mixture will be placed in a air-tight container

with a third of empty space for air. It will then be fermented for 7 to 10 days. The solution will

then be filtered to extract the liquid and will be mixed in a 1:1000 ratio with water.

4.5 TESTING OF THE DRAGON FRUIT IRRIGATION SYSTEM

The testing of the Irrigation system is divided into three parts: First, the testing and

measurement of the flow rate of all nine trellises at varying pressure to verify the equality of its

flow rate. Second, the testing of the deflector plate and water coverage area diameter. And

thirdly, the testing of the fertigation aspect of the fertilizer-water mixture in comparison with

water.

4.5.1 Starting the Irrigation System

In starting the pump, the source of water or fertigated fertilizer is ensured in order for the

pump to operate properly. The offset valve on the offset pipe must be fully open in order to eject

the air trapped inside the pump system. The check valve condition is also monitored to prevent

96
the backing of the water pressure reducing the operating pressure. The pressure switch must be

set to 40 psi cut-off and the water power test of the pump can begin.

Figure 4.5.1: Testing of pump performance

4.5.2 Testing and Measuring the Trellis Irrigation Output

The irrigation output of all nine trellises were measured in terms of flow rate, velocity,

and water power. In measuring the flow rate, the bucket method will be used where a bucket of

known volume is filled with the water outflow of the nozzle while recording the time. The

volume divided by the time elapsed for the bucket to reach a predetermined volume is the

volumetric flow rate. Accordingly, the velocity can be measured since the area of the nozzle is

known. In measuring the pressure, a detachable pressure gauge is attached to the screw socket in

place of the nozzle. Once pressure is known, the water power is then measured using equation 32

since the specific gravity of water is known, and total head and flowrate can be measured and

calculated from the gathered data. Finally, the deviance for the flow rate at each trellis is

calculated to assess the equality of the irrigation output. This process will then be repeated with

another pressure setting in the pressure tank. The setting pressures P1, P2, P3, and P4 is

97
determined from setting the offset valve to ¼ open, ½ open, and ¾ open, and fully open. The raw

data is recorded in tables 4.6.1a, 4.6.1b, 4.6.1c, and 4.6.1d

Figure 4.5.2a: Discharge of the nozzle based from the preliminary testing. The water on

that particular trellis has 3 cm velocity head

Figure 4.5.2b: Testing of the flow rate of water from the pre-testing using bucket method.

The time elapsed is 26.50 sec and 400 mL of water is obtained from one trellis.

98
 Figure 4.5.2c: This was the collected water in each trellis and it was 400 mL

4.5.3A Testing the Deflector Plate and Measuring the Water Canopy Coverage Area

The testing of the deflector plate involves measuring the water coverage area of the

irrigated water in the canopy as it is being scattered via deflection when the water jet impinges

the plate. The irrigation diameter is measured by placing a meter stick perpendicular and center

to the nozzle. The elevation of the measuring stick will be positioned along the elevation of the

canopy. During the measurement, the system will be turned on and a high speed camera is

pointed perpendicular to the measuring stick. The video will then be replayed in slow motion as

to observe the extent of the canopy irrigation. The results will then be documented. All the

trellises will be tested at varying offset valve settings. From the theoretical background, the

optimal irrigation diameter is in a range between 0.5 to 0.7m. Within this range, the offset valve

99
setting is considered optimal and it will be noted accordingly. The raw data is recorded in tables

4.6.1e

4.5.3B Offset Adjustment of Deflector Plate

Since piping system will always experience frictional and fitting losses, it is expected

that the trellis farthest from the pump will experience a lesser output. For this reason, it might

affect the consistency of the water jet velocity which, consequently, will also affect the

consistency of the irrigation coverage area in the trellises. Since section 3.8 under theoretical

background shows that the deflection diameter is related to the deflector plate’s height, then

necessary adjustments can be made to the height of the deflector plate to offset the frictional

losses and equalize the irrigation area diameter among all the trellises. The adjustments are

verified by running the irrigation system and conducting measurements. The adjustments is

recorded at table 4.6.1f

4.5.4A Testing the Fertigation Behavior of Various Fertilizer-Water Mixture.

