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Study Guide in GE 8 - Ethics Module No. 2

STUDY GUIDE FOR MODULE NO. 2

THE MORAL AGENT

MODULE OVERVIEW

Module Outline:

A. Culture and Moral Behavior

1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior

2. What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?
3. Why are There Universal Values?
4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior
5. Strengths and weaknesses?

B. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as Habit

1. How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular Relation of Acts that Build Character
and Acts that Emanate from Character
2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience: How do we get to the highest level,
conscience-based moral decisions?

Introduction:

What does culture mean? There are several definitions of culture. It is commonly understood
that culture is found everywhere and appears to be part of our behavior and life.

The father of cultural anthropology, Edward Tylor stated that in general, culture is the way of
life of a group of people that “includes their knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs, and any
other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Gallinero, 2018).

In this Module, “the moral agent” that we are referring to is no other than YOU (or anyone) -
the one who is in-charge and responsible for all of your actions and decisions. Generally, you will
learn from this module how culture and Filipino moral identity affect your behavior as a “moral
agent”. Likewise, you will learn how to assess your own personal experiences and decisions against
the Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development.

MODULE LEARNING OBJECTIVES

At the end of this Module, you should be able to:

1. Define what culture means

2. Determine facets of personal behavior to culture
3. Determine differences in moral behavior of different cultures and appreciate your
differences
4. Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of cultural relativism
5. Identify universal values and outline why universal values are necessary for human
survival

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Study Guide in GE 8 - Ethics Module No. 2

6. Analyze crucial qualities of the Filipino moral identity in your own moral experiences
7. Evaluate elements that need to be changed
8. Recall defining moments in your moral formation
9. Describe each stage of moral development
10. Assess your personal growth, and cases, against the stages of development

LEARNING CONTENTS (Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior)

Topic 1. Culture and Moral Behavior

Sub-Topic 1.1. Culture and Its Role in Moral Behavior

What is Culture?

Culture is a complex phenomenon. It contains nearly all aspects of shared human

experiences. Culture possesses five basic elements: symbols, language, beliefs, values and norm
(Gallinero, 2018).

The Role of Culture in Moral Behavior

Plato implied that if a person’s cultural surroundings reward conformity to agreeable norms,
it would lead the person to behave much better and quell undesirable conduct (Gallinero, 2018).

Furthermore, moral rules and the sense of moral obligation and accountability are products
of social convention and social conditioning. The aspect of morality is taught, people learn moral
and immoral from cultural transmitters: the parents, teachers, novels, films, tv shows, etc. (De
Guzman, 2018).

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.1

“Gear-up” for the next lesson:

Below are 5 situations or cases highlighting different cultural practices. You can research on the
cases on the internet to know more details about them. Consider the following guide questions in
the analysis of the cases:

 Cite the facts (who are involved, where it happened, what is the dilemma, etc.)
 How do you feel about the situation/case?
 Is the given situation/case a moral issue?
 Should we allow or tolerate this kind of culture to happen or should we condemn it? Why or
why not?

Online Sharing:

Prepare for sharing online. I will randomly select 5-10 “lucky” students among you to share their
answers to the guide questions above in our official MS Teams. Good luck!

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CASES ON DIFFERENT CULTURAL PRACTICES

CASE 1. The Greeks and the Callatians

“Darius, a king of ancient Persia, had found that Callatians, who lived in India, ate the bodies of
their dead fathers. The Greeks, of course, did not do that - the Greeks practiced cremation and
regarded the funeral pyre as the natural and fitting way to dispose of the dead.” (Rachels, J.
2004)

CASE 2. Eskimos of the early and mid 20th Century (Part 1)

“The Eskimos are the native people of Alaska. The Eskimos lived in small settlements, separated
by great distances. Infanticide was common among them. Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer,
reported that he met one woman who had borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them at birth.
Female babies were especially likely to be killed, and this was permitted at the parents’
discretion, with no social stigma attached. Moreover, when elderly family members became too
feeble, they were left out in the snow to die.” (Rachels, J. 2004)

CASE 3. Eskimos of the early and mid 20th Century (Part 2)

“The Eskimos are the native people of Alaska. The Eskimos lived in small settlements, separated
by great distances. Infanticide was common among them. Knud Rasmussen, an early explorer,
reported that he met one woman who had borne 20 children but had killed 10 of them at birth.
Female babies were especially likely to be killed, and this was permitted at the parents’
discretion, with no social stigma attached. Moreover, when elderly family members became too
feeble, they were left out in the snow to die.” (Rachels, J. 2004)

CASE 4. Witch Hunting

“In some African and Asian communities, witch hunting is a prevalent practice. Women suspected
of being witches are tortured by the people, tied, covered in gasoline and burned alive. The
motivation of the people of doing the act of witch hunting is the fear of the suffering that the
witches might inflict on them.”

