Professional Documents
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Cultural Spiritual Thebible
Cultural Spiritual Thebible
of Biodiversity
Chapter Co-ordinators
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P E E R R E V I E W P A N E L S
Meeting held at
University of Reading, UK, 2–3 October 1996
Meeting held at
Leiden University, The Netherlands, 22–23 September 1997
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION: CULTURE AND NATURE – THE INEXTRICABLE LINK ................................................................... 1
DARRELL ADDISON POSEY
CHAPTER 2
LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY ........................................................................................................................... 19
LUISA MAFFI
CHAPTER 3
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES, THEIR ENVIRONMENTS AND TERRITORIES ................................................................... 59
ANDREW GRAY
CHAPTER 4
VOICES OF THE EARTH ....................................................................................................................... 119
RANIL SENANAYAKE
CHAPTER 5
ETHNOSCIENCE, ‘TEK’ AND ITS APPLICATION TO CONSERVATION ................................................................ 167
L. JAN SLIKKERVEER
CHAPTER 6
VALUING BIODIVERSITY FOR HUMAN HEALTH AND WELL-BEING:
TRADITIONAL HEALTH SYSTEMS ............................................................................................................. 261
GERARD BODEKER
CHAPTER 7
TRADITIONAL AGRICULTURE AND SOIL MANAGEMENT ............................................................................... 285
KRISTINA PLENDERLEITH
CHAPTER 8
MOUNTAINS: THE HEIGHTS OF BIODIVERSITY .......................................................................................... 325
EDWIN BERNBAUM
CHAPTER 9
FORESTS, CULTURE AND CONSERVATION ............................................................................................... 345
SARAH A. LAIRD
CHAPTER 10
AQUATIC AND MARINE BIODIVERSITY .................................................................................................... 397
PAUL CHAMBERS
CHAPTER 11
ETHICAL, MORAL AND RELIGIOUS CONCERNS ......................................................................................... 435
JEFF GOLLIHER
CHAPTER 12
RIGHTS, RESOURCES AND RESPONSES ................................................................................................... 503
GRAHAM DUTFIELD
CONCLUSION
MAINTAINING THE MOSAIC ................................................................................................................ 547
DARRELL ADDISON POSEY
APPENDICES
1. DECLARATIONS OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ ORGANIZATIONS .......................................................... 655
2. FAITH STATEMENTS ON RELIGION AND ECOLOGY .............................................................................. 603
3. PARTICIPANTS IN THE PEER REVIEW PROCESS ..................................................................................... 637
4. THE CONTRIBUTORS ..................................................................................................................... 639
5. ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .................................................................................................. 649
AS WE APPROACH THE NEXT MILLENNIUM, ‘GLOBALIZATION’ The separation of spirit from matter seems to
has become the dominating tendency. Technology and be the prevailing philosophical approach in recent
communication systems are dissolving geographical times. A re-evaluation of this precept is being shaped
distance and political boundaries. The positive as- by the major religions of the world, in response to
pects of such a trend are numerous, including the the global environmental crisis. This may have a
enhanced access to goods and services propelled by profound repercussion on the way individuals and
the global economy and cultural change which seems their societies perceive the environment, leading to
to bring progress and new opportunities to the peoples more responsible actions.
on earth. However, the trade-offs are less well under- Most indigenous and/or traditional populations
stood, and among these the impacts of the predomi- inhabit areas of mega-biodiversity. This illustrates
nant development model on the global environment the inextricable link between cultural and biological
should be a major concern for us all. Climate change, diversity. The very origins of environmental conser-
loss of biological diversity, depletion of the ozone layer, vation lie buried in ancient cultures found through-
pollution, exhaustion of water resources, and conflicts out the world. Modern environmental movements
over shared resources are some of the most pressing express various ideologies of these original belief
problems faced by humankind. systems, yet do not always realize their debt to their
There is strong evidence that the life support forebears, nor towards those who still embody these
systems on which our economies depend are being ideals. Learning and respecting the ways of today’s
overloaded, and unless a shift is made towards sus- indigenous and traditional peoples, and integrating
tainable development we might face severe or irre- them into environmental and developmental consid-
versible damage to our environment. Besides the erations, will prove indispensable for the survival of
profound ethical and aesthetic implications, it is clear diversity.
that the loss of biodiversity has serious economic As reported in Chapter 1 of this volume, 2,500
and social costs. The genes, species, ecosystems and languages are in immediate danger of extinction and
human knowledge that are being lost represent a ‘an even higher number are losing the “ecological
living library of options available for preventing and/ contexts” that keep them as vibrant languages’.
or adapting to local and global change. Biodiversity Cultural diversity is more than appearance, more
is a part of our daily lives and livelihoods, and con- than folklore, song and dance. It is the embodiment
stitutes the resources on which families, communi- of values, institutions and patterns of behaviour. It
ties, nations and future generations depend. is a composite whole representing a people’s histori-
Placing a monetary value on species and eco- cal experience, aspirations and world-view. Deprive
systems may be a useful exercise by which to inte- a people of their language, culture and spiritual val-
grate the cost of using and conserving biodiversity ues and they lose all sense of direction and purpose.
into the current global economic system, but it will The contributions of traditional and indigenous
never be possible to comprehend the true value of peoples should be made visible. Those who are privi-
life in such a system. leged cannot assume that there is only one world-
Respect for biological diversity implies respect view. This volume represents UNEP’s contribution
for human diversity. Indeed, both elements are fun- towards broadening the debate on biodiversity. It is
damental to stability and durable peace on earth. also a call by the United Nations to transform the
The key to creating forms of development that are slogan ‘we the peoples’ from words into action. This
sustainable and in harmony with the needs and as- is the only way in which we can become more recep-
pirations of each culture implies breaking out of pat- tive to the needs of the citizens of the world. This is
terns that render invisible the lives and perspectives the only way we can become more flexible in seek-
of those cultures. It is the concern of many people ing innovative solutions. This is the only way we can
that biodiversity must be appreciated in terms of capitalize on the abundant human resources and
human diversity, because different cultures and peo- capabilities available within the global society.
ple from different walks of life perceive and appre- This volume on ‘Cultural and Spiritual Values of
hend biodiversity in different ways as a consequence Biodiversity’ presents a sample of the vast array of
of their distinct heritages and experiences. threads that make up the tapestry of our cultural
xi
and spiritual diversity. Some of the articles are philo- bounty. Taken together, the articles bring out the
sophical or historical, others are scientific or legal, multidimensional challenges that biodiversity con-
and some are accounts of personal experiences and servation poses, not only to policy-makers and sci-
beliefs. All are equally enlightening. entists, but to all of us.
Whatever we may think about any particular This volume has one principal message. We
aspect of this tapestry, it is important for us to con- must resolve to weave the life-sustaining customs
template it. If we are to conserve the cultural and of all diverse groups on earth into a resilient fabric
natural bounty on earth, we must learn more about that will protect the sanctity of all life.
it and about the nature of our interactions with that
xii
Note From the Executive Editor of the GBA
Vernon Heywood
THIS WORK AROSE OUT OF THE GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY of biological diversity and linking conservation ef-
ASSESSMENT (GBA), a massive review of our current forts with social and economic benefits (Decision III/
knowledge in the broad field of biological diversity, 11 Conservation and Sustainable Use of Agricultural
commissioned by UNEP. In the Introductory Section Biological Diversity of the Conference of the Parties
of the GBA it is noted that as scientists we now con- to the Convention on Biological Diversity). On the
sider that humans form an integral and critically im- other hand, the FAO Global Plan of Action covers a
portant part of biodiversity, although until recently number of multidisciplinary areas such as in situ
the tendency was to treat the human species as sepa- conservation of wild plants and crop relatives in natu-
rate from the rest of nature. Increasing awareness ral ecosystems which extend the traditional activi-
over the past few decades has emphasized the need ties of sustainable agriculture and plant genetic
to improve our understanding of the interactions resource conservation, and it is recognized that suc-
between human society and biodiversity. As a result, cessful implementation will require the development
the concept of biodiversity has widened so as to cover of new partnerships with a range of intergovernmen-
these aspects in addition to the normally recognized tal and non-governmental organizations as well as
components of ecological, organismal and genetic with indigenous and local communities.
diversity. Indeed, during the process of preparing the The problems posed by human and social val-
GBA it became evident at all turns that humans are ues are particularly acute in assessing the economic
now the dominant influence on biodiversity and that, value of biodiversity, and the considerable social and
moreover, the values, driving forces and human in- cultural differences in the perception of value are
fluences, as well as the measures undertaken for indeed recognized in the main Assessment in the
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, section on ‘The Economic Value of Biodiversity’.
vary greatly within and between cultures. Also, a major section of the GBA is devoted to ‘Hu-
Perhaps the most important area where human man Influences on Biodiversity’. In the latter sec-
interactions with biodiversity are intrinsic is agri- tion, the role of humans as the driving force in causing
culture. One of the significant paradigm shifts in the changes in biological diversity over the ages through
past few years has been the growing appreciation of agriculture, trade, transportation, urbanization, indus-
the concept of agrobiodiversity – the variety and trialization and market forces, is explored.
variability amongst the animals, plants and micro- It was felt, however, that a much more detailed
organisms that are important to food and agricul- review of the diversity of human and social values
ture and the ecological complexes of which they form that have been accorded to biological diversity was
a part – and with it the recognition that biodiversity warranted. Fundamental are the different ways in
is essential for agricultural production, just as agri- which nature and the elements of its diversity –
culture should be for biodiversity conservation. A key plants, animals, forests, and other elements – are
development was the endorsement, by governments, viewed, respected and valued. Accordingly, in Sep-
of the FAO Global Plan of Action (GPA) for the Con- tember 1994 the Management Group of the GBA rec-
servation and Sustainable Use of Plant Genetic Re- ommended to UNEP that the focus on human and
sources for Food and Agriculture, in Leipzig, June social values should be broadened and treated as a
1996. The GPA sets out a global strategy for the separate Section.
conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic Unfortunately, the material was not available
resources for food and agriculture that complements in time for inclusion in the GBA, and at the final
the CBD. peer review workshop of the GBA held in Panama in
Following these two agreements it is interest- June 1995 it was decided to recommend to UNEP
ing to note a developing convergence of interest be- that it should be published, when completed, as a
tween the agricultural and conservation sectors. On stand-alone volume on ‘Human Values of Biodiver-
the one hand, the CBD recognized that agricultural sity’. A draft was prepared by Dr Jerry Moles and Dr
biodiversity is a focal area in view of its social and Ranil Senanayake and submitted to a peer review
economic relevance and the prospects offered by workshop, at Reading, in October 1996. This review
sustainable agriculture for reducing the negative recommended a substantial reconceptualization of
impacts on biological diversity, enhancing the value the project and a general call for additional contri-
xiii
butions. It resulted in a volume that has been com- banding of the organization that led to its produc-
pletely redesigned and reorganized and whose scope tion, this volume has not followed the same pattern
has been further widened so as to cover not just as that of the GBA. My own role, as Executive Edi-
human and social but also cultural and spiritual val- tor of the GBA, in the preparation of the present vol-
ues, with Dr Darrell Posey playing a key role as edi- ume, has been largely supportive and to ensure
tor and lead author. A peer review of the new draft continuity and complementarity with the main As-
was held at Leiden in September 1997 and the sessment. In this role I have worked closely with Dr
present volume is the result. Darrell Posey and am pleased to commend the book
Because of the nature of the material and the as providing a new perspective and a major addition
fact that the text was prepared after the completion to the growing literature on biological diversity.
of the Global Biodiversity Assessment and the dis-
1 October 1998
xiv
Acknowledgements
Hamdallah Zedan, Chief, Biodiversity Unit, UNEP
THIS BOOK IS THE RESULT OF AN OUTSTANDING RESPONSE Rev. Dr Jeffrey Golliher (ethical, moral and religious
to the call by UNEP for contributions to present the concerns); Dr Andrew Gray (indigenous peoples,
complex issues related to the Cultural and Spiritual their environments and territories); Sarah Laird
Values of Biodiversity. The organization is therefore (forests, culture and conservation); Luisa Maffi
indebted to the many persons and institutions that (linguistic diversity); Kristina Plenderleith (traditional
participated with great enthusiasm in the comple- agriculture and soil management); Dr Darrel A.
tion of the task. UNEP extends its gratitude to the Posey (introduction and conclusions chapters); Ranil
Editor, Dr Darrell Addison Posey, for an outstand- Senanayake (indigenous statements); and Professor
ing job and for his tireless efforts over a period of L. Jan Slikkerveer (ethnoscience).
two years. Without his insight and knowledge this Our sincere appreciation is extended to the con-
project would not have been possible. The Oxford tributing authors as well as to the traditional and
Centre for the Environment, Ethics and Society at indigenous people who provided freely all the arti-
Mansfield College, University of Oxford (U.K.), the cles and statements contained in the book and whose
Departamento de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade names appear in the list on page xvi. Their number,
Federal do Maranhão (Brazil) and the Brazilian 290 contributors, testifies to the importance of the
National Council for Research and Technology topic and its relevance to the current debate on bio-
provided administrative and institutional support. logical diversity.