The four types of fertilizers to be mixed in water is Foliar Fertilizer, Inoculants, Liquid

Mulch, and FAA. The mixture will be tested individually by filling the reservoir with the

fertilizer in study. The setting of the offset valve is set to the optimal setting; which is identified

in the previous experiment. The irrigation system will be run and the flow rate, irrigation

coverage area diameter, and pressure will be measured. After which, the velocity and water

power is calculated. The experiment is repeated in all the different types of fertilizer without

changing the offset valve setting. The average value of all nine trellises will be gathered and

compared to the control fluid, which is water.

100
 CHAPTER 5

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The data gathering happened on the day of March 22, 2020. The trial lasted for 30

minutes and 1 trial in each trellis. The source of the water flow and pressure was taken from an

overhead tank with a height of 4 meters. The graph and tabulation of the results will be placed in

this chapter. The Blue line will be represented by the water. The gray line signifies the trend line

of the graph.

101
5.1 Trellis Discharge and Pressure

Figure 5.1 shows the number designation of the trellises from trellis 1 to trellis 9. There

are 9 trellises in total. All of the incoming fluid to the grid starts from the source pipe and it is

distributed to the grid, to the trellis pipes and finally to the nozzles of each trellis. The diameter

of the nozzle opening was 5 mm and the size of the pipes including the trellis pipes were ¾ inch

(section 4.3.3 in chapter 4). The source pipe was 1 inch and is fitted with a reducer that converts

1 inch to ¾ inch for the inlet to the pipe system. The calculations of the system will be shown in

Appendix --.

Figure 5.1: Number designation of the trellises

Based from Table 5.1a, shows the average water discharge of the 9 trellises is 0.96 liters

per minute. The volume of water is calculated to a fixed value of 0.4 liters.

Trellis # Time Volume Flow Rate Velocity Head Flow

elapsed of water at exit Pressure Rate
(liter/minute) Deviance
(seconds) (liters) (m/s) (psi) from the
Average
(%)

102
1 24.72 0.40 0.99 0.84 5 3.13
2 25.81 0.40 0.93 0.78 4 3.13
3 26.39 0.40 0.95 0.81 4 1.04
4 25.06 0.40 1.03 0.87 4 7.29
5 27.26 0.40 0.90 0.76 4 6.25
6 26.55 0.40 0.95 0.80 5 1.04
7 25.14 0.40 1.04 0.88 5 8.33
8 26.22 0.40 0.91 0.77 5 5.21
9 24.96 0.40 0.98 0.83 4 2.08
TOTAL DISCHARGE 8.68
(liter/minute)
AVERAGE DISCHARGE 0.96
(liter/minute)

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437–440. doi:10.1007/s13313-012-0193-8.

 Stepanoff, A. J. (1967). Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps: Theory, Design, and

Application.

 Shyamal Patel (2018) Dragon Fruit Farming

 Sven Merten (2003) A Review of Hylocereus Production in the United States

 Merritt, H. (1967). Hydraulic Control Systems. United States: John, Wiley & Sons.

 Obara, T., & Bourne, N. K. (1995). Liquid-jet impact on liquid and solid surfaces.

Science Direct.

 Persson, T. H. (2003). Household Choice of Drinking–Water Source in the Philippines.

Wiley Online Library.

 Tacio, H. (2013). Growing Dragon Fruit. Marid Agribusiness Digest, 27-30.

 Taylor, S. T. (2016). The Fundamentals of Expansion Tanks. ASHRAE, 7.

 Valiente-Banuet A, Coro Arizmendi Mdel, Rojas-Martinez A, Dominguez-Canseco L.

(1996) Ecological relationships between columnar cacti and nectar-feeding bats in

Mexico. Journal of Tropcal Ecology, 12(10):103-119.

 Vickers, A. L. (1999). Handbook of Water Conservation. United States.

 Wilson, G. V. (2013). Pore-Water Pressures Associated with Clogging of Soil Pipes:

Numerical Analysis of Laboratory Experiments. American Society of Agronomy.

