Comilla University

Department of Accounting & Information Systems

Course Title: Applied Research Methodology
Course code: 506
Term Paper on
“Chapter: 2 & Chapter: 11”

SUBMITTED TO:
Tarik Hossain
Assistant Professor
Department of Accounting & Information Systems,
Faculty of Business Studies,
Comilla University

SUBMITTED BY: GROUP: B

Name ID No
Antu Saha (Group Leader) 11606001
Tohin Akter 11606004
Chaion Dhabonath 11606009
Abu Bakr Siddique 11606039
Md. Raju Ahmed 11606041
Parvin Akter 11606046
Meherunnesa Urmi 11606047
Safiqul Islam 11606049
Maruf Alam 11606051

Dept. of AIS, 10th Batch, MBA 2nd Semester, Comilla University

DATE OF SUBMISSION: May 7, 2021
 Letter of Transmittal

May 7, 2021
Tarik Hossain
Assistant Professor,
Department of Accounting & Information Systems,
Faculty of Business Studies,
Comilla University

Subject: Submission of Term Paper on ―Chapter: 2 & Chapter: 11‖.

Sir,
With due respect, we are submitting this term paper on ―Chapter: 2 & Chapter: 11‖
under the requirement of the course ―Applied Research Methodology‖ as you have
asked us to prepare it.

We all are very grateful to you for your concrete knowledge about the subject matter
that helped us to lead the term paper to its successful completion. We have prepared
this through a group work. We hope that, this term paper will help us in our future. If
you face any disorder or mistakes in interpreting this term paper, then please inform
us so that we can correct our mistakes and learn it properly.

--------------------
Sincerely Yours,
Antu Saha (Group Leader)
On behalf of the Group- B,
Department of Accounting & Information Systems,
Comilla University.

i
 Acknowledgement

The preparation of a term paper and its successful accomplishment is quiet impossible
except someone who can sincerely and constructively assist us to make a term paper
in a benefiting manner. Thus, we would like to specially extend our gratitude &
thanks to our honorable course teacher, “Tarik Hossain” Sir, for his guidelines,
valuable insights and suggestions regarding the preparation of the term paper to its
completion. We hope in future we will get his assistance to make such kind of study
and we also hope we will get his solitude indications and valuable advice in future as
always.

At last we shall be grateful to those people who read this term paper and who
shall get benefit from this term paper at present and in future. We would like to say
that we have tried our heart and soul to prepare this term paper accurately. However,
there might be some errors and mistakes, so we seek your kind consideration as we
are in the process of learning.

ii
 Table of Contents

SL.
Contents Page no.
No.
A Cover Page -
B Letter of Transmittal i
C Acknowledgement ii
D Table of contents iii
1. Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1 1.2 Objectives of the Report 1
1.3 Scope of the Report 1
1.4 Limitation of the Report 1
Chapter: 2 Theoretical Framework and Concepts of Research 2-14

2.1 Implications of Theory for Research Arguments 2

2.2 Applicability of Test Theories 3
2.3 Research Structure & Strategies 3-4
2.4 Inductive Reasoning & Deductive Reasoning 4-5
2
2.5 Qualitative Research & Quantitative Research 5-6
2.6 Literature Review of Research 7
2.7 Epistemology and Ontology in Research 8-9
2.8 Different Classification of Research 9-10
2.9 Different Types of Variables 10-14
Chapter: 11 Ethical Issues in Research 15-24
3.1 Importance of Ethics in Research 15-16
3.2 Factors that affect the Ethical Perspective of Research 16-17
3
3.3 Ethics Clearance Procedures 17-22
3.4 Breach of Ethics in Research 22
3.5 Consequences of Data Manipulation 22-24
7 Conclusion 25
8 References 26

iii
 1. Introduction

1.1 Introduction

This report is about Theoretical Framework of Research, Concepts of Research, and

Ethical Issues in Research. We are the team of nine-member worked together for
acquiring knowledge about these topics. We did this with the help of our course
teacher Tarik Hossain, who encouraged us to enlarge our knowledge through
analysis these topics. So, in this report everything about Theoretical Framework of
Research, Concepts of Research, and Ethical Issues in Research are included with a
view to gather the knowledge with team work, as well as to understand practical
application of these topics.

