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MODULE 9: Sample and Sampling Procedures
Lesson 1: Probability and Non-Probability Sampling.............................…...3-9
Lesson 2: Development and Validation of Research Instruments………….9-10
Lesson 3: Measurement Reliability and Validity ……………………...................... 10–13
Activities and Assessment ………………………………………………………………..………...………15-17
MODULE 10: Data Collection and Analysis Procedures
Lesson 1: The Quantitative Data ………………………………………………………………………………..……18-19
Lesson 2: Primary and Secondary Data Collection and its Methods ……..19-34
Lesson 3: Use of Statistical Analysis in Quantitative Research ……………...34-37
Activities and Assessment ………………………………………………………………………..…...…..38-41
MODULE 11: Formulating a Research Methodology
Lesson 1: Guidelines in Writing a Research Methodology………………….…... 42-44
Lesson 2: Tips for Writing A Strong Methodology ..……………………………….………. 44-45
Lesson 3: Writing a Quantitative Research Proposal …………………………….………45-46
Activities and Assessment …………………………………………………………….……………...… 47-49
MODULE 13: Data Processing, Organization and Presentation
Lesson 1: The Data Preparation…………………………………………….……………... 58-60
Lesson 2: Graphs and Charts …………………………………………………………..…...60-63
Activities and Assessment ….…………………………………………………..….……….64-67
MODULE 14: Formulating Conclusions and Recommendations
Lesson 1: How to Write an Effective Conclusion …………………………..68-69
Lesson 2: For the Recommendation …………..………………………………..……...70
Lesson 3: Listing Reference …………………………..………………….…................70-72
Activities and Assessment ………………………….………………………………………….73
MODULE 15: Presenting and Disseminating Research Findings
Lesson 1: Research Workbook ……………………………………………….…………….74-74
Lesson 2: The Process and Parts of Report Writing …………..…………75-77
Lesson 3: Writing Up Your Data …………………………..………………….…..............77
Activities and Assessment ………………………….………………………………………….78-79

MODULE 12: Data Collection Tools and Instruments

Lesson 1: Structured Interview ………………………………………………………….…………….. 50-51
Lesson 2: Self-Completion Questionnaire…………………………..……………………...… 51-52
Lesson 3: Tips on How To Design A Self-Completion Questionnaire…...52-56
Activities and Assessment …………………………………………………….…………………........56-57

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SECOND QUARTER
Sample and Sampling
MODULE
Procedure
9 At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Describe the sampling procedures
• Define key concepts in sampling such as population, sample,sampling
frames, probability and non-probability sampling.
INCLUSIVE DATE: • Identify the validity and reliability of research instruments.
• Explain the intervention studies
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS:
• What is probability and non-probability sampling?
• What are the steps to develop and validate research instruments?
Overview
Sampling is “the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a sample) of a
population of interest for purposes of making observations and statistical inferences
about that population”. Population is “the group you want to generalize to” and the
sample refers to “the actual units selected for observation” Bhattacherjee (2012, 65).
Since it is impossible to study entire populations due to feasibility and cost
concerns, it becomes necessary to select a representative sample from the population
of interest for observation and analysis. It is important that the sample is truly
representative of the population so that the inferences derived from the sample can
be generalized back to the population. Bhattacherjee (2012,65)
Unlike sampling in qualitative research which mostly entails purposive sampling of
some kind, quantitative research sampling is based only on random sampling. Random
sampling is defined as “that method of drawing a portion (sample) of a population so
that all possible samples of a fixed size have the same probability of being selected.”
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While sampling procedures vary between qualitative and quantitative research,
both types of research share similar stages in sampling process. The three stages in the
sampling process are:
(1) defining the target population,
(2) choosing a sampling frame, and
(3) choosing a sample from the sampling frame using a well-defined sampling
technique Bhattacherjee (2012, 65).
The first stage is defining the target population. The population refers to all units
of analysis with the characteristics that one wishes to study. The unit of analysis may
be a person, group, organization, country, object, or any other entity that one wishes
to draw inferences from.
The second stage is choosing a sampling frame. The sampling frame is the list
from which you can draw your sample. Usually, the list contains the accessible section
of the target population from where a sample can be drawn, and consequently, where
inferences can be based.
The third and last stage in the sampling process is choosing a sample from the
sampling frame using a well-defined sampling technique. There are two broad types of
sampling techniques:
(1) probability (random) sampling and (2) nonprobability sampling. Probability
sampling is a must if the study aims at the generalizability of results.
A concise description of probability sampling is provided on the next page.
Probability sampling "is a technique in which every unit in the
population has a chance (nonzero probability) of being selected in the
sample, and this chance can be accurately determined." Sample
statistics thus produced, such as a sample mean or standard deviation,
are unbiased estimates of population parameters as long as the
sampled units are weighted according to their probability of selection.
All probability sampling have two attributes in common: (1) every unit
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

in the population has a known nonzero probability of being sampled, comparison provides the criteria for evaluating which techniques to be used in one’s
and (2) the sampling procedure involves random selection at some research.
point.
Table 1.
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 67 A Summary Comparison of Probability Sampling Techniques or Procedures
The sampling techniques are of two groups which are as follows (Tuckman Sampling
2012; Emmel 2013; De Vaus 2013; Picardie 2014): Description Advantages Disadvantages
Technique
1. Probability Sampling - This is a sampling techniques that makes you base your Simple Random sample Highly representative Not possible without
selection of respondents on pure chance. In this case, everybody in the population random from whole if all subjects complete list of
participates. All are given equal opportunity or chance to form the sample that is population participate; the ideal. population members;
capable of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population from where such potentially
sample was drawn. The following are the different probability sampling techniques: uneconomical to
achieve; time-scale may
a. Simple-random sampling – choosing of respondents based on pure chance
be too long,
b. Systematic sampling – picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th member data/sample could
listed in the sampling frame until the completion of the desired total number of change.
respondents
Stratified Random sample Can ensure that More complex;
c. Stratified sampling – choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into random from identifiable specific groups are requires greater effort
strata, sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of the data analysis groups (strata), represented even than simple random,
subgroups, etc. proportionally, in the strata must be carefully
d. Cluster sampling – selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate
sample(s) (e.g., by defined.
individuals such as choosing 5 classes of 40 students each from a whole
gender) by selecting
population of 5,000 students
individuals from
Ensuring a bias-free selection of subjects, these probability sampling techniques strata list
are considered by many as more capable than the non-probability sampling techniques
Cluster Random samples Possible to select Clusters in a level must
in coming out with the accurate or exact samples to give pieces of information about
of successive randomly when no be equivalent but some
the population as a whole.
clusters of subjects single list of natural ones are not for
Table below summarizes features of various probability sampling techniques, (e.g., by population members essential characteristics
including their advantages and disadvantages. As Black (1999) noted, the summary institution) until exists but local lists (e.g., geographic:
do; data collected on numbers equal but

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

small groups are groups may avoid unemployment rate numbers looks like the one on the next page. Notice the column numbers 1-32 and
chosen as units. introduction of differ) row numbers 1-30? The column numbers are instructive for the number of digits of
confounding by your population size.
isolating members
For example, if your population size is 100, which is a three-digit number, you
Stage Combination of Can make up Complex, combines will use the three digits in each column (or each set of numbers) in the table of random
cluster (randomly probability sample by limitations of cluster numbers. Hence, if you need only a sample size of five out of 100, then your sampling
selecting clusters) random at stages and and stratified random frame must be numbered from 001 to 100, and you refer to three-digit numbers in the
and random or within groups; sampling. table.
stratified random possible to select
Let’s select a sample size of five. The start is always done randomly-you can
sampling of random sample when
close your eyes and then point a finger or covered pen on the table. From that spot,
individuals population lists are
start selecting subjects with numbers that correspond to those that follow I the table.
very localized
For instance, you closed your eyes and your finger landed on row 5, column 3. You get
SOURCE: Black (1999, 138). the number “5588’’. Next, you need to decided if you will use the first three digits, or
the last three digits of 5588. Assuming you want to use the first three digits, you will
therefore focus only on the first three digits of each number that follows 5588.
Simple Random Sampling
The simple random sampling techniques is the simplest and yet the most
generalizable among all probability sampling techniques. It is because the sampling
frame is not subdivided and the sample is not biased. The inferences, therefore, are
representative of the population from which the sample is derived (Bhattacharjee
2012, 67).

The main difficulty in using the simple random sampling is often encountered
in “obtaining a list of all the members of the population, sometimes referred to as a
sampling frame, from which to select a sample (Black 1999, 119).” With large sampling
frames, a tabled of random numbers or a computerized random number generator is
used.

The recommended way of selecting a sample via the simple random sampling
techniques is by using a random numbers table, usually found as appendix in
quantitative research methods and statistics books. A portion of a table of random

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5

The number below 5588 is 9727 (row 6). So if you focus on the first three digits,
you get the number 972, a number way above your population size of 100. So you skip
that since there is no one in your sampling frame that corresponds to that number
You move to the next number, 931 (row 7), There is also no one in your
sampling frame that corresponds to this number. The same goes for the d two
numbers, 121 (row 8) and 786 (row 9), so you skip these numbers. Remember, your
sampling frame is numbered 001-100 only, so only these numbers are to be selected
in your sample size 10.
The next number, 047 (row 10), is within your sampling frame. Hence, the one
numbered 047 in your sampling frame is selected and is your first case or subject in
your sample size of 10.
Continue moving downward until you get your sample size of 10. If the entire
column is exhausted already and you still have not completed the sample size, move
to the next column, from the top going down. Repeat the process until you complete
the sample size of 10.
So using the portion of a table of random numbers, your sample size of five will
look like this:
Case 1 - # 047 (row 10; column 9, 10, 11)
Case 2 - #061 (row 9: column 13, 14, 15)
Case 3- # 046 (row 24; column 13, 14, 15)
Case 4 - #003 (row 12; column 17, 18, 19)
Case 5 - # 076 (row 19; column 29, 30, 31)
In cases where you reach the end of the list in the table of random numbers and
you have not completed your required sample size yet, all you need to do is start over
at the beginning of the list, since everyone has an equal probability of being selected.
If it happens that the same number has been selected already, just skip that number
and move to the next.
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Another way to use the simple random sampling technique, especially if you
have big sampling frames, is through a computerized random number generator.
Table below describes how this process is done, along with the procedures
applied in the other probability sampling techniques.
Table 2.
Selecting a Sample Through Probability Sampling Techniques
Sampling Process/Procedure
Technique
Simple Random In this techniques, all possible subsets of a population
(more accurately, of a sampling frame) are given an equal
probability of being seecte. Simple random sampling
involves randomly selecting respondents from a sampling
frame. But with large sampling frames, usually a table of
random numbers or a computerized random number
generator is used.
For instance, if you wish to select 200 firms to survey from
a list of 1,000 firms, if this list is entered into a spreadsheet
like Microsoft Excel, you can use Excel's RAND() function to
generate random numbers for each of the 1,000 clients on
that list. Next, you sort the list in increasing order of their
corresponding random number and select the t 200 clients
on that sorted list. This is the simplest of au probability
sampling techniques. However, the simplicity is also the
strength of this technique. Because the sampling frame is
not subdivided or partitioned, the sample is unbiased and
the inferences are most generalizable among all probability
sampling techniques.

Systematic In this technique, the sampling frame is ordered according
to some criteria and elements are selected at regular
intervals through that ordered list. Systematic sampling
involves a random start and then proceeds with the
selection of every kth element from that point onwards.
where kNin, where is the ratio of sampling frame size N and
the desired sample size n, and is formally called the
sampling ratio. It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list but is instead randomly
chosen from within the first k elements on the list.
In our previous example of selecting 200 firms from a list
of 1,000 firms, you can sort the 1,000 firms in increasing
(or decreasing) order of their size (1.e., employee count or
annual revenues), randomly select one of the first five
firms on the sorted list, and then select every fifth firm on
the list. This process will ensure that there is no
overrepresentation of large or small firms in your sample,
but rather firms of all sizes are generally uniformly
represented, it is in your sampling frame. In other words,
Cluster
the sample is representative of the population, at least on
the basis of the sorting criterion.
Stratified random In stratified sampling, the sampling frame is divided into
homogeneous and non overlapping subgroups (called
"strata"), and a simple random sample is drawn within each
subgroup.
In the previous example of selecting 200 firms from a list of
1,000, you can start by categorizing the firms (based on
their size) as large (more than 500 employees), medium
(between 50 and 500 employees), and small (less than 50
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
employees). You can then randomly select 67 firms from
each subgroup to make up your sample of 200 firms.
However, since there are many more small firms in the
sampling frame than large firms, having an equal number of
small, medium, and large firms will make the sample less
representative of the population (.e., biased in favor of
large firms that are fewer in number in the target
population). This is called non proportional stratified
sampling because the proportion of sample within each
subgroup does not reflect the proportions in the sampling
frame (or the population of Interest), and the smaller
subgroup (large-sized firms) is oversampled.
An alternative technique will be to select subgroup samples
in proportion to their size in the population. For instance, if
there are 100 large firms, 300 mid sized firms, and 600 small
firms, you can sample 20 firms from the large group, 60
from the "medium" group, and 120 from the "small" group.
If you have a population dispersed over a wide geographic
region, it may not be feasible to conduct a simple random
sampling of the entire population. In such case, it may be
reasonable to divide the population into "clusters" (usually
along geographic boundaries), randomly sample a few
clusters, and measure all units within that cluster.
For instance, if you wish to sample city governments in the
state of New York, rather than travel all over the state to
interview key city officials (as you may have to do with a
simple random sample), you can cluster these governments
based on their counties, randomly select a set of three
counties, and then interview officials from every official in

those counties. However, depending on between-cluster
differences, the variability of sample estimates in a cluster
sample will generally be higher than that of a simple
random sample. Hence the results are less generalizable to
the population than those obtained from simple random
samples.
Stage The probability sampling techniques described previously
are all examples of single-stage sampling techniques.
Depending on your sampling needs, you may combine
these single-stage techniques to conduct multistage
sampling.
For instance, you can stratify a list of businesses based on
firm size, and then conduct systematic sampling within each
stratum. This is a two-stage combination of stratified and
systematic sampling. Likewise, you can start with a cluster
of school districts in the state of New York, and within each
cluster, select a simple random sample of schools. Within
each school, select a simple random sample of grade levels;
and within each grade level, select a simple random sample
of students for study. In this case, you have a four-stage
sampling process consisting of cluster and simple random
sampling.
SOURCE: Adapted from Bhattacherjee 2012, 67
2. Non-probability Sampling - The sampling techniques included in this category are
not chosen randomly, but purposefully. Not randomized, they are susceptible to bias.
Unlike the probability sampling techniques that exclude the researcher’s judgment,
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the non-probability sampling techniques succumb to the control, likes, or wishes of
the researcher and to restrictions imposed by the researcher on the sampling
procedure. The following are the non-probability sampling techniques:
a. Quota sampling – choosing specific samples that you know correspond to the
population in terms of one, two, or more characteristics
b. Voluntary sampling – selecting people who are very much willing to
participate as respondents in the research project
c. Purposive sampling – choosing respondents whom you have judged as people
with good background knowledge or with great enthusiasm about the research
d. Availability sampling – picking out people who are easy to find or locate and
willing to establish contact with you
e. Snowball sampling – selecting samples from several alternative samples like
drug dependents, human traffickers, street children, and other wayward and
homeless people whose dwelling places are not easily located for they are like
nomads moving from place to place
Instrument Development
Instrument is the general term that researchers use for a measurement device
(survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). To help distinguish between instrument and
instrumentation, consider that the instrument is the device and instrumentation is the
course of action (the process of developing, testing, and using the device).
According to (Zaiţ, D., 2006) the research instrument is defined by the
technical artifice through which a work is done or a research action is being initiated
This has usually an actual physical size and is adapted for in a way in order to get the
research or action done, to facilitate its execution. Thus, the instrument is the
materialization of a method (e.g. the questionnaire is the instrument for surveys, the
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

interview guide is the instrument for semi-structured interview, observation guide is Development and Validation of Research Instruments
the instrument for the observation method etc).
We describe the steps in the creation and validation of instruments, the entire
As for example, a subject of real interest is to measure learning outcomes process being useful for all the researchers. In order to identify these steps, it is
within an organisation. necessary to review furthermore the literature on the analysis of the creation and
validation of research instruments.
Thus, measurement of learning outcomes includes measuring knowledge,
attitudes, beliefs, skills (Pedler, M., et al., 1997). Such measurements involve, Although there are many variations of this process of creation and validation of
obviously, the creation and validation of research instruments. research instruments, however it can be represented in eight major steps:
Instruments fall into two broad categories, researcher-completed and subject- Table 3: Eight steps to develop and validate research instruments
completed, distinguished by those instruments that researchers administer versus
those that are completed by participants. Researchers chose which type of instrument, Step 1. Determining the purpose of the study
or instruments, to use based on the research question. Examples are listed below: a. Formulating the scope (why)
b. Listing specific objectives that instrument intend to measure (what)
Researcher-completed Instruments Subject-completed Instruments
c. Identifying the target group (who, where, when)
Rating scales Questionnaires d. Selecting the conceptual framework / theoretical model
Step 2. Review of the literature
Interview schedules/guides Self-checklists
a. Studyin the existing instruments
Tally sheets Attitude scales b. Deciding on the use of existing instruments, adapting them or
creating new instruments
Flowcharts Personality inventories Step 3. Generating the instrument and the support materials (draft 1)

Performance checklists Achievement/aptitude tests a. Generating items base don steps 1 a - d

Time-and-motion logs Projective devices b. Determining the items sequencing

Observation forms Sociometric devices c. Developing the structure, the instrument format and related materials

d. Determining the administrative method

In most studies a questionnaire or an interview form is commonly used. In Step 4. Conducting content validation with review of subsequences (draft 2 of the
general, development and validation of research instruments requires a systematic instrument)
approach. These aspects are captured in the following lines.