109
 Wu, Tao & Zhang Wang, Zeng. (2013). Research of Effect on Water Quality of

Combined Stainless Steel Plastic Pipe and PPR Pipe. Advanced Materials Research. 864-

867. 2108-2111. 10.4028/www.scientific.net/AMR.864-867.2108.

 Yamato, K. (2001). Pipe irrigation in Rural Japan. Science of Agriculture and Cropping.

 Zhang, H. Q. (2003). Unified Model for Gas-Liquid Pipe Flow via Slug Dynamics.

ASME.

 Mackay, R. (2004). The Practical Pumping Handbook. Elsevier Science.

 Prof. S.R. Satish Kumar, P. A. (2014). Design of Steel Structures. India.
 Stepanoff, A. J. (1967). Centrifugal and Axial Flow Pumps: Theory, Design, and
Application.

APPENDICES

APPENDIX A: SAMPLES IMAGES OF DRAGONFRUIT

110
 Figure A-1: Dragon Fruit Plant Flowering

Figure A-2: Pitaya Roja or Hylocereus Costaricensis Fruit

111
Figure A-3: Rotting, Diseases, and Fungal Growth in Dragon Fruits due to (from the left):

Xanthomonas Campestris ; Anthracnose ; and Bitter Fruit Rot.

Figure A-4: Conventional Dragon Fruit Trellis and Spacing

112
Figure A-5: Sun scalding in Dragonfruit due to extended periods of drought and heat

113
 APPENDIX B: PRODUCT SPECIFICATIONS

Product B-1: Uebfashion Straight Jet Nozzle

Table B-1: Nozzle Specifications

Connection size: 3/4 inch

Pressure: 15-80 kPa/2.18-11.6 psi
Spray height: 1.0-5.0 meters
Coverage: Straight jet
Orifice inner diameter: 5 mm
Volume flow rate 1.0-3.0 cu. meter/H

Source: https://www.lazada.com.ph/products/jet-straight-nozzle-spray-head-garden-sprinkler-

water-fountain34inch-intl-i135829733-s152629208.html?

spm=a2o4l.searchlist.list.3.4fda4d0c2JyLSH&search=1

Product B-2: ONGA 417 Centrifugal pump

114
Table B-2: Pump Specifications

Configuration: Foot mount

Max flow rate/Pressure Head: 150 L/min @ 10 m head
Maximum working pressure 410 kPa
Port size: 1-1/4 inch BSP male
Materials: Glass Filled ABS, PC, Noryl, PP, Nylon,

Ceramic
IP Rating: IP55
Voltage: 110-240 volts AC
Nominal Speed: 2900 rpm
Motor power: 750 watts/1 hp

Source: https://cwc.com.au/cwc/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/ONGA-413-414-415-417-Pumps-

Data-Sheet.pdf

Product B-3: VAREM 20H Butyl Bladder Pressure Tank

115
 Rated Size 21 gallons
Internal Diameter x Internal Height 250 mm x 500 mm
Connector 1 inch
Maximum Pressure 8 bars
Pre-charge Pressure 2 bars
Actual Capacity 20 liters

Source:https://www.filbuild.com/philippines/home_improvement/bestank/11_Varem_Butyl_Blad

der_Pressure_Tank.html

APPENDIX D: HARDY CROSS METHOD

Table D-1: Assumed flows and directions of water in pipes

Pipe Number Assumed flow rate Flow direction

116
 (L/min)
1 40

2 25

3 40

4 10

5 20

6 5

7 5

8 5

9 20

10 10

11 25

12 40

117
 Figure D-1: Diagram for assumed initial flows and directions

After establishing the flow and its direction, next step will be the calculation of the head loops

satisfying the condition 2 in each loop. This can be written as:

8 fL Q 2
h L=
π 2 g D2

h m=Σ K fittings Q2

with n = 2 and the K factor is given by this equation:

118
 8 fL
K grid=
π g Dn
2

The lengths of the pipes in pipe grid are 1.5 meters.

8 fL
K grid=
π g D2
2

8( 0.045)(1.5 m)
K grid=
π (9.81 m 2 /s)(0.0508 m)2
2

K grid=2.12

For fittings:

K tee =0.2 (from Figure D-2)

K elbow =0.3 (from Figure D-2)

K cross =1.0 (Courtesy to Engineering ToolBox, (2004). Minor or Dynamic Loss

Coefficients for Pipe or Tube System Components.)

