Ceramics

A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of either metal or non-

metal compounds that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to high temperatures. In
general, they are hard, corrosion-resistant and brittle.

'Ceramic' comes from the Greek word meaning ‘pottery’. The clay-based domestic wares, art
objects and building products are familiar to us all, but pottery is just one part of the ceramic
world.

Nowadays the term „ceramic‟ has a more expansive meaning and includes materials like
glass, advanced ceramics and some cement systems as well.

Properties of ceramics

 Hard,
 wear-resistant,
 Brittle,
 Thermal insulators,
 Electrical insulators,
 Nonmagnetic,
 Oxidation resistant,
 Prone to thermal shock
 Chemically stable
 High melting points (so they're heat resistant).
 Great hardness and strength.
 Considerable durability (they're long-lasting and hard-wearing).
 Low electrical and thermal conductivity (they're good insulators).
 Chemical inertness (they're unreactive with other chemicals).

Traditional ceramics – pottery

 Pottery is one of the oldest human technologies. Fragments of clay pottery found recently
in Hunan Province in China have been c dated to 17,500–18,300 years old.
Uses of Ceramics

Ceramic products are hard, porous, and brittle. As a result, they are used to make pottery,
bricks, tiles, cements, and glass. Ceramics are also used at many places in gas turbine engines.
Bio-ceramics are used as dental implants and synthetic bones. Given below are some other
important uses of ceramics.

Uses of White wares

White wares find application in spark plugs, electrical insulators, laboratory equipments,
crucibles, dishes, and high-class potteries.

Uses of Clay

Clay is the starting raw material for manufacturing bricks, tiles, pottery, earthenware, sewer,
drain pipes, and covers for electrical cables.

Uses of Stone wares

Stone wares are used for constructing sanitary fixtures, such as sinks and bath tubs. Stone
wares are also used in the construction of piping vessels, drainage pipes, underground cable
sheathings, sewerage pipes, home pipes, absorption towers, valves, and pumps in the chemical
industry. They are cheaper than many other construction materials but are rather fragile and once
broken, they have no resale value.

Uses of Glass

The main use of glass is to make household glassware, decorative items, and optical lenses.
Glasses are used for heat insulation purposes, for example, in ovens. Glass is used as an insulator
in metal pipelines, in vacuum cleaners, and on the walls and roofs of houses. Glass is resistant to
chemicals. As a result, it is used to filter corrosive liquids such as acids and acid solutions. It is
also used for sound insulation. Safety glass is used in aircraft, automobiles, helicopter, and
submarines

Various other uses

 Aerospace
 Used in the formation of space shuttle , rockets and space stations
 Consumer usage
 Used in homes like glassware , pottery , dinnerware and home electronics
 Automotive Industry
 Used in filters , rotors , valves, spark plugs, piston rings
 Medical uses
 Used in dental and bone filling
 Military
 Structural components for ground , air , and naval vehicles of military
 Computers and Electronics
 Used in insulators , resistors, superconductors, capacitors.
 Building and construction
 Used to make bricks, tiles , piping and various other material
 Coating
These are more corrosion resistance so are used in manufacturing purpose.
Plastics
 Plastics are derived from natural, organic materials such as cellulose, coal,
natural gas, salt and crude oil.
 Plastics are (mostly) synthetic (human-made) materials, made from polymers,
which are long molecules built around chains of carbon atoms, typically with
hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and nitrogen filling in the spaces
 You can think of a polymer as a big molecule made by repeating a small bit called
a monomer over and over again; "poly" means many, so "polymer" is simply
short for "many monomer

Polymers are made from long chains of a basic unit called a monomer. Polyethylene
(polythene) is made by repeating the ethene monomer over and over again.

Types of plastics

There are two main types of plastics:

Thermoset plastics

Thermoplastics.

Thermoset plastics

 With thermoset plastics, the plastic will hold its shape long term once it has cooled to
room temperature and hardened thoroughly.
 This type of plastic cannot return to its original form - it cannot be melted down into
its original form.
 Epoxy resins and polyurethanes are some examples of this type of thermosetting
plastic. It is commonly used in tires and auto parts.

Thermoplastics

Here, you have more flexibility and versatility. Because it will return to its original form when
heated, these plastics are commonly used in various applications. They can be made into films,
fibers, and other forms.

Specific Types of Plastics and their Applications

Below are some of the specific types of plastics and how they are in use today. Consider their
chemical properties and benefits, too:

PET or Polyethylene Terephthalate - This plastic is ideal for food storage and water
bottles. It is commonly used for things like storage bags, too. It does not leach into the food,
but is sturdy and can be drawn into fibers or films.