1.2 Learning objectives

It can be expected that after studying this topic, we will be able to-
 Learn about the Theoretical Framework of Research
 Learn about the Concepts of Research
 Learn about the Ethical Issues in Research

1.3 Scope of the Report

The main objective of education is to acquire knowledge. To acquire knowledge
ultimately we must do some hands-on application in addition to theoretical
knowledge. Through this report, we tried our level best to present our practical
knowledge.

1.4 Limitations of the Study

There are some limitations in the study. To prepare this report We have faced the
following limitations:
 Time consuming.
 There is lack of available information about these topics.
 Lack of reliable information.

1
 Chapter: 2

2.0 Theoretical Framework and Concepts of Research

2.1 Implications of Theory for Research Arguments

Implications represent one of the most significant parts of a research paper. It is where
you get to discuss your results and the entirety of all that it stands for. When writing
implications, it is expected that you address your results, conclusions, the outcome,
and future expectations; if there is a need for it. In simpler terms, implications contain
the effect that your research may have on future research, policy decisions or on the
appropriate field of your research. It is therefore important to say that in a way, every
research paper, regardless of their fields of study, boils down to the implications of
the findings.

So, let‘s say you are done with all the researches that need to be done as regards a
research paper. You have succinctly stated written your thesis and all your paper
guidelines are in place and you have your results or findings on the ground. These
results or findings are significant in their own ways that are they have their
implications. But then how do you go about documenting these implications? Well, it
all boils down to the type of implication that we are talking about here. This is why
the types of implications will be discussed now;

Types of Implications

1. Theoretical Implications

An informed guess is a theory. In the context of science, when an anticipated outcome

happens over and over, a theory is said to be established. But it‘s still a theory until
it‘s proven. However, the theory is based on logic, and so it is often believed that the
anticipated outcome is more likely than just relying on a coin-like probability. It
involves putting together some observations and then extracting a set of guidelines
from them that regulate the activities of the subject and the energy engaged in the
observations.

2. Practical Implications

The outcome or end result that occurs when specific events take place is known as the
practical implication of the event. Practical in this context relates to real outcomes of
an event, whereas implication relates to the logical association between the event and
the result. An example of a practical implication is a student who doesn‘t want to do
his homework. Another practical implication, using the same model, is that the same
student is not doing things he should be doing at home. Based on these factors, the
outcome or implication is that the student will fail to finish the homework, and he will
also be punished by his parents.

2
2.2 Applicability of Test Theories
Test theory assumes linearity—that is, the regression of the observed score on the true
score is linear. This linearity assumption underlies the practice of creating tests from
the linear combination of items or subtests. In addition, the following assumptions are
often made by classical test theory:

 The expected value of measurement error within a person is zero.

 The expected value of measurement error across persons in the population is
zero.
 True score is uncorrelated with measurement error in the population of
persons.
 The variance of observed scores across persons is equal to the sum of the
variances of true score and measurement error.
 Measurement errors of different tests are not correlated.

The first four assumptions can be readily derived from the definitions of true score
and measurement error. Thus, they are commonly shared by all the models of CTT.
The fifth assumption is also suggested by most of the models because it is needed to
estimate reliability. All of these assumptions are generally considered ―weak
assumptions,‖ that is, assumptions that are likely to hold true in most data. Some
models of CTT make further stronger assumptions that, although they are not needed
for deriving most formulas central to the theory, provide estimation convenience.

2.3 Research Structure & Strategies

2.3.1 Research Structure:
Research Structure is basically an outline of the work and you are expected to
provide the research structure towards the end of introduction chapter in your
dissertation. The following is a sample of a research Structure:

1) Explain the outline of the research: This includes a brief explanation of

the research background, and provides rationale for the selection of the research
area. Moreover, it contains explanation of the research aim and objectives, and
explains research structure.

2) Constitutes a literature review: This contains analysis of models and

theoretical frameworks that have been previously introduced to the research
area .This contains definitions of main terms and explains search strategy for

3
the secondary data. Viewpoints of other authors regarding the research area in
general and research problem in particular have been presented in a logical
manner.

3) Address methodology: It explains the research process and addresses the

issues of research philosophy. Moreover, methodology contains explanation of
research design, and the choice and implementation of data collection methods.
Sampling aspect of the study and discussions are also included.

4) Presentation of Primary Data: Presentation of the primary data collected

through questionnaires / interviews/focus/groups groups/observations etc.
Presentation of primary data findings have been facilitated through bar
charts/pie charts.