K tee + K elbow + K grid =2.62

K tee + K cross + K grid =3.32

2 K cross + K grid=4.12

1st Iteration

LOOP 1:
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+ ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P2−( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P4
∆ Q 1=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 2+ ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P4

−1
∆ Q1= 2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q1=−0.15

119
LOOP 2:

2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P 4 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7
∆ Q2 =
2 ( K tee + K cross + K grid )P 4 +( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7

−1
∆ Q2 = 3.32 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q2 =−5.57

LOOP 3:

2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 9+ ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 8
∆ Q3 =
2 (K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10 +(K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P9 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P8

−1
∆ Q3 = −3.32¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 3 =5.57

LOOP 4:

2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10
∆ Q 4=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12+(K tee + K elbow + K grid )P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P10

−1
∆ Q 4= −2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 4=0.15

Adjusted flows (1st iteration):

P1 = 40 – 0.15 = 39.85 L/min P6 = 5 + 5.57 + 5.57 = 16.14 L/min

P2 = 25 – 0.15 = 24.85 L/min P7 = 5 – 5.57 = -0.57 L/min (reverse sign)

P3 = 40 + 0.15 + 0.15 = 40.30 L/min P8 = 20 – 27 = -0.57 L/min (reverse sign)

P4 = 10 + 0.15 – 5.57 = 4.58 L/min P9 = 20 – 5.57 = 14.43 L/min

P5 = 20 – 5.57 = 14.43 L/min P10 = 10 + 0.15 – 5.57 = 4.58 L/min

120
P11 = 25 – 0.15 = 24.85 L/min P12 = 40 – 0.15 = 39.85 L/min

2nd Iteration

LOOP 1:
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+ ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P2−( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P4
∆ Q 1=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 2+ ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P4

−1
∆ Q1= 2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q1=1.41

LOOP 2:
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P 4+ ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 7
∆ Q2 =
2 ( K tee + K cross + K grid )P 4 +( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7

−1
∆ Q2 = 3.32 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 2 =1.16

LOOP 3:
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 9+ ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 8
∆ Q3 =
2 (K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10 +(K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P9 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P8

−1
∆ Q3 = −3.32¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 3 =−1.16

LOOP 4:
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10
∆ Q 4=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12+(K tee + K elbow + K grid )P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P10

−1
∆ Q 4= −2.62 ¿ ¿
2

121
 ∆ Q 4=−1.41

Adjusted flows (2nd iteration):

P1 = 39.85 + 1.41 = 41.26 L/min P8 = 0.57 – 1.16 = -0.59 L/min (reverse

P2 = 24.85 + 1.41 = 26.26 L/min sign)

P3 = 40.30 – 1.41 – 1.41 = 37.48 L/min P9 = 14.43 + 1.16 = 15.59 L/min

P4 = 4.58 – 1.41 + 1.16 = 4.33 L/min P10 = 4.58 – 1.41 + 1.16 = 4.33 L/min

P5 = 14.43 + 1.16 = 15.59 L/min P11 = 24.85 + 1.41 = 26.26 L/min

P6 = 16.14 – 1.16 – 1.16 = 13.82 L/min P12 = 39.85 + 1.41 = 41.26 L/min

P7 = 0.57 – 1.16 = -0.59 L/min (reverse

sign)

3rd Iteration

LOOP 1
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+ ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P2−( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P4
∆ Q 1=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 2+ ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P4

−1
∆ Q1= 2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q1=−0.60

LOOP 2
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P 4 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7
∆ Q2 =
2 ( K tee + K cross + K grid )P 4 +( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7

−1
∆ Q2 = 3.32 ¿ ¿
2

122
∆ Q 2 =−0.32

LOOP 3
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 9+ ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 8
∆ Q3 =
2 (K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10 +(K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P9 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P8

−1
∆ Q3 = −2.62¿ ¿
2

∆ Q3 =0.32

LOOP 4
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10
∆ Q 4=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12+(K tee + K elbow + K grid )P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P10

−1
∆ Q 4= −2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 4=0.60

Adjusted flows (3rd iteration):