The Global Environment Facility (GEF) pro- We would like to acknowledge the contribution
vided co-financing towards the production of the of the Environment Liaison Centre International
book, allowing us to complement the Global Biodiver- (ELCI) and its former Executive Director, Dr
sity Assessment (GBA) also funded with GEF Senanayake, who provided impetus for the prepara-
resources. Leiden University, The Netherlands, tion of a special volume to complement the GBA and
hosted the second Peer Review meeting and produced an early manuscript on Indigenous Peo-
enthusiastically supported the preparation of the ples that served as the basis for the personal depo-
publication. sitions found in Chapter 4.
Special thanks to Prof. Vernon Heywood, Editor We also thank the peer reviewers for their com-
of the Global Biodiversity Assessment, for his sage edi- ments during the Peer Review meetings in both
torial, technical, political and practical advice which Reading (U.K.) and Leiden (The Netherlands), and
kept the production process on course. Also to the likewise to those who provided written comments.
Task Managers of the project, Isabella Masinde and Lastly but not least, our deep thanks to the copy
Carmen Tavera, who contributed their ideas to shape editor, Mr. Martyn Bramwell, for his patience and
the publication and dedicated long hours to this professional work. Also to the persons who contrib-
endeavour in addition to their respective responsi- uted to the various tedious tasks associated with
bilities within the organization. the production of a book of this massive size and
The volume would have been impossible to pro- complexity: Graham Dutfield, Kristina Plenderleith
duce with the limited resources and time available and Susanne Schmitt who assisted the Editor; Fran-
had it not been for the generous and dedicated efforts cisco Vásquez who processed the layout; and Neeyati
of Chapter Co-ordinators: Dr Edwin Bernbaum Patel and Hanne-Rie Madsen, Fund Management
(mountains); Dr Gerard Bodecker (traditional health Officers.
systems); Dr Paul Chambers (aquatic resources); To all those who contributed, UNEP is deeply
Graham Dutfield (rights, resources and responses); indebted.
December 1998
xv
Contributors
Darrell Posey * Christine Morris * Paul Chambers * Claus Biegert * Peter Whiteley * Vernon Masayesva * Marie
Roué * Douglas Nakashima * Gleb Raygorodetsky * Fleur Ng’weno * Manon Osseweijer * William Wallace
Mokahi Steiner * Clark Peteru * Nga Kai O Te Moana * Janet Chernela * Arne Kalland * Níels Einarsson * Beatrice
B. Maloba * Jeff Golliher * Chief Oren Lyons * Vandana Shiva * Mary Getui * Rosemary Radford Ruether * John
O’Neill * Alan Holland * Mark Sagoff * Timothy Weiskel * Bryan G. Norton * James Nash * Dieter T. Hessel
Joan Halifax * Marty Peale * Alastair McIntosh * David Abrams * James Hillman * Fritjof Capra * Tim Jensen
Margot McLean * Finn Lynge * Denis Goulet * J. Baird Callicott * William N. Ellis * Margaret M. Ellis * Carter
Revard * Graham Dutfield * George Monbiot * Bhaskar Vira * John Wiener * Astrid Scholz * Ignacio Chapela
Kathy McAfee * Joseph Vogel * David Stephenson * Carlos Correa * Darshan Shankar * Anil Gupta * Delphine
Roch * Tahereh Nadarajah * Gemima Born * Maui Solomon * Christine Morris * Janis Alcorn * Luisa Maffi
Jonah Andrianarivo * Tove Skutnabb-Kangas * Mazisi Kunene * Andrew Gray * Joji Cariño * Laurie Anne Whitt
David Suzuki * Russel Lawrence Barsh * Andrew J. Chapeskie * Robert H. Winthrop * Elizabeth Reichel D.
Mónica del Pilar Uribe Marín * Jaime Rodríguez-Manasse * Glenn Shepard Jr. * Richard B. Petersen
Graham E. Clarke * David Bennett * Reimar Schefold * Gerard Persoon * Aroha Te Pareake Mead
Davianna Pomaika’i McGregor * Inés Hernández-Ávila * Isabella Masinde * Carmen Tavera * Jerry Moles * Ranil
Senanayake * Henrietta Fourmile * Mick * Kathrimila Mulazana * Pera * Kipelelo Waker * Kaichela Dipera
Rekamani Mutupi * Daniel Matenho Cabixi * Gamaillie Kilukishak * Meeka Mike * Juan Vargas * Rodolfo
Mayorga * Carmen Leiva * Aníbal Morales * Gloria Moyorga * Juanita Sánchez * Eustacia Palacios * Catalina
Morales * Cristina Gualinga * Bolivar Beltrán * Piedad Cabascango * Raúl Tapuyo * Nancy Velas * Fredy
Pianchiche * Bayardo Lanchimba * Yesenia Gonzales * Melecio Santos * Moi Angulema * Nina Pacari Vega * The
Nuaulu People * Patrick Segundad * Eidengab * Johan Mathis Turi * Atentio López * Morea Veratua * Michael
Kapo * Adolfo García Laulate * Silvia del Aguila Reina * David Vargas * Anastacio Lázaro Milagro * Susana
Dávila * Walter Gabriel Yanesha * Enrique Gonzales Miranda * Walter Reiner Jipa * Glorioso Castro * Mario Sijo
Sajami * David Camacho Paqui * Justo Funachi Inuma * Giulianna Montalvo Espejo * Fidel Sánchez * Ciro
Cosnilla Olivares * Reyner Castro Martínez * Eliazar Muñoz * Guillermo Gómez, * Elmer Guimaraes * Leoncio
García * Abel Alado Tello * Irma Castro de Salazar * Tomas Huaya Panduro * Oswaldo Cairuna Fasaba * Hugo
Ochavano Sanaciro * Zoila Canaquiri Bardales * Juan Muñoz Mamani * Marcial Rodríguez Panduro * Teresa
Elecputu * Policarpo Sánchez * Emilio Agustín * Josué Faquin * Fidel Sinarahua * Delia Isuiza * Francisco Muñoz
Ruth Lilongula * Mudianse Tenekoon * Siosiane Fanua Bloomfield * Korosata To’o * Reverend Asotasi Time
Evanson Nyamakao * Ralph Mogati * L. Jan Slikkerveer * Arun Agrawal * Roy Ellen * Holly Harris * Ashish
Kothari * Priya Das * Raymond Pierotti * Daniel R. Wildcat * Maj-Lis Foller * Janis Alcorn * Michel P. Pimbert
Jules N. Pretty * Tirso Gonzales * Nestor Chambi * Marcela Machaca * Prabha Mahale * Hay Sorée * Kusnaka
Adimihardja * Rosemary Hill * Dermot Smyth * Julian Barry * Hew D. V. Prendergast * Stephen D. Davis
Michael Way * James Fairhead * Melissa Leach * John Clark * Terence Hay-Edie * Jeffrey A. McNeely * Herbert
Girardet * Josep-Antoni Gari * Harold Brookfield * A. V. Balasubramanian * K. Vijayalakshmi * Gerard Bodeker
Darshan Shankar * Bhanumathi Natarajan * Jean Goodwill * Lea Bill – Rippling Water Woman * Elois Ann Berlin
Brent Berlin * Michael J. Balick * Rosita Arvigo * Gregory Shropshire * Robert Mendelsohn * Francisco Montes
Kathleen Harrison * Francoise Barbira-Freedman * Stephen Hugh-Jones * Elizabeth Motte-Florac * Serge
Bahuchet * Jacqueline M. C. Thomas * Maurice Mmaduakolam Iwu * Olive Tumwesigye * Francisco Montes
Bill Neidjie * S. Davis * A. Fox * Kristina Plenderleith * Miguel A. Altieri * Paul Sillitoe * Wabis Ungutip * Jim
Pelia * Kuli Hond * Ben Wabis * Ideng Enris * Sarmiah * Riza V. Tjahjadi * Daniel di Giorgi Toffoli * Rogerio
Ribeiro de Oliveira * Richard H. Moore * Deborah H. Stinner * David and Elsie Kline * David Brokensha * Paul
Richards * Lori Ann Thrupp * Jean Christie * Pat Mooney * Peter Mann * Kathy Lawrence * Edwin Bernbaum
Garma C. C. Chang * Washington Matthews * Stanley F. Stevens * A. N. Purohit * Martin Palmer * Tjalling
Halbertsma * Chief John Snow * Evelyn Martin * Thomas Schaaf * Roger Pullin * Sarah A. Laird * Laura Rival
Patricia Shanley * Jurandir Galvão * Paul Richards * Julia Falconer * Jeanne Zoundjihekpon * Bernadette
Dossou-Glehouenou * Christine Kabuye * Wynet Smith * T. C. Meredith * Michael Dove * Pei Shengji
E. Bharucha * Pramod Parajuli * Nandini Sundar * Sargun A. Tont * William Burch Jr. * Alexander Porteous
Oliver Rackham * Kenny Young * Patricia Shanley * Jurandir Galvão * Harold Courlander * Orhan Veli Kanik
Murat Nemet-Nejat * Melih Cevdet Anday * Talat Sait Halman * Freda Rajotte
xvi
Preface
Darrell Addison Posey
IF NOTHING ELSE, THE BIODIVERSITY DEBATE OVER THE This view is not alien to the teaching of the
last few decades has taught us that life is a mosaic world’s major religions, although ecologists have
of biological forms, webs of interrelated niches, and been disappointed by the lack of decisive guidance
myriad ecosystems. Like a mosaic, the intricate by religious leaders in the battle to conserve bio-
pieces that comprise the work, when viewed too diversity. This has begun to change, and religious
closely, may not reveal the overall vision that is organizations are increasingly aware of their role in
the message of the art. Yet, the message of the re-establishing the principles of human stewardship
mosaic is revealed only through its intricacy and of, and oneness with, nature. The way that each re-
diversity. ligious group tackles the problem is, again, a reflec-
This volume is a mosaic. It is composed of con- tion of diversity.