CASE 5. Human Sacrifice

“In Uganda and India, some communities practice Sati, a funeral custom whereby a widow will
throw herself (either willingly, or due to social pressure) on the pyre or lying place of her dead
husband and burn to death. According to source, women do it to show devotion and commitment
for their husbands.”

LEARNING CONTENTS (What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not Tenable in Ethics?)

Sub-Topic 1.2. What is Cultural Relativism? Why is it not tenable in ethics?

Cultural relativism is the view that an action is morally right if one’s culture approves of it.
James Rachels laid 5 claims of cultural relativists as to why right or wrong is only a matter of cultural
standards. Additionally, Rachels identified two positive lessons we can learn from cultural relativism:
1) “It warns us from assuming that our preferences are the absolute rational standard”, and 2) “it
teaches us to keep an open mind and to be more amenable in discovering the truth” (Rachels,

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2004).

Cultural relativism is not acceptable in ethics because of the dangers that it brings when
making moral decisions. As cited by Gallinero, the dangers of cultural relativism are: 1) “we cannot
call out societal practices to promote harm, 2) we cannot justifiably criticize our own culture’s
harmful practices, and 3) the idea of societal progress becomes doubtful” (Gallinero, 2018).

Sub-Topic 1.3. Why are There Universal Values?

Universal values refer to the values that are common to all cultures. According to Rachels,
when it comes to important moral issues, “there are some moral rules that all societies will have in
common, because those rules are necessary for society to survive” (Rachels, 2004).

The existence of the universal values is the strong proof that solely adhering to cultural
relativism is not acceptable in ethics.

Required Reading: To learn more about the lessons, please read “Model for Making
Ethical Decisions” by Scott Rae Cultural Relativism” by James Rachels uploaded in your MS
Teams.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.2 and 1.3

Self-Reflection

Read “The Challenge of Cultural Relativism” by James Rachels. Consider the following study
questions after reading:
 Knowing that there are (cultural) differences even among persons in one society, what
should be the most proper thing to do?
 Would a cultural relativist be correct in maintaining that nobody has the moral basis to
complain about his/her actions because he/she was just following what he/she believed was
right?

Online Sharing on Sub-Topic 1. 2 and Sub-Topic 1. 3

Consider the following case and study question:

In the Philippines, one moral argument against the RH Law is that it violates universal
human rights and values such as the right to life and health of children. On the other hand,
proponents of the Law assert that family planning and sexual education consistent with
one’s own beliefs and moral convictions is exercising one’s freedom to choose. (Gallinero,
2018)

 If the basis of universal values is true and, taking into consideration our social problems due
to overpopulation, what is your moral stand on the debate about having a comprehensive
reproductive health program in the Philippines?

Prepare for an online sharing. I will randomly select 3-5 “lucky” students among you to share their
reflections under cultural relativism and universal values in our official MS Teams or messenger

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group chat. Good luck!

LEARNING CONTENTS (The Filipino Way; Strengths and Weaknesses)

Sub-Topic 1.4. The Filipino Way: An Asian and a Filipino Understanding of Moral Behavior

The Filipino culture is a mix of both Eastern and Western cultures. Patricia Licuanan, a
former commissioner of CHED and a distinguished Filipino psychologist, wrote that the strengths
and weaknesses of the Filipino Character are rooted in the following factors. These factors are the
home environment, culture and language, history, educational system, religion, the economic
system, political environment, mass media and leaders/role models (Licuanan, 1994).

Sub-Topic 1.5. Strengths and Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

The most common strong aspects of the Filipino character are: pakikipagkapwa-tao, family
orientation, joy and humor, flexibility, adaptability and creativity, hardwork and industry, faith and
religiosity, and ability to survive. The most common weak aspects of the Filipino character are:
extreme personalism, extreme family centeredness, lack of discipline, passivity and lack of initiative,
colonial mentality, kanya-kanya syndrome and lack of self-analysis and self-reflection (Licuanan,
1994).

Required Reading: To learn more about the lessons, please read “Building a People,
Building a Nation…A Moral Recovery Program” by Patricia B. Licuanan uploaded in your MS
Teams.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1.4 and 1.5

Short-Films Online Viewing

You will be watching (synchronously or asynchronously) the following short films about Filipino ways
and moral behavior:
 Chris Cahilig: “Pitaka”: Shortfilm
 Paul Soriano: “An Open Door” Shortfilm
 Nestle Philippines: “Cooking Mo, Cooking Ko” Kasambuhay Habambuhay Short Film
Anthology

Short Film Analysis:

Write a short film analysis on the three short films to be submitted through MS Teams or email. As
an output of your assigned reading “The Filipino Way”, answer the guide questions about the three
short films that you have watched:
 Short narrative of the story - facts/details of the film (brief, 2-3 sentences only).
 What Filipino value/s are evident in the film? Cite same personal experience about these
values.

