CN: 3

Rexel C. Barrameda
8-Galileo

Biotechnolog
y
-WEEK 7-
WE TOPIC KEY
EK TAKEAWAYS
1 BIOLOGY (PLANT AND PLANT CELL
ANIMAL CELLS)  CELL WALL
 Provides strength and rigidity

 CENTRAL VACUOLE
 Keeps plant’s part rigid and firm
 Storage organelle
 Storing water
 Dissolved substances and wastes

 CHLOROPLAST
 Carry out photosynthesis

PARTS SHARED BY BOTH ANIMAL AND PLANT

CELLS
 CELL MEMBRANE
 Gateway

 CYTOPLASM
 Jelly like thing

 MITOCHONDRION
 Makes ATP

 GOLGI APPARATUS
 Process and package protein

 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 Exportation

 CHROMOSOME
 DNA
  NUCLEUS
 Cell’s chromosome

2 CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS CELL

 Smallest structures capable of maintaining
life and reproducing

REMEMBER:
Every living thing is made up of cells

BASIC PARTS OF THE CELL

 Cytoplasm
 Cell membrane
 Nucleus and nucleolus
 Cytoplasmic organelles

ORGANELLES OF THE CELL

 Cell wall
 Centriole
 Cilia and flagella
 Chloroplast
 Cytoskeleton
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Rough ER
 With ribosome

 Smooth ER
 Without ribosome

 Endosomes
 Golgi apparatus/Golgi complex/Golgi body
 Lysosomes
 Microfilaments
 Microtubules
 Microvilli
 Mitochondria
 Peroxisomes
 Plasmodesmata
 Plastids
 Ribosomes
 Storage granules
 Vacuole
 Vesicles
3 CELL DIVISION CELL CYCLE
 The cell cycle is an ordered series of
events involving cell growth and cell
division that produces two new daughter
cells. Cells on the path to cell division
proceed through a series of precisely
timed and carefully regulated stages of
growth, DNA replication, and division that
produces two identical (clone) cells. The
cell cycle has two major phases:
interphase and the mitotic phase

 During interphase, the cell grows, and

DNA is replicated. During the mitotic
phase, the replicated DNA and
cytoplasmic contents are separated, and
the cell divides.

 In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take

place uninterrupted between cell
divisions, and new cycles of DNA synthesis
can begin before previous cycles have
finished.

 The four periods G1, S, G2, and M

(mitosis) make up the cell division cycle.
The cell cycle characteristically lasts
between 10 and 20 hours in rapidly
proliferating adult cells, but it can be
arrested for weeks or months in quiescent
cells or for a lifetime in neurons of the
brain.

INTERPHASE
 During interphase, the cell undergoes
normal growth processes while also
preparing for cell division.

 G1 Phase (First Gap)

 The first stage of interphase
is called the G1 phase (first
gap) because, from a
microscopic aspect, little
change is visible. However,
 during the G1 stage, the cell
is quite active at the
biochemical level.

 S Phase (Synthesis of DNA)

 In the S phase, DNA
replication can proceed
through the mechanisms
that result in the formation
of identical pairs of DNA
molecules—sister
chromatids—that are firmly
attached to the centromeric
region. The centrosome is
duplicated during the S
phase. The two centrosomes
will give rise to the mitotic
spindle, the apparatus that
orchestrates the movement
of chromosomes during
mitosis.

 G2 Phase (Second Gap)

 In the G2 phase, the cell
replenishes its energy stores
and synthesizes proteins
necessary for chromosome
manipulation. Some cell
organelles are duplicated,
and the cytoskeleton is
dismantled to provide
resources for the mitotic
phase. There may be
additional cell growth during
G2.

REMEMBER:
The final preparations for the mitotic phase
must be completed before the cell is able to
enter the first stage of mitosis.

MITOSIS
 The mitotic phase (also known as M
phase) is a multistep process during which
the duplicated chromosomes are aligned,
 separated, and move into two new,
identical daughter cells

 The first portion of the mitotic phase is

called karyokinesis, or nuclear division.
 divided into a series of phases—
prophase (followed by
prometaphase), metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.

 The second portion of the mitotic phase,

called cytokinesis, is the physical
separation of the cytoplasmic components
into the two daughter cells.
 Cytokinesis, or “cell motion,” is the
second main stage of the mitotic
phase during which cell division is
completed via the physical
separation of the cytoplasmic
components into two daughter
cells.
 The ring contracts, forming a
cleavage furrow, which divides the
cell in two. In plant cells, Golgi
vesicles coalesce at the former
metaphase plate, forming a
phragmoplast. A cell plate formed
by the fusion of the vesicles of the
phragmoplast grows from the
center toward the cell walls, and
the membranes of the vesicles fuse
to form a plasma membrane that
divides the cell in two.

MEIOSIS
 A specialized division of chromosomes
called meiosis occurs during the formation
of the reproductive cells, or gametes, of
sexually reproducing organisms.

 In meiosis the two chromatids making up

each chromosome remain together, so
that whole chromosomes are separated
from their homologous partners.
  Meiosis I
 Before entering Meiosis I, a
cell must first go through
interphase. As in mitosis, the
cell grows during G1, copies
all its chromosomes during S
phase, and prepares for
division during G2 phase.

 Meiosis II
 Cells move from meiosis I to
meiosis II without copying
their DNA. Meiosis II is a
shorter and simpler process
than meiosis I, and you may
find it helpful to think of
meiosis II as “mitosis for
haploid cells."

REMEMBER:
Gametes such as ova, sperm, and pollen begin
as germ cells, which, like other types of cells,
have two copies of each gene in their nuclei.