tributions from people and peoples around the world. Organization of the volume will, hopefully, guide
The fragments that comprise the text were provided the reader to the overall vision of the mosaic. Each
by those who share concerns at the accelerating loss chapter is introduced by its co-ordinator and con-
of cultural and language diversity that accompanies tains a range of contributions covering different as-
the devastation of biological diversity. The papers, pects of the general theme.
stories, poems, case studies, photographs, drawings CHAPTER 1 begins by outlining the inextrica-
and song lyrics all contribute to the larger vision of ble link between nature, society, language and cul-
the volume: that of highlighting the central impor- ture. It shows how human beliefs and values have
tance of cultural and spiritual values in an apprecia- molded the historical ‘cultural landscapes’ of much
tion and preservation of all life. of the world and how they continue to affect the con-
Technical descriptions of biodiversity often give servation of biological and ecological diversity.
the impression that science and economics are ad- CHAPTER 2 pays special tribute to the impor-
equate tools with which to characterize the quali- tant and usually overlooked aspects of linguistic di-
ties of the intricate web of life. In a world increasingly versity and language rights, and illustrates how
dominated by mega-modelling, global trading and languages express human observation and under-
consumer trends, it is easy to forget that values of standing of life, natural cycles, and the earth. It ex-
plants, animals, landscapes and ecosystems cannot plains how cognition and speech help to encode the
be adequately measured in statistical or monetary indigenous and local knowledge systems that are criti-
terms – and certainly cannot be described using the cal to the effective conservation of natural resources.
languages of only a few academic disciplines and CHAPTER 3 is an introduction to the complex
markets, no matter how politically favoured and pow- topic of indigenous peoples and their roles in the
erful they might be. Values of diversity – biological, conservation of biological diversity. It provides a
cultural and linguistic – are intrinsic to life itself political and theoretical framework for the evalua-
and celebrated by the myriad cultures and societies tion of the diverse peoples who are grouped together
that have co-evolved with the natural and metaphysi- as ‘indigenous’, and outlines some of the principal
cal worlds that surround them. Indeed, human be- issues that they confront in expressing and protect-
ings are an integral part of biodiversity, not merely ing the cultural and spiritual values that lie at the
observers and users of the ‘components of biologi- heart of their societies and environments.
cal diversity’. CHAPTER 4 is dedicated to the ‘Voices of the
Indigenous and traditional peoples make this Earth’ – the myriad indigenous, traditional and lo-
fundamental principle the very core of their socie- cal peoples who repeatedly – and passionately – warn
ties. For them, nature is an extension of society it- us of the dangers we all face as biological and cul-
self, and the creatures that share life with them are tural diversity disappear from the world. The chap-
manifestations of past and future generations – of ter is a collage of individual depositions from around
their own flesh and blood. Nature is not, therefore, a the world, reinforced by a selection of formal decla-
commodity to be bought, sold, patented or preserved rations and statements of indigenous and traditional
apart from society, precisely because nature is what peoples’ organizations presented in Appendix 1.
defines humanity. The earth is their (our) mother and CHAPTER 5 explains the scope, importance and
cannot be compromised, sold or monopolized. applications of Traditional Ecological Knowledge
xvii
(TEK) and illustrates how such knowledge can be sessing their roles as environmental stewards. Faith
utilized to develop more effective and adaptive strat- statements on religion and ecology are presented in
egies for conservation. It provides case studies and Appendix 2.
specific examples of how local communities are al- CHAPTER 12 emphasizes that people – and
ready practising sustainability and suggests how peoples – must have rights to their lands and terri-
traditional knowledge can be utilized in partnership tories, as well as to their knowledge and genetic re-
with scientists and policy-makers. sources, if successful conservation is to occur. It
CHAPTER 6 outlines the relevance of tradi- emphasizes that utilization and effective application
tional knowledge in one of the areas of most con- of traditional resources are enmeshed in existing
cern to human beings – that of medicine and health. international laws and customary practices that de-
It emphasizes the holistic nature of most indigenous fend collective and individual human rights. Too fre-
and traditional medical systems which view environ- quently the knowledge and resources of indigenous,
ment and diet as essentials to human health. traditional and local communities are usurped with-
CHAPTERS 7 to 10 deal with specific exam- out the sharing of benefits. Even basic respect for
ples of how Traditional Ecological Knowledge is rel- prior informed consent, full disclosure and privacy
evant to the use and conservation of traditional are ignored. The chapter provides a critique of the
agriculture and soil management (CHAPTER 7), moun- inadequacies of existing Intellectual Property Rights
tain and highland ecosystems (CHAPTER 8), trees and laws and the need for the development of a global
forests (CHAPTER 9) and aquatic and marine resources dialogue to develop new, appropriate and effective
(CHAPTER 10). These chapters provide a general over- systems to enhance control by local communities.
view and then offer specific examples of how local peo- Cultural and Spiritual Values of Biodiversity con-
ple – and their beliefs and knowledge – work to conserve cludes with some general recommendations based
biodiversity in an extraordinary range of environments on the contributions contained in the volume. By the
and social conditions. end, the reader will hopefully have been presented
CHAPTER 11 provides a general overview of with compelling evidence that the future of biodiver-
the ethical, moral and religious concerns that frame sity must not be left only to technical, scientific and
philosophical and political debates on the values of economic experts, but rather depends upon respect
life, nature and culture. It also describes the ‘Assisi for and protection of the myriad views, values and
Process’, in which major world religions are reas- visions that together form the mosaic of life.
xviii
C O L O U R P L A T E S
Plate 1. ‘Los Amazonicos reclaman sus derechos’ (Amazonians protesting their rights). Tigua paintings
reflect indigenous culture as well as contemporary politics. This painting depicts a major march of
indigenous people from the Amazon on their way to Quito, the capital, to ensure their rights are
included in a new national constitution, drafted in March 1998. (From Tigua, Ecuador. Artist: Julio
Toaquiza. Photo/caption courtesy of Jean Colvin.)
Plate 2. ‘Shaman curando’ (Shaman healing). Shamans are still an important part of Quichua culture. In
remote communities, Western medical assistance is difficult and expensive to access. Most people
first consult the local shaman. (From Tigua, Ecuador. Artist: Alfredo Toaquiza. Photo/caption
courtesy of Jean Colvin.)
Plate 3. ‘Adoracion del Inca al Pachacama’ (The Incas worship Pachacama). Although the Incas occupied
Ecuador for less than a century, many indigeous people today claim this heritage as an expression
and validation of indigenous culture. Mountains and clouds are often represented in human form in
Tigua paintings, to show they are living elements of nature. (From Tigua, Ecuador. Artist: Alfredo
Toaquiza. Photo/caption courtesy of Jean Colvin.)
Plate 4. ‘Anuncio de la Muerte’ (Announcement of death). The legendary condor is a common figure in many
Tigua paintings. Flying high over the paramo (highlands), the condor is the bearer of important
messages. Despite the altitude and harsh conditions, the people of Tigua cultivate small plots of
potatoes and grains on the steep slopes of the Andes – land granted to them after agrarian reform in
the mid 1960s. (From Tigua, Ecuador. Artist: Gustavo Toaquiza. Photo/caption courtesy of Jean
Colvin.)
Plate 5. ‘Contaminacion de la Amazonia’ (Pollution of the Amazon). Indigenous federations in Ecuador’s
Amazon basin have been struggling for years to limit oil exploration and development in their
traditional lands. Texaco’s activities in the last decade caused serious environmental pollution which
affected both human and animal populations and dramatically disrupted the harmony and care that
characterize the relationship between indigenous people and nature. (From Tigua, Ecuador. Artist:
Gustavo Toaquiza. Photo/caption courtesy of Jean Colvin.)
Plate 6. View of a Karañakaék community, Barí territorial recuperation. (Photograph: Jaime Rodriguez-
Manasse: see Chapter 3.)
Plate 7. Argania spinosa, the argan, is an economically, ecologically and culturally important tree of dry,
south-west Morocco, especially in the Souss Valley around Agadir. The seeds of its olive-like fruits
contain a highly nutritious cooking oil which is rich in essential fatty acid. The leaves and shoots are
heavily browsed by goats. Where it grows – even in desert areas with as little as 50mm of annual
rainfall – the argan is often the dominant tree or shrub. It is the subject and inspiration of poetry,
and the focus of the lives of many people. (Photograph: Hew Prendergast: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 8. Quechua children from the indigenous community of Pampallacta, Cuzco, Peru. (Photograph: Tirso
Gonzales: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 9. Seed diversity as an expression of cultural diversity. Corn varieties presented at a Seed Fair in
Chivay, Arequipa, Peru. (Photograph: Tirso Gonzales: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 10. Indigenous farmers from Yauri, Cuzco, in Peru, tending a potato “chacra” with a unique tool designed
by them. (Photograph: Ramiro Ortega: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 11. Quechua Indians from a community near Cuzco, Peru, doing communal work. (Photograph: Tirso
Gonzales: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 12. An indigenous farmer from Chivay, Arequipa, in Peru, participating at a Seed Fair. Every seed is a
“person” and has a name. (Photograph: Tirso Gonzales: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 13. A proud indigenous woman from Chivay, Arequipa, in Peru, exhibiting at a local Seed Fair the
outcome of nurturing various types of seeds. (Photograph: Tirso Gonzales: see Chapter 5.)
Plate 14. A bobolink in flight over a hay field before ploughing. The bird’s nest is in the field. David Kline farm.
(Photograph: Richard Moore: see Chapter 7.)
xix
Plate 15. Ploughing a hay field after the bobolinks have finished mating. David Kline farm. (Photograph:
Richard Moore: see Chapter 7.)
Plate 16. Black walnut tree, used for high-quality veneer: Leroy Kuhn’s farm. (Photograph: Richard Moore: see
Chapter 7.)
Plate 17. The main product of the Caiçara agriculture is the manioc (cassava) flour. Since immemorable times,
the manioc flour is a substitute of the “European bread”, and for this reason it is called the “tropical
bread”. Other products of the Caiçara agriculture are maize, beans and yam as well as medicinal
herbs. (Photograph: Daniel Toffoli: see Chapter 7.)
Plate 18. A young Mende girl winnowing rice. (Photograph: Helen Newing: see ‘Casting seeds to the four
winds’, Chapter 7.)
Plate 19. ‘The arrival of “Inlanders” at Fort George Island’. This re-enactment by the Chisasibi Cree, recorded
by a film crew for local television, is a highlight of an annual community event called Mamoweedoew
Minshtukch – ‘the gathering on the island’. The traditional paddle canoes brought out for this
occasion (background) are dwarfed by modern canoes equipped with outboard motors (foreground),
which are the common means of transport on the river today. (Photograph: Douglas Nakashima: see
Chapter 10.)
Plate 20. Under the watchful eye of his son, an Inlander father participates in the re-enactment of setting up
the tepee (background). Note the rifle sheaths (left foreground) – ornately decorated to please the
animal spirits and bring the hunter good fortune. (Photograph: Douglas Nakashima: see Chapter 10.)
Plate 21. A Tukanoan Wanano basket trap (buhkuyaka) consisting of cylindrical basketry fish traps set in a
barrier. (Photograph: Janet Chernela: see Chapter 10.)
Plate 22. Bark-cloth painting by Tukanoan Wanano artist Miguel Gomez showing tree with falling fruit, fish
feeding on fruit, and bow-and-arrow fisherman. (Collected by Janet Chernela, Rio Uaupes, Brazil: see
Chapter 10.)