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Step 5. Pilot testing by applying the draft 2 of the instrument with review of the
subsequences (draft 3 of the instrument)
Step 6. Conducting construct validation of the draft 3 and review of subsequences
(resulting the draft 4 of the instrument)
Step 7. Reliability testing for draft 4 and review of subsequences – if needed
(resulting in the fifth version of the instrument)
Step 8. Review of the instrument and the second pilot testing – if needed
After completing Step 8, the final version of the instrument may be suitable
for use in the field of research.
Source: Elliott, T., Regal, R., Elliott, B., Renier, C. – Design and Validation of
Instruments to Measure Knowledge, Fall 2001, ProQuest Central, p. 157
in a consistent manner. Using the analogy of a shooting target, as shown in Figure 4, a
multiple-item measure of a construct that is both reliable and valid consists of shots
that are clustered within a narrow range near the center of the target. A measure that
is valid but not reliable will consist of shots centered on the target, but these are not
clustered within a narrow range but rather scattered around the target. Finally, a
measure that is reliable but not valid will consist of shots clustered within a narrow
range but are off the target. Hence, reliability and validity are both needed to assure
adequate measurement of the constructs of interest (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 55).
Figure 1. A Comparison of Validity and Reliability

Measurement Validity and Reliability

Validity and reliability are two concepts that you also need to know about
measurement in quantitative research. Both are used to evaluate measures of
SOURCE: Bhattacharjee (2012, 55)
concepts.
There are several ways of establishing the validity of your measures. These are
Validity refers to the issue of whether an indicator (or a set of indicators) that
face validity, concurrent validity, predictive validity, construct validity, and convergent
is devised to gauge a concept really measures that concept (Bryman 2008151
validity. Bryman (2008,152) describes each of these ways in the table below.
Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the consistency of measure of a concept
(Bryman 2008,149). Table 4.
Types of Description of Validity Tests or Techniques
Do the operations to measure our variables provide stable or consistent
responses? (Are they reliable?) Do the operations developed to measure our concepts Type Description
actually do so? (Are they valid?) (Engel and Schutt 2012.96 Bhattacherjee (2012) uses
the analogy of a shooting target to show the meaning of, and the difference between, Face validity Any new measure should establish at the least face validity,
validity and reliability. (See Figure 1. A Comparison of Validity and Reliability.) that is, the measure apparently reflects the content of the
concept in question. You can establish face validity by asking
A measure can be reliable but not valid if it is measuring something very A other people, possibly those with experience or expertise in
consistently but it is consistently measuring the wrong construct. Likewise a measure the field, whether the concept's measure captures what the
can be valid but not reliable if it is measuring the right construct but it is not doing so

10

concept is or what the concept means. These people with
experience or expertise might be asked to act as judges to
determine whether on the face of it, the measure seems to
reflect the concept in focus. In this sense, face validity is an
essentially intuitive process.
Concurrent Validity Concurrent validity requires using a criterion on which cases
(for example, people) are known to differ and that is relevant
to the concept in question. For instance, a criterion for
measuring job satisfaction is absenteeism, because some
people are more often absent from work than others.
Absenteeism as a criterion establishes concurrent validity if
there is a correspondence between job satisfaction and
absenteeism, such that people who are satisfied with their
jobs are less likely than those who are not satisfied to be
absent from work. Lack of correspondence, that is, no
difference in levels of job satisfaction among frequent
absentees, can lead one to question whether absenteeism is
really addressing job satisfaction.
Predictive Validity Another technique that can be used to test the validity of a
new measure is predictive validity. A researcher uses a future
criterion measure rather than a contemporary one, as in
concurrent validity. So using the same example in the
discussion of concurrent validity, absenteeism to gauge job
satisfaction, a researcher would take future levels of
absenteeism as the criterion against which the validity of a
new measure of job satisfaction would be examined.
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Convergent Validity With construct validity, a researcher is encouraged to
deduce hypotheses from a theory that is relevant to the
concept. For example, drawing upon ideas about the impact
of technology on the experience of work, one can anticipate
the relationship between job satisfaction and job routine,
that people who are satisfied with their jobs are less likely to
work on routine jobs while those who are not satisfied with
their jobs are more likely to work on routine jobs. One can
investigate this theoretical deduction by examining the link
between job satisfaction and job routine. Some caution,
however, is advised when interpreting a lack of relationship.
Either the theory or the deduction made from it might be
misguided or job routine as a measure of job satisfaction
could be an invalid measure of job satisfaction.
The last technique to measure the validity of measures is
convergent validity. Convergent validity is done by
comparing a new measure to measures of the same concept
developed through other methods. For instance, the validity
of a questionnaire measure of how much time managers
spend on various activities (e. attending meetings, touring
their organization, informal discussions) can be examined by
tracking a number of managers and using a structured
observation schedule to record how much time is spent on
the different activities and their frequency.
A potential problem with using convergent validity to test
validity is that it is not necessarily easy to establish which of
the two measures represents the more accurate picture or a
definitive, valid measure.
SOURCE: Bryman 2008, 152

Reliability or consistency of measures is the extent to which the measure of a
construct is consistent or dependable. Bhattacherjee (2012) identifies some sources
of unreliable observations in social science measurements.
One of the primary sources is the observer's (or researcher's) subjectivity. If
employee morale in a firm is measured by watching whether the employees smile at
each other, whether they make jokes, and so forth, then different observers may infer
different measures of morale if they are watching the employees on a very busy day
(when they have no time to joke or chat) or a light day (when they are more jovial or
chatty). Two observers may also infer different levels of morale on the same day,
depending on what they view as a joke and what is not.
A second source of unreliable observation is asking imprecise or ambiguous
questions. For instance, if you ask people what their salary is, different respondents
may interpret the question differently. Some may think you are referring to monthly
salary, annual salary, or per-hour wage, and hence, the resulting observations will likely
be highly divergent and unreliable.
A third source of unreliability is asking questions about issues that respondents
are not very familiar with or care about, such as asking an American college graduate
whether he/she is satisfied with Canada's relationship with Slovenia, or asking a chief
executive officer to rate the effectiveness of his company's technology strategy,
something that he has likely delegated to a technology executive.
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 56
So how can one create reliable measures? Bhattacherjee suggests a few
practical tips. If your measurement involves soliciting information from others, as is
the case with much of social science research, then you can do any of the following:
1. Replace data collection techniques that depend more on the researcher's
subjectivity (such as observations) with those that are less dependent on
subjectivity (such as questionnaires).
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2. Ask only those questions that respondents may know the answer to or
question them only on issues that they care about.
3. Avoid ambiguous items in your measures (e.g., clearly state whether you are
asking about annual salary).
4. Simplify the wording in your indicators so that they are not misinterpreted by
some respondents (e.g., avoid difficult words whose meanings they may not
know).
Source Bhattacherjee 2012, 56
While these practical tips can improve the reliability of measures, there is still
a need to make the measurements completely reliable. This can be achieved through
various ways of estimating and measuring reliability, Table 7 summarizes the features
of various types of reliability tests or techniques.
Table 5.
Types and Description of Reliability Tests or Techniques
Type Description
Inter-rater Inter-rater reliability, also called inter-observer reliability is a
reliability measure of consistency between two or more independent
raters (observers) of the same construct (concept). Usually,
this is assessed in a pilot study and can be done in two ways,
depending measurement of the construct.
If the measure is nominal, a set of all categories is defined.
Raters check off which category each observation falls in, and
the percentage of agreement between the raters is an
estimate of inter-rater reliability. (The higher percentage of
agreement, the higher the estimate inter-rater reliability is.
The higher the estimate of inter rater reliability, the more
reliable the measure is.)
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Test-retest Test-retest reliability is a measure of consistency between two Two more concepts before we leave the discussion on measurement in
reliability measurements (tests) of the same construct administered to quantitative research: random error and systematic error.
the same sample at two different points in time. If the
Random error is the error that can be attributed to a set of unknown and
observations have not changed substantially between the two
uncontrollable external factors that randomly influence some observations but not
sets, then the measure is reliable. The correlation in
others. As an example, during the time of measurement, some respondents may be in
observations between the two sets is an estimate of test-retest
a nicer mood than others, which may influence how they respond to the measurement
reliability. Note that the longer the time gap, the greater is the
items. For instance, respondents in a nicer mood may respond more positively to
chance that the two observations may change during this time,
constructs like self-esteem, satisfaction, and happiness than those who are in a poor
and the lower the test-retest reliability will be.
mood. However, it is not possible to anticipate which subject is in what type of mood
Split-half reliability Split-half reliability is a measure of consistency between two or control for the effect of mood in research studies... If we are measuring firm
halves of a construct measure. For instance, if you have a 10- performance, regulatory or environmental changes may affect the performance of
item measure of a given construct, randomly split those 10 some firms in an observed sample but not others. Hence, random error is considered
items into two sets of five (unequal halves are allowed if the to be "noise" in measurement and generally ignored.
total number of items is odd) and administer the entire
Systematic error, on the other hand, is an error that is introduced by factors
instrument to a sample of respondents. Then calculate the
that systematically affect all observations of a construct across an entire sample in a
total score for each half for each respondent, and the
systematic manner. In studying firm performance, for example, since the recent
correlation between the total scores for each half is a measure
financial crisis impacted the performance of financial firms disproportionately more
of split-half reliability. The longer the instrument is, the more
than any other type of firms such as manufacturing or service firms, if our sample
likely that the two halves of the measure will be similar. Hence,
consisted only of financial firms, we may expect a systematic reduction in performance
this technique tends to systematically overestimate the
of all firms due to the financial crisis. Unlike random error which may be positive,
reliability of longer instruments.
negative, or zero across observations in a sample, systematic error tends to be
Internal Internal consistency reliability is a measure of consistency consistently positive or negative across the entire sample. Hence, systematic error is
consistency between different items of the same construct. If a multiple- sometimes considered to be "bias" in measurement and should be corrected,
reliability item construct measure is administered to respondents, the
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 62
extent to which respondents rate those items in a similar
manner is a reflection of internal consistency. This reliability
can be estimated using Cronbach's alpha, a reliability measure
designed by Leo Cronbach in 1951.
SOURCE: Bhattacherjee (2012, 57)

13

Intervention Studies
Intervention (or Experimental) studies differ from observational studies in that
the investigator assigns the exposure. They are used to determine the effectiveness of
an intervention or the effectiveness of a health service delivery. They can also be used
to establish the safety, cost-effectiveness and acceptability of an intervention. In
contrast, analytical observational studies (i.e. cohort and case control studies) look at
the relationships between risk factors or characteristics of patients and their likelihood
of getting a particular disease. There are two types of intervention studies: randomized
controlled trials and non-randomized or quasi-experimental trials. The randomized
controlled trial is considered to be the gold standard of clinical research because it is
the only known way to avoid selection and confounding biases. It approximates the
controlled experiment of basic science. The aim of a trial is to apply the conclusions of
the experiment to people in the general population.
An important feature of Randomized Controlled Trials is randomization. Here,
participants (volunteers) are assigned to exposures purely by the play of chance (i.e.
each participant has a known chance, normally an equal chance of receiving each
treatment but the treatment to be received cannot be predicted). This reduces the
likelihood of bias in the determination of outcomes and precludes selection bias and
confounding bias. If participants and researchers are blinded as to the exposure the
participant is receiving (called 'double-blinding'), information bias is also reduced.
Allocation of people to treatment and control groups can be done by simple
randomization, randomization in blocks, randomization by strata or minimization.
Minimization is an acceptable non-random method of group allocation in trials. It
considers people who are already allocated and allocates the next patient in such a
way as to keep the composition of the two groups as similar as possible with respect
to certain specified factors. Determining each allocation is complex, particularly when
several factors are involved. It is recommended that specialized computer software is
used and that allocations are not written down in advance of the study. Despite the
complexity, a recruiter can still predict the next allocation. A random element can be
introduced to combat this bias.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Trial Types
1. Therapeutic trials (people with disease are given treatment to prevent death or to
improve health)
2. Preventive trials for healthy individuals (e.g. a phase in vaccine trials to test efficacy
of vaccine)
3. Preventive trials for at-risk groups (used to prevent development of disease)
Both types of preventive trials are concerned with reducing risk of developing a disease
Randomized Controlled Trial Designs
1. Simple or Parallel trials (the most common form)
2. Factorial Trials (where there is more than two 'arms' to the trial, e.g. three
different treatment groups and one control group)
3. Crossover Trials (participants swap treatments half-way through; can only really
work with chronic long-term conditions, self-limiting diseases make it hard to
measure effects.)
4. Within-persons Trials (participants may be given two different treatments on two
different sites of their body and so act as their own control)
5. Cluster Trials (people are allocated in groups or clusters. Sometimes this is done
by geographical area or health centre.
6. Historical Controls Trials
7. Equivalence Trials (where a new treatment or intervention is tested to see whether
it is better or equivalent to the current treatment; need to be big trials in order to
show statistical insignificance)
8. Non-inferiority Trials (where a new treatment or intervention is tested to see
whether it is non-inferior to the current gold standard)
Advantages of Randomized Controlled Trials
1. Its study design eliminates confounding bias.
2. If properly designed and conducted, an RCT is likely to be able to determine small
to moderate effects. This is something that is difficult to establish reliably from
observational studies.
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Disadvantages of Randomized Controlled Trials Intervention Studies. Retrieved from https://www.drcath.net/toolkit/intervention-studies

Accessed 15 September 2020.
1. They are not always ethical.
2. Sample size can be too small. This wastes time and patients are included in a trial
that is of no benefit to them or others. The larger the sample, the more successful Important
the randomized procedure in removing confounding variables. RemInderS
3. They can be statistically significant but clinically unimportant.
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other activity
4. Significant tests can be misleading. (ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper.
5. They can be expensive. • If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s),
6. RCTs may not have external validity, that is, the results may not be able to be pictures, pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email at
germanvertudez1211gmail.com following this format:
generalized to the broader community. Unlike the observational study, RCTs use (SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME e.g.
volunteers. Those who volunteer tend to be different from those who do not. IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from your
flash drive together with this activity sheet.
References
Name: _______________________________________________________________
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to Grade Level & Section: _________________________________________________
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Sampling and Probability Sampling pp 138- 146.
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ______________________
Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Probabilistic and Non-Probabilistic Sampling Techniques. Retrieved from

https://pressbooks.bccampus.ca/jibcresearchmethods/chapter/7-3-probabilistic-and-non- RATING:
probabilistic-sampling-techniques/ Accessed 10 September 2020. ACTIVITY 1: Identify Sampling
Elliott, T., Regal, R., Elliott, B., Renier, C. (2001). Design and Validation of Instruments to Measure Directions: INDIVIDUAL WORK. Write C on the space before the number, if the
Knowledge, ProQuest Central, p. 157 sentence is correct; NC, if it is not correct. (2 points each)
_______ 1. Sampling unit is synonymous with sampling frame.
Instrument, Validity, Reliability. Retrieved from https://researchrundowns.com/quantitative- _______ 2. Population in relation to sampling refers to the citizens of Philippine
methods/instrument-validity-reliability/ Accessed 11 September 2020.
archipelago.
Bordeianu, Otilia & Morosan-Danila, Lucia. (2013). Development and Validation of Research
_______ 3. The principal purpose of sampling is the application of results in the
Instruments for Cross-Cultural Studies in Economics And Management. population.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/299469658_DEVELOPMENT_AND_VALIDATION_OF_ _______ 4. You look forward to having several group samples in a stratified
RESEARCH_INSTRUMENTS_FOR_CROSS- sampling.
CULTURAL_STUDIES_IN_ECONOMICS_AND_MANAGEMENT _______ 5. In a stratified sampling, you randomly choose samples from several
DEVELOPMENT AND VALIDATION OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS FOR CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES IN groups.
ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
_______ 6. Sampling decisions depend 100% on your own dispositions or
judgement.

15
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

_______ 7. You are detached from your personal inclinations when you do a
random selection of subjects.
_______ 8. Non-probability sampling is not very particular about statistics.
MODULE 1: Assessment
_______ 9. Probability sampling techniques are suitable for Quantitative research IDENTIFICATION (1 point each)
studies. PART I: Identify the term(s) being described. Write your answer before the number
_______ 10. Bias can only be minimized; can’t be totally eliminated. _____________ 1. This is a sampling techniques that makes you base your
selection of respondents on pure chance.

______________2. Choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into

ACTIVITY 2: Testing Validity and Reliability strata, sub-groups, or sub-samples during the stage of the
data analysis
INSTRUCTIONS: Answer the following briefly and succinctly.
How do quantitative researchers ensure the standards of validity and reliability in their ______________3. It is the general term that researchers use for a
studies? Name and explain all the tests or techniques for measuring validity and reliability.
measurement device (survey, test, questionnaire, etc.).
(15 points each)
______________4. Error that can be attributed to a set of unknown and
Validity Test Reliability Tests uncontrollable external factors that randomly influence
some observations but not others.

______________5. Different from observational studies in that the

investigator assigns the exposure and used to determine the
effectiveness of this study.

______________6. The sampling techniques included in this category are not

chosen randomly, but purposefully.

______________7. It refers to the issue of whether an indicator (or a set of

indicators) that is devised to gauge a concept really measures
that concept.

______________8. Error that is introduced by factors that systematically

affect all observations of a construct across an entire sample
in a systematic manner.

______________9. It is “the statistical process of selecting a subset (called a

sample) of a population of interest for purposes of making

16
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

observations and statistical inferences about that 4. Choosing a sample that will later on be subdivided into strata, sub-groups, or
population”. sub-samples during the stage of the data analysis

______________10. The extent to which the measure of a construct is 5. Selecting respondents in clusters, rather than in separate individuals such as
consistent or dependable. choosing 5 classes of 40 students each from a whole population of 5,000
students.

6. Choosing specific samples that you know correspond to the population in

terms of one, two, or more characteristics
IDENTIFICATION (1 point each)
PART II: Identify or group the term(s) inside the box that the statements below being 7. Picking out from the list every 5th or every 8th member listed in the sampling
referred to. Answers may be used MORE THAN ONCE. Write the letter or letters of frame until the completion of the desired total number of respondents
your answer before the number.
8. Choosing respondents whom you have judged as people with good
A. Systematic sampling F. Simple-random sampling background knowledge or with great enthusiasm about the research
B. Voluntary sampling G. Voluntary sampling 9. It is the simplest and yet the most generalizable among all probability
C. Snowball sampling H. Purposive sampling sampling techniques.
D. Cluster sampling I. Quota sampling
E. Stratified sampling J. Probability Sampling 10. Selecting people who are very much willing to participate as respondents in
the research project place.

1. Selecting samples from several alternative samples like drug dependents,

human traffickers, street children, and other wayward and homeless people
whose dwelling places are not easily located for they are like nomads moving
from place to.

2. Selecting people who are very much willing to participate as respondents in

the research project place.

3. All are given equal opportunity or chance to form the sample that is capable
of reflecting the characteristics of the whole population from where such
sample was drawn.

