M. Scarpa et al.

/ Energy and Buildings 79 (2014) 155–163 159

2.2.2. Calculation scheme for the evapotranspiration
phenomenon
Latent heat amount Qlat was calculated, both for LWa and for
LWb, according to the following equation:
0.408 ·  · (R − G) +  · 37
· vair · (es − ea )
+273
ET0 =
 +  · (1 + 0.34 · u2 )
Eq. (12) is used to calculate the evapotranspiration heat flux
of a reference plant, hence subscript “0”. This value must by coef-
ficient Kc , depending on the plant species, in order to obtain the
evapotranspiration heat flux of that particular plant species. This
method for the evaluation of the evapotranspiration heat flow rate
was proposed by Allen et al. [9]. Table 2 contains the values of coeffi-
cient Kc used to calculate the evapotranspiration heat flux for LWa,
through an average weighted on the area occupied by each plant
species. In this case all the plant species sown in the living wall
were considered and the most correct equivalences with the FAO
evapotranspiration guide [9], which mainly includes agricultural
species, were found. The correspondence and the relative value of
Kc are shown in Table 2.
Finally, a final value equal to 0.81 for Kc was assigned. The final Kc
coefficient for LWa has evaluated to be 0.81. For LWb the calculation
of the value of Kc was simpler, thanks to the presence of only grass.
The estimated value for coefficient Kc was 0.8 as for typical grass
species such as Zoysia.
2.2.3. Assessment of the optical characteristics of the canopy layer
The reference value of the canopy layer emissivity used in heat
balance of thermal nodes 10 and 11 (ref. Fig. 3) was set equal to
0.96, based on literature [8]. Another important parameter consid-
ered in the model is the leaf area index (LAI). This value represents
the ratio of leaf area to ground area [7]. According to Chen [10], LAI
values around 3 and 5.8 were estimated for LWa and LWb respec-
tively. Transmitted shortwave radiation  s and reflectance
s of the
canopy layer can be expressed as a function of the LAI, according
with the following equations [7]:
sw = exp(−ksw · LAI)
rsw = (1 − sw · LAI) · r∞
with reflectance of the dense canopy r∞ equal to 0.12, coefficient
of extinction ksw equal to 0.74.
2.2.4. Assessment of the cavity air volume flow rate
As explained above, LWa has an open air cavity, whereas LWb
has a closed one. This leads to a different implementation of the air
(12) flow rate calculation.
In case of LWa, the air flow rate through the cavity is calcu-
lated accounting for both wind and buoyancy effects. The wind and
buoyancy effects are calculated according to [11]:
V̇wind = Cv · Ain · vwind (15)

2.g · H · (cav − amb )
V̇buoyancy = Cd · Ain · (16)
cav
The pressure coefficient for cavity inlets and outlets (Cv )
depends on the wind direction relative to the wall. In this case a
value of 0.25 was used considering diagonal winds and shelter-
ing effects due to the surrounding built environment [12]. Local
wind speed vwind was calculated considering the wind speed of
the nearest weather station modified including height and ter-
rain characteristics. Discharge coefficient Cd depends on geometry
and airflow turbulence. In this case an average value equal to 0.3
was used according to Kiel and Wilson [13]. h is the height from
the lower opening to the neutral pressure level (NPL). In this case,
considering uniform openings at the bottom and at the top of the
cavity, the height of the NPL was assumed equal to half the living
wall height.
For LWb the heat convection in the air cavity was calculated
considering the convection coefficient in closed cavities according
to [14]:
gas
hconv = Nu (17)
scavity
The thermal conductivity of the air ( ) is 0.026 W m−1 K−1 and
the thickness of the cavity (s) is 0.05 m for both LWa and LWb.
3. Results and discussion
The aim of this mathematical model is to provide forecasts of
(13) the thermal behavior of green facades under varying boundary
conditions, thus enabling the application of the model to yearly
simulations. The mathematical model was compared with field
(14) measurements as regards external surface temperatures and heat

Table 2
LWa species correspondences.

Living wall species FAO corresponding species Corresponding key Kc coefficient Occupied area [%]

Geranium sanguineum Strawberries Similarity of the leaf 0.7 7

Geranium Johnson’s blue Strawberries Similarity of the leaf 0.7 7
Anemone sp. Strawberries Similarity of the leaf 0.7 5
Alchemilla mollis Strawberries Similarity of the leaf 0.7 5
Heuchera micrantha Palace Purple Strawberries Similarity of the leaf 0.7 8
Vinca minor Strawberries Similarity of the leaf 0.7 5
Parthenocissus tricuspidata Hops 0.8 7
Hedera helix Hops Similarity of the leaf 0.8 7
Juniperus communis Conifer trees 0.95 15
Rosmarinus officinalis Asparagus Similarity of the leaf 0.9 3
Salvia nemorosa Mint 1.05 3
Teucrium chamaedrys Mint 1.05 3
Symphoricarpos albus Berries Similarity of the leaf 1 1
Genista lydia Clover hay 1.05 1
Bergenia cordifolia Lettuce Similarity of the leaf 0.9 6
Fatsia japonica Ricinus castorbean Similarity of the leaf 0.45 3
Carex brunnea Cattails bulrushes 0.6 3
Zoysia Grazing pasture 0.8 3
Koeleria Grazing pasture 0.8 3
Stipa pennata Grazing pasture 0.8 5