5) Constitutes discussions and analyses: This plays a critical role in the

achievement of research aim and objectives. Findings of the literature review
have been compared to primary data findings.

6) Summarizing, conclusion and limitation: This concludes the work and

summaries the level of achievement of research aim and objectives.

This comprises acknowledgement of limitations of the study and high lights

scope for future studies in the same research area.

2.3.2 Research Strategy:

Research strategies include interview studies and in particular, case studies,
which attempt to record and analyze the critical events in which organizational
rules and resources are negotiated by reference to observation, document
analysis, and interview data from multiple purposes.

2.4 Inductive Reasoning & Deductive Reasoning

2.4.1 Inductive Reasoning

Inductive reasoning is a method of logical thinking that combines observations with
experiential information to reach a conclusion. When you can look at a specific set of
data and form general conclusions based on existing knowledge from past experiences,
you are using inductive reasoning.

4
For example, if you review the population information of a city for the past 15 years,
you may observe that the population has increased at a consistent rate. If you want to
predict what the population will be in five years, you can use the evidence or
information you have to make an estimate.

2.4.2 Deductive Reasoning

Deductive reasoning is the process of drawing a conclusion based on premises that are
generally assumed to be true. Also called "deductive logic," this act uses a logical
premise to reach a logical conclusion. Deductive reasoning is often referred to as "top-
down reasoning." If something is assumed to be true and another thing relates to the
first assumption, then the original truth must also hold true for the second thing.

For example, if a car‘s trunk is large and a bike does not fit into the trunk, then you
may assume the bike must also be large. We know this because we were already
provided with the information we assume to be true—the trunk is large. Based on our
deductive reasoning skills, we know if a bike does not fit in an already large trunk,
then it must also be large. So long as the two premises are based on accurate
information, the outcome of this type of conclusion is often true.

2.5 Qualitative Research & Quantitative Research

2.5.1 Qualitative Research

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining
data through open-ended and conversational communication. This method is not only
about ―what‖ people think but also ―why‖ they think so. For example, consider a
convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic observation
concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good method to
determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth interview
of potential customers in the category.

For example, on successfully interviewing female customers, visiting the nearby

stores and malls, and selecting them through random sampling, it was known that the
store doesn‘t have enough items for women and so there were fewer women visiting
the store, which was understood only by personally interacting with them and
understanding why they didn‘t visit the store, because there were more male products
than female ones.

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology,

sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-

5
depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses,
where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings.
Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in
market research.

2.5.2 Quantitative Research

Quantitative research is defined as a systematic investigation of phenomena by
gathering quantifiable data and performing statistical, mathematical, or computational
techniques. Quantitative research collects information from existing and potential
customers using sampling methods and sending out online surveys, online polls,
questionnaires, etc., the results of which can be depicted in the form of numerical.
After careful understanding of these numbers to predict the future of a product or
service and make changes accordingly.

An example of quantitative research is the survey conducted to understand the amount

of time a doctor takes to tend to a patient when the patient walks into the hospital. A
patient satisfaction survey template can be administered to ask questions like how
much time did a doctor takes to see a patient, how often does a patient walks into a
hospital, and other such questions.

Quantitative outcome research is mostly conducted in the social sciences using the
statistical methods used above to collect quantitative data from the research study. In
this research method, researchers and statisticians deploy mathematical frameworks
and theories that pertain to the quantity under question.

Quantitative research templates are objective, elaborate, and many times, even
investigational. The results achieved from this research method are logical, statistical,
and unbiased. Data collection happened using a structured method and conducted on
larger samples that represent the entire population.

As mentioned above, quantitative research is data-oriented. There are two methods to

conduct quantitative research. They are:

(i). Primary quantitative research methods

(ii). Secondary quantitative research methods

6
2.6 Literature Review of Research

A literature review is a survey of scholarly sources on a specific topic. It provides an

overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant theories, methods,
and gaps in the existing research.

Some scholars & institution give their opinion:

A literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of
knowledge on a particular topic of research.

…….. (ANM, 2000)

A literature review is an account of what has been already established or published on

a particular research topic by accredited scholars & researchers.