17

SECOND QUARTER
MODULE Data Collection and
Analysis Procedures
10
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Describe data collection methods or procedures in quantitative
research.
• Differentiate the methods of primary and secondary data collection.
INCLUSIVE DATE:
• Explain the use and relevance of statistics in quantitative research.
• Identify the difference between descriptive and inferential statistics.
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS:
• What are some of the data collection methods and procedures in
quantitative research?
• What is the use of statistical analysis in quantitative research?
Overview
Data collection is the process of gathering and measuring information on
variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer
stated research questions, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data
collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical
and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the
emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same. The goal for
all data collection is to capture quality evidence that then translates to rich data
analysis and allows the building of a convincing and credible answer to questions that
have been posed. Regardless of the field of study or preference for defining data
(quantitative, qualitative), accurate data collection is essential to maintaining the
integrity of research. Both the selection of appropriate data collection instruments
(existing, modified, or newly developed) and clearly delineated instructions for their
correct use reduce the likelihood of errors occurring.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Data collection is one of the most important stages in conducting a research.
You can have the best research design in the world but if you cannot collect the
required data you will be not be able to complete your project. Data collection is a very
demanding job which needs thorough planning, hard work, patience, perseverance
and more to be able to complete the task successfully. Data collection starts with
determining what kind of data required followed by the selection of a sample from
a certain population. After that, you need to use a certain instrument to collect the
data from the selected sample.
Quantitative Data
Quantitative data is numerical in nature and can be mathematically computed.
Quantitative data measure uses different scales, which can be classified as nominal
scale, ordinal scale, interval scale and ratio scale. Often (not always), such data
includes measurements of something. Quantitative approaches address the ‘what’
of the program. They use a systematic standardized approach and employ methods
such as surveys and ask questions. Quantitative approaches have the advantage
that they are cheaper to implement, are standardized so comparisons can be
easily made and the size of the effect can usually be measured. Quantitative
approaches however are limited in their capacity for the investigation and explanation
of similarities and unexpected differences. It is important to note that for peer-based
programs quantitative data collection approaches often prove to be difficult to
implement for agencies as lack of necessary resources to ensure rigorous
implementation of surveys and frequently experienced low participation and loss
to follow up rates are commonly experienced factors.
The Quantitative data collection methods rely on random sampling and
structured data collection instruments that fit diverse experiences into predetermined
response categories. They produce results that are easy to summarize, compare, and
generalize. If the intent is to generalize from the research participants to a larger
population, the researcher will employ probability sampling to select participants.
Typical quantitative data gathering strategies include-

• Experiments/clinical trials.
• Observing and recording well-defined events (e.g., counting the number of
patients waiting in emergency at specified times of the day).
• Obtaining relevant data from management information systems.
• Administering surveys with closed-ended questions (e.g., face-to face and
telephone interviews, questionnaires etc).
• In quantitative research (survey research), interviews are more structured than
in Qualitative research. In a structured interview, the researcher asks a standard
set of questions and nothing more. Face -to -face interviews have a distinct
advantage of enabling the researcher to establish rapport with potential
participants and therefore gain their cooperation.
• Paper-pencil-questionnaires can be sent to a large number of people and saves
the researcher time and money. People are more truthful while responding
to the questionnaires regarding controversial issues in particular due to the fact
that their responses are anonymous.
There are many ways of classifying data. A common classification is based upon
who collected the
data.
Primary Data
Data that has been collected from first-hand-experience is known as primary
data. Primary data has not been published yet and is more reliable, authentic and
objective. Primary data has not been changed or altered by human beings; therefore
its validity is greater than secondary data.
Importance of Primary Data:
In statistical surveys it is necessary to get information from primary sources
and work on primary data. For example, the statistical records of female
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
population in a country cannot be based on newspaper, magazine and other
printed sources. A research can be conducted without secondary data but a research
based on only secondary data is least reliable and may have biases because secondary
data has already been manipulated by human beings. One of such sources is old and
secondly they contain limited information as well as they can be misleading and
biased.
Sources of Primary Data:
Sources for primary data are limited and at times it becomes difficult to obtain data
from primary source because of either scarcity of population or lack of
cooperation. Following are some of the sources of primary data.
• Experiments: Experiments require an artificial or natural setting in which to
perform logical study to collect data. Experiments are more suitable for
medicine, psychological studies, nutrition and for other scientific studies. In
experiments the experimenter has to keep control over the influence of any
extraneous variable on the results.
• Survey: Survey is most commonly used method in social sciences,
management, marketing and psychology to some extent. Surveys can be
conducted in different methods.
• Questionnaire: It is the most commonly used method in survey.
Questionnaires are a list of questions either open-ended or close-ended for
which the respondents give answers. Questionnaire can be conducted via
telephone, mail, live in a public area, or in an institute, through electronic mail
or through fax and other methods.
• Interview: Interview is a face-to-face conversation with the respondent.
In interview the main problem arises when the respondent deliberately
hides information otherwise it is an in depth source of information. The
interviewer can not only record the statements the interviewee speaks but
he can observe the body language, expressions and other reactions to the
questions too. This enables the interviewer to draw conclusions easily.

• Observations: Observation can be done while letting the observing person
know that s/he is being observed or without letting him know. Observations
can also be made in natural settings as well as in artificially created
environment.
Advantages of Using Primary Data
• The investigator collects data specific to the problem under study.
• There is no doubt about the quality of the data collected (for the investigator).
• If required, it may be possible to obtain additional data during the study
period.
Disadvantages of Using Primary Data
1. The investigator has to contend with all the hassles of data collection-
• deciding why, what, how, when to collect;
• getting the data collected (personally or through others);
• getting funding and dealing with funding agencies;
• ethical considerations (consent, permissions, etc.).
2. Ensuring the data collected is of a high standard-
• all desired data is obtained accurately, and in the format it is required in;
• there is no fake/ cooked up data;
• unnecessary/ useless data has not been included.
3. Cost of obtaining the data is often the major expense in studies.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Secondary Data
Data collected from a source that has already been published in any form
is called as secondary data. The review of literature in any research is based on
secondary data. It is collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being
utilized by the investigator for another purpose). For examples, Census data being
used to analyze the impact of education on career choice and earning. Common
sources of secondary data for social science include censuses, organizational records
and data collected through qualitative methodologies or qualitative research.
Secondary data is essential, since it is impossible to conduct a new survey that
can adequately capture past change and/or developments.
Sources of Secondary Data: The following are some ways of collecting secondary
data –
• Books
• Records
• Biographies
• Newspapers
• Published censuses or other statistical data
• Data archives
• Internet articles
• Research articles by other researchers (journals)
• Databases, etc.
Importance of Secondary Data:
Secondary data can be less valid but its importance is still there. Sometimes
it is difficult to obtain primary data; in these cases getting information from secondary
sources is easier and possible. Sometimes primary data does not exist in such
situation one has to confine the research on secondary data. Sometimes primary data
is present but the respondents are not willing to reveal it in such case too secondary
data can suffice. For example, if the research is on the psychology of transsexuals first

it is difficult to find out transsexuals and second they may not be willing to give
information you want for your research, so you can collect data from books or other
published sources. A clear benefit of using secondary data is that much of the
background work needed has already been carried out. For example, literature
reviews, case studies might have been carried out, published texts and statistics
could have been already used elsewhere, media promotion and personal contacts
have also been utilized. This wealth of background work means that secondary data
generally have a pre-established degree of validity and reliability which need not be
re-examined by the researcher who is re-using such data. Furthermore, secondary
data can also be helpful in the research design of subsequent primary research and
can provide a baseline with which the collected primary data results can be
compared to. Therefore, it is always wise to begin any research activity with a
review of the secondary data.
Advantages of Using Secondary Data
• No hassles of data collection.
• It is less expensive.
• The investigator is not personally responsible for the quality of data (‘I didn’t
do it’).
Disadvantages of Using Secondary Data
• The data collected by the third party may not be a reliable party so the
reliability and accuracy of data go down.
• Data collected in one location may not be suitable for the other one due
variable environmental factor.
• With the passage of time the data becomes obsolete and very old.
• Secondary data collected can distort the results of the research. For using
secondary data a special care is required to amend or modify for use.
• Secondary data can also raise issues of authenticity and copyright.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Keeping in view the advantages and disadvantages of sources of data requirement
of the research study and time factor, both sources of data i.e. primary and
secondary data have been selected. These are used in combination to give proper
coverage to the topic.
Methods of Primary Data Collection
In primary data collection, you collect the data yourself using qualitative and
quantitative methods. The key point here is that the data you collect is unique to
you and your research and, until you publish, no one else has access to it. There are
many methods of collecting primary data.
The main methods include –
1. Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions and
other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is not
always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton (1822 - 1911).
Questionnaires have advantages over some other types of surveys in that they are
cheap, do not require as much effort from the questioner as verbal or telephone
surveys, and often have standardized answers that make it simple to compile
data. As a type of survey, questionnaires also have many of the same problems
relating to question construction and wording that exist in other types of opinion
polls.
Question Types:
Usually, a questionnaire consists of a number of questions that the respondent has
to answer in a set format. A distinction is made between open-ended and closed-
ended questions. An open-ended question asks the respondent to formulate his/her
own answer, whereas a closed-ended question has the respondent pick an answer
from a given number of options. The response options for a closed-ended question

should be exhaustive and mutually exclusive. Four types of response scales for
closed-ended questions are distinguished –
• Dichotomous, where the respondent has two options.
• Nominal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two unordered
options.
• Ordinal-polytomous, where the respondent has more than two ordered
options.
• Continuous (Bounded), where the respondent is presented with a continuous
scale.
A respondent’s answer to an open-ended question is coded into a response
scale afterwards. An example of an open-ended question is a question where
the testee has to complete a sentence (sentence completion item).
Basic Rules for Questionnaire Item Construction: The basic rules are -
• Use statements which are interpreted in the same way by members of
different subpopulations of the population of interest.
• Use statements where persons that have different opinions or traits will give
different answers.
• Think of having an ‘open’ answer category after a list of possible answers.
• Use only one aspect of the construct you are interested in per item.
• Use positive statements and avoid negatives or double negatives.
• Do not make assumptions about the respondent.
• Use clear and comprehensible wording, easily understandable for all
educational levels.
• Use correct spelling, grammar and punctuation.
• Avoid items that contain more than one question per item (e.g. Do you
like strawberries and potatoes?).
• Question should not be biased or even leading the participant towards an
answer.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Questionnaire Administration Modes:
Main modes of questionnaire administration are -
• Face-to-face questionnaire administration, where an interviewer presents the
items orally.
• Paper-and-pencil questionnaire administration, where the items are
presented on paper.
• Computerized questionnaire administration, where the items are presented
on the computer.
• Adaptive computerized questionnaire administration, where a selection of
items is presented on the computer, and based on the answers on those
items, the computer selects following items optimized for the testee’s
estimated ability or trait.
Advantages of Questionnaires:
The advantages of questionnaires are -
• Large amounts of information can be collected from a large number of people
in a short period of time and in a relatively cost effective way.
• Can be carried out by the researcher or by any number of people with
limited affect to its validity and reliability.
• The results of the questionnaires can usually be quickly and easily
quantified by either a researcher or through the use of a software package.
• Can be analyzed more scientifically and objectively than other forms of
research.
• When data has been quantified, it can be used to compare and contrast other
research and may be used to measure change.
• Positivists believe that quantitative data can be used to create new
theories and / or test existing hypotheses.

Disadvantages of Questionnaires:
The disadvantages of questionnaires are -
• To be inadequate to understand some forms of information - i.e. changes of
emotions, behavior, feelings etc.
• Phenomenologists state that quantitative research is simply an artificial
creation by the researcher, as it is asking only a limited amount of information
without explanation.
• There is no way to tell how truthful a respondent is being.
• There is no way of telling how much thought a respondent has put in.
• The respondent may be forgetful or not thinking within the full context of the
situation.
• People may read differently into each question and therefore reply based
on their own interpretation of the question - i.e. what is ‘good’ to
someone may be ‘poor’ to someone else, therefore there is a level of
subjectivity that is not acknowledged.
Questionnaires are not among the most prominent methods in qualitative
research, because they commonly require subjects to respond to a stimulus, and thus
they are not acting naturally. However, they have their uses, especially as a means of
collecting information from a wider sample than can be reached by personal
interview. Though the information is necessarily more limited, it can still be very
useful. For example, where certain clearly defined facts or opinions have been
identified by more qualitative methods, a questionnaire can explore how generally
these apply, if that is a matter of interest.
2. Interviews Method
Interviewing involves asking questions and getting answers from participants
in a study. Interviewing has a variety of forms including: individual, face-to-face
interviews and face-to-face group interviewing. The asking and answering of
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
questions can be mediated by the telephone or other electronic devices (e.g.
computers).
Face to face interviews are advantageous since detailed questions can
be asked; further probing can be done to provide rich data; literacy
requirements of participants is not an issue; non verbal data can be
collected through observation; complex and unknown issues can be
explored; response rates are usually higher than for self-administered
questionnaires. Disadvantages of face to face interviews include: they
can be expensive and time consuming; training of interviewers is
necessary to reduce interviewer bias and are administered in a
standardized why they are prone to interviewer bias and interpreter bias
(if interpreters are used); sensitive issues maybe challenging. Telephone
interviews yield just as accurate data as face to face interviews.
Telephone interviews are advantageous as they: are cheaper and
faster than face to face interviews to conduct; use less resources than
face to face interviews; allow to clarify questions; do not require literacy
skills. Disadvantages of telephone interviews include: having to make
repeated calls as calls may not be answered the first time; potential bias if
call backs are not made so bias is towards those who are at home; only
suitable for short surveys; only accessible to the population with a
telephone; not appropriate for exploring sensitive issues.
Interviews can be –
A. Structured Interviews
Characteristics of the Structured Interview
• The interviewer asks each respondent the same series of questions.
• The questions are created prior to the interview, and often have a limited
set of response categories.
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

• There is generally little room for variation in responses and there are few open-
ended questions included in the interview guide.
• Questioning is standardized and the ordering and phrasing of the questions are
kept consistent from interview to interview.
• The interviewer plays a neutral role and acts casual and friendly, but does not
insert his or her opinion in the interview.
• Self-administered questionnaires are a type of structured interview.
• Questions tend to be open-ended and express little control over informants’
responses.
• Ethnographic, in depth interviews are unstructured. Fontana and Frey
(1994) identify three types of in depth, ethnographic unstructured interviews
– oral history, creative interviews and postmodern interviews.

B. Semi-structured Interviews

Characteristics of Semi-structured Interviews

• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview.

• The interviewer develops and uses an ‘interview guide’. This is a list of questions
and topics that need to be covered during the conversation, usually in a
particular order.
• The interviewer follows the guide, but is able to follow topical trajectories in the
conversation that may stray from the guide when s/he feels this is appropriate.

C. Unstructured Interviews

Characteristics of Unstructured Interviews.

• The interviewer and respondents engage in a formal interview in that they have
a scheduled time to sit and speak with each other and both parties recognize
this to be an interview.
• The interviewer has a clear plan in mind regarding the focus and goal of
the interview. This guides the discussion.
• There is not a structured interview guide. Instead, the interviewer builds
rapport with respondents, getting respondents to open-up and express
themselves in their own way.

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Table 1 summarizes characteristics of interview method, including when to use, recording interview and its benefits.
A Summary Comparison of Interview Methods
Interview
When to Use
Method
Structured Development of a structured interview guide There are a range of ways to collect and record
Interview or questionnaire requires a clear topical
focus and well-developed understanding of
the topic at hand.
Structured interviews are best used when
the literature in a topical area is highly
developed or following the use of
observational and other less structured
interviewing approaches that provide the
researcher with adequate understanding of
a topic to construct meaningful and relevant
close-ended questions.
Semi- Semi-structured interviewing, according to
structured Bernard (1988), is best used when you won’t
Interview get more than one chance to interview
someone and when you will be sending
several interviewers out into the field to
collect data. The semi-structured interview
guide provides a clear set of instructions
for interviewers and can provide reliable,
comparable qualitative data.
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Table 1.
Recording Interviews Benefits
Structured interviews do not require the
structured interview data. Data collections development of rapport between interviewer
methods include, but are not limited to - and interviewee, and they can produce
paper-based and self-report (mail, face-to- consistent data that can be compared across a
face); telephone interviews where the number of respondents.
interviewer fills in participants’ responses;
web-based and self-report.
Typically, the interviewer has a paper-based Many researchers like to use semi-structured
interview guide that s/he follows. Since interviews because questions can be
semi-structured interviews often contain prepared ahead of time. This allows the
open-ended questions and discussions may interviewer to be prepared and appear
diverge from the interview guide, it is generally competent during the interview.
best to tape-record interviews and later
Semi-structured interviews also allow
transcript these tapes for analysis.
informants the freedom to express their
While it is possible to try to jot notes to views in their own terms. Semi-structure
capture respondents’ answers, it is difficult interviews can provide reliable, comparable
to focus on conducting an interview and qualitative data.
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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Semi-structured interviews are often jotting notes. This approach will result in
preceded by observation, informal and poor notes and also detract for the
unstructured interviewing in order to allow development of rapport between interviewer
the researchers to develop a keen and interviewee.
understanding of the topic of interest
necessary for developing relevant and
meaningful semi-structured questions.

Unstructured Unstructured interviewing is Unstructured interviews are best to tape- Unstructured interviews are an extremely
Interview recommended when the researcher has record interviews and later transcript these useful method for developing an
developed enough of an understanding of a tapes for analysis. This allows the understanding of an as-of-yet not fully
setting and his/her topic of interest to have interviewer to focus on interacting with the understood or appreciated culture,
a clear agenda for the discussion with the participant and follow the discussion. experience, or setting. Unstructured
informant, but still remains open to having interviews allow researchers to focus the
While it is possible to try to jot notes to capture
his/her understanding of the area of inquiry respondents’ talk on a particular topic of
respondents’ answers, it is difficult to focus
open to revision by respondents. interest, and may allow researchers the
on conducting an interview and jotting notes.
opportunity to test out his/her preliminary
Because these interviews are not highly This approach will result in poor notes and
understanding.
structured and because the researcher’s also detract from the development of rapport
understanding is still evolving, it is helpful between interviewer and interviewee. during Unstructured interviews can be an important
to anticipate the need to speak with the interview. preliminary step toward the development of
informants on multiple occasions. more structured interview guides or surveys.

