Astrophysical Techniques

C R Kitchin

University of Hertfordshire Observatory

Third Edition

SUB Gottingen 7
210 119 268

99 A 8843

Institute of Physics Publishing

Bristol and Philadelphia
Contents

Preface xiii

Standard symbols xv

1 Detectors 1
1.1 OPTICAL AND INFRARED DETECTION 1
Introduction 1
Detectors 1
Detector types 1
The eye 2
Photomultipliers 7
A detector breviary 18
Charge-coupled devices (CCD) 20
Other types of detectors 30
Photovoltaic cells 30
Photoelectromagnetic detectors 33
Thermocouples 33
Pyroelectric detectors 34
Bolometers 34
Photoconductive cells 35
Phototransistors 36
Charge injection devices (CID) 36
Photographic emulsion 37
Gas cells 37
Television tubes 37
Image intensifiers 37
Golay cell 37
Ultraviolet detectors 37
Future possibilities 38
Noise . 39
Intrinsic noise 39
Signal noise 40
Digitisation 41

vii
viii CONTENTS

Telescopes 42
Optical theory 42
Telescope designs 62
Exercises ' 90
1.2 RADIO AND MICROWAVE DETECTION 91
Introduction 91
Detectors and receivers 92
Radio telescopes 97
Construction 105
Exercises 107
1.3 X-RAY AND GAMMA-RAY DETECTION 107
Introduction 107
Detectors 109
Geiger counters 109
Proportional counters 110
Scintillation detectors 111
Gas scintillation proportional counters 112
Charge coupled devices 112
Compton interaction detectors 113
Spark detectors 113
Cerenkov detectors 113
Solid state detectors 113
MicroChannel plates 114
Nuclear emulsions 115
Shielding 116
Imaging 116
Collimation 117
Coincidence detectors 120
Occultation 120
Reflecting telescopes 120
Resolution and image identification 125
Spectroscopy 126
Grating spectrometers 126
Bragg spectrometers 127
Polarimetry 129
Observing platforms 130
1.4 COSMIC RAY DETECTORS 131
Background 131
Detectors 131
Real-time methods 132
Residual track detectors 138
Indirect detectors 143
Arrays 144
 CONTENTS ix

Correction factors 145

Atmospheric effects . 145
Solar effects 146
- Terrestrial magnetic field ' 146
Exercises 147
1.5 NEUTRINO DETECTORS 149
Background 149
Chlorine 37 detectors 151
Water-based detectors 153
Gallium-based detectors 155
Other types of detectors 155
Direct interaction type detectors 155
Indirect interaction type detectors 156
Geological detectors 156
Scattering detectors 157
Exercises 157
1.6 GRAVITATIONAL RADIATION 158
Introduction 158
Detectors 160
Direct resonant detectors 160
Direct, non-resonant detectors 161
Indirect detectors 163
Exercises 164

2 Imaging 165
2.1 THE INVERSE PROBLEM 165
Deconvolution 166
2.2 PHOTOGRAPHY 170
Introduction 170
Structure of the photographic emulsion 171
The photographic image 174
Processing 182
Hypersensitisation 185
Temperature effects 186
Liquid bathing effects 186
Gas immersion effects 186
Pre-exposure 187
Post-exposure techniques 187
Faint image contrast enhancement 188
Autoradiographic image retrieval 188
Film types ' . 188
Techniques of astronomical photography 189
Analysis of photographic images 190
Special applications 191
 CONTENTS

2.3 ELECTRONIC IMAGING 192

Introduction 192
Arrays 193
Television and related systems 193
Image intensifies 196
Magnetically focused image intensifies 196
Electrostatically focused image intensifies 197
Proximity focused image intensifies 198
Cascades 199
Recording 199
Photon counting imaging systems 199
Electronographic cameras 200
2.4 SCANNING 201
2.5 INTERFEROMETRY 204
Introduction 204
Michelson radio interferometer 205
Michelson stellar interferometer 223
Intensity interferometer 227
Reflection interferometers 232
Exercises 233
2.6 SPECKLE INTERFEROMETRY 233
2.7 OCCULTATIONS 237
Background 237
Techniques 241
Analysis 244
2.8 RADAR 245
Introduction 245
Theoretical principles 245
Equipment 251
Data analysis 252
Meteors 254
Exercise 255
2.9 ELECTRONIC IMAGES 255
Image formats 255
Image compression 256
Image processing 257
Grey scaling 257
Image combination 258
Spatial filtering 259

Photometry 260
3.1 PHOTOMETRY 260
Background 260
Magnitudes 260
 CONTENTS xi

Filter systems 262

Stellar parameters 266
Exercises 281
3.2 PHOTOMETERS 281
Instruments 281
Visual photometers 282
Photographic photometry 282
Photoelectric photometers 286
Observing techniques 294
Data reduction and analysis 297
Exercise 300

Spectroscopy 301
4.1 SPECTROSCOPY 301
Optics 301
Prisms 301
Diffraction gratings 312
Interferometers 320
Fabry-Perot interferometer 320
Michelson interferometer 327
Holography 333
Exercises 334
4.2 SPECTROSCOPES 334
Basic design considerations 334
Prism-based spectroscopes 341
Grating spectroscopes 345
Techniques of spectroscopy 348
Future developments 355
Exercises 355

Other Techniques 356

5.1 ASTROMETRY 356
Background 356
Coordinate systems 356
Position angle and separation 358
Micrometers 359
Photography 364
Electronic images 366
Measurement and reduction 366
Exercises 368
5.2 POLARIMETRY 368
Background 368
Stokes' parameters 369
xii CONTENTS

Optical components for polarimetry 372

Birefringence 372
Polarisers ^ 375
Converters 379
Depolarises 383
Polarimeters 383
Photographic polarimeters 384
Photoelectric polarimeters 385
Data reduction and analysis 388
Exercises 390
5.3 SOLAR STUDIES 390
Introduction 390
Solar telescopes 391
Spectrohelioscope 394
Narrow band filters 395
Coronagraph 401
Solar oscillations 403
Other solar observing methods 404
Exercise 405
5.4 MAGNETOMETRY 405
Background 405
Zeemah effect 405
Magnetometers 412
Data reduction and analysis 416

Appendices 417
I Magnitudes and spectral types of bright stars 417
II North polar sequence 420
III Standard stars for the UBV photometric system 423
IV Standard stars for the uvby photometric system 426
V Standard stars for MK spectral types 435
VI Standard stars for polarimetry 443
VII Julian date 445
VIII Catalogues 447
IX Answers to the exercises 449

Bibliography 451

Index 458