P1 = 41.26 – 0.60 = 40.66 L/min P7 = 0.59 – 0.32 = 0.27 L/min

P2 = 26.26 – 0.60 = 25.66 L/min P8 = 0.59 – 0.32 = 0.27 L/min

P3 = 37.48 + 0.60 + 0.60 = 38.68 L/min P9 = 15.59 – 0.32 = 15.27 L/min

P4 = 4.33 + 0.60 – 0.32 = 4.61 L/min P10 = 4.33 + 0.60 – 0.32 = 4.61 L/min

P5 = 15.59 – 0.32 = 15.27 L/min P11 = 26.26 – 0.60 = 25.66 L/min

P6 = 13.82 + 0.32 + 0.32 = 14.46 L/min P12 = 41.26 – 0.60 = 40.66 L/min

4th Iteration

LOOP 1
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+ ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P2−( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P4
∆ Q 1=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 2+ ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P4

123
 −1
∆ Q1= 2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q1=0.22

LOOP 2
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P 4 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7
∆ Q2 =
2 ( K tee + K cross + K grid )P 4 +( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7

−1
∆ Q2 = 3.32 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q2 =0.06

LOOP 3
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 9+ ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 8
∆ Q3 =
2 (K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10 +(K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P9 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P8

−1
∆ Q3 = −2.62¿ ¿
2

∆ Q3 =−0.06

LOOP 4
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10
∆ Q 4=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12+(K tee + K elbow + K grid )P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P10

−1
∆ Q 4= −2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 4=−0.22

Adjusted flows (4th iteration):

P1 = 40.66 + 0.22 = 40.88 L/min P5 = 15.27 + 0.06 = 15.33 L/min

P2 = 25.66 + 0.22 = 25.88 L/min P6 = 14.46 – 0.06 – 0.06 = 14.34 L/min

P3 = 38.68 – 0.22 – 0.22 = 38.24 L/min P7 = 0.27 + 0.06 = 0.33 L/min

P4 = 4.61 – 0.22 + 0.06 = 4.45 L/min P8 = 0.27 + 0.06 = 0.33 L/min

124
P9 = 15.27 + 0.06 = 15.33 L/min

P10 = 4.61 – 0.22 + 0.06 = 4.45 L/min

P11 = 25.66 + 0.22 = 25.88 L/min

P12 = 40.66 + 0.22 = 40.88 L/min

125
5th Iteration

LOOP 1
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+ ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P2−( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P4
∆ Q 1=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P1+( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 2+ ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P4

−1
∆ Q1= 2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 1=−0.009

LOOP 2
2 2 2 2
−1 ( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P 4 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5−( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7
∆ Q2 =
2 ( K tee + K cross + K grid )P 4 +( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P5 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P7

−1
∆ Q2 = 3.32 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 2 =0.002

LOOP 3
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 9+ ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P 8
∆ Q3 =
2 (K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10 +(K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P9 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P6 + ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P8

−1
∆ Q3 = −3.32¿ ¿
2

∆ Q3 =−0.002

LOOP 4
2 2 2 2
−1 −( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12−( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 + ( K tee + K cross + K grid ) P10
∆ Q 4=
2 ( K tee + K elbow + K grid ) P12+(K tee + K elbow + K grid )P11 + ( 2 K cross + K grid ) P3 +( K tee + K cross+ K grid ) P10

−1
∆ Q 4= −2.62 ¿ ¿
2

∆ Q 4=0 .009

126
 Since the ∆ Qn values are very close to zero or insignificant, the adjusted flowrate values

in 4th iteration is the final flow rate:

Table D-2: Corrected flowrate and flow directions

Pipe Number Corrected flow rate Corrected flow direction

(L/min)
1 40.88

2 25.88

3 38.24

4 4.45

5 15.33

6 14.34

7 0.33

8 0.33

9 15.33

10 4.45

11 25.88

12 40.88

127
Figure D-3: Diagram of corrected flowrate and flow directions

128
APPENDIX E: SYSTEM CURVE AND PERFORMANCE CURVE CALCULATIONS

Table E-1: Table of values from the Eq. F-1

ONGA 417 Pump

Q(L/min) Head (m) Pump Q (L/min) Pump head (m) Velocity (1-1/4 in dia pipe, m/s)
         