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3. Observational Method
Observation is a fundamental way of finding out about the world around us.
As human beings, we are very well equipped to pick up detailed information
about our environment through our senses. However, as a method of data
collection for research purposes, observation is more than just looking or
listening. Research, simply defined, is ‘systematic enquiry made public’ (Stenhouse,
1975). Firstly, in order to become systematic, observation must in some way
be selective. We are constantly bombarded by huge amounts of sensory
information. Human beings are good at selectively attending to what is perceived as
most useful to us. Observation harnesses this ability; systematic observation entails
careful planning of what we want to observe. Secondly, in order to make
observation ‘public’, what we see or hear has to be recorded in some way to allow
the information to be analysed and interpreted. Observation is a systematic data
collection approach. Researchers use all of their senses to examine people in
natural settings or naturally occurring situations.
Observation of a field setting involves –
• prolonged engagement in a setting or social situation;
• clearly expressed, self-conscious notations of how observing is done;
• methodical and tactical improvisation in order to develop a full
understanding of the setting of interest;
• imparting attention in ways that is in some sense ‘standardized’;
• recording one’s observations.
Use of Observational Method
There are a variety of reasons for collecting observational data. Some of
these reasons include –
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
• When the nature of the research question to be answered is focused on
answering a how- or what-type question.
• When the topic is relatively unexplored and little is known to explain the
behavior of people in a particular setting.
• When understanding the meaning of a setting in a detailed way is valuable.
• When it is important to study a phenomenon in its natural setting.
• When self-report data (asking people what they do) is likely to be
different from actual behavior (what people actually do). One example
of this seen in the difference between self-reported versus observed
preventive service delivery in health care settings.
• When implementing an intervention in a natural setting, observation may be
used in conjunction with other quantitative data collection techniques.
Observational data can help researchers evaluate the fidelity of an
intervention across settings and identify when 'stasis' has been achieved.
Classification of Observational Method
Observational methods can be classified as follows –
➢ Casual and Scientific Observatiol
➢ Natural Observation
➢ Subjective and Objective Observation
➢ Direct and Indirect Observation
➢ Participant and Non Participant Observation
➢ Structured and Unstructured Observation
➢ Controlled and Un-controlled Observation
➢ Covert and Overt Observation
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Type of Non-Participant • Avoidance of observer • Observer is detached

Observational Advantages Disadvantages Observation effect from situation so relies
Method on their perception
which may be
Naturalistic • Particularly good for • Ethics: Where research inaccurate
Observatiob observing specific subjects. is undisclosed consent
• Provides ecologically valid will not be obtained,
recordings of natural where consent is not 4. Survey Research
behavior. obtained - details may Survey research is a research method involving the use of standardized
• Spontaneous behaviors are be used which infringe questionnaires or interviews to collect data about people and their preferences
more likely to happen. confidentiality. thoughts, and behaviors in a systematic manner. It has strengths that are simply
Structured • Allows control of • The implementation missing in other methods.
Observation extraneous variables. of controls may have
• Reliability of results can be an effect on behavior. • First, surveys are an excellent vehicle for measuring a wide variety of
tested by repeating the • Lack of ecological unobservable data, such as people's preferences (e.g., political orientation),
study. validity. traits (e.g., self-esteem), attitudes (e., toward immigrants), beliefs (e.g.,
• Provides a safe • Observer effect. about a new law), behaviors (e.g., smoking or drinking behavior), or factual
environment to study • Observer bias. information (e.g., income).
contentious concepts such
as infant attachment. • Second, survey research is also ideally suited for remotely collecting data
Unstructured • Gives a broad overview of a • Only really appropriate about a population that is too large to observe directly. A large area, such
Observation situation. as a ‘first step’ to give as an entire country, can be covered using mail-in, electronic mail, or
• Useful where an overview of a telephone surveys that use meticulous sampling to ensure that the
situation/subject matter situation / concept / population is adequately represented in a small sample.
to be studied is unclear. idea.
Participant • Gives an ‘insiders’ view. • Observer effect.
• Third, due to their unobtrusive nature (respondents can respond at their
Observation • Behaviors are less prone • Possible lack of
convenience), questionnaire surveys are preferred by some respondents.
to misinterpretation objectivity on the part
because researcher was a of the observer
participant. • Fourth, interviews may be the only way of reaching certain population
• Opportunity for groups such as the homeless or illegal immigrants for which there is no
researcher to become an sampling frame available.
‘accepted’ part of the
environment.

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

• Fifth, large sample surveys may allow detection of small effects even while ➢ Greater interest in the
analyzing multiple variables. Depending on the survey design, large sample ➢ Rambling' is usually regarded as a interviewee's point of view
surveys may also allow comparative analysis of population subgroups (i.e., nuisance and is discouraged
within-group and between-group analysis). ➢ "Rambling' or going off at tangents
➢ Standardization of the interview is often encouraged
• Sixth, survey research is economical in terms of researcher time, effort, and process is strictly followed
cost than most other methods such as experimental research and case ➢ Interviewers can depart
research. ➢ Inflexible due to standardization significantly from any schedule or
guide that is being used
Survey research can be conducted in two broad ways, namely, questionnaire ➢ Generates answers that can be
surveys (which may be mail-in, group-administered, or online surveys) and interview coded and processed quickly ➢ Flexible; response to the direction
surveys (which may be personal, telephone, or focus group interviews). in which interviewees take the
Questionnaires are instruments that are completed in writing by respondents, while ➢ Unless the research is longitudinal interview
interviews are completed by the interviewer based on verbal responses provided by in character, the person will be
respondents (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 74).
interviewed on one occasion only ➢ Generates rich, detailed answers
➢ Interviewee may be interviewed on
Interview surveys in quantitative research are more structured than interviews more than one, and sometimes
typically conducted in qualitative research. Table 2 shows the Differences between even several, occasions.
the structured interview and the qualitative interview. Qualitative interview is a SOURCE: Adapted from Bryman A (2008, 437) Social Research Methods.
term used to refer to different types of interview that re used in qualitative research. New Delhi: Sage Publications
When compared with the kind of interview associated with survey research in
quantitative research, qualitative interview needs to be far less structured (Bryman,
2008). 5. Experiment
One of the most rigorous of all research designs is the experimental research.
Table 2
Three key features mark this research design First, one o t independent variables
Differences Between the Structured Interview and the Qualitative Interview
are manipulated by the researcher (as treatment Second, subjects are randomly
Structured Interview Qualitative Interview assigned to different treatment levels (random assignment). And third, the results
of the treatments on outcomes (dependent variables) are observed (Bhattacherjee
➢ Structured approach to maximize ➢ Emphasis on greater generality in
2012, 84).
the reliability and validity of the formulation of initial research
measurement of key concepts ideas and on interviewees' own Experimental research is best suited for explanatory research trait than for
perspectives. descriptive or exploratory research) where the goal of the study to examine cause-
➢ The interview reflects the effect relationships, as well as for research that we a relatively limited and well-
researcher's concerns

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defined set of independent variables that either be manipulated or controlled
(Bhattacherjee 2012, 84).
Experimental research can be conducted in laboratory or field settings.
Laboratory experiments tend to be high in internal validity but low in external
validity (generalizability), because the artificial (laboratory) setting in which the
study is conducted may not reflect the real world. Field experiment which are
conducted in field settings such as in a real organization on the other hand, are high
in both internal and external validity. But field experiments are relatively rare
because of the difficulties associated with manipulating treatments and controlling
for extraneous effects in a field setting (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 84).
There are two broad categories of experimental research, namely, true
experimental designs and quasi-experimental designs. Both designs require
treatment manipulation, but while true experiments also require random
assignment, quasi-experiments do not. Below are some basic concepts in
experimental research:
➢ Treatment and control groups. In experimental research, some subjects are
administered one or more experimental stimulus called a treatment (the
treatment group) while other subjects are not given such a stimulus (the
control group). The treatment may be considered successful if subjects in
the treatment group rate more favorably on outcome variables than control
group subjects. Multiple levels of experimental stimulus may be
administered, in which case, there may be more than one treatment group.
For example, in order to test the effects of a new drug intended to treat a
certain medical condition like dementia, if a sample of dementia patients is
randomly divided into three groups, with the first group receiving a high
dosage of the drug, the second group receiving a low dosage, and the third
group receiving a placebo such as a sugar pill (control group), then the first
two groups are experimental groups and the third group is a control group.
After administering the drug a period of time, if the condition of the
experimental group subjects improved significantly more than the control
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group subjects, we can say that the drug is effective. We can also compare
the conditions of the high-and low-dosage experimental groups to
determine if a high dose is more effective than a low dose.
➢ Treatment manipulation. Treatments are the unique feature of
experimental research that sets this design apart from all other research
methods. Treatment manipulation helps control for the "cause" in cause-
effect relationships. Naturally, the validity of experimental research
depends on how well the treatment was manipulated Treatment
manipulation must be checked using protests and pilot tests prior to the
experimental study. Any measurements conducted before the treatment is
administered are called protest measures, while those conducted after the
treatment are called posttest measures
➢ Random selection and assignment. Random selection is the process of
randomly drawing a sample from a population or a sampling frame. This
approach is typically employed in survey research and assures that each unit
in the population has a positive chance of being selected into the sample.
Random assignment is, however, a process of randomly assigning subjects
to experimental or control groups. This is a standard practice observed in
true experimental research to ensure that treatment groups are similar
(equivalent) to each other and to the control group prior to treatment
administration Random selection is related to sampling and is therefore
more closely related to the external validity (generalizability) of findings.
However, random assignment is related to design and is therefore most
related to internal validity. It is possible to have both random selection and
random assignment in well-designed experimental research, but quasi-
experimental research involves neither random selection nor random
assignment.
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 83-83
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

The unique strength of experimental research is its internal validity (causality) 6. Official Statistics
that is due to its ability to link cause and effect through treatment manipulation
The use and analysis of official statistics for purposes of social research is
while controlling for the spurious effect of extraneous variable. Nonetheless,
another alternative to collecting quantitative data. Official statistics offer social
experimental research also has its own limitations and weaknesses. Bhattacherjee
researchers certain advantages over some other forms of quantitative data
(2012) identifies four key problems of experimental research.
• The data have already been collected. Therefore, as with other kinds of
• First, though experimental research requires theories for framing
secondary analysis of data, considerable time and expense may be saved.
hypotheses for testing, much of current experimental research atheoretical.
Also, the data may not be based on samples, so that complete picture can
Without theories, the hypotheses being tested tend be ad hoc, possibly
be obtained.
illogical, and meaningless.
• Since the people who are the source of the data are not ben asked questions
• Second, many of the measurement instruments used in experimental
that are part of a research project, the problem reactivity will be much less
research are not tested for reliability and validity and are incomparable
pronounced than when data are collected by interview or questionnaire.
across studies. Consequently, results generated using such instruments are
• There is the prospect of analyzing the data both cross-sectionally and
also incomparable.
longitudinally. When analyzing the data cross-sectionally. we co examine
• Third, many experimental research use inappropriate research designs,
crime rates and indeed the incidence of specific crimes terms of such
such as irrelevant dependent variables, no interaction effects, no
variables as social class, income, ethnicity, age. and region Such analysis
experimental controls, and nonequivalent stimulus across treatment
allows us to search for the factors that are associated with crime or
groups. Findings from such studies tend to lack internal validity and are
unemployment. Also, we can analyze e data over time. Precisely because
highly suspect.
the data are compiled over many years, it is possible to chart trends over
• Fourth, the treatments (tasks) used in experimental research may be time and perhaps to rotate these to wider social changes.
diverse, Incomparable, and inconsistent across studies and sometimes
• There is the prospect as well of cross-cultural analysis since the official
inappropriate for the subject population. For instance, undergraduate
statistics from different nation states can be compared for a specific area of
student subjects are often asked to pretend that they are marketing
activity
managers and perform a complex budget allocation task in which they have
no experience or expertise. The use of such inappropriate tasks introduces Source: Bryman 2008, 304
new threats to internal validity (i.e. subject's performance may be an
One of the known advantages of the use of official statistics is that they can
artifact of the content or difficulty of the task setting), generates findings
be classified as a form of unobtrusive measure or unobtrusive method. An
that are non interpretable and meaningless, and makes integration of
unobtrusive measure is any method of observation that directly removes the
findings across studies impossible.
observer from the set of interactions or events being studied (Denzin 1970 in
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 92 Bryman, 2008, 309)

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

7. Content Analysis
Content analysis is another data collection method in quantitative research.
Figure 1. Content Analysis Flowchart
It is an approach to the analysis of documents and texts that seeks to quantify
in Quantitative and Qualitative Research Design
content in terms of predetermined categories and in a systematic and replicable
manner" (Byrman, 2008, 275). Qualitative Model (Inductive)
Bauer (2000), however, described content analysis as a hybrid technique
which has always, even when performed quantitatively, been an implicitly Refine Codes
hybridized approach to inquiry." The quote below is an elucidation of his position: Generate Meta-codes
While most classical content analyses culminate in numerical
descriptions of some features of the text corpus, considerable thought Analyze Generate Codes Memo Notes
is given to the "kinds," "qualities," and "distinctions" in the text before Additional Data (Literal to Abstract)
any quantification takes place. In this way, content analysis bridges
statistical formalism and the qualitative analysis of the materials. In the
quantity! quality divide in social research, content analysis is a hybrid Topical Area Representation
technique that can mediate in this unproductive dispute over virtues
and methods (Hesse-Biber & Leavy, 2011, 132,233).

Figure 1 presents the quantitative and qualitative approaches to content Analyze Subset of Data
analysis. The key difference is in research design-the quantitative approach is largely
deductive and follows a linear model of research design, while the qualitative
approach is mainly inductive and follows a spiral model of research design (Hesse- Reanalyze Data
Biber and Leavy, 2011, 234). Analyze Additional Data

Embodied Interpretation

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

and multimethod studies Through these data, content analysis has contributed to
social policy.
Quantitative Model (Deductive)
Second, the quantitative practice of content analysis consisting of
1. Research Question and Hypotheses examining patterns and themes within the objects produced in a given culture,
analyzing preexisting data to expose and unravel macro processes, and presenting
their findings on easily readable charts and tables has been significant when getting
2. Conceptualization (what valuables are used and how they will be defined) public attention to systemic practices of inequality and when attempting to change
public policy.
3. Operational Measures (aimed at gaining internal validity and face validity)
Third, the quantitative practice of content analysis has also contributed to
3a. Unit of Analysis
knowledge about social inequality by becoming the standard method for analyzing
3b. Measurement categories can be exhaustive and mutually exclusive or a
the role of mass-produced texts in the socialization process.
priority
And fourth, traditional content analysis has been used to help shape social
4. Coding policy by calling attention to systemic inequalities in need of change, How we collect
our data is crucial to analysis and interpretation. The next discussion introduces you
to the use of statistics in research.
5. Sampling (ramdomly sampling a subset of content)

6. Reliability Methods of Secondary Data Collection

Can use: Two codes for Intercoder reliability or computer program for validation
7. If reliability was
determined by hand (step 6) then apply a statistical check
8. Tabulation and Representation
Secondary data is the data that is collected from the primary sources
which can be used in the current research study. Collecting secondary data often
takes considerably less time than collecting primary data where you would have to
gather every information from scratch. It is thus possible to gather more data this
way.
Secondary data can be obtained from two different research strands –

• Quantitative: Census, housing, social security as well as electoral

With content analysis, social scientists have contributed to knowledge in
statistics and other related databases.
significant ways. shown
• Qualitative: Semi-structured and structured interviews, focus groups
First, through content analysis, quantitative researchers have the value of transcripts, field notes, observation records and other personal, research-
the method in gaining hard data" about macro phenomena n both single method related documents.

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Secondary data is often readily available. After the expense of electronic
media and internet the availability of secondary data has become much easier.
• Published Printed Sources: There are varieties of published printed
sources.
• Books: Books are available today on any topic that you want to
research.
• Journals/periodicals: Journals and periodicals are becoming more important
as far as data collection is concerned.
• Magazines/Newspapers: Magazines are also effective but not very reliable.
Newspapers on the other hand are more reliable and in some cases the
information can only be obtained from newspapers as in the case of some
political studies.
• Published Electronic Sources: Today, almost every journal and book is
available online. Some are free and for others you have to pay the price.
• e-journals: e-journals are more commonly available than printed
journals.
• General Websites: Generally websites do not contain very reliable
information so their content should be checked for the reliability before
quoting from them.
• Weblogs: Weblogs are actually diaries written by different people. These
diaries are as reliable to use as personal written diaries.
• Unpublished Personal Records: Some unpublished data may also be useful
in some cases.
• Diaries: Diaries are personal records and are rarely available but if you are
conducting a descriptive research then they might be very useful.
• Letters: Letters like diaries are also a rich source but should be checked for
their reliability before using them.
• Government Records: Government records are very important for
marketing, management, humanities and social science research.
• Census Data/population statistics: Health records; Educational institutes’
records etc.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
• Public Sector Records: NGOs’ survey data; Other private companies records
Use of Statistical Analysis in Quantitative Research
Statistics is an integral part of quantitative research. As a discipline, it can be
defined in varied ways.
• First, it can be defined as the overall domain concerned with the
mathematical treatment of variability. In this sense, the term is used in the
singular form to refer to a general, unitary field of endeavor.
• A second way in which the term can be defined is as a subset of the global
domain. This subset is theoretical or mathematical statistics, that branch
of statistics concerned with the use of mathematical principles and
probability theory in the development and testing of methodology for the
treatment of variability. The use of postulates, theorems, axioms, and
logical proofs forms the heart of this branch of the statistical enterprise. In
this sense, the term is also used in the singular form to refer to a unitary
field of endeavor.
• A third way in which the term can be defined is as a second subset of the
general domain of statistics. This subset is applied statistics. Applied
statistics, a term also used in the singular form, refers to the employment
of already developed and accepted statistical methodology as an aid in the
research effort. In this sense, statistics is concerned with three major sets
of activities: (a) the use of decision making systems for selecting the
appropriate statistical procedure for a given research problem; (b) the use
of modern computer technology for the implementation of the procedure;
and (c) the use of decision making systems for interpreting the results of
statistical analysis in the context of the modern research endeavor.
• Finally, in the plural form, the term statistics can be defined as those
specific procedures developed by statisticians for the mathematical
treatment of variability (Martinez-Pons, 1999, 9).
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

In this textbook, the term statistics is used in the applied sense and in the Univariate statistics include (1) frequency distribution, (2) central tendency, and (3)
singular form (third way) where statistics is concerned with the application of dispersion.
accepted statistical procedures as an ald in the research effort, and in the plural
1. The frequency distribution of a variable is a summary of the frequency (or
form as specific statistical procedures used in modern research.
percentages) of individual values or ranges of values for that variable.
Statistics operates at two different levels, namely, descriptive and inferential
2. Central tendency is an estimate of the center of a distribution of values
statistics. At the descriptive level, the goal is the treatment of variability in the case
of samples. At the inferential level, the goal is to test the validity of generalizations There are three major estimates of central tendency: mean, median, and
from samples to populations (Martinez-Pons 1999, 18). mode. The arithmetic mean (often simply called the "mean") is the simple
average of all values in a given distribution. The median is the middle value
The difference between descriptive and inferential statistics is that the latter
within a range of values in a distribution... [It is computed by sorting all values
functions to test inferences derived from sample findings, while the former is used
in a distribution in increasing order and selecting the middle value. In case
for the treatment of variability in samples. A researcher is using descriptive statistics
there are two middle values (if there is an even number of values in a
if he/she "stops after looking at a finite data set to numerically delineate some
distribution), the average of the two middle values represent the median.
variable or to portray, explain, or predict variability." A researcher is using inferential
Lastly, the mode is the most frequently occurring value in a distribution of
statistics if he/she attempts to see how far he/she can go in generalizing statistical
values.
findings to groups other than those examined (Martinez-Pons 1999, 10). Descriptive
and inferential statistics are two statistical tools that can be used to analyze numeric 3. Dispersion refers to the way values are spread around the central tendency,
data collected in a research quantitatively, for example, how tightly or how widely are the values clustered around the
mean. Two common measures of dispersion are the range and standard
Descriptive analysis and inferential statistics are two statistical tools that can be
deviation. The range is the difference between the highest and lowest values
used to analyze numeric data collected in a research quantitatively. Descriptive
in a distribution. Standard deviation, the second measure of dispersion,
analysis "refers to statistically describing, aggregating, and presenting the constructs
corrects for such outliers by using a formula that takes into account how close
of interest or associations between these constructs," while inferential analysis
or how far each value is from the distribution mean.
"refers to the statistical testing o hypotheses (theory testing)" (Bhattacherjee 2012,
119)

Descriptive Statistics
Under descriptive statistics, you can do univariate analysis as well as where σ is the standard deviation, x' is the ith observation (or value), μ is
bivariate analysis. Univariate analysis, or analysis of a single variable refers to a set the arithmetic mean, is the total number of observations and Ʃ means summation
of statistical techniques that can describe the general properties of one variable.