Plate 23. Bark-cloth painting by Tukanoan Wanano artist Miguel Gomez showing the detailed coloration on
one of the many varieties of bagre, or catfish. (Collected by Janet Chernela, Rio Uaupes, Brazil: see
Chapter 10.)
Plate 24. Bark-cloth painting by Tukanoan Wanano artist Miguel Gomez showing two sub-varieties of Cynodon
with distinctive features. (Collected by Janet Chernela, Rio Uaupes, Brazil: see Chapter 10.)
Plate 25. “Pyloric Valve”, 1992 (artist’s collection)
The structure of the leaf corresponds with our own innermost bodily structures –our veins, valves,
nodes. The same fragility that exists in an ordinary leaf exists in our human physiology, mysteriously
and yet without question. (Artist: Margot McLean: mixed media on linen. See Chapter 11.)
Plate 26. “Moose”, 1992 (private collection)
The art of the moose is to be visible and yet invisible. This elusive, lonely, fading, there-but-not-there
aspect of the creature contributes to the spirit of the moose –to the ghost of the moose. (Artist:
Margot McLean: mixed media on paper. See Chapter 11.)
Plate 27. “Virginia”, 1993 (private collection)
Incorporating vegetation from a particular spot in Northern Virginia that is the habitat of a particular
kind of land turtle, this painting re-locates the turtle into a landscape of the imagination –allowing,
or giving, it another, different life. (Artist: Margot McLean: mixed media on canvas. See Chapter 11.)
Plate 28. “Orinoco”, 1994 (artist’s collection)
From a trip on the Orinoco River in Venezuela. The “baba” or river crocodile, comes ashore in the
evening, lying among the rocks or in one of the tidepools, its presence felt throughout the
surrounding area. The image suggests the concealed possibility of life that lurks in the unknown.
(Artist: Margot McLean: mixed media on linen. See Chapter 11.)
xx
C H A P T E R 1
CONTENTS
WHO ARE INDIGENOUS AND TRADITIONAL PEOPLES? .................................................................................. 3
THE SACRED BALANCE ........................................................................................................................... 4
DEALING WITH THE PROBLEMS ................................................................................................................. 6
RECOGNIZING INDIGENOUS AND LOCAL COMMUNITIES ............................................................................... 7
EQUITY AND RIGHTS ............................................................................................................................ 11
THE GLOBAL BALANCE SHEET ................................................................................................................. 12
A POSTSCRIPT ON THE RESPONSIBILITY OF KNOWING ................................................................................. 16
TEXT BOXES
BOX 1.1: INADEQUACIES OF INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
BOX 1.2: SOME PRINCIPAL RIGHTS AFFIRMED BY THE DRAFT DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES
BOX 1.3: PRINCIPLES FOR ‘EQUITABLE PARTNERSHIPS’ ESTABLISHED BY THE INTERNATIONAL SOCIETY FOR
ETHNOBIOLOGY
BOX 1.4: THE CHRISTMAS BEETLE AND THE BRIGHT BOY (CHRISTINE MORRIS)
1
Introduction: Culture and Nature – The Inextricable Link
Darrell Addison Posey
HUMAN CULTURAL DIVERSITY IS THREATENED ON AN UN- indigenous peoples, implying that indigenous groups
precedented scale. Linguists estimate that between still constitute most of the world's cultural diver-
5,000 and 7,000 languages are spoken today on the sity (see also Maffi, Maffi and Skutnabb-Kangas,
five continents (Krauss 1992; Grimes 1996; Harmon Chapter 2). The definition of 'indigenous' is prob-
1995; Maffi Chapter 2). Languages are considered lematic in many parts of the world. Indigenous peo-
one of the major indicators of cultural diversity. Yet ples are defined by the Special Rapporteur of the UN
an estimated half of the world's languages – the codi- Economic and Social Council Sub-Commission on
fications, intellectual heritages, and frameworks for Prevention of Discrimination and Protection of Mi-
each society's unique understanding of life – will dis- norities in the following manner:
appear within a century (UNESCO 1993). Nearly 'Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are
2,500 languages are in immediate danger of extinc- those which, having a historical continuity with pre-in-
tion; and an even higher number are losing the 'eco- vasion and pre-colonial societies that have developed
logical contexts' that keep them as vibrant languages on their territories, consider themselves distinct from
(Mühlhäusler 1996). other sectors of the societies now prevailing in those
Many of the areas of highest biological diver- territories, or parts of them. They form at present non-
sity on the planet are inhabited by indigenous and dominant sectors of society and are determined to pre-
traditional peoples, providing what the Declaration serve, develop and transmit to future generations their
of Belém calls an 'inextricable link' between biologi- ancestral territories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis
cal and cultural diversity (Posey and Overal 1990). of their continued existence as peoples, in accordance
In fact, of the nine countries which together account with their own cultural patterns, social institutions and
for 60 percent of human languages, six of these 'cen- legal systems. (UN ECOSOC 1986)
tres of cultural diversity' are also 'megadiversity' This historical continuity is characterized by:
countries with exceptional numbers of unique plant • occupation of ancestral lands, or at least of part
and animal species (Durning 1992). of them;
It is estimated (Gray, Chapter 3) that there are • common ancestry with the original occupants
currently at least 300 million people world-wide who of these lands;
are indigenous. There are no reliable figures for how • culture in general, or in specific manifestations
many are 'traditional' societies, but excluding urban (such as religion, living under a tribal system,
populations it could be as high as 85 percent of the membership of an indigenous community, dress,
world's overall population. These diverse groups means of livelihood, life-style, etc.);
occupy a wide geographical range from the polar • language (whether used as the only language,
regions to the deserts, savannahs and forests of tropi- as mother tongue, as the habitual means of com-
cal zones (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991). munication at home or in the family, or as the
Inevitably a volume on cultural and spiritual main, preferred, habitual, general or normal
diversity will dwell upon the beliefs and practices of language);
indigenous and traditional peoples in relation to their • residence in certain parts of the country, or in
use and conservation of biodiversity. But Cultural and certain regions of the world, and
Spiritual Values of Biodiversity is also dedicated to a • other relevant factors.
survey of issues related to urban populations and The International Labour Organization (ILO)
industrialized societies – and specifically the ethi- Convention 169 'Concerning Indigenous Peoples in
cal, philosophical and religious beliefs and practices Independent Countries' (1989), identifies Indigenous
that affect them. peoples as:
(a) tribal peoples in countries whose social, cul-
Who are indigenous and traditional tural and economic conditions distinguish them from
peoples? other sections of the national community, and whose
status is regulated wholly or partially by their own
According to UNESCO (1993), 4,000 to 5,000 of the customs or traditions or by special laws or regula-
6,000 languages in the world are spoken by tions, and
The Mataatua Declaration in turn influenced (a summary of some of these can be found in
the Final Statement of the 1995 Consultation on In- Cunningham 1993; Posey 1995; and Posey and
digenous Peoples' Knowledge and Intellectual Prop- Dutfield 1996). One of the most extensive is that of
erty Rights in Suva, Fiji (Pacific Concerns Resource the International Society for Ethnobiology, which
Centre 1995), which called for a moratorium on undertook a ten-year consultation with indigenous
bioprospecting in the Pacific region and urged In- and traditional peoples – as well as its extensive
digenous peoples not to co-operate in bioprospecting international membership – to establish 'principles
activities until appropriate protection mechanisms for equitable partnerships'. The main objective of the
are in place. They should: process was to establish terms under which collabo-
• demand that bioprospecting as a term be clearly ration and joint research between ethnobiologists and
defined to exclude indigenous peoples' custom- communities could proceed based upon trust, trans-
ary harvesting practices; parency and mutual concerns. A list of these princi-
• assert that in situ conservation by indigenous ples can be found in Box 1.3.
peoples is the best method by which to conserve Similar principles have been elaborated by en-
and protect biological diversity and indigenous vironmental philosophers, ethicists and eco-theolo-
knowledge, and encourage its implementation gians (Golliher, Chapter 11). Unfortunately, most of
by indigenous communities and all relevant their efforts have been couched in such rarefied dis-
bodies, and courses that they have had little impact on the prac-
• encourage indigenous peoples to maintain and tice of science or on public policy.
expand our knowledge of local biological re- There are some important exceptions to this,
sources. notably 'deep ecology' (Naess 1989; Devall 1988;
To allay these deep concerns, many scientific Fox 1990; Sessions 1995), which has inspired a mili-
and professional organizations are developing their tant 'Earth First' movement aimed at extinguishing
own Codes of Conduct and Standards of Practice to the anthropocentric view that humans have the right
guide research, health, educational and conserva- to do as they wish with other life-forms. For deep
tion projects with indigenous and local communities ecologists, 'the hubris in asking people "to take re-
The worrisome lesson from all of this is that to invent an 'ecology ' powerful enough to offset
the global environmental crisis cannot be solved by deforestation, soil erosion, species extinction and
technological tampering ('quick fixes') or superficial pollution; 'sustainable practices' that can harmonize
political measures. The Native American leader with growth of trade and increased consumption,
Black Elk puts it thus: 'It is the story of all life that and, of course, a 'global environmental ethic' that is
is holy and good to tell, and of us two-leggeds shar- not subverted by economically powerful institutions.
ing in it with the four-leggeds and the wings of the That may be an impossible task – but there are some
air and all green things; for these are children of one viable paths.
mother and their father is one spirit.' (Neihardt 1959; One approach is to listen to indigenous and tra-
Suzuki, Chapter 3). ditional leaders who have become effective leaders in
For industrialized society to reverse the devas- the environment and human rights movements. As
tating cycle it has imposed on the planet, it will have Joji Cariño, representing the International Alliance
Christine Morris
‘Why?’, said the cicada to the bright boy, ‘Why do you ask?
‘Why do I ask? I ask because I want to know!...’
‘You want to know! Is that the only reason?’
‘Yes! What’s wrong with that? I don’t need any other reason. If I want to know what it’s like to be a
Christmas beetle, I don’t need any other reason. If I want to know something, I make it my business to
find out!’
‘Find out? Suppose you could find out what it’s like to be a Christmas beetle. And then when you find
it, what are you going to do with it?’
‘Do with it... Well nothing, I just want to know... and perhaps in the future I’ll have a need for it.’
‘Perhaps you will have a need for it...mmm...’
‘Yes!’
‘Then when you’ve got it you don’t always have a place for it? You just think you may have a use in the
future... mmm... Tell me, in the meantime, what do you do with it?
‘Do with it? Well, I’ll just store it in my head!’
‘Just store it in your head....mmm’
‘I don’t like the way you say that. What’s wrong with storing it in your head?
‘Do you know each new piece of information takes up space in your consciousness?’
‘Yes. That makes sense and the brain can hold enormous amounts of information, just like a compu-
ter!’
‘Ah yes. That’s if it has a place to store it!’
‘What do you means by a place?’
‘Well, the information you have acquired so far in life has a ready framework or set of criteria in which
to fit. For example, you may learn the name of every football team on the East Coast, or the scientific
names for all the plants in a specific area; however, when you start learning what it is like to be a
Christmas beetle, you’ll find you don’t have any predefined categories because you’ve never come
across such information. I mean, is it an innate Bright Boy desire to be a Christmas beetle, or are you
actually asking something that is beyond your physiological knowing? I mean you can slot it into
places you think it fits and then you soon find it doesn’t fit and so it comes to the conscious again and
demands a new place, just like the interfering email sign that interrupts all your computer working. It
just overrides everything and demands a response, just like the telephone. So you see, if you do not
have the presumed knowledge – that is, a category or known experience in which to fit this knowledge
– it will keep resurfacing and resurfacing and if you’re not careful it will drive you crazy or distract
you from what you’re doing and so may cause a nasty accident.’