PVC or Polyvinyl Chloride - It is brittle but stabilizers are added to it. This makes it a softer
plastic that's easy to mold into various shapes. It is commonly used in plumbing applications
because of its durability.
Polystyrene - Commonly known as Styrofoam, it is one of the less ideal options today for
environmental reasons. However, it is very light weight, easy to mold and it works as an
insulator. That is why it is heavily used in furniture, cabinetry, glasses and other impact-resistant
surfaces. It is also commonly added with a blowing agent to create foam insulation.

Polyvinylidene Chloride (PVC) - Commonly known as Saran, this plastic is used in wraps to
cover food. It is impermeable to odors from food and can be drawn into various films.

Polytetrafluoroethylene - A growing popular choice is this plastic also known as Teflon. First
manufactured by DuPont in 1938, it is a heat-resistant form of plastic. It is very stable and
strong and is unlikely to be damaged by chemicals. Moreover, it creates a surface that is almost
frictionless. This is why it is used in various cookware (nothing sticks to it) and in
tubing, plumbing tapes, and in waterproof coating products.

Polypropylene - Commonly called just PP, this plastic has various forms. However, it has uses
in many applications including tubes, car trims, and bags.

Polyethylene - Also known as HDPE or LDPE, it is one of the most common forms of plastics.
New formations of it make it possible for this plastic to be flat. Its initial uses were for
electrical wires but it is now found in many disposable products, including gloves and garbage
bags. It is also used in other film applications such as wraps, as well as in bottles.

The use of plastics every day is more commonplace than many might think. By making small
changes to these chemicals, new and versatile solutions are obtained.

Properties of plastics

Following are the general properties of plastics.

1. STRENGTH

The plastics are sufficiently strong and can be used for load bearing structural members.
The strength of plastics can further be increased by reinforcing them with various fibrous
materials
However,.

Plastic as structural material has not gained much popularity because of the following resins.

 High cost of construction

 High temperature susceptibility
 Poor stiffness
 Being subjected to creep under constant load

2. WEATHER RESISTANCE

The plastics, prepared from phenolic resins, are only good in resisting weather effects. Certain
plastics are seriously affected by ultraviolet light.

3. FIRE RESISTANCE

Plastics, being organic in nature, are combustible. But the resistance to fire temperatue depends
upon the plastic structure.

 Cellulose acetale plastics burn slowly.

 Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plastics are non-inflammable.
 Phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde plastics are used as fire proofing materials.

4. DURABILITY

Plastics generally possess sufficient durability, provided they offer sufficient surface hardness.
Thermoplastic varieties are found to be attacked by termites and rodents.

5. DIMENSIONAL STABILITY

Plastics easily maintain its shape and do not go under plastic deformations.

6. CHEMICAL RESISTANCE

Plastics offer great resistance to moisture, chemicals and solvents. Many plastics are found to
possess excellent corrosion resistance. Plastics are used to convey chemicals.
7. THERMAL RESISTANCE

The plastics have low thermal conductivity and therefore foamed or expanded varieties of
plastics are used as thermal insulators.

8. WORKING CONDITIONS

All operations like drilling, sawing, punching, clamping etc are carried out easily on plastics, just
like wood.

9. MOISTURE RESISTANCE

This property depends upon variety of plastics used, for example, cellulose plastics are
considerably affected by the presence of moisture, whereas polyvinyl chloride plastics offer high
resistance to moisture.

10. DUCTILITY

Plastics, generally, have low ductility and hence plastic structural members may fail without
prior warning.

Semi Conductors
Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity between
conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors or insulators (such ceramics).
Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide or pure elements, such as
germanium or silicon.

Semiconductors are used extensively in electronic circuits. As its name implies, a

semiconductor is a material that conducts current, but only partly. The conductivity of a
semiconductor is somewhere between that of an insulator, which has almost no conductivity, and
a conductor, which has almost full conductivity. Most semiconductors are crystals made of
certain materials, most commonly silicon.
 How Semi Conductors work:
To understand how semiconductors work, you must first understand a little about how electrons
are organized in an atom. The electrons in an atom are organized in layers. These layers are
called shells. The outermost shell is called the valence shell.

The electrons in this shell are the ones that form bonds with neighboring atoms. Such bonds are
called covalent bonds. Most conductors have just one electron in the valence shell.
Semiconductors, on the other hand, typically have four electrons in their valence shell.

If all the neighboring atoms are of the same type, it’s possible for all the valence electrons
to bind with valence electrons from other atoms. When that happens, the atoms arrange
themselves into structures called crystals. Semiconductors are made out of such crystals,
usually silicon crystals.

Here, each circle represents a silicon atom, and the lines between the atoms represent the shared
electrons. Each of the four valence electrons in each silicon atom is shared with one neighboring
silicon atom. Thus, each silicon atom is bonded with four other silicon atoms.
Examples of Semiconductors:

Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the most commonly used
semiconductors. Silicon is used in electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in
solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

Some Important Properties of Semiconductors are:

1. Semiconductor acts like an insulator at Zero Kelvin. On increasing the temperature, it

works as a conductor.
2. Due to their exceptional electrical properties, semiconductors can be modified by doping
to make semiconductor devices suitable for energy conversion, switches, and
amplifiers.
3. Lesser power losses.
4. Semiconductors are smaller in size and possess less weight.
5. Their resistivity is higher than conductors but lesser than insulators.
6. The resistance of semiconductor materials decreases with the increase in temperature and
vice-versa.