Cytokinesis splits the chromosome sets into

new cells, forming the final products of meiosis:
four haploid cells in which each chromosome has
just one chromatid. In humans, the products of
meiosis are sperm or egg cells.

4 MICROBIOLOGY ARCHITECTURAL REGIONS

INTRO/MICROBIOLOGY 1  APPENDAGES
 Flagella
 Pili
 Cell envelope

 CAPSULE
 Cell wall
 Cell membrane

 CYTOPLASMIC REGION
 Cell chromosome (DNA)
 Ribosomes

DIFFERENT WAYS OF GROUPING BACTERIA

  BASED ON THEIR RESPONSE TO GASEOUS
OXYGEN

 HOW THEY OBTAIN THEIR ENERGY

KINDS OF BACTERIA
 AEROBIC BACTERIA
 ANAEROBIC BACTERIA
 FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES

REMEMBER:
Bacteria that must consume and break down
complex organic compounds are
HETEROTROPHS. Bacteria that create their own
energy are AUTOTROPHS.

BACTERIUM
 CYTOPLASM
 CAPSULE
 CELL WALL
 PLASMA MEMBRANE
 FLAGELLA
 PILI
 RIBOSOMES

FUNGAL (YEAST) CELL

 BUD
 BUD SCAR
 RIBOSOMES
 MITOCHONDRION
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
 NUCLEUS
 NUCLEOLUS
 CELL WALL
 CELL MEMBRANE
 GOLGI APPARATUS
 STORAGE VACUOLE

BACTERIOPHAGE
 NUCLEIC ACID
 SHEATH
 BASEPLATE
 CAPSID HEAD
 COLLAR
  SPIKES
 TAIL FIBER

COLORS OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
 YELLOW BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Food and drinks

 RED BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Medical and pharmaceutical
industries

 BLUE BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Sea resources to create products
and industrial applications

 GREEN BIOTECHNOLOGY
 Genetic engineering of plants

5 CHROMOSOMES CHROMOSOMES
 Chromosomes are genetic structures
found in cells during cell division.

 A chromosome is made from tightly

packed strands of DNA and a huge
number of proteins called histones.

 True chromosomes are found only in

eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells contain
much less DNA which is packaged with
proteins but not into ‘true’ chromosomes.

CHROMATIN
 DNA is not always packaged into
chromosomes. In between cell divisions,
DNA remains less densely packed in
strands known as chromatin.

 Chromatin is formed by the first two levels

of coiling of DNA. Firstly, a strand of DNA
is wrapped around proteins called
histones.

 To form chromatin, a strand of DNA with

nucleosomes interacts with additional
 histone proteins.

 Chromatin fibers are packed into the

nucleus of eukaryotic cells. Each
chromatin fills a specific space in the
nucleus of the cell.

EUKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES
 Chromosomes form during cell division
from strands of DNA and histone proteins.

 They are condensed structures that can

easily be distinguished from one another
and are found within the nucleus of
eukaryotic cells.

 Eukaryotic cells typically have between

10-50 chromosomes.

PROKARYOTIC CHROMOSOMES
 Prokaryotic cells contain far less DNA than
eukaryotic cells. A prokaryotic cell has a
single ring of DNA which stretches to
around 1 cm long.

 In comparison, the eukaryotic cells of

humans have 46 chromosomes which each
stretch out to around 4 cm long.

REMEMBER:
Instead of forming ‘true’ chromosomes the
DNA of prokaryotic cells coils up tightly into a
condensed ball. Instead of being wrapped
around histone proteins the DNA of prokaryotic
cells twists so much that the twists fold over
onto themselves and eventually form a ball. This
process is known as supercoiling.

FORMATION OF CHROMOSOMES
 During cell division, chromatin is packed
tighter into chromosomes. The next stage
of packaging sees chromatin loop around
a scaffold of proteins to form what are
known as looped domains.
  Loop domains are around 300 nm wide, 10
times wider than chromatin.

 Continue to fold together to form a

distinct structure known as a chromatid. A
chromatid is one half of a chromosome.
Chromatids are replicated to form a
chromosome.

6 PROTEIN SYNTHESIS RNA (RIBONUCLEIC ACID)

 SINGLE STRANDED NUCLEIC ACID THAT
CARRIES OUT THE INSTRUCTIONS CODED
IN DNA

CENTRAL DOGMA OF BIOLOGY

 THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE
INFORMATION IN GENES FLOWS INTO
PROTEIN: DNA-RNA-PROTEIN

POLYPEPTIDE
 A CHAIN OF AMINO ACID

CODON
 A SEQUENCE OF THREE NUCLEOTIDES
THAT CORRESPONDS WITH A SPECIFIC
AMINO ACIDS OR START/STOP SIGNAL
DURING TRANSLATION

TRANSCRIPTION
 PROCESS DURING WHICH A DNA
SEQUENCE OF A GENE IS COPIED TO MAKE
AN RNA MOLECULE

TRANSLATION
 PROCESS DURING WHICH AN MRNA
MOLECULE IS USED TO ASSEMBLE AMINO
ACIDS INTO POLYPEPTIDE CHAINS

MUTATION
 A CHANGE IN A GENETIC SEQUENCE

TYPES OF RNA
 mRNA
 Messenger RNA
  rRNA
 Ribosomal RNA

 tRNA
 Transfer RNA

GENETIC CODE
 COMPLEMENTARY STRAND
 A–T

 T–A

 C–G

 G–C

 DNA TO MRNA TRANSCRIPTION

 T–A
 C–G
 A–U
 G–C

 AMINO ACID CODES