….. (University of Toronto, 2001)

A literature review can be just a simple summary of the sources, but it usually has an
organizational pattern and combines both summary and synthesis. A summary is a
recap of the important information of the source, but a synthesis is a re-organization,
or a reshuffling, of that information. It might give a new interpretation of old material
or combine new with old interpretations. Or it might trace the intellectual progression
of the field, including major debates. And depending on the situation, the literature
review may evaluate the sources and advise the reader on the most pertinent or
relevant.

…… (Queensland University, 2002)

Finally we can say that ―A literature review discusses published information in a

particular subject area, and sometimes information in a particular subject area within a
certain time period.‖

7
2.7 Epistemology and Ontology in Research

Ontology and epistemology are two different ways of viewing a research philosophy.

2.7.1 Epistemology

Epistemology in a business research as a branch of philosophy deals with the sources

of knowledge. Specifically, epistemology is concerned with possibilities, nature,
sources and limitations of knowledge in the field of study. Alternatively,
epistemology can be branded as the study of the criteria by which the researcher
classifies what does and does not constitute the knowledge. In simple words,
epistemology focuses on what is known to be true. It is a way of thinking opposite to
ontology.

In research philosophy there are many different sources of knowledge. Sources of

knowledge related to business research in particular can be divided into the following
four categories:

1. Intuitive knowledge is based on intuition, faith, beliefs etc. Human feelings

plays greater role in intuitive knowledge compared to reliance on facts.
2. Authoritarian knowledge relies on information that has been obtained from
books, research papers, experts, supreme powers etc.
3. Logical knowledge is a creation of new knowledge through the application of
logical reasoning.
4. Empirical knowledge relies on objective facts that have been established and
can be demonstrated.

2.7.2 Ontology

Ontology in business research can be defined as ―the science or study of being‖ and it
deals with the nature of reality. Ontology is a system of belief that reflects an
interpretation by an individual about what constitutes a fact.

In other words, ontology is associated with a central question of whether social

entities should be perceived as objective or subjective. Accordingly, objectivism

8
(or positivism) and subjectivism can be specified as two important aspects of
ontology.

1. Objectivism is an ontological position that asserts that social phenomena and

their meanings have an existence that is independent of social actors‖

2. Subjectivism (also known as constructionism or interpretivism) on the

contrary, perceives that social phenomena are created from the perceptions
and consequent actions of those social actors concerned with their existence.
Formally, constructionism can be defined as ―ontological position which
asserts that social phenomena and their meanings are continually being
accomplished by social actors‖.

2.8 Different Classification of Research

Research is about using established methods to investigate a problem or question in

detail with the aim of generating new knowledge about it.

It is a vital tool for scientific advancement because it allows researchers to prove or

refute hypotheses based on clearly defined parameters, environments and
assumptions. Due to this, it enables us to confidently contribute to knowledge as it
allows research to be verified and replicated.

1. Basic research

Basic research is the research to find the basic knowledge or to refine the basic
knowledge. Basic research is also called pure research and fundamental research.

For example, an airplane is already flying but now today we want to research how
airplane can fly.

2. Applied research

Applied research is research that is useful for a human being. Applied research is
conducted for solving practical life problems.

9
For example, research conducted for the patients of Wuhan in China. The doctors are
trying to prepare a vaccine for the benefit of human beings.

This type of research is subdivided into two types:

1. Technological applied research: looks towards improving efficiency in a

particular productive sector through the improvement of processes or
machinery related to said productive processes.

2. Scientific applied research: has predictive purposes. Through this type of

research design, we can measure certain variables to predict behavior‘s useful
to the goods and services sector, such as consumption patterns and viability of
commercial projects.

3. Experimental Research

It is about designing or replicating a phenomenon whose variables are manipulated

under strictly controlled conditions in order to identify or discover its effect on
another independent variable or object. The phenomenon to be studied is measured
through study and control groups, and according to the guidelines of the scientific
method.

For example, randomized controlled trial studies for measuring the effectiveness of
new pharmaceutical drugs on human subjects.

2.9 Different Types of Variables

A variable is any property, a characteristic, a number, or a quantity that increases or

decreases over time or can take on different values (as opposed to constants, such as
n, that do not vary) in different situations. When conducting research, experiments
often manipulate variables.

For example, an experimenter might compare the effectiveness of four types of

fertilizers. In this case, the variable is the ‗type of fertilizers‘.

10
A social scientist may examine the possible effect of early marriage on divorce. Here
early marriage is the variable. A business researcher may find it useful to include the
dividend in determining the share prices. Here dividend is the variable. Effectiveness,
divorce and share prices are also variables because they also vary as a result of
manipulating fertilizers, early marriage, and dividends.