35

across all observations. The square of the standard deviation is called the variance
of a distribution (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 121-122)
Whereas univariate analysis focuses on a single variable, bivariate analysis
examines how two variables are related to each other. The most common bivariate
statistic is the bivariate correlation (often simply called correlation"). Signified by a
number between - 1 and +1 denoting the strength of the relationship between two
variables, bivariate correlation is the statistical procedure associated with the
correlation model when two variables are involved" and "can involve continuous X
and Y variables, as well as categorical Xs and Ys" (Martinez-Pons 1999, 46).
Another useful way of presenting bivariate data is through a cross
tabulation (often abbreviated as cross-tab and sometimes called more formally as a
contingency table). A cross-tab is a table that describes the frequency (or
percentage) of all combinations of two or more nominal or categorical variables.
Inferential Statistics
While this module stops at bivariate correlation as the main focus of the
syllabus on data collection and analysis, the discussion on inferential statistics is
included to make you aware that there are statistical tests and procedures aimed at
hypothesis testing.
In contrast to descriptive statistics, inferential statistics are the statistical
procedures that are used to reach conclusions about associations between
variables, They differ from descriptive statistics in that they are explicitly designed
to test hypotheses. Numerous statistical procedures fall in this category, most of
which are supported by modern statistical software such as SPSS and SAS"
(Bhattacherjee, 2012, 129).
In inferential statistics, hypothesis testing is the process through which you
test generalizations from samples to populations. A hypothesis "states something
about whether what is true of the sample is also true of the population from which
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
the sample was drawn. This statement can take one of two forms: the null form and
the alternative form. The difference betweenthe two forms is crucial because it
determines the logic of the procedure you used to test the generalization"
(Martinez-Pons, 1999, 46).
Two-group comparison is one of the simplest inferential analyses. Below is its
definition.
[A two-group comparison] It is done by comparing the posttest
outcomes of treatment and control group subjects in a randomized
posttest only control group design, such as whether students enrolled
to a special program in mathematics perform better than those in a
traditional math curriculum. In this case, the predictor variable is a
dummy variable (1 = treatment group, 0 = control group), and the
outcome variable, performance, is ratio-scaled (e.g., score of a math
test following the special program). The analytic technique for this
simple design is a one way Analysis of Variance or ANOVA (one-way
because it involves only one predictor variable), and the statistical test
used is called a student's t-test (or t-test, in short). The t-test examines
whether the means of two groups are statistically different from each
other (non directional or two tailed test), or whether one group has a
statistically larger (or smaller) mean than the other (directional or one-
tailed test).
Source: Bhattacherjee, 2012, 132
Other useful inferential statistical techniques include factor analysis,
discriminant analysis, regression analysis, path analysis, and time-series analysis. A
description of each technique is provided in the table below. Training and skills for
these inferential statistical techniques are beyond the scope of this textbook.
Nonetheless, it is part of your research training to know that other useful data
analysis techniques are available.
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Table 3
Inferential Statistical Techniques and Their Key Features

Techniques Description

Factor Analysis Factor analysis is a data reduction technique that is used to statistically aggregate a large number of observed measures (items) into a smaller
set of unobserved (latent) variables, called factors, based on their underlying bivariate correlation patterns. This technique is widely used for
assessment of convergent and discriminant validity in multi-item measurement scales in social science research.

Discriminant Analysis Discriminant analysis is a classificatory technique that aims to place a given observation in one of several nominal categories based on a linear
combination of predictor variables. The technique is similar to multiple regression, except that the dependent variable is nominal. It is popular
in marketing applications, such as for classifying customers or products into categories based on salient attributes as identified from large-scale
surveys.

Logistics regression Logistic regression (or logit model) is a general linear model (GLM) in which the outcome variable is binary (0 or 1) and is presumed to follow a
logistic distribution. The goal of the regression analysis is to predict the probability of the successful outcome by fitting data into a logistic curve.
(or logit model)
An example is predicting the probability of heart attack within a specific period, based on predictors such as age, body mass index, exercise
regimen, and so forth. Logistic regression is extremely popular in the medical sciences. Effect size estimation is based on an "odds ratio,"
representing the odds of an event occurring in one group versus the other.

Probit regression Probit regression (or probit model) is a GLM in which the outcome variable can vary between 0 and 1 (or can assume discrete values 0 and 1)
and is presumed to follow a standard normal distribution. The goal of the regression is to predict the probability of each outcome. This is a
(or probit model)
popular technique for predictive analysis in the actuarial science, financial services, insurance, and other industries for applications such as
credit scoring based on a person's credit rating, salary, debt, and other information from his/her loan application. Probit and logit regression
tend to demonstrate similar regression coefficients in comparable applications (binary outcomes). However, the logit model is easier to
compute and interpret.

Path Analysis Path analysis is a multivariate GLM technique for analyzing directional relationships among a set of variables. It allows for examination of
complex nomological models where the dependent variable in one equation is the independent variable in another equation. It is widely used
in contemporary social science research.

Discriminant Analysis Time series analysis is a technique for analyzing time series data or variables that continually changes with time. Examples of applications
include forecasting stock market fluctuations and urban crime rates. This technique is popular in econometrics, mathematical finance, and
signal processing. Special techniques are used to correct for auto-correlation, or correlation within values of the same variable across time.

37
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

ACTIVITY 1: Comparison and Contrast

References

Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to Directions: Using the table below, compare and contrast each pair of expressions.
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Types of Quantitative Data Collection pp 149-
157. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Pair of Expressions Comparison Contrast
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Use of Statistical Analysis in Quantitative
Quantitative data vs.
Research. pp 148-163. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Qualitative data
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/325846997_METHODS_OF_DATA_COLLECTION#:~:text=
Data%20collection%20is%20the%20process,hypotheses%2C%20and%20evaluate%20outcomes. Interview vs.
Kabir, Syed Muhammad. (2016). Methods of Data Collection. Questionnaire

Primary vs. Secondary

Data Collection

Important RATING: Deductive vs. Inductive

RemInderS
Inferential vs.
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other activity
(ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper. Descriptive Statistics
• If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s), pictures,
pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email at
____________________________________________ following this format:
(SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME e.g. ACTIVITY 2
IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from your
flash drive together with this activity sheet.
Directions: Check the right column that corresponds to the given questions.

Opening Generative Directive Closing

Name: Interview Questions
Questions Questions Questions Questions
_______________________________________________________________
Grade Level & Section: _______________________________________________ 1. Is there anything
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ____________________ you want me to know
more about your
meeting with the
Pope that you failed
to reveal to me?

38
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

2. Can you describe and the current

your feelings upon
seeing the Pope?
3. We have agreed to
have this session in
30 minutes. Is this
okay with you
Pope?
10. What do you
think was the most
significant thing that
we dealt with in the
interview?

4. What makes you so

eager to see the
Vatican City, soon? MODULE 1: Assessment
5. What time of the Instructions: Answer the following questions briefly and succinctly.
year do you want to
go to Rome? 1. What are the differences between the survey method plan and the
experimental method plan of doin quantitative research? List as many
6. You took a taxi cab differences as you can.
in coming here, didn’t
you? Survey Method
7. Why do you think
the Pope love visiting
many countries?

8. Would you like

sitting at the window
or near the bulletin
board?

9. Compare and
contrast your
experience in
meeting the previous

39

Content Analysis or Experimental Method
MODULE 2: Assessment
Directions: Based on what you learned about interview questions find out if the
following interview questions are effective. Give reasons for your answer.
1. Would you mind telling me all the events again, then give me what took place
right after the last event?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
2. Tell me something about the UCLA’s SPSS and STATA statistical techniques.
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
3. Why don’t you preoccupy yourself mulling over the expediency of having a
merrymaking day with those waifs living with the high-strung, supercilious,
cantankerous woman?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
4. Oh, you are in time for our session. Didn’t you find this place easy to locate?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
5. As a starting question, please tell me why you refuse to attend your Religion
subject?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
6. Do you find your Math subject difficult and what about having some tutorial
lessons about it?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
7. What question did I fail to ask that you think I should have asked?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

8. Why do you not like yourself to be identified as Maria Salome when this name
sounds unique and nicer than your present name, Janette Nicole Angelina?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

9. My first question is, what do you think of the extent of corruption that has
been going on in some government offices?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

10. Let me end this session by asking you this question, how did you reach this
place?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________

41
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

✓ How you analyzed your data

Formulating a Research
SECOND QUARTER
✓ Any tools or materials you used in the research
MODULE Methodology ✓ Your rationale for choosing these methods

11
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Define the meaning of research methodology.
• Identify the guidelines in writing a research methodology.
• Explain the tips of writing the research methodology.
INCLUSIVE DATE:
• Evaluate the key components in writing a quantitative research proposal.
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS:
• What are the guidelines in writing a research methodology?
• What are the key components in writing a quantitative research?
Overview
In research, the research process is as important as the research content.
Thus, a research repost must also contain a description of the research strategy. The
readers will be interested in finding how you arrived at a particular study result.
In a quantitative research, methods would generally contain the
participants (demographics, selection criteria, etc.), the instruments, a discussion of
validity and reliability, and the procedures undertaken (Melegrito, 2016, 241).
Guidelines in Writing a Research Methodology
The methodology chapter explains what you did and how you did it,
allowing readers to evaluate the reliability and validity of the research. It should
include:
✓ The type of research you did
✓ How you collected your data
The methodology section should generally be written in the past tense.
Step 1: Explain your methodological approach
Begin by introducing your overall approach to the research.
What research problem or question did you investigate? For example, did you
aim to systematically describe the characteristics of something, to explore an under-
researched topic, or to establish a cause-and-effect relationship? And what type of
data did you need to achieve this aim?
• Did you need quantitative data (expressed in numbers) or qualitative
data (expressed in words)?
• Did you need to collect primary data yourself, or did you use secondary data
that was collected by someone else?
• Did you gather experimental data by controlling and manipulating variables,
or descriptive data by gathering observations without intervening?
Depending on your discipline and approach, you might also begin with a
discussion of the rationale and assumptions underpinning your methodology.
• Why is this the most suitable approach to answering your research
questions?
• Is this a standard methodology in your field or does it require justification?
• Were there any ethical or philosophical considerations?
• What are the criteria for validity and reliability in this type of research?
In a quantitative experimental study, you might aim to produce generalizable
knowledge about the causes of a phenomenon. Valid research requires a carefully
designed study under controlled conditions that can be replicated by other
researchers.

42

Step 2: Describe your methods of data collection
Once you have introduced your overall methodological approach, you should
give full details of your data collection methods.
In quantitative research, for valid generalizable results, you should describe
your methods in enough detail for another researcher to replicate your study.
Explain how you operationalized concepts and measured your variables;
your sampling method or inclusion/exclusion criteria; and any tools, procedures and
materials you used to gather data.
Surveys
Describe where, when and how the survey was conducted.
• How did you design the questions and what form did they take (e.g. multiple
choice, Likert scale)?
• What sampling method did you use to select participants?
• Did you conduct surveys by phone, mail, online or in person, and how long
did participants have to respond?
• What was the sample size and response rate?
You might want to include the full questionnaire as an appendix so that your
reader can see exactly what data was collected.
Experiments
Give full details of the tools, techniques, and procedures you used to conduct
the experiment.
• How did you design the experiment?
• How did you recruit participants?
• How did you manipulate and measure the variables?
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
• What tools or technologies did you use in the experiment?
In experimental research, it is especially important to give enough detail for
another researcher to reproduce your results.
Existing data
Explain how you gathered and selected material (such as publications or archival
data) for inclusion in your analysis.
• Where did you source the material?
• How was the data originally produced?
• What criteria did you use to select material (e.g. date range)?
Quantitative methods example
The survey consisted of 5 multiple-choice questions and 10 questions that
were measured on a 7-point Likert scale. The aim was to conduct the survey with
350 customers of Company X on the company premises in The Hague from 4-8
July 2017 between 11:00 and 15:00. A customer was defined as a person who
had purchased a product from Company X on the day of questioning. Participants
were given 5 minutes to fill in the survey anonymously, and 408 customers
responded. Because not all surveys were fully completed, 371 survey results were
included in the analysis.
Step 3: Describe your methods of analysis
Next, you should indicate how you processed and analyzed the data. Avoid
going into too much detail—you should not start presenting or discussing any of
your results at this stage.
In quantitative research, your analysis will be based on numbers. In the methods
section you might include:
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

• How you prepared the data before analyzing it (e.g. checking for missing Tips for Writing A Strong Methodology
data, removing outliers, transforming variables)
Remember that your aim is not just to describe your methods, but to show
• Which software you used to analyze the data (e.g. SPSS, Stata or R)
how and why you applied them and to demonstrate that your research was
• Which statistical tests you used (e.g. two-tailed t-test, simple linear
rigorously conducted.
regression)

Quantitative methods example

Focus on your objectives and research questions
Before analysis the gathered data was prepared. The dataset was
The methodology section should clearly show why your methods suit
checked for missing data and outliers. For this the “outlier labeling rule” was
your objectives and convince the reader that you chose the best possible approach
used. All values outside the calculated range were considered outliers
to answering your problem statement and research questions. Throughout the
(Hoaglin & Iglewicz, 1987). The data was then analyzed using statistical
section, relate your choices back to the central purpose of your dissertation.
software SPSS.

Cite relevant sources

Step 4: Evaluate and justify your methodological choices
Your methodology should make the case for why you chose these particular
methods, especially if you did not take the most standard approach to your topic.
Discuss why other methods were not suitable for your objectives and show how this
approach contributes new knowledge or understanding.
You can acknowledge limitations or weaknesses in the approach you chose
but justify why these were outweighed by the strengths.
Lab-based experiments can’t always accurately simulate real-life
situations and behaviors, but they are effective for testing causal
relationships between variables. Unstructured interviews usually
produce results that cannot be generalized beyond the sample group,
but they provide a more in-depth understanding of participants’
perceptions, motivations and emotions.
Your methodology can be strengthened by reference to existing research in the
field, either to:
• Confirm that you followed established practices for this type of research
• Discuss how you evaluated different methodologies and decided on your
approach
• Show that you took a novel methodological approach to address a gap in
the literature
Write for your audience
Consider how much information you need to give, and don’t go into unnecessary
detail. If you are using methods that are standard for your discipline, you probably
don’t need to give lots of background or justification. But if you take an approach
that is less common in your field, you might need to explain and justify your
methodological choices.