0 10.263 200 0 0
25 10.38518828 175 6.5 0.526288919
50 10.7517531 150 11.7 1.052577839
75 11.36269448 125 15.5 1.578866758
100 12.21801242 100 18.5 2.105155677
135 13.82601013 75 21 2.841960164
150 14.66177794 50 23 3.157733516
175 16.25022553 25 25 3.684022435
200 18.08304967 0 26 4.210311354
225 20.16025036     4.736600274
250 22.4818276     5.262889193
275 25.0477814     5.789178112
300 27.85811175     6.315467032

30

25

20
Head (m)

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Flow Rate (L/min)

Figure E-1: System curve of the irrigation system

129
With the design flow rate of 135 L/min, the pressure head required will be around 13.88 meters.

For the pump requirement, the setup requires the specific ONGA 417 centrifugal pump and has

the performance curve below. The intersection of the two curves is shown in Chapter 4 under

section 4.6.

30

25

20
Head (m)

15

10

0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Discharge (L/min)

Figure E-2: Performance curve of the ONGA 417 Centrifugal Pump

130
APPENDIX F: SYSTEM DESIGN SPECIFICATION DIMENSIONS

Item Number Item Name

1 column grid pipe

4 row grid pipe

5 3-way elbow

6 trellis pipe

7 trellis trunk
trellis pipe-nozzle
8
reducer
9 nozzle

10 canopy support

11 jet deflector

131
 Item Number Item Name

1 Channel pipe

12 Gate valves

14 0.5 m pipe

15 pressure relief valve

16 pressure gage fitting

17 pressure gage

18 pressure tank

19 3-way tee

20 check valve

21 Pump diverging reducer

22 pump outlet pipe

23 booster pump

25 source pipe

26 2-way elbow

27 water reservoir

Figure F-1: Exploded view of the dragon fruit farm with bill of materials

132
 Figure F-2: Source elbow (mm)

Figure F-3: Grid pipe length (mm)

133
Figure F-4: Cross section and top view of brass nozzle (mm)

Figure F-5: Canopy support (mm)

Figure F-6: Trellis pipe length (mm)

134
 Figure F-7: Jet deflector (cm)

Figure F-8: Nozzle reducer (mm)

Figure F-9: Trellis trunk (mm)

135
Figure F-10: Booster pump (mm)

Figure F-11: Gate valve (mm)

136
Figure F-12: Pressure gage fitting (mm)

Figure F-13: Pressure Gage

Figure F-14: 3 way tee (mm)

137
Figure F-15: 2 way elbow (mm)

Figure F-16: pressure tank (mm)

138
Figure F-17: swing check valve (mm)

Figure F-18: water reservoir (mm)

139
Figure F-19: pump outflow pipe (mm)

Figure F-20: source pipe (mm)

140
 APPENDIX G: PPR STANDARDS

Courtesy of PROGEF Standard Polypropylene Inc.

141
APPENDIX H: WATER PROPERTIES

Source: Engineering Toolbox

142
 APPENDIX I: MOODY CHART

Source: Transactions of the ASME, p.55

143
APPENDIX J: PIPE FITTINGS AND VALVE SYMBOLS

Source: ConceptDrawEngineering.in

144
APPENDIX K: ASME STANDARD FOR STEEL METAL STRENGTH

Source: engineeringtoolbox.com

145
APPENDIX L: DIFFERENT CONVENTIONAL IRRIGATION SYSTEM

Figure L-1: Flood Irrigation

Figure L-2: Sprinkler Irrigation

Figure L-3: Drip Irrigation

146
Figure L-4: Center Pivot Irrigation

Figure L-5: Manual Irrigation

147
APPENDIX M: JOINT EFFICIENCY FACTORS OF MILD STEEL

Source: Handbook of Mechanical Design (Maitra & Prasad)

148
APPENDIX N: FACTORS OF SAFETY IN MILD STEEL REBAR

Source: Handbook of Mechanical Design (Maitra & Prasad)

149
GANTT CHART OF ACTIVITIES

150