‘An accident?’
‘Yes. I’m afraid you just presume that all knowledge fits in somewhere in your Bright Boy capacity for
knowing. Then again, maybe you have got that capacity, but you have to know which category or door
to open in your mind. Just think what kind of knowing do you need before you can assimilate the
experience of being a Christmas beetle? What if you could suddenly fly by your own volition? Would
that affect your overall mind? What do you think you would feel if you were suddenly two inches long
and a great clumsy Bright Boy was making his way towards you? What if he wanted to catch you and
put you in a bottle because you were so pretty? What then Bright Boy? Could you handle the fear?
Could you handle the feeling of insignificance? Could you handle feeling your life was in the hands of
some clumsy giant that wanted to play with you? What then, Bright Boy? How would your sensibilities
stand up to such an onslaught? Let alone your mind?’
LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY
Luisa Maffi
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (LUISA MAFFI) ............................................................................................................... 21
LANGUAGE AND THE ENVIRONMENT (LUISA MAFFI) ................................................................................... 22
Linguistic diversity and language endangerment ........................................................................ 22
Linguistic ecologies ................................................................................................................... 25
Overlap of linguistic and biological diversity ............................................................................. 26
Ethnobiological classification, ecological knowledge and sense of place ..................................... 27
The erosion of languages and ecological knowledge .................................................................. 29
PROMOTING THE USE OF NATIVE NAMES FOR SPECIES:
THE CASE OF MADAGASCAR (JONAH ANDRIANARIVO) .............................................................................. 36
Use of vernacular names in conservation ................................................................................... 36
The example of lemurs .............................................................................................................. 36
LANGUAGE MAINTENANCE AND REVITALIZATION
(LUISA MAFFI AND TOVE SKUTNABB-KANGAS) .......................................................................................... 37
Linguistic diversity and the ‘Curse of Babel’ ............................................................................... 37
From ex-situ language preservation to in-situ integral language
maintenance and development .................................................................................................. 40
Indigenous and minority language support programmes ............................................................ 41
International language support organizations ............................................................................ 44
LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY AND LANGUAGE RIGHTS
(TOVE SKUTNABB-KANGAS) .................................................................................................................. 46
Language, power and diversity ................................................................................................. 46
Linguistic human rights, linguicide and monolingual reductionism ............................................... 46
Linguistic rights and education .................................................................................................. 49
Draft Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights .......................................................................... 50
Recent positive developments .................................................................................................... 51
What a Universal Convention of Linguistic Human Rights
should guarantee at an individual level ..................................................................................... 53
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................. 54
19
TEXT BOXES
BOX 2.1: ‘A SENSE OF PLACE’ (LUISA MAFFI)
BOX 2.2: STATEMENT OF PURPOSE, TERRALINGUA: PARTNERSHIPS FOR LINGUISTIC AND BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY
BOX 2.3: CUSTOMARY READING AND UN HUMAN RIGHTS COMMITTEE’S GENERAL COMMENT ON ICCPR ARTICLE 27
BOX 2.4: THE HAGUE RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING THE EDUCATION RIGHTS OF NATIONAL MINORITIES AND
EXPLANATORY NOTE (OCTOBER 1996) – ARTICLES 1 AND 3
BOX 2.5: THE HAGUE RECOMMENDATIONS REGARDING THE EDUCATION RIGHTS OF NATIONAL MINORITIES AND
EXPLANATORY NOTE (OCTOBER 1996) – ARTICLES 11-14
BOX 2.6: SUGGESTIONS ON WHAT A UNIVERSAL CONVENTION OF LINGUISTIC HUMAN RIGHTS SHOULD
GUARANTEE AT AN INDIVIDUAL LEVEL
FIGURE 2.2: PROPORTION OF WORLD’S LIVING LANGUAGES BY SIZE CATEGORY (FROM HARMON 1995).
FIGURE 2.3: LANGUAGES WITH THE MOST MOTHER-TONGUE SPEAKERS: PROPORTION OF WORLD POPULATION
(FROM HARMON 1995).
FIGURE 2.4: WORLD MAP SHOWING OVERLAP OF ENDEMISM IN LANGUAGES AND HIGHER VERTEBRATES (FROM
HARMON, IN PRESS).
FIGURE 2.5: REGRESSION OF AGE AND ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE AMONG THE PIAROA OF VENEZUELA
(FROM ZENT, 1999).
FIGURE 2.6: REGRESSION OF AGE AND ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE ACCORDING TO AGE SUBGROUPS
AMONG THE PIAROA OF VENEZUELA (FROM ZENT, 1999).
FIGURE 2.7: REGRESSION OF FORMAL EDUCATION AND ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE AMONG THE PIAROA OF
VENEZUELA (FROM ZENT, 1999).
FIGURE 2.8. REGRESSION OF BILINGUAL ABILITY AND ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE AMONG THE PIAROA OF
VENEZUELA (FROM ZENT, 1999).
FIGURE 2.9: PROPORTION OF QUOTATIONS AND SOURCES IN THE OED REFERRING TO TREES ALONG WITH
ASSOCIATED 95 PERCENT CONFIDENCE INTERVALS (FROM WOLFF AND MEDIN 1998).
TABLE 2.1: TOP 25 COUNTRIES BY NUMBER OF ENDEMIC LANGUAGES (FROM HARMON, IN PRESS).
TABLE 2.2: MEGADIVERSITY COUNTRIES: CONCURRENCE WITH ENDEMIC LANGUAGES (FROM HARMON, IN PRESS).
TABLE 2.3: TAXONOMICALLY ORGANIZED LOCAL NAMES (TOLN) FOR 50 LEMUR SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES.
TABLE 2.4: ENDANGERED LANGUAGES SUPPORT ORGANIZATIONS.
TABLE 2.5: ELECTRONIC RESOURCES ON LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT.
Linguistic Diversity
Luisa Maffi
10 1-1 0
0
,00 0
00
tot ct
n
nly
Au give
,00 00
01 ,00
No Extin
1-1
0,0
0,0
yo
10 -10,
1-1
0,0 00
00
al
iar
(Luisa Maffi)
01
-1,
xil
>1
>1,000,000 (4.4%)
101-1,000 (17.5%)
100,001-1,000,000 (10.1%)
10,001-100,000 (22.0%)
1,001-10,000 (26.2%)
Figure 2.2: Proportion of world’s living languages by size category (n = 6,526) (from Harmon 1995).
English (8%)
Hindi (3%)
Portuguese (3%)
Bengali (3%)
Russian (3%)
French (2%)
Japanese (2%)
Figure 2.3: Languages with the most mother-tongue speakers: proportion of world population (from Harmon 1995).
accounting for a total of over 5 billion speakers, or carried by very small communities of indigenous and
close to 95 percent of the world’s population. The minority people. The large majority of the world’s
top ten of these alone actually comprise almost half languages, and particularly the smaller languages,
of this global population (ibid.; Figure 2.3). are concentrated in just a few countries, and most
Taken together, these figures show that, while are actually ‘endemic’, i.e. fully comprised within
more than nine out of ten people in the world are the borders of a single state, and therefore heavily
native speakers of one or other of only about 300 subject to national linguistic policies (Harmon 1995;
languages, most of the world’s linguistic diversity is Table 2.1).
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 23
TABLE 2.1: TOP 25 COUNTRIES BY NUMBER OF ENDEMIC LANGUAGES guages in favour of acquired majority languages (a
1. Papua New Guinea (847) phenomenon known as ‘language shift’). Virtually
2. Indonesia (655) all languages with 1,000 speakers or less are threat-
3. Nigeria (376) ened in this sense, although even more widely spo-
4. India (309) ken languages are fully susceptible to the same
pressures. Many of these smaller languages are al-
5. Australia (261)
ready at risk of disappearing due to a drastic reduc-
6. Mexico (230)
tion in the number of their speakers, with younger
7. Cameroon (201)
generations decreasingly or no longer learning their
8. Brazil (185) language of heritage. Many more have reached a
9. Zaire (158) stage of near extinction, with only a few elderly
10. Philippines (153) speakers left. Grimes (1996) classifies over 420 lan-
11. USA (143) guages out of 6,703 (or almost 6.3 percent) in the
12. Vanuatu (105) ‘nearly extinct’ category, while cautioning that these
13. Tanzania (101) figures are conservative. Harmon (1995), also con-
14. Sudan (97) servatively, computed 705 ‘moribund’ (nearly extinct)
15. Malaysia (92) languages (or 10.8 percent of the 6,526 non-extinct
languages reported in Grimes 1992). In some pro-
16. Ethiopia (90)
jections, as many as 90 percent of the world’s lan-
17. China (77)
guages may become extinct or moribund in the course
18. Peru (75)
of the next century (Krauss 1992; also Robins and
19. Chad (74) Uhlenbeck 1991).
20. Russia (71) It is a historical fact that languages, like spe-
21. Solomon Islands (69) cies, have undergone extinction before. Estimates
22. Nepal (68) of the extent of the world’s linguistic diversity in the
23. Colombia (55) undocumented past are bound to remain conjectural
24. Côte d’Ivoire (51) and subject to debate. However, informed guesses
25. Canada (47) suggest that the peak of linguistic diversity on earth
may have occurred at the beginning of the Neolithic
Modified from Harmon (1996a). Source of language data: Grimes (1992). (10,000 years BP), at which time more than twice
In most recent work on biocultural diversity, the current number of languages may have been spo-
the diversity of human languages has been used as ken (Hill 1997). Population movements and politi-
the best available indicator of human cultural diver- cal and economic expansion, even well before the
sity (e.g. Clay 1993; Durning 1993). Harmon (1996b: era of colonization and empire-building, have long
5) argues that, while no individual aspect of human contributed to reducing linguistic diversity every-
life can be taken as a diagnostic indicator of cul- where in the world, either by the physical elimina-
tural distinctiveness, language is the carrier of many tion of conquered groups or by their forced
cultural differences; furthermore, using language as assimilation. Awareness of the political implications
a proxy ‘affords us the best chance of making a com- of linguistic assimilation was perhaps never better
prehensible division of the world’s peoples into con- expressed than by the 15th century Spanish gram-
stituent cultural groups’. A proxy is, admittedly, an marian Antonio de Nebrija. In 1492, presenting
imperfect tool. Linguistic diversity as a proxy for Queen Isabella of Spain with his grammar of Span-
cultural diversity works better on the global scale ish (the first grammar of any modern European lan-
than it may work in any individual instances. In many guage), Nebrija so explained its purposes in his
cases, distinctiveness of languages does not corre- introduction: ‘Language has always been the con-
spond to distinctiveness of cultures, or sameness of sort of empire’ (Illich 1981: 6). Or, as Hale (1992: 1)
language to sameness of culture. What matters in puts it: ‘[L]anguage loss in the modern period [...]
this context, however, is the possibility of identify- is part of a much larger process of loss of cultural
ing general trends rather than the ability to satis- and intellectual diversity in which politically domi-
factorily account for every single case. nant languages and cultures simply overwhelm in-
digenous local languages and cultures, placing
The smaller languages of the world are under them in a condition that can only be described as
threat due to ever-growing assimilation pressures embattled. The process is not unrelated to the si-
that promote incorporation into ‘mainstream’ soci- multaneous loss of diversity in the zoological and
ety and the collective abandonment of the native lan- botanical worlds.’