44

In either case, your methodology should be a clear, well-structured text that makes
an argument for your approach, not just a list of technical details and procedures.
Discuss obstacles
If you encountered difficulties in collecting or analyzing data, explain how
you dealt with them. Show how you minimized the impact of any unexpected
obstacles. Pre-empt any major critiques of your approach and demonstrate that you
made the research as rigorous as possible.
Writing A Quantitative Research Proposal
Table 1.
Template for the Quantitative Research Proposal
Parts Components Description
Preliminary Title Page Includes the title of the research, author,
Part institutional affiliation research, and date
Abstract Summarizes the contents of the research
paper, comprised of the objective of the
research study, research problem, research
question, and research methodology which
should contain the design, sample, and
instruments to be applied; identification of
the independent and dependent variables and
target population
Table of Lists the different sections and subsections of
Contents the research paper with the page numbers;
includes the list of tables, list of figures, titles,
references, and appendices
List of Tables Mentions the tables and the pages of each
table
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
List of Figures Mentions the figures and the pages of each
figure
Introductory Background Covers a synopsis of significant literature
Part (within five years) and tackles how the
problem has progressed; contains social
context, significant variables, concepts, and
principles that reinforce the research
Problem "Defined as the issue that exists in the
Statement literature, theory, or practice that leads to a
need for the study (Creswell, 1994,50)"
Summarizes the context for the study" and
the main problem the study seeks to address
(Wiersma, 1995, 404)
Purpose Should follow the problem statement and
Statement state the focus and objective of the proposed
research
Significance of Covers the contributions of the study to the
the Study discipline and the importance of the study to a
specific area or population.
Research Should be taken from the problem and
Questions objective statements; should mention
relationships between two or more variables;
should be testable which means we can
gather data to answer the question; no ethical
or moral problem for implementation. Should
be specific.
Example: Mike is corrupt that is why he lost in
the election
Research A well-framed hypothesis must have the
Hypotheses in following characteristics: (a) the hypothesis
Null Form state the relationship between variables; (b)
the hypothesis is testable; (c) the hypothesis is
stated simply and concisely as possible; and
(d) the hypothesis is founded on the problem

statement and supported by research (Bartos,
1992)
The hypothesis in null form (there is no
relationship) directly influences the statistical
procedures used since each hypothesis should
be tested.
Identification Identification of key variables used in the
of Variables research
Assumptions Present each of your statements relative to
and the sampling frame, design, and other
Limitations important aspects of the study
Review of Comprises of three parts: the introduction,
Related the review of literature, and summary. This is
Literature followed by the theoretical framework which
includes: (a) an introductory paragraph
outlining the organization of the chapter; (b) a
description of the conceptual or theoretical;
(c) a critical, coherent argument that leads to
a description of the present study (Chapter 3);
and (d) a conclusion or summary that briefly
reviews the key points of the existing
literature and identifies the gap in the
literature that the present study seeks to fill
Methodology Introduction Brief statement on the nature and purpose of
the study
Participants Describes the nature of the population (size,
characteristics), the sampling frame (lists
where to get the sample), and the sampling
procedures
Setting The setting of the study should be described
(barangay system, university system, policy
system, a program, etc.)
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Instrumentation Identifies and describes the tests, surveys,
questionnaires, observational protocols, and
other measurements, as well as
appropriateness, reliability, validity, and origin
Procedure Outlines the process of undertaking the study,
including drawing participants to the study,
conducting pilot study, seeking approval for
use of materials, administration of the study
and others. These must be appended in the
report.
Design Identifies and describes the research design
and how you will implement the design
(example: "A causal comparative research
design will be used to determine if students'
social presence (SP), cognitive presence (CP),
teaching presence (TP), and perceived
learning differed based upon the type of CMC
system used in the online courses.")
Data Analysis Identifies the type of data analysis used and
describes the rationale for the type of analysis
The chosen statistical procedure should be
consistent with the research questions,
hypotheses, and type of data collected It
would help to organize the discussion with the
research hypotheses, explaining how each will
be analyzed
References References within the text should be listed
using the most recent referencing style
(example: the American Psychological
Association (APA) style or the Turabian style)
Appendices Appendices may include those that are
included in the procedures and other sections
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

References

Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to ABSTRACT
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Writing a Quantitative Research Proposal pp 220-
224. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. The crucial role of language in the improvement of man’s critical
thinking in this era of globalization, multiculturalism, knowledge explosion, or
McCombes, Shona. (2020, July 31). How To Write A Research Methodology. Retrieved from modern technology prodded several professionals, academicians, and graduate-
https://www.scribbr.com/dissertation/methodology/
school students to conduct research studies on language teaching and learning,
specifically, on language theories and pedagogical practices related to
communicative approach and functional grammar. (Freeman & Anderson, 2012)
One modern grammar theory this study assumed as the theoretical
Important underpinning of any language teaching and learning methodology that zeroes in
RemInderS on critical thinking, a higher-order thinking strategy that every nation in this
contemporary world needs to progress economically and politically, is the SFG
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other or Systemic Functional Grammar. The results showed that the ideas behind the
activity (ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper. Systemic Functional Grammar were likewise the ones applied in language
• If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s),
pictures, pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email teaching and learning activities infusing critical thinking. The SFG concepts: (1)
at germanvertudez1211gmail.com following this format: multi-functionality of clauses, (2) grammar structures linked with
(SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME e.g. communicative functions, (3) interactive activities (4) contextualized exercises,
IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from
your flash drive together with this activity sheet. (5) stressed macro-function of language, (6) exercises giving wide latitude of
choice and, (7) use of discourse as the dominant language structure would
Name: ____________________________________________________________ trigger off critical-thinking acts like: comparing, classifying, patterning, planning,
Grade Level & Section: _______________________________________________ critiquing, hypothesizing, and reasoning inductively or deductively. (Bloor 1995;
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ____________________ Eggins 1994; Halliday 1994, 2004, 2009) Validating the impact of the SFG theory
on developing excellent communicators and reasonable or logical thinkers for
global progress is the contribution of this paper to the field of language teaching
ACTIVITY 1: Evaluating Abstract and learning.
Directions: Find out if the following abstract of a research paper is in keeping with
your concepts about abstract writing. Write the results of your critical evaluation
on the lines provided.

47
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

CRITICAL EVALUATION ___________________________________________________

___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________
MODULE 1: Assessment
___________________________________________________________
Directions: Without going back to the text, compare and contrast each given pair
___________________________________________________________
of expressions.
___________________________________________________________ Words in Pairs Comparison Contrast

Surveys vs Experiment
methods

ACTIVITY 2: Knowledege Abstract vs Introduction

INSTRUCTIONS: Silverman (2001) suggested that for you to be able to answer
methodological questions, you have to be knowledgeable of six things What are
these? Table of Contents vs List
of Tables

___________________________________________________ Research Hypothesis vs

___________________________________________________ Research Questions
___________________________________________________
Assumptions vs.
___________________________________________________ Limitations
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________

48
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

MODULE 2: Assessment
______________ 9. Includes the title of the research, author, institutional
affiliation research, and date
IDENTIFICATION: Write the letter of your answer before the number.
______________ 10. Summarizes the contents of the research paper,
______________ 1. Describes the nature of the population (size, comprised of the objective of the research study, etc.
characteristics), the sampling frame (lists where to get the
sample), and the sampling procedures

______________ 2. Outlines the process of undertaking the study, including

drawing participants to the study, conducting pilot study,
seeking approval for use of materials, administration of the
study and others.

______________ 3. Covers the contributions of the study to the

discipline and the importance of the study to a
specific area or population.

______________ 4. It may include those that are included in the procedures

and other sections

______________ 5. It should be listed using the most recent referencing

style like the APA or the Turabian style.

______________ 6. Lists the different sections and subsections of the

research paper with the page numbers; includes the list of
tables, list of figures, titles, references, and appendices

______________ 7. Identifies and describes the tests, surveys,

questionnaires, observational protocols, and other
measurements, as well as appropriateness, reliability,
validity, and origin

______________ 8. Comprises of three parts: the introduction, the review of

literature, and summary.

49

SECOND QUARTER
Data Collection Tools and
MODULE
Instruments
12
INCLUSIVE DATE:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Explain the rules in constructing quantitative data collection tools or
instruments.
• Identify the strengths and limitations of using a questionnaire vis-à-vis
a structured interview.
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS:
• What are the standard rules in constructing data collection
instruments such as questionnaire surveys and interview
schedules?
• What are the advantages and limitations of these data
collection instruments or tools?
Overview
As discussed in previous chapters, survey research is a research method
involving the use of standardized questionnaires or interviews to collect data about
people and their preferences, thoughts, and behaviors in a systematic manner. It
has strengths that are simply missing in other methods. It can be conducted in two
broad ways: questionnaire surveys (which may be mail-in, self-administered, or
online) and interview surveys (which may be personal, telephone, or focus group
interviews). Questionnaires are instruments that are completed in writing by
respondents, while interviews are completed by the interviewer based on verbal
responses provided by respondents (Bhattacherjee 2012, 74).
In this lesson, you will learn about these two data collection techniques that
are used in survey research. In particular, you will learn how to design a Structured
interview schedule and a self-completion questionnaire. The two techniques are
similar except in a structured interview, there is an interviewer who reads aloud the
50
ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
question to the respondents. The self-completion questionnaire is literally one that
should be completed by the respondent therefore, it has no need for the researcher
or interviewer In doing a survey, a researcher needs to make a decision on the kind
of population that fits the investigation of the topic. He/She also needs to formulate
a research instrument and choose how it should be administered By research
instrument, we mean a structured interview schedule or a sell completion
questionnaire (Bryman, 2008).
Structured Interview
A structured interview is also called a standardized interview. It entails the
administration of an interview schedule by an interviewer, that is o the researcher
or anyone trained to administer the interview schedule (Bryman 2008,193).
The aim of a structured interview is for all interviewees to be given exactly
the same context of questioning. It means that each respondent receives exactly the
same interview stimulus as any other in order to ensure that interviewees' replies
can be aggregated. To be able to aggregate the interviewees' replies, it is important
that interviewees are responding to identical cues or questions (Bryman 2008,193).
In a structured interview, interviewers are supposed to read aloud
questions exactly as they are written and in the same order as they are printed on
the schedule. Questions are usually very specific, and very often, a fixed range of
answers (called closed, closed-need, precoded, or fixed choice are provided and
from which the respondent chooses his/her response. In survey research, the
structured interview is the typical form of interview that is applied by quantitative
researchers (Bryman 2008,193).
Refer to the summary discussion of the differences between structured
interview in quantitative research and qualitative interview in qualitative research
in the previous chapter. You will be able to appreciate each data collection
technique if the nature and extent of the differences between the two are
understood.
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

The construction of the structured interview should be taken seriously. With to minimize the risk that respondents will fail to follow filter questions or will
a flawed interview schedule, you may not be able to find the evidence that will allow inadvertently omit a question. The “easy-to follow and answer” design of a
you to answer your research question/s. questionnaire is essential to reduce the risk of respondent fatigue” which happens
when a respondent becomes tired of answering questions in a long questionnaire
The following are some of the common sources of error in the construction
and just aborts answering the questionnaire (Bryman 2008,216-217)
of an interview schedule:
Compared with the structured interview, a self-administered questionnaire
1. a poorly worded question
has the following advantages:
2. the way the question is asked by the interviewer
1. cheaper to administer
3. misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee 2. quicker to administer
3. absence of interviewer effect
4. memory problems on the part of the interviewee 4. no interviewer variability
5. the way the information is recorded by the interviewer 5. convenience of respondents

6. the way the information is processed SOURCE: Bryman, 2008, 217-218

SOURCE: Bryman 2004, 193
Self-Completion Questionnaire
A self-completion questionnaire is sometimes referred to as a self-
administered questionnaire. In many ways, the self-completion questionnaire and
the interview schedule are very similar methods of social research. The obvious
difference is that the self-completion questionnaire has no interviewer to read the
questions to the respondents. Respondents must read the questions themselves
and answer the questions themselves, hence the label self-completion or self-
administered (Bryman 2008, 216-217).
A self-completed questionnaire has fewer open questions. Since it will be
completed by the respondent, the questionnaire must be designed in such a way
that the respondent will have ease in answering the questions on his/her own.
Hence, the questionnaire has lesser number of open questions and more closed
questions because the latter tend to be easier to answer. This is important in order
Like any other research instruments, the self-administered questionnaire
has some disadvantages. The list on the next page identifies a number of these
disadvantages.
1. A self-administered questionnaire cannot prompt, probe, or questions that
are not salient to respondents.
2. There is a difficulty in asking other kinds of questions
3. The questionnaire may be answered by someone other than targeted
respondent.
4. The questionnaire cannot collect additional data since it is difficult to ask lots
of questions.
5. Questions may not be appropriate for some kinds of respondents hence,
there is a greater risk of missing data and lower response.
SOURCE: Bryman, 2008, 217-218
Given the disadvantages of the self-administered questionnaire, it is
important that you design your questionnaire in such a way that it allows the

51

respondent to answer the questionnaire on his/her own and reduces the chances
of him/her not answering all the questions, or worst, of him/her asking someone
else to answer the questionnaire on his/her behalf.
Research instruments like the self-administered questionnaire must be
produced as professionally as possible. A questionnaire that appears to be
professionally prepared will have a higher probability of being completed (greater
face validity) by any respondents (Black, 1999).
Tips on How To Design A Self-Completion Questionnaire
The following tips below cover how to design a self-completion
questionnaire. These tips focus on the appearance, instructions, and presentation
of the questionnaire.
1. Do not cramp the presentation.
It is sometimes considered preferable to make the instrument appear as short as
possible in order for it to be less likely to deter prospective respondents from
answering However, this is almost always a mistake. An attractive layout is likely to
enhance response rates, whereas the kinds of tactics that are sometimes employed
to make a questionnaire appear shorter than it really is such as reducing margins
and the space between questions—may make it look cramped and thereby
unattractive Also, if questions are too close together, there is a risk for them to be
inadvertently omitted.
2. Clear presentation.
Far more important than making a self-completion questionnaire appear shorter
than is the case is to make sure that a has a layout that is easy on the eye. It should
facilitate the answering of all questions that are relevant to the respondent. Lower
case for questions and upper case for closed answers is an example of format that
you can use. A variety of print styles (e.g, different fonts, print sizes, bold, italics, and
capitals) can also enhance the appearance of the questionnaire but these must be
52
ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
used in a consistent manner. You should ensure that you use one style for general
instructions. one for headings, one for specific instructions (like “Go to question 7),
one for questions, and one for closed answers.
3. Vertical or horizontal closed answers?
Bearing in mind that most questions in a self-completion questionnaire are likely to
be of the closed kind, one consideration is whether to arrange the fixed answers
vertically or horizontally. Many writers prefer a vertical format whenever possible
because in some cases where either arrangement is feasible, confusion can arise
when a horizontal one is employed.
4. Clear instructions about how to respond.
Always be clear about how you want your respondents to indicate their replies when
answering closed questions. Are they supposed to tick or circle or underline the
appropriate answer, or are they supposed to delete inappropriate answers? Also in
many cases, it is feasible for the respondent to choose more that one answer. Is this
acceptable to you? If it is not, you should indicate this in your instructions.
Example:
Please choose the one answer that best represents your views by placing a tick in
the appropriate box.
If you do not make this clear and if some respondents choose more than one
answer, you will have to treat their replies as if they had not answered. This
possibility increases the risk of missing data from some respondents. If it is
acceptable to you to have more than one category chosen, you need to make this
clear to the respondent.
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Example:
Sample #2: Closed question with a horizontal format (Bryman, 2008)
Please choose all answers that represent your views by placing a tick in the
appropriate boxes. What do you think of the president’s performance in his job since he took office?

(Please tick the appropriate response.)

5. Keep questions and answers together.
Very good-5 Good – 4 Fair-2 Poor-2 Very poor-1
This is a simple and obvious. though often transgressed, requirement. You should
never split a question so that it appears on two separate pages. A common error is
to place the question at the bottom of a page and place the closed answers on the
next page. Doing so may make the respondent forget to answer the question or
provide an answer in the wrong group of closed answers (a problem that is If you compare Sample #1. (vertical format) and Sample #2. (horizontal
especially likely when a series of questions with a common answer format is being format) you will realize that the way closed questions in the questionnaire are
used, as with a Likert scale) written and laid out would have an impact on the respondent. The effect can be
confusing to the respondent. Bryman (2008, 222), compares the two approaches
SOURCE: Bryman, 2008, 221-224
and highlights the advantages of the closed question with a vertical format over the
closed question with a horizontal format.

[In the closed question with a horizontal format], there is a risk that if
Sample #1: Closed question with a vertical format (Bryman, 2008) the questionnaire is being answered in haste, the required tick will be
placed in the wrong space-for example, indicating Good when Fair was
What do you think of the president’s performance in his job since be office?
the intended response. Also, a vertical format more clearly
(Please tick the appropriate response.) distinguishes questions from answers … A further reason why vertical
alignments can be superior is that they are probably easier to code,
Very good - 5
especially when pre codes appear on the questionnaire… Not only is
Good – 4 there less ambiguity about where a tick is to be placed the task of
Fair-2 coding is also easier.

Poor-2 SOURCE: Bryman, 2008, 222

Very poor-1

53
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Sample #3. Formatting a Likert Scale (Bryman, 2008) As such, a high score for question = 5 or 4) indicates satisfaction with the
course, and a low score (1 or 2) indicates low course satisfaction. This would be the
In the next set of questions, you are presented with a statement. You
same case in question = but different in questions. In question – an agreement
being asked to indicate your level of agreement or disagreement with each
indicates a lack of course satisfaction. Hence, the coding of question 25 must be
statement by indicating whether you: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), are
reversed (Bryman, 2008223 Question #25 can be scored as follows:
Undecided (U). Disagree (D), or Strongly Disagree (SD).
Strongly agree = 5 Disagree = 2
(Please indicate your level of agreement by circling the appropriate
response.) Agree = 4 Strongly disagree = 1

23. My course is like a hobby to me. Undecided = 3

SA A U D SD
Sample #4: Exemplar page layout for a questionnaire (Black 1999, 232)

The Television News Broadcasting Survey

24. My course is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored.
We are conducting a survey among a selected group of television viewers
SA A U D SD
who watch news broadcasts on both Channels 1 and 2. As you are in the unique
position to compare the two, would you please complete this questionnaire and
25. It seems that my friends are more interested in their courses the second one about Channel 2? Thank you.
SA A U D SD A. Please tell us a little about yourself.
The advantage of a vertical format for closed questions may not necessarily How old are you? ______________years Male Female
apply to a battery of questions with identical answer formats, such as in a Likert
scale. A vertical format for this type of rating scale wil definitely take too much
space. One way of addressing this problem in a Likert scale is to use abbreviations Approximately how much time do you spend watching television each day?
with an accompanying explanation (Bryman, 2008, 222) 0-1 hr 1-2 hrs
In the example above, question can be scored as follows:

Strongly agree = 5 Disagree = 2

2-3 hrs 3-4 hrs
Agree = 4 Strongly disagree = 1

Undecided = 3
4-5 hrs more than 5 hrs

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

C. These questions refer to the news announcers on Channel 1.

B. The following questions refer to news broadcast on Channel 1. Please indicate your agreement or disagreement with the statements
about the quality of each characteristic of news announcers. Place an (x) in the
Please indicate the quality of each of the following by circling the
appropriate box in each case.
appropriate position on the line with respect to the news announcer.
Strongly Strongly
Agree Uncertain Disagree
Agree Disagree
a. Clarity of speech
The news
announcers speak
frequently not usually always clearly and can be
heard easily.
understandable acceptable acceptable
The use of facial
expressions
b. Projects objectivity and fairness in reporting on present political issues contribute to the
quality of
programmes.
often seems usually always Their taste in
biased acceptable unbiased clothes is not very
good and is
distracting.
c. Use of video clips and photographs D. Please tell us in your own words what you think would improve news
broadcasts.

ineffective use acceptable always helps Thank you for completing this questionnaire. Please return it in the sell
addressed stamped envelope provided.
of pictures use understanding

Source: Adapted from Black, T(1999, 232)

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

ACTIVITY 1: Differentiating
The given questionnaire shows a truncated version of a questionnaire that
illustrates factual questions, a Likert scale, a rating scale, and a free response
question. The purpose was to show page layout (Black, 1999). Directions: Fill in the blank with the correct answer.

A self-completed ______________ has fewer open questions. Since it will

References be ______________by the respondent, the questionnaire must be
______________ in such a way that the ______________ will have ease
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
______________ the questions on his/her own. Hence, the questionnaire has lesser
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Data Collecttion Tools and Instruments pp 180-
189. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc. number of open questions and more closed questions because the latter tend to be
easier to answer. This is important in order to ______________ the risk that
respondents will fail to follow filter questions or will inadvertently omit a question.
The “______________ and answer” design of a questionnaire is ______________to
Important reduce the risk of respondent fatigue” which happens when a respondent becomes
RemInderS ______________ of answering questions in a long questionnaire and just aborts
answering the questionnaire (______________ 2008,216-217).
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other

•
activity (ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper.
If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s), MODULE 1: Assessment
pictures, pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email Instructions: Answer the following questions briefly and succinctly. (10 pts each)
at germanvertudez1211gmail.com following this format:
(SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME e.g. 1. What are the differences between a self-administered questionnaire and a
IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from
your flash drive together with this activity sheet. structured interview?