1. Moderation variables

Moderator variables are "third variables" that affect the size or nature of the
relationship between an independent and dependent variable. Because of this role,
such expressions as specification, contingency, conditional, and qualification have
been used in reference to moderator variables. In classical experimental research in
psychology, moderator variables have been referred to as involved in "interaction
effects" with the independent variable.

2. Mediation variables

Mediation is a little more straightforward in its naming convention. A mediator

mediates the relationship between the independent and dependent variables –
explaining the reason for such a relationship to exist. Another way to think about a
mediator variable is that it carries an effect. In a perfect mediation, an independent
variable leads to some kind of change to the mediator variable, which then leads to a
change in the dependent variable. However, in practice, the relationships between the
independent variable, mediator, and dependent variable are not tested for causality,
just a correlational relationship.

3. Endogenous Variable
An endogenous variable is a variable in a statistical model that's changed or
determined by its relationship with other variables within the model. In other words,
an endogenous variable is synonymous with a dependent variable, meaning it
correlates with other factors within the system being studied. Therefore, its values
may be determined by other variables.

Endogenous variables are used in econometrics and sometimes in linear regression.

They are similar to (but not exactly the same as) dependent variables. Endogenous

11
variables have values that are determined by other variables in the system (these
―other‖ variables are called exogenous variables).

4. Exogenous Variable
An exogenous variable is a variable that is not affected by other variables in the
system. For example, take a simple causal system like farming. Variables like
weather, farmer skill, pests, and availability of seed are all exogenous to crop
production. Exogenous comes from the Greek Exo, meaning ―outside‖ and gignomai,
meaning ―to produce.‖ In contrast, an endogenous variable is one that is influenced by
other factors in the system. In this example, flower growth is affected by sunlight and
is therefore endogenous.

Exogenous variables-
 are fixed when they enter the model.
 are taken as a ―given‖ in the model.
 influence endogenous variables in the model.
 are not determined by the model.
 are not explained by the model.
The term ―Exogenous variable‖ is almost exclusively used in econometrics. However,
it is sometimes used in linear regression to describe the independent variable x in the
model. In other words, an exogenous variable is one that isn‘t affected by any other
variables in the model (although it could be affected by factors outside of the linear
regression model being studied).

5. Dependent Variable
Dependent variables are variables whose changes depend solely on another variable—
usually the independent variable. That is, the value of the dependent variable will only
change if the independent variable changes.

The direction of this change is usually determined by a function which represents the
relationship between the dependent and independent variable. In mathematical
sciences, it is represented as a function of the independent variable (e.g., y = f(x) =

12
3x+2, where y is the dependent variable, x is the independent variable and f(x) is the
function of the independent variable).

Also known as the predicted variable, we can say that the dependent variable
measures the effect of the independent variable on the test unit(s).

6. Independent Variable
Independent variables are variables whose variations do not depend on another
variable. They are controlled inputs, whose variation depends on the researcher or
individual working with the variables.
Also known as the predictor variable, it is the determinant of the value of the
dependent variable. It is usually used to test the rate of change of the dependent
variable as it changes under a non-variable condition.

For example, the time taken to move a car from a particular point A to a point B to a
varying speed. In this case, the non-variable is the distance covered, the independent
variable is the speed while the dependent variable is the time which changes with
respect to the change in the speed of the vehicle.

7. Control variables
A control variable (or scientific constant) in scientific experimentation is an
experimental element which is constant and unchanged throughout the course of the
investigation. Control variables could strongly influence experimental results, were
they not held constant during the experiment in order to test the relative relationship
of the dependent and independent variables. The control variables themselves are not
of primary interest to the experimenter.

Controlled variables refer to variables or contributing factors that are fixed or

eliminated in order to clearly identify the relationship between an independent
variable and a dependent variable.
 Controlling variables is important because slight variations in the experimental
set-up could strongly affect the outcome being measure.
 The factors or conditions that are kept the same (unchanged) in an experiment.