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 25
– undetected instances in which the prevailing cul- versity and endemism in the world, with over 800
tural model fails to provide adequate solutions to different languages, but not a site of megadiversity.
societal problems. Instead, ‘[i]t is by pooling the re- Harmon (1996a) cautions that no single diagnostic
sources of many understandings that more reliable measure will account for phenomena as complex as
knowledge can arise’; and ‘access to these perspec- linguistic and biological diversity. Furthermore, while
tives is best gained through a diversity of languages’ in both cases assessments of diversity are done
(ibid.: 160). Or, simply stated, ‘Ecology shows that mostly on a country-to-country basis, political fron-
a variety of forms is a prerequisite for biological sur- tiers are not natural borders for either languages or
vival. Monocultures are vulnerable and easily de- species. A measure of skewing is to be expected for
stroyed. Plurality in human ecology functions in the that reason alone. Yet the overall correlation is strik-
same way.’ (Pattanayak 1988: 380). ing. Comparison of the top 25 countries by number
of endemic languages with the top 25 countries by
Overlap of linguistic and biological diversity number of flowering plant species and the top 25 by
number of endemic higher vertebrate species yielded
The relationships between language and environ- additional close correlations (Harmon 1996a, based
ment can be observed at different degrees of resolu- on Groombridge 1992). The overlap of endemic lan-
tion. Harmon (1996a) has shown remarkable guages and higher vertebrates is seen in Figure 2.4.
overlaps between the world’s biological and linguis- Harmon (ibid.) points to several geographical
tic diversity on a global scale. He compared the IUCN and environmental factors that may comparably af-
list of ‘megadiversity’ countries (McNeely et al. 1990) fect both biological and linguistic diversity, and es-
to his own list of top 25 countries by number of ‘en- pecially endemism: (1) Extensive land masses with
demic’ languages (cf. Table 2.1 above). Ten out of 12 a variety of terrains, climates and ecosystems (e.g.
of the megadiversity countries (or 83 percent) also Mexico, USA, Brazil, India, China); (2) Island terri-
figure among the top 25 countries for endemic lan- tories, especially those with internal geophysical
guages, as seen in Table 2.2. barriers (such as Indonesia, Australia, Papua New
Guinea, Philippines); (3) Tropical climates, foster-
TABLE 2.2: MEGADIVERSITY COUNTRIES: CONCURRENCE WITH ing higher numbers and densities of species (e.g.
ENDEMIC LANGUAGES. (COUNTRIES IN TOP 25 FOR ENDEMIC Cameroon, Zaire). Nichols (1992) identified similar
LANGUAGES IN BOLD; CF. TABLE 2.1; COUNTRIES LISTED biophysical factors as promoting high levels of ge-
netic diversity among languages in given geographi-
ALPHABETICALLY; ENDEMIC LANGUAGE RANK IN PARENTHESES.)
cal regions. In addition, Harmon suggests that
biodiversity–linguistic diversity correlations may
Australia (5)
have been fostered by a process of coevolution of
Brazil (8)
small-scale human groups with their local ecosys-
China (17) tems, in which humans interacted closely with the
Colombia (23) environment, modifying it as they adapted to it, and
Ecuador (—) acquiring intimate knowledge of it. In turn, this
India (4) knowledge was encoded and transmitted through
Indonesia (2) language. As Mühlhäusler (1995a: 155) puts it: ‘Life
Madagascar (—) in a particular human environment is dependent on
Malaysia (15) people’s ability to talk about it’. Nabhan (1996) has
Mexico (6) called attention to the specialized ecological knowl-
edge held by isolated language groups living in ar-
Peru (18)
eas of high biological endemism by proposing the
Zaire (9)
notion of ‘ethnobiological endemism’. Conversely,
Concurrence: 10 of 12 (83 percent) Smith (1998) notes a correlation between low-diver-
sity cultural systems and low biodiversity, support-
Notes: Modified from Harmon (1996a). ‘Megadiversity countries’ ing the hypothesis that cultural diversity may require
have been identified as those likely to contain a large percentage of
small-scale, localized socio-economic systems, while
global species richness. The twelve listed were identified on the basis
large-scale systems may lead to a reduction in cul-
of species lists for vertebrates, swallowtail butterflies and higher tural diversity.
plants. Source: McNeely et al. 1990.
How do these correlations between biodiversity
and linguistic and cultural diversity fare when one
There are some exceptions, such as Papua New moves from a global scale to a smaller scale? Indi-
Guinea, the country with the highest linguistic di- vidual cases must be examined in light of the spe-
USA
Chad China Japan
Cuba
India
Philippines
Sudan Mexico Venezuela
Nepal
Somalia Malaysia
Côte d’Ivoire Colombia
Ethiopia Sri Lanka Papua New Guinea Ecuador
Nigeria Congo
Cameroon Tanzania Solomon Islands
Indonesia Peru Brazil
Vanuatu
Madagascar
Australia
South Africa
New Zealand
ENDEMISM IN LANGUAGES & HIGHER VERTEBRATES: Argentina
COMPARISON OF TOP 25 COUNTRIES
On both language & vertebrate lists
On vertebrate list only
On language list only
Figure 2.4: World map showing overlap of endemism in languages and higher vertebrates (from Harmon, in press).
cific factors at play, including population movements, this bioregion presents a high variety of local eco-
culture contact and processes of environmental systems and, as a consequence, local subsistence
change. Under local circumstances, linguistic and economies may vary considerably from place to place.
cultural distinctiveness has often developed even This diversity is considered ‘fundamental to under-
among human groups defined as belonging to the standing the Northwest Coast as a human environ-
same cultural area or whose languages are consid- ment’ (Suttles and Ames 1997: 268).
ered to be historically related, and who live within One may expect this diversity of specialized
the same bioregion. Studies carried out on a adaptational knowledge to be reflected in the vari-
bioregional level reveal precisely this kind of local ous local languages, suggesting that the nature and
diversity. In comparative research on the ecology of dynamics of the interactions between biodiversity
six small indigenous groups in the Amazon Basin, and human languages and cultures may be best ob-
Milton (1996) documented diversity in cultural and served at the local level. At this higher level of reso-
ecological practices both between groups coexisting lution it may become apparent that landscapes are
in the same geographical region, but having distinct anthropogenic not only in the sense that they are
linguistic affiliations, and between groups speaking physically modified by human intervention but also
related languages and occupying adjacent territories. because they are symbolically brought into the
A strong correlation between biodiversity, linguistic sphere of human communication by language – by
diversity and ethnobiological knowledge was found the words, expressions, stories, legends and songs
by de Avila (1996) in the biogeographical distribu- that encode and convey human relationships with
tion of plants used for textile fibres and dyestuffs by the environment and that inscribe the history of those
indigenous groups of Mexico and Central America. relationships onto the land.
An in-depth study of a single bioregion, the Pacific
Northwest Coast of North America (Schoonemaker Ethnobiological classification, ecological
et al. 1997; see also Kellogg 1995), revealed that knowledge and sense of place
Northwest Coast Indians are very diverse linguisti-
cally, but their languages and cultural traditions The interactions of language and the environment –
share many elements (probably due to a long his- as mediated by human cognition and social life, and
tory of contact and diffusion of linguistic and cul- expressed through linguistic features – have been
tural features among them). On the other hand, apart the specific object of investigation of cognitive
from its overall common ecological characteristics, ethnobiology (the study of the folk categorization and
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 27
naming of natural kinds). Over the past fifty years, 1997). These ‘cognitive biogeographic’ studies are
ethnobiologists have demonstrated the systematic showing remarkable degrees of isomorphism be-
and scientific nature of indigenous classifications of tween given ecological niches and humans’ cogni-
the plant and animal world, reflected in local floral tive maps of them, each shaped by and shaping the
and faunal nomenclatures (e.g. Conklin 1954; Bulmer other over the history of local human populations.
1974; Berlin et al. 1974; Hunn 1977; Brown 1984; Berlin (1999) has undertaken a study of the
Atran 1990; Balée 1994; Martin 1995). individual development of folk taxonomic systems
Berlin (1992) provides the most comprehensive rooted in biogeography, stemming from the assump-
treatment of ethnobiological categorization and nam- tion that each person first learns about the natural
ing to date. Based on comparative evidence, he pro- kinds found in the localized ecosystem in which he
poses that folk classification and naming of natural or she grows up (cf. Stross 1973). Berlin finds evi-
kinds are governed by a number of general, cross- dence that these familiar organisms cognitively rec-
culturally recurrent principles, based on the percep- ognized in early life become the prototypes that guide
tual recognition of salient discontinuities and the classification and naming of unfamiliar organ-
affinities in nature and on observation of the mor- isms in other areas, based on observed perceptual
phological and behavioural characteristics of local affinities to the prototypes. Thus, over time an indi-
plant and animal species. These folk taxonomies are vidual’s classification can go well beyond a local-
hierarchically organized and reveal a considerable ized ecological niche and potentially extend to a
degree of correspondence with Western biosystem- whole bioregion.
atic taxonomies. Berlin points out that ethno- Another approach to the mapping of ethno-
biological nomenclature normally reflects this ecological knowledge is through the study of indig-
taxonomic organization and is mostly non-arbitrary, enous place names, as Hunn (1996) did among the
in that it is generally descriptive of morphological, Sahaptin of the Columbia Plateau of North America.
ecological or behavioural features of the named taxa. Each place name (and the same could be said of plant
Berlin’s ‘intellectualist’ approach argues for the and animal names) is ‘an entry in a mental encyclo-
prevalence of perceptual factors over practical ones pedia’ (ibid.: 20). Place names describe ‘places where
(such as use for food or medicine, or other cultural things happen’ within the local environment, so that
values) in ethnobiological classification and naming. ‘plotting the distribution of named places [...] is one
Other ethnobiologists make the opposite claim, means to appreciate the ecological niche occupied
stressing ‘utilitarian’ criteria (cf. Hays 1982; Hunn by local [...] peoples’ (ibid.: 18) as well as the ‘inten-
1982). However, perceptual and cultural salience sity of cultural focus a region enjoys’ (ibid.: 5). Hunn
may interact with each other (Hunn 1999). Percep- thus stresses both the ecological context in which
tual criteria appear to be prevalent if one includes place naming occurs, and the cultural significance
among them an organism’s ecological salience (as of this activity for indigenous peoples, ‘as a frame-
measured by biogeographic distribution of the organ- work for cultural transmission and moral instruc-
ism compared to the distribution of the local human tion, as a symbolic link to their land, and as a ground
population, or by the organism’s behavioural hab- for their identity’ (ibid.: 4). Named landmarks con-
its), and if morphological (phenotypic) salience is vey and evoke knowledge both about the physical
understood particularly in terms of the organism’s environment and about daily human activities, his-
size. On the other hand, exceptions to this general torical events, social relations, ritual, and moral con-
trend mostly correspond to organisms having high duct. As Basso (1996) puts it, ‘wisdom sits in places’.
local cultural salience, which will be singled out even Landscapes are networks of such places of knowl-
if they may not be especially salient perceptually. edge and wisdom and thus, in this sense as well,
These two dimensions also mutually interact; for anthropogenic.
example the overall salience of a given set of organ- Human relationships with the land can also be
isms (mammals, fish, etc.) increases if there is a expressed metaphorically, such as with the applica-
cultural focus on that set, although recognition of tion of concepts of the human body to the land – a
organisms within the set still follows the perceptual tendency to ‘embody the landscape’ (Hunn 1996: 16).