Name: ____________________________________________________________ self-administered questionnaire structured interview

Grade Level & Section: ______________________________________________
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ___________________

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

MODULE 2: True or False

Instructions: Write T if the statement is true and F if the statement is false. (2 points
each)

______________1. An unstructured interview is also called a standardized

interview.

______________2. In survey research, the structured interview is the typical form

of interview that is applied by quantitative researchers.

______________3. A self-completion questionnaire is sometimes referred to as a

self-administered questionnaire.

______________4. Self-completed questionnaire has fewer open questions.

______________5. The questionnaire can collect additional data since it is difficult

to ask lots of questions.

______________6. A self-administered questionnaire cannot prompt, probe, or

questions that are not salient to respondents.

______________7. Many writers prefer a horizontal format whenever possible

because in some cases where either arrangement is feasible, confusion can arise
when a horizontal one is employed.

______________8. A common error is to place the question at the top of a page

and place the closed answers on the next page.

______________ 9. You should ensure that you use one style for general
instructions.

______________ 10. Questions may not be appropriate for some kinds of

respondents hence, there is a greater risk of missing data and lower response.

57
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

schedules) to letters or numbers. According to Black 1999199 it is important that

Data Processing, Organization
SECOND QUARTER
guides for translating responses are created because having a written coding guide
MODULE and Presentation with explanations (particularly for open-ended or free-response questions) prevents

13
inconsistencies in the results.

At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Explain the different procedures involved in preparing data for
quantitative analysis.
INCLUSIVE DATE:
• Describe the different ways of organizing and presenting quantitative
data.
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS:
• What are the different steps or procedures involved in data
preparation for quantitative analysis?
• What are the different ways of organizing and presenting data
using descriptive statistics?
Overview
Data Preparation
Like in qualitative research, data collected must be prepared before analysis
and interpretation can be undertaken. But the nature of quantitative research and
the requirements of quantitative analysis (for instance, descriptive analysis or
inferential analysis) necessitate a different standard for data preparation. Data
preparation in quantitative research follows a standard set of procedures to
facilitate the conduct of quantitative analysis.
These procedures include (1) data coding, (2) data entry or data recording,
(3) data transformation, and (4) data cleansing. Each of these steps is described on
the next page.
The first procedure in data preparation in quantitative research is data
coding. Data coding involves translating entries on questionnaires (or interview
Data coding is not applicable to many other forms of data, such as interview
transcripts. Interview transcripts cannot be converted into a numeric format for
statistical analysis (Bhattacherjee, 2012, 120).
Data coding is the process of converting data collected into numeric format.
To facilitate the coding process, a codebook should be created to guide the coding
process. A codebook is a comprehensive document containing detailed description
of the following:
1. each variable in a research study;
2. items or measures for that variable;
a. 3 the format of each item (numeric, text, etc.);
3. the response scale for each item (.e., whether it is measured on a nominal,
ordinal, interval, or ratio scale;
4. whether such scale is a five-point, seven-point, or some other type of scale:
5. how to code each value into a numeric format.
SOURCE: Bhattacherjee 2012, 119
An example of a coding process is described below. Note how the level of
measurement of your variables becomes important in the coding process.
If we have a measurement item on a seven-point Likert scale with
anchors ranging from "strongly disagree" to "strongly agree," we may
code that item as 1 for strongly disagree, 4 for neutral, and 7 for
strongly agree, with intermediate anchors in between.
Nominal data such as industry type can be coded in numeric form
using a coding scheme such as: 1 for manufacturing, 2 for retailing, 3

58

for financial, 4 for healthcare, and so forth (of course, nominal data
cannot be analyzed statistically).
Ratio-scale data such as age, income, or test scores can be coded as
entered by the respondent.
Sometimes, data may need to be aggregated into a different form
than the format used for data collection. For instance, for measuring a
construct such as "benefits of computers," if a survey provided
respondents with a checklist of benefits that they could select from
(i.e.. they could choose as many of those benefits as they want), then
the total number of checked items can be used as an aggregate
measure of benefits.
Source: Bhattacherjee 2012, 120
Data entry or data recording is another procedure in the coding process. It
involves the transfer of information from questionnaires, interview schedules, code
sheets to computer files for processing. It is done more quickly and more accurately
if two persons work together-one reading and another typing/entering the
information (Black, 1999).
Data entry or recording in the process usually requires the aid of a statistical
program like the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), especially for large
complex studies that involve many variables and measurement items. Under such a
condition, the coding process is conducted by different people to help the coding
team code data in a consistent manner, and also to help others understand and
interpret the coded data (Bhattacherjee 2012, 120).
Coded data can be entered into different formats, including but are not
limited to spreadsheets, database, text files, or directly into a statistical program like
SPSS. A caveat about most statistical programs is that while they provide a data
editor for entering data, they store such data in their own native format (e.g., SPSS
stores data as sav files) which makes it difficult to share that data with other
statistical programs. Hence, a more pragmatic way is to enter data into a
59
ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
spreadsheet or database, where they can be extracted for analysis (Bhattacherjee
2012, 120)
Smaller data sets with less than 65,000 observations and 256 items
can be stored in a spreadsheet such as Microsoft Excel, while larger
dataset with millions of observations will require a database. Each
observation can be entered as one row in the spreadsheet and each
measurement item can be represented as one column. The entered
data should be frequently checked for accuracy, via occasional spot
checks on a set of items or observations during and after entry.
Furthermore, while entering data, the coder should watch out for
obvious evidence of bad data, such as the respondent selecting the
"strongly agree" response to all items irrespective of content, including
reverse-coded items. If so, such data can be entered but should be
excluded from subsequent analysis.
SOURCE: Bhattacherjee 2012, 120
Another procedure in the coding process is data transformation. According
to Bhattacherjee 2012120 "sometimes, it is necessary to transform data values
before they can be meaningfully interpreted. For instance, reverse-coded items,
where items convey the opposite meaning of that of their underlying construct,
should be reversed (0.g. in a 1-7 na scale, 8 minus the observed value will reverse
the value) before they can be compared or combined with items that are not
reverse-coded.”
Other kinds of data transformations other than the one described abo
include but are not limited to:
1. creating scale measures by adding individual scale items
2. creating a weighted index from a set of observed measures
3. collapsing multiple values into fewer categories (0.9. collapsing
incomes into income ranges)
SOURCE: Bhattacherjee (2012, 120-121)

Data cleansing in the coding process is also important. It involves double
checking the data entries on the computer files. It is done most especially if there
are large numbers of respondents. At the most basic level, data cleansing can
include looking for outlandish responses such as an age of 501 years which is can be
a typing error. A computer program processing such data is unlikely to find such
errors (Black, 1999).
In quantitative research, one potential problem that a research may actually
face is missing values. Missing values mean missing data which may be actually
caused by missing responses by respondents. Respondents may not answer certain
questions if the questions are ambiguously worded or too sensitive Bhattacherjee
(2012) opined that such problems should be detected during the pretests and
corrected before the main data collection process begins.
During data entry, some statistical programs automatically bank
entries as missing values, while others require a specific numeric value
such as -1 or 999 to be entered to denote a missing value.
During data analysis, the default mode of handling missing values in
most software programs is to simply drop the entire observation
containing even single missing value, in a technique called listwise
deletion. Such deletion can significantly shrink the sample size and
make it extremely difficult to detect small effects.
Hence, some software programs allow the option of replacing
missing values with an estimated value via a process called imputation.
For instance, if the missing value is one item in a multi item scale, the
imputed value may be the average of the respondent's responses to
remaining items on that scale. If the missing value belongs to a single-
item scale, many researchers use the average of other respondent's
responses to that item as the imputed value.
SOURCE: Bhattacharjee (2012, 120)
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
All the procedures or tasks discussed above are necessary to maintain the
quality and accuracy of the data. All the four tasks or procedures, namely, (1) data
coding, (2) data entry or recording, (3) data transformation, and (4) data cleansing
need to be planned and incorporated into the design and methodology of the
research project.
Graphs and Charts
Descriptive statistics, particularly graphs and charts, have the potential to
enhance the understanding of the outcomes of quantitative research, if presented
with care. What follows is a discussion on how to present quantitative results
graphically.
One criterion for deciding on the most appropriate type of graph or chart
to use depends on the type of data that you have collected. It is important to note
that not all types of charts and graphs are appropriate for all types of data. Table 14
on the next page identifies the appropriate types of data for each of the four
varieties of graphs and charts that are commonly used, namely, bar chart, pie chart,
histogram, and frequency polygon. These graphs and charts can be created through
the Excel spreadsheet program of Microsoft Windows or Apple's Numbers.
Histograms have their bars touching indicating equal intervals, whereas in
bar charts, the bars are separated by some space, suggesting that the categories are
not separated by equal intervals. Thus, the difference between these is consistent
with the differences in the definitions of ordinal and interval/ratio data. Pie charts,
on the other hand, are only of value when presenting nominal data, since the
sections represent percentages of a whole, the full circle, encompassing 100%.
Frequency polygons (line graphs) are an alternative to histograms for interval/ratio
data, providing a clearer picture in some cases (Black, 1999, 306).
Constructing frequency tables is the first step to organize raw data before
these can be presented graphically. But before you construct the frequency table, it
is necessary to group the data. To create the frequency tables is to group scores or
values in specific categories. Each frequency table has its associated frequencies of
occurrence (Black, 1999, 306-307).
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Table 1.
Appropriate Usage of Charts and Graphs
for Frequency Data

Bar Chart Pie Chart Histogram Frequency Polygon

Nominal ✓ ✓

Ordinal ✓

Interval ✓ ✓

Ratio ✓ ✓

SOURCE: Adapted from Black (1999, 306).

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Based on the frequency table, you may also wish to get the percentage of
the occurrences in relationship to the total number of occurrences. Hence, you can LAMARMA
also wish to report in one table both frequency and percentage distribution, as done
in the example below.

The example below is taken from the State of Local Democracy in the 22%
Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (SOLD ARMM), a citizen-led democracy
assessment conducted in Mindanao. The pie charts contain information about
perception consistency between proclaimed winners and voters' preference by
52%
subregion. The pie chart on the left contains data for the BASULTA subregion in
ARMM. BASULTA is composed of Basilan, Sulu and Tawi-Tawi. The pie chart on the 26%
right reflects data for the LAMARMA subregion in ARMM, which is composed of
Lanao and Maguindanao.

BASULTA Yes No Don't Know

The two pie charts are based on the following data. Each pie chart contains
data for one subregion.
20%
Table 2. Frequency and Percentage Distribution of Perception of Consistency
between Proclaimed Winners and Voters’ Preference
in BASULTA and LAMARMA, ARMM
17%
63% Region Yes No Don’t Know Total

1503 400 487 2390

BASULTA
(62.9 %) (16.7 %) (20.4%) (100 %)

827 418 355 1600

LAMARMA
(51.7 %) (21.6 %) (22.2 %) (100 %)
Yes No Don't Know
2330 818 842 3990
Total
(58.4 %) (20.5 %) (21.1 %) (100 %)

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

The two samples that follow provide illustrations of bar graphs for nominal Sample Figure 2: Monthly Household Income Reported by Respondents in ARMM.
(poverty perception) and ordinal data (monthly household income). Both bar graphs
are taken from the study State of Local Democracy in the Autonomous Region of Monthly Household Income Bracket
Muslim Mindanao (SoLD ARMM). 1400

1200
Sample Figure 1: Poverty Perception in ARMM
1000
Poverty Perception Based on Income
2500 800

600

2000
400

200
1500
Frequency

0
Monthly Household Income
1000 Php 1000 or less Php 1000 - 3000 Php 3001 - 5000
Php 5001 - 8000 Php 8001 - 12000 Php 12001 - 15000
Php 15001 and above Don't Know Refused
500

0 References
Poverty Perception
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
Not Poor Just Enough Poor
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Data Processing, Organization and Presentation
pp 190-201. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

63
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

LAMARMA (Lanao and Maguindanao)

Important
RemInderS Yes-109 Refused—111
No-750 Total-1027
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other
activity (ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper. Don't know-57
• If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s),
pictures, pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email
at germanvertudez1211gmail.com following this format:
(SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME e.g.
IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from
your flash drive together with this activity sheet.

Name: _____________________________________________________________ Set B. Incidence of reporting of election problems in ARMM,

Grade Level & Section: _______________________________________________
Male
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ____________________
Yes-124 Refused 100
No-50 Total 877

ACTIVITY 1: Constructing Frequency Don't know-144

Instructions: Construct frequency (and percentage) tables for each set of

information and present the quantitative results graphically. Female

Set A. Incidence of reporting of election problems in ARMM, by subregion. Yes-139 Refused-271

BASULTA (Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi) No-1085 Total-1759

Yes-154 Refused-260 Don't know-264

No-844 Total 1609

Don't know-351

64
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Set C. Incidence of reporting of election problems in ARMM, by province and

subregion MODULE 1: Examine the Data
BASULTA (Basilan, Sulu, and Tawi-Tawi) Instructions: Examine the table below that shows the freedom levels in the 10
countries of Southeast Asia or the Member countries of the Association of
Barangay-116
Southeast Asian Nations or (ASEAN). Answer the questions that follow.
Police-12
Religious Leaders—9
Media-3
Government Officials/Agencies-6 Influential Private Citizens/Agencies-2

LAMARMA (Lanao and Maguindanao)

Barangay-27
Police-15 Religious Leaders-6
Media-1
Government Officials/Agencies-12
Influential Private Citizens/Agencies-2

SOURCE: Co. E. et al. (2013, 122)

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

MODULE 2: Examine the Data

1. What is the key concept or construct in the table?

_____________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________ INSTRUCTIONS. Listed below is a set of data for a group of 30 subjects which
_____________________________________________________________ includes each person's social class and age in years. Set up a worksheet and enter
the raw data in appropriate columns.
2. What are the variables in the table?
1. Create a frequency table and generate appropriate charts showing the
_____________________________________________________________ distribution of persons by occupational category
_____________________________________________________________
2. Create a frequency table and generate appropriate charts showing distribution
_____________________________________________________________
of persons by age.
3. In what levels of measurement are the variables in the table?
Name Occupational Age Name Occupational Age
_____________________________________________________________ Category Category
_____________________________________________________________ Riza Nurses, 54.6 King Wiremen/women 65.2
_____________________________________________________________ Professional Electrical
4. How will you code the variables in the table? Evelyn Wireman/women 44.3 Anicka Caregivers and 50.3
_____________________________________________________________ Electrical Caretakers
_____________________________________________________________ Shirley Nurses, 62.3 Bojan Caregivers and 35.4
_____________________________________________________________ Professional Caretakers
5. Are the indicators of the key constructor concept valid and reliable Explain your Sheila Cooks and 49.7 Gil Nurses, 48.4
answer. Related Workers Professional

_____________________________________________________________ Doris Cooks and 35 Efren Cooks and 47

_____________________________________________________________ Related Workers Related Workers
_____________________________________________________________
Weng Caregivers and 48 Noy Caregivers and 38.2
Caretakers Caretakers

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Tristan Waiters, 33 Willie Waiters, 50.3

Bartenders, and Bartenders, and
Related Related

EG Wiremen/women 33.3 Mel Wiremen/women 60.9

Electrical Electrical

Rigel Wiremen/women 56.7 Lory Waiters, 32

Electrical Bartenders, and
Related

Kevin Caregivers and 50 Billy Cooks and 58.9

Caretakers Related Workers

JR Caregivers and 66.7 John Nurses, 52.3

Caretakers Professional

Sherry Wiremen/women 52.1 Winifred Caregivers and 50.7

Electrical Caretakers

Hanna 34.2 Gigi 32.6

AIi Waiters, 38.3 Robert Waiters, 41

Bartenders, and Bartenders, and
Related Related

Jho Nurses, 44.3 Justin Nurses, 44.4

Professional Professional

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

How to Write an Effective Conclusion

Formulating Conclusions and
SECOND QUARTER

MODULE Recommendations
To help you make conclusions, below are some tips from practitioners. Lye
(n.d.), a student tutor from Laurier Writing Center, developed some guidelines on

14 At the end of this module, you are expected to:

•
•
•
Describe and explain the meaning of quantitative research design,
Differentiate the types of quantitative research design,
Explain the differences between reliability and validity, and
writing conclusions. Descriptions of each guideline are presented below:

Implicitly restate your thesis/position.

INCLUSIVE DATE: • Determine the criteria for choosing one particular type over another
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS:
• What are the standard rules in constructing data collection
instruments such as questionnaire, surveys and interview
schedules?
• What are the advantages and limitations of these data collection
instruments or tools?
Overview
More often than not, new researchers find it difficult to write conclusions
and even recommendations. They may be overwhelmed by a lot of data or they may
lack the strategy to organize the data at hand. In any case, al neophytes in the area
of research go through the process of adjusting to the nature and requirements of
research practice Let us then acquaint ourselves with the terms 'research
conclusion' and 'recommendation’.
Generally, a research conclusion may be briefly described as the last or
ending part of the paper. It wraps up the different parts or components of the paper.
A good conclusion has to be connected well with the data analysis. It must be written
well in order to ensure coherence with the information written in the report. More
importantly, it must answer the questions in the research problem and contain the
findings and results of the study.
While it is not advisable from a stylistic standpoint to simply copy your thesis and
paste it at the end of your paper, stating your argument in a more general form
is important because it shows the reader you have a cohesive argument that is
evident in your work from start to finish. Think of it this way: in a general sense
your thesis states "I WILL argue that...", while your conclusion should emphasize
"I HAVE argued that...". The thesis is meant to establish the direction of your
essay, the conclusion should make it clear to the reader that you have kept on
track and supported your argument.
(Matthew Lye, www.wtu.ca/writing)
Emphasize the importance of your subject by placing it in a larger context.
This does not mean stating in the history of the world, my topic is the most
important"; it does mean answering the "so what?" question that all readers of
academic writing ask. Essentially, why was it important that you wrote your paper
on this subject? What meaning does it have in your field of study, or even in
society as a whole? State the significance of your argument by relating it to these
larger areas of inquiry. Show how your argument might advance knowledge in a
discipline, take a position in a larger debate, or provide solutions to a problem.
(Matthew Lye, www.witu.ca/writing)

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

and yourself a favor-add in another body paragraph and expand on the new idea
Offer suggestions for the future based on what you have argued. in an effective way.