13
  There can be many controlled variables in an experiment. They are also called
as covariate.

8. Instrumental variable
In statistics, econometrics, epidemiology and related disciplines, the method of
instrumental variables (IV) is used to estimate causal relationships when controlled
experiments are not feasible or when a treatment is not successfully delivered to every
unit in a randomized experiment. Intuitively, IVs are used when an explanatory
variable of interest is correlated with the error term, in which case ordinary least
squares and ANOVA give biased results. A valid instrument induces changes in the
explanatory variable but has no independent effect on the dependent variable,
allowing a researcher to uncover the causal effect of the explanatory variable on the
dependent variable.

Instrumental variable methods allow for consistent estimation when the explanatory
variables (covariates) are correlated with the error terms in a regression model. Such
correlation may occur when:
Changes in the dependent variable change the value of at least one of the
covariates ("reverse" causation),
There are omitted variables that affect both the dependent and independent
variables, or
The covariates are subject to non-random measurement error.

14
 Chapter: 11
::
3.0 Ethical Issues in Research

3.1 Importance of Ethics in Research

3.1.1 Ethics

Ethics may define as the set of moral principles that distinguish what is right and what
is wrong. It is a normative field because it prescribes what one should do or abstain
from doing.

3.1.2 Ethics in research

Research ethics provides guidelines for the responsible conduct of research. In

addition, it educates and monitors scientists conducting research to ensure a high
ethical standard.

Research ethics are moral principles that guide researchers to conduct and report
research without deception or intention to harm the participants of the study or
members of the society as a whole, whether knowingly or unknowingly.

3.1.3 Importance of Ethics in Research

 Firstly, they help to promote the general aims of research, such as the search
for knowledge and the intention to avoid error.

 Secondly, ethics promote values that are central to successful collaboration,

including respect, trust and accountability.

 Thirdly, they are an important part of holding researchers accountable to

societies and communities, which in turn builds public trust in and support for
research.

15
  Ethics is important in research because it keeps the researcher from
committing errors while seeking knowledge and truth.
 It promotes essential values that help researchers working of how things
should go about.
 Since research may involve experts coming from different fields of expertise,
ethics binds them together by considering the important values such as
accountability, cooperation, coordination. Mutual respect and fairness among
others.
 Ethics promote the aims of research, such as expanding knowledge.

 It support the values required for collaborative work, such as mutual respect
and fairness.

 This is essential because scientific research depends on collaboration between

researchers and groups.

 It means that researchers can be held accountable for their actions. Many
researchers are supported by public money, and regulations on conflicts of
interest, misconduct, and research involving humans or animals are necessary
to ensure that money is spent appropriately.

 It ensures that the public can trust research. For people to support and fund
research, they have to be confident in it.

 It supports important social and moral values, such as the principle of doing no
harm to others.

3.2 Factors that affect the Ethical Perspective of Research

1. Individual Factor

Many individual factors affect the ethical perspective of research. such as,
 Knowledge
 Values
 Personal goals

16
  Morals & Personality
 Family influence
 Peer influence
 Life experience
 Stages of morale
2. Social Norms

 Local customs and the rules of a community usually control how

one should behave in order to fit appropriately within that
community.
 They basically define the ethical behavior of those living within
that culture.

3. Laws & legal Interpretations

 Fear of prosecution and punishment is a great deterrent of many.

 Thus laws, and a person abiding by them, influence ethical
behavior.
 Principle and code of ethics

3.3 Ethics Clearance Procedures

Prepare:

1 Research proposal, copies with name of applicant and institute.

2. Curriculum vitae of investigator.

3. Approval of head of department or institution.

4. Ethical issues in the study and plan to address them.

5. Informed consent

6. All relevant pre-clinical animal data, and clinical trial data from other centers.

7. Any regulatory clearance.

17
8. Source of funding and financial requirements for the project.

9. Other financial issues including those related to insurance

10.An agreement to report only Serious Adverse Events (SAE) to

institutional ethical committee.

11. Statement of conflicts or of interest, if any.

12. Agreement to comply with the relevant national and applicable international
guidelines.

13. A statement describing any compensation for study participation (including

expenses and access to medical care) to be given to research participants.

14. A description of the arrangements for indemnity, if applicable (in study-related

injuries).

15. A description of the arrangements for insurance coverage for research participants,
if applicable.

16. All significant previous decisions (e.g., those leading to a negative decision or
modified protocol) by other ethical committee or regulatory authorities for the
proposed study (whether in the same location or elsewhere) and an indication of the
modification(s) to the protocol made on that account. The reasons for negative
decisions should be provided.

17. Plans for publication of results – positive or negative- while maintaining the
privacy and confidentiality of the study participants.