criteria. The Maya of Highland Chiapas, Mexico, conceptual-
Recently, ethnobiologists have also begun map- ize their territory in terms of human physiology (Maffi
ping the biogeographic distribution of traditional 1999). Two major ethnoecological categories – la-
environmental knowledge (as represented by linguis- belled ‘warm country’ and ‘cold country’ in the local
tically encoded concepts) onto local ecosystems, by Mayan language – are based on an analogy with the
means of current mapping technology such as GIS healthy vs. diseased human body, especially in terms
(e.g.Tabor and Hutchison 1994; Bocco and Toledo of generativity, and refer to the differential fertility
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 29
and not uniformly predictable (Edwards 1985; transmission of a given language is disrupted, so that
Haarmann 1986; Fishman 1989). younger generations learn their language of herit-
Nevertheless, as Wurm (1991) points out, age imperfectly. Furthermore, reduction in the range
changes in the ecology of languages – including the of contexts available for language use can lead to
radical alteration or even destruction of (or the re- language decay also in once-fluent adults who are
moval or alienation from) the natural and sociocul- no longer using their language as frequently and in
tural environments of linguistic communities by as many different situations as they once did.
external forces – normally provoke the disappear- Underlying language and knowledge erosion,
ance or drastic modification of the languages. Un- in both children and adults, is what Nabhan and St.
der these circumstances, a local language ‘[...] will Antoine (1993) have called the ‘extinction of experi-
lose a number of its characteristics which are rooted ence’, the radical loss of direct contact and hands-
in the traditional culture of its speakers [...]. It no on interaction with the surrounding environment.
longer reflects the unique traditional and original They found that, among the O’odham of the Sonoran
world-view and culture of its speakers, which has Desert in the southern USA, school-age children were
been lost, but more that of the culturally more ag- not fluent in O’odham, although they heard it spo-
gressive people who have influenced its speakers’ ken at home; nor did they go out into the desert as a
(ibid.: 7). Other linguists more radically suggest that part of their normal activities. Most of them were
‘when a language dies, a culture dies’ (Woodbury not being exposed to traditional story-telling and
1993; also Fishman 1996). Generally, the replacing other forms of oral tradition in their interactions with
language does not represent an equivalent vehicle parents, grandparents or elders. A majority of them
for linguistic expression and cultural maintenance indicated that their main sources of information (and
(Woodbury 1993). In particular, local knowledge does of authoritative knowledge) were school and televi-
not easily ‘translate’ into the majority language to sion. The children were able to give the O’odham
which minority language speakers switch. Further- names for only one-third of the most common plants
more, along with the dominant language usually and animals in their environment – while having no
comes a dominant cultural framework that begins trouble giving the English names for African
to take over. Because in most cases indigenous megafauna seen on television documentaries. Com-
knowledge is only carried by oral tradition, when parable difficulties in naming commonly occurring
shifts toward ‘modernization’ and dominant lan- plants and animals were found by Hill and Zepeda
guages occur and oral tradition in the native lan- among some O’odham adults (reported in Hill 1995,
guages is not kept up, local knowledge is lost. Due 1998). Among those elders who had trouble with
to its place-specific and subsistence-related nature, local names were people who had lived away from
ecological knowledge is at especially high risk of be- the O’odham reservation for long periods of time.
ing lost, as people are removed from their traditional They were still fairly fluent in the language but had
environments or become alienated from traditional ways lost the context of use of the traditional biosystematic
of life and lose their close links with nature. lexicon. Furthermore, English did not provide them with
The rapid and dramatic erosion of knowledge an alternative vehicle for maintaining this knowledge,
is heralded by the loss of the linguistic tools with since even the local variant of English makes far fewer
which to express and communicate it. Hill (1995, distinctions among the local flora and fauna than
1998) has stressed that the processes of language O’odham does. Hill also points to the foreseeable con-
decay are distinct from processes of natural language sequences of this loss in biosystematic lexicon in terms
change. In the latter case, a language may undergo of alienation of indigenous language speakers from tra-
structural reduction at some level, but this is nor- ditional forms of knowledge.
mally compensated by elaboration at some other level The extinction of experience, then, has much
(so that overall the language maintains a sort of to do with processes that promote cultural assimila-
‘steady state’). Instead, language decay is charac- tion and language shift. How radical this language
terized by a drastic, largely uncompensated erosion and knowledge loss can be even in a domain as ba-
of both the structural features of a language (from sic as that of subsistence can be illustrated by the
its phonology to its grammar to its lexicon) and the case of Scottish Gaelic among the fisherfolk in the
functional domains of language use (ways of speak- East Sutherland region of Scotland (Dorian 1997).
ing, patterns of conversation, story-telling, and other Individuals who are formerly fluent speakers or
forms of communication). In other words, language ‘semi-speakers’ (imperfect learners of their mother
decay consists in a prevailing trend toward progres- tongue who make grammatical mistakes recognized
sive loss of structural and functional complexity in by fluent speakers) and no longer practice fishing or
a language. In this process, normal intergenerational fishing-related activities may not only have trouble
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 31
1.2
a
1.0
0.8 b
ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
AGE
Figure 2.5: Regression of age and ethnobotanical competence among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent, in press).
1.0
0.9
a
0.8
0.7
b
ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
AGE
Figure 2.6: Regression of age and ethnobotanical competence according to age subgroups among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent,
in press).
0.9
0.8
0.7
b
ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1 a
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
YEARS OF FORMAL EDUCATION
Figure 2.7: Regression of formal education and ethnobotanical competence among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent, in press).
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
a
ETHNOBOTANICAL COMPETENCE
0.6
b
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0 1 2 3
BILINGUAL ABILITY
Figure 2.8. Regression of bilingual ability and ethnobotanical competence among the Piaroa of Venezuela (from Zent, in press).
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 33
uses of those same species, suggesting that for them tion of more authoritative linguistic and cultural
ethnobotanical nomenclature is losing its function models leading to a reduction of diversity has thus
of anchoring knowledge about the local environment. characterized also the internal history of the Eng-
For most indigenous and minority groups it may lish language and English society.
be impossible to assess ecological knowledge loss Cognitive psychological research suggests that
retrospectively, due to a dearth or total lack of urban populations may also lose the ability for eco-
records from the past. Some historical perspective logical reasoning, that is, reasoning based on the
can be gained from a longitudinal study of folk relationships among local plant and animal species.
botanical terminology in the English language, for A comparison among city-dwellers in the USA and
which ample documentation exists (Wolff and rural Itzaj Maya Indians from the Petén region of
Medin 1998). Dictionary data from the 15th cen- Guatemala (Atran and Medin 1997) showed, on the
tury on show that the overall mention of folk bo- one hand, that these two groups follow essentially
tanical terminology is constant or even slowly the same taxonomic principles in the classification
rising through the eighteenth century, and then of flora and fauna. On the other hand, unlike people
takes a precipitous drop in the late nineteenth in the USA, the Itzaj rely upon ecological knowledge
century and the twentieth century (Figure 2.9). over taxonomic knowledge in drawing inferences in
The turning point appears to be the Industrial reasoning tasks. They ‘know too much’ about the
Revolution, when England’s population became actual ecological relations among the species in their
increasingly urban and cut off from the natural environment to be willing to apply taxonomic crite-
environment. An investigation of changing atti- ria in the abstract (Atran 1996).
tudes toward nature in England between 1500 and The Itzaj’s extensive ecological knowledge is
1800 (Thomas 1983) reveals that many of the matched by their sustainable agroforestry practices
same factors that currently operate on indigenous (Atran 1993). However, they are a highly endangered
and minority languages were at work in stamping group. Linguistically, they would be classified as
out local knowledge in England. As the use of ‘moribund’. There are only about 50 fluent adult
Latin binomials was being promoted by trained speakers left; all children are monolingual in Span-
biologists, vernacular names for plants and ani- ish. Many of the Itzaj’s cultural traditions still sur-
mals were being stigmatized and fell into disuse vive, and they have even established their own small
or became increasingly the limited province of biosphere reserve in which to continue their own way
‘backward’ rural populations. Local agricultural of tending to the environment. However, it is a frag-
and plant medicinal knowledge was also being ridi- ile situation being constantly encroached upon from
culed and neglected. The emergence and imposi- all sides. Itzaj-speaking adults worry that, as their
0.004
0.0035
Quotes
PROPORTION OF THE OED
0.003
0.0025
Sources
0.002
0.0015
0.001
1525 1625 1725 1825 1925
DATE
Figure 2.9: Proportion of quotations and sources in the OED referring to trees along with associated 95 percent confidence intervals
(from Wolff and Medin 1998).
Luisa Maffi
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 35
Promoting the use of native names also implemented in environmental activities, with
for species: the case of Madagascar the tacit agreement of donor nations and institutions.
(Jonah Andrianarivo) Lack of consistency in local floral and faunal
terminologies is often cited as a definite obstacle
The 590,000 square kilometre island of Madagas- against using them in conservation projects. How-
car is one of the earth’s biodiversity hotspots, with ever, it is possible to improve the practicality of the
high endemism combined with endangered flora and use of native names for species, and thus have an
fauna (Mittermeier et al. 1994). Despite a multitude efficient tool for exchanging knowledge between field
of conservation projects that, over the past 15 years, scientists, local people and local leaders, while at
have brought in significant amounts of foreign aid, the same time supporting the cultural heritage as-
investments and activities, the country has suffered sociated with each vernacular name.
a worsening of its socio-economic situation and in- Out of Madagascar’s estimated 10,000 vascu-
creased pressure on the remainder of its unique non- lar plants there are 8,500 described species, and no
renewable natural resources. In response to this, less than 4,500 native names have been noted by
and acknowledging that local people will show lit- field collectors. For the avifauna and the lemurs, the
tle interest in conservation unless their welfare is numbers of local names are higher than those of sci-
also taken into account, an approach termed an In- entifically identified species. More than 400 local
tegrated Conservation and Development Project names were recorded for the 256 known bird spe-
(ICDP) has been conceived and popularized among cies, and more than 60 for the 50 described lemur
conservation organizations operating in the coun- species and subspecies. The proposed approach in-
try (Kull 1996). Project leaders are aware that peo- volves first of all conducting an exhaustive inven-
ple maintain a strong concern with cultural matters, tory of local names used in the investigator’s taxa or
in spite of economic hardship, and that cultural ac- area of interest (e.g. a plant family, a group of verte-
ceptance is a key factor for the success of conserva- brates, a genus of invertebrates, plant materials used
tion. Local artists and religious leaders are being called for roofing). Secondly, the terms should be analysed
upon more often to convey the goals of conservation linguistically and matched against the scientific tax-
projects. But is their intervention effective? onomy. This analysis should result in each scientifi-
cally known species being matched with a specific
Use of vernacular names in conservation local name or a preferred local name, or being deter-
mined to lack any consistently used local name.