In a similar vein to offering context for your argument, projecting what you have
argued into the future allows the reader to see the meaningfulness of your
argument. Assuming that you have made your point effectively, the reader is
likely to take your predictions seriously and thus see additional relevance in what
you have argued up to this point. Looking to the future can also make your
readers consider your argument long after they have finished with your paper
(Matthew Lye, www.wfu.ca/writing)
(Matthew Lye, www.wlu.ca/writing)
Do not weaken your position by apologizing for what you have already argued.
If your paper has followed the conventions of academic writing-if you have
created a thesis and given evidence to support your position-then you have met
the reader's expectations. Ending your essay by apologizing for your stance
detracts from the argument you should actually be emphasizing.

(Matthew Lye, www.wlu.ca/writing)

End with a relevant and powerful quote or anecdote that serves to "sum up your
paper.

If you can, end your conclusion (and thus, your paper) with a succinct quote or
illustrative example of your argument. Academic readers like to see essays ended
in a concise and meaningful way Quotes, anecdotes, or examples allow you to
end your essay in a way that both gets your main point across. They are also
stylistically effective.
(Matthew Lye, www.wlu.ca/writing)
Do not bring in new material.
Do not end on a "cliff hanger," leaving the reader feeling unsatisfied.
Remember, your paper is meant to provide evidence to support your thesis, so
your goal should be to conclude it in such a way that the reader feels all questions
have been addressed. A paper that hints at further information or that promises
to resolve an issue but never does, will not help you make your argument. Your
goal is to create a self-contained argument within the essay, not leave the reader
waiting for a sequel.
SOURCE: Matthew Lyon, www.wlu.ca/writing

The conclusion is your space to wrap up your paper, not throw in any additional
points that you were not able to work into the body of your paper. It is one thing
to generalize or place your argument in a broader academic context, but it is quite
another to introduce a whole new idea that you do not have room to develop. If
you find yourself mentioning additional ideas in the conclusion, do your reader

69

For the Recommendation
The research recommendation is the part of the paper where you make
suggestions about some resolutions as a response to the research problem. It must
be consistent with the conclusion. It must also propose specific solutions connected
with the findings of the study and it must be supported by relevant and specific data
from the findings.
Below are some tips from Teijlingen (2011) on how to write
recommendations:
"You should not recommend anything that you have not previously discussed in
the discussion. The rule 'no new material in your conclusion is also applicable to
your recommendations."
"Recommendations are not the same as conclusions. Recommendations go one
step further than conclusions as (a) 'something'; (b) 'someone'; and (c) 'needs to
do."
"There may be different levels within your set recommendations for (a)
academics (i.e., more research is needed into...); (b) for policy makers (e.g., data
protection act needs to change to accommodate...); for (C) practitioners (1.e.,
managers in local government need to consider the mental well-being of their
staff); as well as recommendation for (d) training/education."
SOURCE: Prof. Edwin van Teijlingen, 2011, Bournemouth University
Listing Reference
When writing a research, you have to treat references judiciously and make
sure that you apply the required format. Different formats apply depending on the
nature and requirements of the paper. Journals may require a distinct format
contingent on the publishers.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
The references serve as the bases of your citation, without which questions
on your paper's integrity might be raised. To guide researchers in citing works of
others, a referencing style may be applied. What is a referencing style? It is a set of
guidelines indicating how you should recognize the words, images, ideas, and works
of other people.
Some of the various referencing styles that a researcher may use are the
American Chemical Society (ACS) style, Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC)
style, American Medical Association (AMA) style, American Psychological
Association (APA) style, Chicago Manual of Style (CMS), Council of Science Editors
(CSE) style, Harvard Style, Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineer (IEEE) style,
Modern Language Association of America (MLA) style, and Vancouver style. Two of
the most popular reference styles are the APA style and Chicago Manual style (or
the so-called Turabian).
The following section illustrates the two citation style.
1. Chicago Manual of Style or Turabian Sample citations using the Turabian style on
notes-bibliography are presented below.
Book
One Author
Marilou Flores, Community Engagement and Service Learning (Philippines:
Aloha, 2011), 21-25
Two or More Authors
Marilou Flores and Luisa Soberano, Community Engagement and Service
Learning (Philippines: Gerona University Press, 2012, 26-28)
Four or More Authors
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Marilou Flores, et al., Community Engagement and Service Learning Magazine Article
(Philippines: Gerona University Press, 2012). 29.
Jill Lepore, "Dickens in Eden, New Yorker, August 29, 2011, 52

Chapter or Other Part of a Book
Marilou Flores, "The Urban Poor and the University In The Basic Sectors in the
Philippines, ed. Jenny Fajardo (Philippines: Gerona University Press, 2013), 30.
Preface, Foreword, Introduction, or Similar Part of a Book
Newspaper Article
Elisabeth Bumiller and Thom Shanker. "Pentagon Lifts Ban on Women in
Combat," New York Times, January 23, 2013, accessed January 24, 2013,
http://www.nytimes.cm/2013/01/24/us/pentagon-says-it-is-lifting-ban-on-
women-in-combat.html

Marilou Flores, foreword to The Laborers in the Philippines, by Ambet de Leon

(Quezon City: Pabahay NGO Press, 2015), ix. 2. American Psychological Association (APA) Style. Sample citations are presented
below.
Books Published Electronically
Book
Paquita Ginoo and Epix Diwa, eds., The Founders of Spirit Cave (Manila:
University of Tuluyan Press) cha, 2, doc.12, accessed February 9, 2016, One Author
http://press-pubs.utuluyan.ngo.
Marina, A. (2003). The Politicians at Work. Manila, Philippines: Palaso Press.

Two Authors
Journal Article
Don, S. and Jon, D. (2008). The Women Politicians at Work. Manila Philippines:
Palaso Press
Article in a Print Journal
Four or More Authors
Marjorie Fernandez, "Smoking and Studies," Journal of Health Management 12.
no1 (October 2013): 20. Include only the last name of the author followed by the words et al. (meaning,
"and others")
(Garcia, et al., 2006)
Article in an Online Journal Garcia B., Carl L, Isabel G. Marie F.Marjo E., Maggie S., Marky N. (2009). Service
Learning in the Philippines, Philippines: DSL University Press. pp 25.
Marjorie Fernandez, "Quit Smoking Health 20, no.2 (January 2012):25 accessed
Chapter in an Edited book
January 12, 2013, http://gs.doi.org/1096/990669.

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Dante, K., & Gil, K. (2005). What is the role of Service Learning in community
engagement? In F. Valdez & P. Cortes (eds) University-Community Partnership
(1st ed. pp. 20-23).Quezon City: Bluegreen.
Citing a Secondary Source
Flores (as cited in Pascua and Garcia, 2008) highlighted that. . .
Journal Article
One Author
“The TC exists to gather out-of-school youth in Leveriza and provide them with
educational opportunities through ALS" (Tuluyan Center, 2013, para.3).
Tuluyan Center. (2013). About The Tuluyan Center at work. Retrieved from
http://www.tc.net/aboutus.html.

Direct Quotes
Internet Sources
Short Quotes (less than 40 words)
No author, no date
“Service-learning is an academic-based community service. It may aso be called
as community-engaged learning or community-integrated learning.”(Gragasin, Animal Clinic. (n.d.) Rétrieved from http://www.animalonline.com/animal-cinic.
2008, 20). htm
Longer Quotes (40 words or more)

Use block form: Organization/Corporate Author

The references serve as bases of your citation without which might
create question on the paper's integrity. To guide researchers in citing
works of others, a referencing style may be applied. What is a
referencing style? It is a set of guidelines indicating how one should
recognize the words, Images, ideas and works of other people. There
various referencing styles that a researcher may use such as American
Chemical Society (ACS) Style, Australian Guide to Legal Citation (AGLC)
Style, American Medical Association (AMA) Style, American
Psychological Association (APA) Style, Chicago Manual of Style, Council
Ministry of Education. (2003). Anti-bullying in the Philippines. Retrieved from
http://med.des/npg_index/About-drugs.
References
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Making and Formulating Conclusions and
Recommendations pp 225-229. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

of Science Editors (CSE) Style, Harvard Style, Institute of Electrical and

Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
Electronic Engineer (IEEE) Style, Modern Language Association of Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Listing References pp 231 - 236. Quezon City.
America (MLA) Style and Vancouver Style. (Flores, 2002, p. 8) Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Quotations from Online Sources that Do Not Provide Page Numbers

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Important
RemInderS
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other
activity (ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper.
• If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s),
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

MODULE 1: More Examples Please

pictures, pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email
at germanvertudez1211gmail.com following this format:
(SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME e.g.
IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from
your flash drive together with this activity sheet. Give 10 examples of Turabian style citations and 10 examples of A{A style
citations. Write your answers on the space provided below.
Name: _____________________________________________________________
Turabian
Grade Level & Section: _______________________________________________
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ____________________

ACTIVITY 1:
INSTRUCTIONS: What do you mean by the statement: “Do not end a ‘cliffhanger,’
leaving the reader feeling unsatisfied’? Relate this with the essence of the research
conclusions. Write your answer on the space provided below.

____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________ APA
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

73
 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Presenting and Disseminating

SECOND QUARTER
Venues for Disseminating Research Findings
MODULE Research Findings 2. International Conferences

15
INCLUSIVE DATE:
At the end of this module, you are expected to:
• Identify ways of sharing and disseminating research findings.
• Differentiate process of report writing and parts of the report.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Local Conferences
Congressional Hearings
Senate Inquiries
Professional Association Assemblies
7. Local Government Bodies
8. Academic Assemblies
RESEARCH KEY QUESTIONS: 9. Civil Society Movements
• In what ways can you share or disseminate research findings? 10. Church Groups
• Why is it important to report and share research findings? 11. Others
• What are the requirements for writing a research report?

Overview
The process and result of research is nothing without application and
dissemination. Research outputs are to be utilized by target users or beneficiaries.
Research results are good sources of policy ideas, organizational interventions, and
program development. Hence, a plan for research finding dissemination must be
imbedded in the research plan.
Research Workbook
To facilitate and monitor the student's research learning process and
development, a research workbook must be developed. But what is a research
workbook?
A research workbook is a workbook where the student's development
progress in the research practice is recorded. The contents of a sample research
workbook are presented below.

The report to be disseminated must be effective, clear, and substantial. To Focus Content
be able to get these results, your data must be organized and presented well by:
Identification of Identification of themes
• applying visual aids appropriately; ideas
• reading findings soundly;
Stimulation of ideas Exploring ideas-methods, e.g., mind-map, brainstorm,
• + using figures accurately;
refer to relevant articles/reports, etc.
• organizing data through graphics and tables.

Possible venues for dissemination of research findings include the following:

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 ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)

Development of Developing ideas related to the theme As suggested by Silverman (2006), a research report starts with four
theme elements: title, abstract, list of contents and introduction, Below is a brief
description of each element.
Appreciation and Analyzing and interpreting phenomena
criticism

Reflection and Analyzing and reflecting-reflection on the learning RESEARCH TITLE

modification process, accomplishments/difficulties, ways for
improvement A research title has to get the attention of readers. In other words, it must
be catchy. Being catchy does not mean sacrificing the main message or Idea of your
report. According to Silverman 2006339 choose a title that catches the readers'
attention while properly informing them about the main focus of your research."
The Process and Parts of Report Writing Silverman 2006206 is suggesting a two-part title" containing a stimulating title with
What is a research report? What are the requirements for writing a research a present participle signifying action and a subtitle which is more descriptive.
report?
Example:
Research writing and reporting are not easy tasks for neophytes. This
section aims to provide answers concerning writing research reports. A quantitative Stimulating title: Have you experienced being bullied? Descriptive title: A study
research report should generally include the following sections: on the perception of the victims of bullying in the primary schools
1. Introductory Phase
2. Review of Literature
3. Research Methodology RESEARCH ABSTRACT
4. Body of the Report
A research abstract is a vital component of a report as it provides the
5. Conclusion and Recommendation
readers with snap view of what you will expect from it. The abstract gives a synopsis
of the objectives and results of the report to be described in detail in the body of
Introductory Phase the report. Silverman (2006) wrote that an abstract should contain the following:

The introductory phase of a quantitative research includes the issue to be 1. research problem
examined, the background of the research underlying theoretical framework, 2. significance and value of the problem
review of studies conducted on the same topic, and definitions of relevant research 3. data and methods utilized
variables and hypothesis. 4. main findings
5. implication in the light of other research

75

A research abstract has a word limit. The most common word limit is 100. This
is a challenging part because it is difficult to write such in a few words the many
things that you want to impart.
LIST OF CONTENTS
A list of contents is a useful component of a report as it guides the readers to
find their way through the different parts of the report. Hence the consistency of
the page numbers with the parts of the report is vita Inconsistent page numbering
would result to the reader's contusion.
INTRODUCTION
The introduction acquaints the readers with the what, why and how of the
report. According to Murcott (1997, 1) as cited in Silverman (2006), answering the
questions below would lead you to the development of the introduction
1. What is the research all about?
2. Why have you chosen this topic over other topics?
3. Why are you interested in this topic?
4. How will you undertake the research? What kind of research approach will
you utilize?
5. What are your research questions or problems?
The review of literature in a quantitative research is part of the introduction.
However, there are cases given more emphasis by separating it from introduction.
What is expected in a literature review, integrated or not in the introduction are
discussed below.
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ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Review of Literature
The review of related literature (RRL) provides study background and
environment. The intention of the RRL is to locate the study in its area of discipline
and reveal its relevance and significance in the environment. The RRL would indicate
if your topic is building on previous researchers or it a new area of inquiry. The RRL
should make one realize that a study is worn pursuing or not.
According to Silverman (2006), RRL is not a "litany" of all studies done on a
related topic. It is also not an inventory of the accomplishments of other authors on
the same topic, nor is it a map of projects similar to your area of study. Rather, it is
an environmental or disciplinal context that leads you to locate your study. Hence,
Silverman (2008) recommended the following points:
• Focus only on studies that are vital and relevant in defining your research
problem.
• Organize what you say in the form of an argument, rather than
Research Methodology
In research, the research process is as important as the research content.
Thus, a research report must also contain a description of the research strategy. The
readers will be interested in finding how you arrived at a particular study result.
In a quantitative research, methods would generally contain the participants
(demographics, selection criteria, etc), the instruments, a discussion of validity and
reliability, and the procedures undertaken. Silverman (2008) pointed out that in
both quantitative and qualitative research, the readers would be interested to know
the following:
12. Research topic
13. Cases you have studied
14. Research methods you have chosen to use
15. How you have analyzed the data

This part of the research report is sensitive, hence it must be deal with
caution. In order to answer methodological questions such as is your methodology
appropriate for the research problem and how did you reach your conclusion,
Silverman suggested that you have to be familiar with and knowledgeable about the
following:
• Data you have studied
• How you obtained the data
• What claims you are making about the data
• Methods you have used to gather the data
• Why you have chosen these methods
• How you have analyzed your data
Writing Up Your Data
The most essential part of the report is writing about the data collected
through your research. There are two important areas of consideration in the
writing up of data, namely, data analysis and data presentation.
There is no right or wrong way to do data analysis. Creswell (1994, 153) only
requires researchers to:
1. “be comfortable with developing categories and making comparisons and
contrast”; and
2. "be open to possibilities and see contrary or alternative explanation for the
findings."
In data analysis, attention must be given to (a) sorting information into
categories, (b) formatting the information into a story or picture, (c) writing the
actual data analysis and write-up.
To sum it up, a quantitative research report must contain the following:
77
ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
Introduction
states the issue to be examined, the context of the issue, the review of literature
and theoretical framework, and the definition of variables and hypothesis.
Methods
describes the demographics of the participants, the selection criteria, the
instruments, validity and reliability, and the procedures to be undertaken.
Results-findings; data organized through graphs and tables.
Results
use of descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze data including, statistical
significance, measures of effect sizes, how the assumptions were met.
Discussion
includes analysis, interpretation, and explanation of the results: theoretical
implications of the results; a discussion on the link of the result with the
hypothesis and limitations of the study
Conclusion and Recommendation
includes inferences or implications of the findings of the study; a statement on
the limitations of the study, and recommendations for future studies.
References
Appendices
References
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. The Process of Report Writing. pp 237-242.
Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.
Melegrito, M.L. PhD Cand., Mendoza, D.J. PhD., (2016). Applied Research: An Introduction to
Quantitative Research Methods and Report Writing. Presenting and Disseminating Research Findings.
pp 244-246. Quezon City. Phoenix Publishing House, Inc.

Important
RemInderS
• Tear this activity sheet and submit on the scheduled date along with the other
activity (ies) the instructor may have asked the students to do on a separate paper.
• If you are sending something you’ve done online such as MS presentation (s),
pictures, pdfs and alike as an attachment, then you may send them to my email
at germanvertudez1211gmail.com following this format:
(SECTION_LASTNAME_FIRSTNAME_ACTIVITYNAME
IC1MA_BINABAN_PRINCESS_SCAVENGERS HUNT), or send a digital copy from
your flash drive together with this activity sheet.
Name: _____________________________________________________________
Grade Level & Section: _______________________________________________
Date Submitted: (to be filled in by the subject instructor): ____________________
ACTIVITY 1: Explain
INSTRUCTIONS: Explain the meaning of the two statements below.
1. Focus only on studies that are vital and relevant in defining your research
problem.
2. Organize what you want to say in the form of an argument rather than a simple
description of other studies
Write your answers on the space provided below.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
e.g.
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
ACTIVITY 2: Critical Thinking
INSTRUCTIONS. Answer the following questions in an essay
1. What are the different parts of a quantitative research report? Identity and
describe the different components in each part. What is being highlighted in a
quantitative report?
2. What are the different areas that are highlighted in the research methods of a
quantitative report?
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
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___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
___________________________________________________
MODULE 1: Assessment
Directions: Without going back to the text, compare and contrast each given
pair of expressions. (15 points each)
Words in Pairs Comparison
Research Workbook vs
Research Writing
ASIAN INSTITUTE OF COMPUTER STUDIES (AICS)
MODULE 2: Assessment
IDENTIFICATION: Write the letter of your answer before the number. (2 points
each)
______________ 1. It includes analysis, interpretation, and explanation of the
results: theoretical implications of the results; a discussion
on the link of the result with the hypothesis and limitations
of the study
______________ 2. It is the use of descriptive and inferential statistics to
analyze data including, statistical significance, measures of
effect sizes, how the assumptions were met.
______________ 3. Its intention is to locate the study in its area of
discipline and reveal its relevance and significance in
the environment.
______________ 4. It states the issue to be examined, the context of the issue,
the review of literature and theoretical framework, and the
definition of variables and hypothesis.
______________ 5. It is a vital component of a report as it provides the
readers with snap view of what you will expect from it.
Contrast
79