18. Any other information relevant to the study.

Elements of ethical review:

1. Ethical issues in the design of the study.

2. Examination of predictable risks/harms.

3. Examination of potential benefits.

18
4. Procedure for selection of subjects in methodology including inclusion/exclusion,
withdrawal criteria and other issues like advertisement details.

5. Management of research related injuries, adverse events.

6. Compensation provisions.

7. Justification for placebo in control, if any.

8. Availability of products after the study, if applicable.

9. Patient information sheet and informed consent form in local language

10. Protection of privacy and confidentiality.

l1. Involvement of the community, wherever necessary.

12. Plans for data analysis and reporting.

13. Adherence to all regulatory requirements and applicable guidelines.

14. Competence of investigators, research and supporting staff.

15. Facilities and infrastructure of study sites.

16. Criteria for withdrawal of patients, suspending or terminating the study.

Application:

1. Apply to the NHREC secretariat with all the required documents.

2. Reviewal expenses fees should be paid.

3. Receival letter accrediting application will be issued.

4. The researcher will be informed about the date of the committee

meeting to be available for any clarification.

19
Review procedures:

1. The meeting of the NHREC should be held on scheduled intervals as prescribed

and additional meetings may be held as and when the proposals are received for
review.

2. The Directorate of Research will submit the research proposals for technical review
one month before submission to the ethics committee.

3. Scientific approval will be made according to the technical guidelines.

4. Two members from the national ethics committee will be assigned by the
rapporteur to review proposals in detail.

5. A report about the ethically reviewed proposals will be presented by the two
members to the full members of the committee and will be sent to members at least 2
weeks in advance.

Expedited review:

The committee may delegate a mini-committee of five of its specialized members for
the tentative approval of the research that requires issuance of the ethics license
urgently, provided that shall take place at the recommendation of the committee
reporter and after getting the approval of the committee‘s chairman or who represents
him, and the research proposal shall be presented in the nearest meeting of the
committee.

Decision making:

1. Members will discuss the various issues before arriving at a consensus decision.

2. A member should withdraw from the meeting during the decision procedure
concerning an application where a conflict of interest arises, and this should be
indicated to the chairperson prior to the review of the application and recorded in the
minutes.

3. Decisions will be made only in meetings where quorum is complete.

20
4. Only members can make the decision. The expert consultants will only offer their
opinions.

5. Decision may be to approve, reject or revise the proposals. Specific suggestions for
modifications and reasons for rejection should be given.

6. In cases of conditional decisions, clear suggestions for revision and the procedure
for having the application re-reviewed should be specified.

7. Modified proposals may be reviewed by an expedited review committee member.

8. Procedures for appeal by the researchers should be clearly defined.

Communicating the decision:

1. Decision will be communicated by the reporter in writing.

2. Suggestions for modifications, if any, should be sent by NHREC.

3. Reasons for rejection should be informed to the researchers.

4. The schedule / plan of ongoing review by the NHREC should be communicated to

the Principle investigator.

Follow up procedures:

1. Reports should be submitted at prescribed intervals for review.

2. Final report should be submitted at the end of the study.

3. All SAEs and the interventions undertaken should be reported.

4. Protocol deviation, if any, should be informed with adequate justifications.

5. Any amendment to the protocol involving new ethical issues should be resubmitted
for renewed approval.

6. Any new information related to the study should be communicated.

21
7. Premature termination of study should be notified with reasons along with
summary of the data obtained so far.

8. Change of investigators / sites should be informed.

3.4 Breach of Ethics in Research

An ethical breach occurs when someone within a system or community makes an
ethical choice that sets a standard by which others can make a similar decision. The
danger of ethical breaches is that they are a fundamental change in the ethics of your
organization. An ethical breach occurs when someone within a system or community
makes an ethical choice that sets a standard by which others can make a similar
decision. The danger of ethical breaches is that they are a fundamental change in the
ethics of your organization.

3.4.1 What are the Research Misconducts?

(a) Fabrication - making up data or results and recording or reporting them.

(b) Falsification - manipulating research materials, or changing or omitting data or

results such that the research is not accurately represented in the research record.

(c) Plagiarism - the appropriation of another person's ideas, processes, results, or

words without giving appropriate credit.

(d) Research misconduct does not include honest error or differences of opinion.