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 Is the value/are the values considered strength or weakness of the Filipino character?
Explain.
 Based on what you have learned from the short-films, evaluate and discuss your own
personal values that you think is needed to be changed.

Please follow this format of the short film analysis:

Name:
Course, Year, Section:

Title of the Film: PITAKA by Chris Cahilig

Short Narrative of the Film:

Filipino Value/s in Personal Experience Strength or Retain or Change the

the Film about the value/s Weakness of the said Filipino Value
Filipino Character (briefly discuss)
1. Your answer here Your answer here Your answer here

2.

Etcetera, if there are

many

Name:
Course, Year, Section:

Title of the Film: AN OPEN DOOR by Paul Soriano

Short Narrative of the Film:

Filipino Value/s in Personal Experience Strength or Retain or Change the

the Film about the value/s Weakness of the said Filipino Value
Filipino Character (briefly discuss)
1. Your answer here Your answer here Your answer here

2.

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Etcetera, if there are

many

Name:
Course, Year, Section:

Title of the Film: COOKING MO, COOKING KO by Nestle Philippines

Short Narrative of the Film:

Filipino Value/s in Personal Experience Strength or Retain or Change the

the Film about the value/s Weakness of the said Filipino Value
Filipino Character (briefly discuss)
1. Your answer here Your answer here Your answer here

2.

Etcetera, if there are

many

LEARNING CONTENTS (How is Moral Character Developed…)

Topic 2. The Moral Agent: Developing Virtue as Habit

Sub-Topic 2.1. How is Moral Character Developed: The Circular Relation of Acts that Build
Character and Acts that Emanate from Character

Moral Character

Moral character refers to “the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty and loyalty” (Merriam-Webster, 2017). Moral characters are those dispositions or
tendencies to act or think in a particular way by which a person can be held morally responsible
(Gallinero, 2018).

According to De Guzman, “in moral development, there is a circular relation between acts
that build character and moral character itself” (De Guzman, 2018). Your moral character will
produce particular actions that are related with it, and on the other hand, the individual actions that
you execute will determine the kind of moral character that you possess. For example, if you
possess an “honest character”, it will always lead you to do actions associated with honesty (and

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you may rarely do actions related to dishonesty). On the other way around, when you “tell the
absolute truth even at the risk of attracting troubles”, this particular action determines the kind of
moral character that you have – which is, honesty.

Philosophical Views on Moral Character

In Confucian tradition, personality meant “an achieved state of moral excellence”. Moral
development was attributed to the “four beginnings” of the human personality, namely: 1) the heart
of compassion (jen), 2) the heart of righteousness (ren), 3) the heart of propriety (Li), and 4) the
heart of wisdom (Zhi) (Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 2017).

According to Aristotle, each person has a built-in desire to be virtuous and that if a person is
focused on being a good person the right actions will follow effortlessly and you will do good things.
The principle of being virtuous is called the “Doctrine of the Golden Mean”, the principle that the one
that is in the middle of two extreme behaviors (Gallinero, 2018).

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.1

Graphic Organizer

Before making your graphic organizer, consider first the following study question:
 What are the things that you consider as contributory elements to your moral character?

Develop a simple graphic organizer (chart) illustrating the circularity between your own actions
and the moral character that you possess. An example of the circular relation between acts and
character is given above (under sub-topic 2.1). Your graphic organizer will be sent as an image file
(jpeg) via MS Teams or email.

Guidelines:
a. Your simple graphic organizer may be in the form of concept map, diagram, web, etcetera.
You can find examples of graphic organizers on the internet. Be creative, you can even paint
or draw it.
b. Texts (titles, definitions, or descriptions) should be concise and important to the given topic.
c. Make sure that there are more graphics (visuals/illustrations/photos/etc.) than texts
(words/phrases/paragraphs) in your organizer.

LEARNING CONTENTS (Stages of Moral Development and Conscience…)

Sub-Topic 2.2. Stages of Moral Development and Conscience: how do we get to the highest
level, conscience-based moral decisions?