Uses of Semiconductors in Everyday life

 Temperature sensors are made with semiconductor devices.

 They are used in 3D printing machines

 Used in microchips and self-driving cars

 Used in calculators, solar plates, computers and other electronic devices.

 Transistor and MOSFET used as a switch in Electrical Circuits are manufactured using
the semiconductors.
Importance of Semiconductors
Here we have discussed some advantages of semiconductors which make them highly useful
everywhere.

 They are highly portable due to the smaller size

 They require less input power

 Semiconductor devices are shockproof

 They have a longer lifespan

 They are noise-free while operating

Materials such as silicon (Si), germanium (Ge) and gallium arsenide (GaAs), have electrical
properties somewhere in the middle, between those of a “conductor” and an “insulator”. They are
not good conductors nor good insulators (hence their name “semi”-conductors). They have very
few “free electrons” because their atoms are closely grouped together in a crystalline pattern
called a “crystal lattice” but electrons are still able to flow, but only under special conditions.

Antibiotics
Antibiotics, also known as anti bacterials, are medications that destroy or slow down the growth
of bacteria.

They include a range of powerful drugs and are used to treat diseases caused by bacteria.

Antibiotics cannot treat viral infections, such as cold, flu, and most coughs

 Alexander Fleming discovered penicillin, the first natural antibiotic, in 1928.

 Antibiotics cannot fight viral infections.

 Fleming predicted the rise of antibiotic resistance.

  Antibiotics either kill or slow the growth of bacteria.

 Side effects can include diarrhea, an upset stomach, and nausea.

Explanation:

 Antibiotics are powerful medicines that fight certain infections and can save lives when
used properly. They either stop bacteria from reproducing or destroy them.
 Before bacteria can multiply and cause symptoms, the immune system can typically kill
them. White blood cells (WBCs) attack harmful bacteria and, even if symptoms do
occur, the immune system can usually cope and fight off the infection.
 Sometimes, however, the number of harmful bacteria is excessive, and the immune
system cannot fight them all. Antibiotics are useful in this scenario.
 The first antibiotic was penicillin. Penicillin-based antibiotics, such as ampicillin,
amoxicillin, and penicillin G, are still available to treat a variety of infections and have
been around for a long time.

How do Antibiotics work?

There are different types of antibiotic, which work in one of two ways:

 A bactericidal antibiotic, such as penicillin, kills the bacteria. These drugs usually
interfere with either the formation of the bacterial cell wall or its cell contents.

 A bacteriostatic stops bacteria from multiplying

If people overuse antibiotics or use them incorrectly, the bacteria might become resistant. This
means that the antibiotic becomes less effective against that type of bacterium, as the
bacterium has been able to improve its defenses.

Side Effects

Antibiotics commonly cause the following side effects:

 diarrhea

 nausea

 vomiting

 rashes

 upset stomach

 with certain antibiotics or prolonged use, fungal infections of the mouth, digestive tract

Less common side effects of antibiotics include:

 Formation of kidney stones, when taking sulphonamides

 Abnormal blood clotting, when taking some cephalosporins)

 Sensitivity to sunlight, when taking tetracyclines

 Blood disorders, when taking trimethoprim

 Deafness, when taking erythromycin and the aminoglycosides

Most commonly used Types of Antibiotics

Although there are well over 100 antibiotics, the majority come from only a few types of drugs.
These are the main classes of antibiotics.
 1. Penicillins such as penicillin and amoxicillin
2. Cephalosporins such as cephalexin (Keflex)
3. Macrolides such as erythromycin (E-Mycin), clarithromycin (Biaxin),
and azithromycin (Zithromax)
4. Fluoroquinolones such as ciprofolxacin (Cipro), levofloxacin (Levaquin),
and ofloxacin (Floxin)
5. Sulfonamides such as co-trimoxazole (Bactrim) and trimethoprim (Proloprim)
6. Tetracyclines such as tetracycline (Sumycin, Panmycin) and doxycycline (Vibramycin)
7. Aminoglycosides such as gentamicin (Garamycin) and tobramycin (Tobrex)

Most antibiotics have two names, the trade or brand name, created by the drug company that
manufactures the drug, and a generic name, based on the antibiotic's chemical structure or
chemical class. Trade names such as Keflex and Zithromax are capitalized. Generics such as
cephalexin and azithromycin are not capitalized.

Each antibiotic is effective only for certain types of infections, and your doctor is best able to
compare your needs with the available medicines.