Ethics violations such as discrimination, safety violations, poor working conditions

and releasing proprietary information are other examples. Situations such as bribery,
forgery and theft, while certainly ethically improper, cross over into criminal activity
and are often dealt with outside the company.

3.5 Consequences of Data Manipulation

Data manipulation is the process in which scientific data is forged, presented in an
unprofessional way or changed with disregard to the rules of the academic world.
Data manipulation may result in distorted perception of a subject which may lead to
false theories being built and tested. An experiment based on data that has been
manipulated is risky and unpredictable.

22
In the modern world we encounter data manipulation every day. Arguably the most
common kind of data manipulation is misuse of statistics – many click-bait article
titles on the internet are based on misuse of statistic as are some political and
economic arguments. It is these examples that we will concentrate on in this chapter.

Misuse of statistics does include data forgery – the process in which data is created
without any connection to the object of the data but the most important kinds of
misuse of statistics are these that involve real data that is presented in a manner that
may be misleading and even dangerous.

This chapter will try to describe the kinds of data manipulations that there are and the
ways to deal with them. Most importantly – what red flags to look for when reading
an article or a project that might be a sign of data manipulation.

Omitting important facts, factors

An issue that is part of an even bigger issue that is: scientists are looking for results
(Because that means research grants etc.) and thus they sometimes deliberately or
unintentionally manipulate data to fit their hypothesis.

When conducting an experiment, scientists have to conduct lists of relevant factors –

for a political poll for example it can be the age, income or religious beliefs of the
participants. The weak place here is the fact that the scientists may not put an
important factor as relevant in the study. If a study ―Computer games – art or not?‖
was conducted on participants between the ages of fifty and sixty then it‘s results will
probably be quite different from the results of the same study conducted on
participants between the ages of fifteen and twenty. If in the resulting publication the
age of the participants is not clearly stated then that is an example of data
manipulation and specifically misuse of statistics.

False causality and illogical sequences

False causality and illogical sequences are another way of manipulating data. This
kind of falsification is done to deceive these who are not quite familiar with the
subject of the research. Imagine there is a cage of mice who have a specific fur color.
A scientist follows the family through multiple generations and comes up with this
theory which is later published: ―Every generation of brown mice has more deaths
than the previous one‖. This is a really simple example but it gets the point across.
The reason for this statistic (Which is true) is not the mentioned color of the mice but
the fact that each new generation has more mice than the previous one and thus has
more deaths.

23
A graph like this is misleading (it also involves omitting the fact of more births as you
may notice). This helps understand the idea of ―Statistic misuse‖ because the
information, the fact in this graph are true. But they are not in the correlation that the
work is trying to show.

Data dredging and fact fitting

Data dredging is a part of a bigger problem which is scientists wanting to get results
as mentioned earlier. Data dredging is the process in which researchers look through
big amounts of data trying to find patterns. The amounts of data picked for dredging is
usually so big that there would be at least one or two coincidences that can be used to
base a theory on them. With the introduction of computers this became even easier
because a computer is much better at figuring out more strings of facts out of even
bigger amounts of data.

24
 Conclusion

After completing this report, we gathered a lot of knowledge about Theoretical

Framework of Research, Concepts of Research, and Ethical Issues in Research etc.
This knowledge will be very helpful for us in our professional life, in the near future.
We analyzed all these topics and tried our best to give a short and clear idea about the
basic knowledge of Theoretical Framework of Research, Concepts of Research, and
Ethical Issues in Research.

From Chapter: 2, we came know different topics of Theoretical Framework of

Research and Concepts of Research. Such as, different types of research, different
types of variables, different types of research structure and research strategies etc. a
researcher must have those knowledge before doing research work.

From Chapter: 11, we came know different topics of Ethical Issues in Research. Such
as, importance of ethics in research, factors that affect ethics, breach of ethics,
consequences of research data manipulation etc. These knowledge are very much
important for a researcher, research assistant, university student etc

The knowledge we have gathered while completing this term paper, are very much
important for not only our academic life but also our professional life. We can use that
knowledge in different sectors of our professional life.

25
 REFERENCES

Websites

 www.indeed.com

 www.questionpro.com

 www.investopedia.com

 www.statisticshowto.com

 www.wikipedia.com

 www.scribbr.com

 www.skillsyouneed.com

 www.businessdictionary.com

 www.statisticssolutions.com

 www.study.com

 www.researchgate.com

26