Lawrence Kohlberg, an American developmental psychologist and philosopher, is known for

his theory on Moral Development. According to Kohlberg, there are three levels of moral
development (pre-conventional level, conventional level and post conventional level), each with two
stages composing his so-called “six stages of moral development”, namely: 1) punishment-
obedience stage, 2) reward orientation, 3) good boy/ good girl orientation, 4) authority orientation, 5)

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social contract orientation, and 6) ethical-principle orientation.

Required Reading: To learn more about the lesson, please read “Kohlberg’s Stages of
Moral Development” by McLeod uploaded or linked in your MS Teams.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2.2

Online Sharing on Heinz Dilemma:

Each of you will be assigned by partner to analyze Heinz Dilemma using guide questions leading to
the understanding of the stages of moral development. After the analysis, prepare for sharing
online. I will randomly select 3-5 “lucky” students among you to share their answers to the guide
questions above in our official MS Teams or messenger group chat. Good luck!

Heinz Dilemma
“In, Europe, a woman was near death from a special kind of cancer. There was one drug
that the doctors thought might save her. It was a form of radium that a druggist in the same town
had recently discovered. The drug was expensive to make, but the druggist was charging ten times
what the drug cost him to make. He paid 200 dollars for the radium and charged 2,000 dollars for a
small dose of the drug. The sick woman’s husband, Heinz, went to everyone he knew to borrow the
money, but he could only get together about 1,000 dollars which is half of what it cost. He told the
druggist that his wife was dying and ask him to sell it cheaper or let him pay later. But the druggist
said: “No, I discovered the drug and I’m going to make money from it.” So Heinz got desperate and
broke into the man’s store to steal the drug for his wife.” (by Kohlberg)”

Guide questions:
 Should Heinz have stolen the drug? If you were Heinz, would you be doing the same thing?
On what reason?
 Would it change anything if Heinz did not love his wife?
 What if the person dying was a total stranger, would it make any difference?
 Should the police arrest the druggist for murder if the woman died?

Self-Assessment:

Read/review “Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development” by McLeod. Consider the following study
questions after reading:
 How did you develop a sense of right and wrong?
 Where are you now in your moral development based on Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral
Development?

Quiz:

Review all the previous lessons (sub-topic 1.4, sub-topic 2.2) and prepare for a quiz. The schedule
and mode of the quiz will be posted in your MS Teams or Messenger Group Chat. Good luck!

SUMMARY

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 Culture is all around us, it is a way of life. Culture includes moral values and behaviors, along
with knowledge, beliefs, symbols, etc. that are passed along by communication and imitation
from one generation to the next. Since moral behavior is part of culture, all the aspects of
morality therefore are taught – communicated and imitated.

 Cultural (moral) relativism is a theory that holds that there is no single objective universal
standard through which we can evaluate the truth of moral judgments.

 Cultural relativism is not tenable in ethics. There are universal values (and moral norms) that are
objectively applicable across all cultures.

 Filipino culture is a conglomeration of western and eastern cultures. Just like any other cultures,
there are strong and weak aspects of the Filipino character. Likewise, many of our strong points
are linked to our weaknesses. The most important thing is that we know our values as Filipinos
because these help us grow and develop.

 Moral characters are rational, informed, stable and reliable dispositions.

 In moral development, a person’s actions determine his/her moral character, but moral character
itself generates acts that help in developing either virtue or vice.

 The three levels of Moral Development are 1) Pre-Conventional Level which includes
punishment-obedience orientation stage and reward orientation stage, 2) Conventional Level
which includes good boy/girl orientation stage and authority orientation stage, and 3) Post
Conventional Stage which includes social contract orientation stage and ethical-principle
orientation stage.

REFERENCES

Chris Cahilig “Pitaka”: Shortfilm, May 11, 2017,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LlMOSmRXtAQ

De Guzman, J. M., et.al. 2018. Ethics: Principles of Ethical Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon
City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Gallinero, W.B., et.al. 2018. Ethics. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

Kohlberg, Lawrence. Essays on Moral Development. Vol. 1 of the Philosophy of Moral

Development: Moral Stages and the Idea of Justice. San Francisco, CA: Harper & Row,
1981.

Licuanan, Patricia et.al. “A Moral Recovery Program: Building People – Building Nation” Values in
Philippine Culture and Education: Philippine Philosophical Studies I. Washington, DC: The
Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, 1994.

McLeod, S. Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development, updated 2013,

https://www.simplypsychology.org/kohlberg.html

Nestle Philippines “Cooking Mo, Cooking Ko” Kasambuhay Habambuhay Short Film Anthology,
July 11, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y9gzS1XFt7E

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Paul Soriano “An Open Door” Shortfilm, September 2, 2016,

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IV235cFyjpY

Rachels, J. 2004. The Elements of Moral Philosophy, 4th ed. New York: McGRaw-Hill College.

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