One way to increase the likelihood that the conser- Thirdly, the local scientist can coin neologisms for
vation of biodiversity will be culturally accepted by species without local names, taking into account the
local people is to promote the use of native names results of the previous linguistic analysis, as well as
for animal and plant species (Andrianarivo 1987). the biological characteristics of each species. The final
Overarching use of scientific and foreign names not result is then a set of Taxonomically Organized Local
only might lead local people to believe that conser- Names (TOLN) for the taxa (Table 2.3), accompanied
vation is of exclusive interest to foreign research- by a listing of other culturally relevant knowledge, such
ers, but also would not help them grasp the concepts as cultural uses of the species and local lore about them,
of biodiversity and conservation. Furthermore, lo- and an etymology of all inventoried names.
cal knowledge itself cannot be supported, preserved
and communicated without using vernacular names. The example of lemurs
Yet, such use is still shunned in conservation action
in Madagascar, largely due to the persisting ‘franco- For the lemur group, 18 of the 50 scientifically rec-
phonie’, the heritage of 64 years of French coloni- ognized species and subspecies have single local
zation, during which the use of Malagasy was names that can be unambiguously attributed to them.
excluded from all official institutions. In 1972, a stu- A ‘preferred’ local name can be attributed to 22 more,
dent uprising which toppled the Government of choosing among alternatives the name that best
Madagascar brought about the restoration of Mala- matches the biological or ecological characteristics
gasy in education. Since then, the language has ad- of the animal. Neologisms can be coined for 10 of
vanced dramatically in the educational domain. them that have no local name or are referred to in-
However, ‘malagasization’ was never officially en- consistently by more or less common names. Generic
dorsed by later governments, and in administration names were determined and assigned accordingly
there is a tendency to avoid the national language as names for taxa at the levels of genus and family.
in favour of French, the use of which is again being Some of the local names have a restricted geo-
aggressively promoted by France. ‘Francophonie’ is graphical distribution. For instance, akomba, derived
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 37
TABLE 2.3: TAXONOMICALLY ORGANIZED LOCAL NAMES (TOLN) FOR THE 50 LEMUR SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES, BASED ON MITTERMEIER ET AL.’S
(1994) CLASSIFICATION, AND FOLLOWED BY AN INDICATION OF THE CATEGORY THEY BELONG TO: SPECIFIC (-S-), PREFERRED (-P-), OR
NEOLOGISM (-N-). MALAGASY SELECTED TAXA NAMES FOR FAMILY AND GENUS ARE ALSO GIVEN. ALL MALAGASY NAMES ARE CAPITALIZED AND
COMMON ENGLISH NAMES ARE IN PARENTHESES.
CLASSIFICATION TOLN CATEGORY
ethnic differences (whether identified with language, speakers of different languages coexisting in adja-
culture, religion or any aspects of social organiza- cent or the same territory do come into conflict, it is
tion) do not normally constitute the source of con- more common that the causes of such conflict re-
flict, although they may be seized upon and attributed side in socio-economic and political inequality, and
special meaning as a basis for mobilization when competition over land and resources, as well as in
conflict does arise. In particular, there is no evidence the denial (rather than the granting) of linguistic and
to suggest that the use of different languages by cultural rights.
neighbouring populations may constitute per se a A particularly telling example is provided by
cause of conflict; nor, for that matter, does Mohanty (1994a, 1994b). In 1994 there were seri-
monolingualism within or between countries seem ous conflicts with physical violence and killings be-
to be a guarantee of peace. When populations of tween linguistically (but not culturally) assimilated
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 39
monolingual Oriya-speaking Kond ‘tribals’ and Oriya- documentation may represent the only extant re-
speaking ‘non-tribals’ in the Phulbani district of In- source about a language that is no longer spoken.
dia. The conflicts occurred only in the monolingual Still, these materials alone cannot recreate the natu-
areas and, despite similar socio-economic and po- ral contexts of language learning and use, i.e. the
litical conditions, they did not spread to the bilin- contexts of verbal interaction in which languages are
gual areas (where the non-assimilated Konds speak acquired, used and developed. There is a very close
both their own language and Oriya, and where many parallel between this form of language preservation
native Oriya-speakers know a little of the Konds’ and ex-situ conservation in biology: while both serve
language). The local explanation was that people in an important function, in both cases the ecological
the bilingual area knew each other better and could context is ignored. Just as seed banks cannot pre-
talk about things instead of fighting. serve a plant’s biological ecology, ex-situ linguistic
The idea of Babel as a ‘curse’ is a widespread documentation cannot preserve a language’s linguis-
interpretation of this element of the Judaeo-Chris- tic ecology: its relationships with people, places and
tian religious tradition, yet not necessarily a valid other languages (Mühlhäusler 1996). As Tlingit oral
one. It is perhaps more accurate to see the divine historians Dora Marks Dauenhauer and Richard
intervention that brings about a multiplicity of lan- Dauenhauer put it, ‘Preservation [...] is what we do
guages as a way of curbing the arrogance and sin- to berries in jam jars and salmon in cans. [...] Books
gle-mindedness of monolingual empire-builders. and recordings can preserve languages, but only
Other religious traditions suggest that a diversity of people and communities can keep them alive.’ (quoted
languages (and cultures) is a good thing. In the in Lord 1996: 68). Terry Supahan, a Karuk Native Cali-
Qur’an, ‘variations in languages, dialects and modes fornian, concurs: ‘I am interested in communication,
of expression among the groups and individuals are not preservation!’ (quoted in Hinton 1996).
considered a sign of Allah’s omnipotence, beside the In recent times, and mostly due to indigenous
creation of the heavens and the earth’ (Abdussalam and minority peoples taking up the organization of
1998: 57). This seems to be true not only for linguis- language support activities on their own, a different
tic but also ethnic/racial diversity: ‘Among his signs trend has emerged, one that places these activities
is the creation of heaven and earth and the varia- squarely in the hands of linguistic communities and
tions in your languages [alsinatikum] and colours: sees them as intrinsically linked to cultural revival
verily in that are signs for those who know’. (Qur’an and environmental restoration (as well as to land
30: 22). As another example, according to the Acoma and resource rights and linguistic and other human
Pueblo Indians of New Mexico, the mother goddess rights). Again, a close parallel can be drawn with
Iatiku causes people to speak different languages the emergence of a newer trend in conservation biol-
so that it will not be as easy for them to quarrel (Gill ogy that promotes integral biocultural conservation
and Sullivan 1992). models, the in-situ interdependent conservation of both
biological and cultural resources (Zent, 1999).
From ex-situ language preservation to The ultimate aim of indigenous and minority
in-situ integral language restoration and groups who reclaim their native languages is the
development restoration of everyday communication in these lan-
guages, normally in a context of stable bi- or multi-
Scores of grassroots organizations around the world lingualism. In the case of languages that are no
are at work to ensure the continued viability of longer spoken, this ultimate goal may appear remote
smaller languages threatened by encroachment by or unattainable. Yet languages have been revived that
majority languages and dominant cultures. Heroic ef- have not been spoken for centuries, as the example
forts are also under way to revitalize ancestral lan- of Hebrew will suffice to show. Certainly, Hebrew
guages that no longer have any speakers. In many had abundant documentation (beside benefiting from
cases, language maintenance and revitalization go hand other uniquely favourable historical circumstances),
in hand with the reaffirmation of cultural traditions and which is not the case with most of the world’s small
of traditional relationships with the environment. languages. However, with the help of even limited
For language communities interested in sup- documentation or a handful of still fluent elders, the
porting or reviving their languages, linguistic docu- desire to keep one’s language or have it back can
mentation can be a very valuable resource – whether lead to extraordinary advances.
in the form of materials collected by earlier genera- The story of Loren Bommelyn, a Tolowa Native
tions of scholars, or of current documentation Californian, is remarkable in this respect. In his ef-
projects that take pedagogical applications into ac- forts to learn his ancestral language, and knowing
count (e.g. Moore, D. 1998). In many cases, such that there were not enough speakers left for him to
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 41
aim to foster awareness and appreciation of the an- number of younger people who have at least some
cestral language and culture within the community, passive knowledge of the language. In such in-
in order to create an environment that is conducive stances, it is possible for a language community to
to more structured learning. Younger people may organize native language courses for young adults
then become attracted to the idea of learning their and children, as well as a variety of communal
language of heritage, and elders may become will- intergenerational activities (including traditional
ing to impart the teaching, through some form of ones) as outlets for native language use. Under these
mentored learning. same circumstances, it may also become possible to
One programme that has been very successful introduce native language teaching in formal educa-
in this context is the Master-Apprentice Language tion for children, either in autonomous programmes,
Learning Program, created by the grassroots organi- or through modification of existing ‘mainstream’
zation Advocates for Indigenous California Language public educational structures.
Survival. This programme aims at ‘helping deeply At this level, communities must strive to avoid
committed young adults become proficient in their the pitfalls, and reverse the effects, of the subtractive
language of heritage, through apprenticeship to a language learning to which they are normally sub-
fluent elder’ (Hinton 1994/1995: 14). It stresses mitted by assimilationist programmes in the coun-
acquisition of communicative competence in a way tries in which they are located. Most commonly,
similar to language learning in childhood, i.e. through subtractive learning takes the form of ‘submersion’
‘being immersed in an environment where the [an- programmes that force indigenous and minority chil-
cestral] language is the dominant one being used’ dren to receive instruction entirely through the me-
(ibid.). Master and apprentice are encouraged to dium of a majority/official language, thus hampering
spend as much time together as possible, conduct- or totally impeding the learning of the mother tongue,
ing daily activities entirely in the language of herit- and often not leading to high levels of formal profi-
age (initially with the help of non-verbal ciency in the majority language either (Skutnabb-
communication and other props). They are also en- Kangas 1990). ‘Transitional’ programmes – common,
couraged to carry out traditional activities together for instance, in many Latin American countries – in
– from handicraft making and food gathering or which linguistic minority children are initially in-
preparation to story-telling and performing ceremo- structed through the medium of their mother tongue,
nies – as a key for the apprentice to become ac- while they learn the majority language, and are then
quainted with the ancestral cultural traditions and made to switch to the majority language as soon as
the relevant context for language use. they can function in it to some extent, are equally
One major advantage of this kind of programme damaging. The mother tongue is attributed no in-
is that it can be undertaken with limited training trinsic value, but is only considered a means to an
and financial resources, and thus is within the reach end, and this normally makes reaching high levels
of most language communities. It is also particularly of multilingualism difficult at a group level.
suited for situations, such as that in Native Califor- Educational programmes that do work for in-
nia, where a fairly large number of small indigenous digenous and minority language maintenance and
groups exist, whose ancestral languages are very revitalization are ones in which the native language
different from one another, and in which the num- is the main medium of instruction at least through-
bers of remaining speakers and of potential language out primary school, and that are based on additive
learners for each native language may be very small language learning. In these programmes, linguistic
and demographically scattered. All this makes na- minority children have the choice to be taught
tive language teaching in classrooms unfeasible or through the medium of their own mother tongue, in
at least inefficient – although in many cases ap- classes with minority children with the same mother
prentices in this programme have started trans- tongue only, where they have a bilingual teacher and
mitting what they are learning to their own where they receive good instruction in the majority
children and/or to other children in classrooms, language as a second/foreign language, also im-
at summer language camps, etc: in other words, parted by a bilingual teacher. In higher grades (after
they are already at work creating the next gen- Grade 6), a few subjects may be taught through the
eration of native language learners. medium of the majority language. Programmes of
In the case of larger indigenous and minority this kind are known as ‘language shelter’ or ‘main-
groups with higher demographic concentrations and tenance’ programmes (Skutnabb-Kangas 1990), and
functioning intergenerational communities, native they can be used for all indigenous and minority chil-
speakers may not be limited to a few isolated elders; dren when the native language has been learned by
there may be more adult speakers, and possibly a children and is used at home.
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 43
of both Hualapai and English, and the curriculum is able in electronic form and can be viewed and
community-based, i.e. it aims to develop first of all searched on line. Through CIPSH, UNESCO also of-
the children’s understanding of Hualapai culture and fers Grants for the Study of Endangered Languages.
the local environment. The learning of botany, for In addition, several committees and NGOs have
instance, starts with the study of the local ecosys- been formed in recent years with the specific pur-
tem and of Hualapai traditional knowledge about it. pose of increasing awareness of the global language
Even when additional botanical information is intro- endangerment situation and to provide support for
duced, from other parts of the world, the curriculum documentation and applied work on endangered lan-
continues to emphasize local knowledge through com- guages; among these are the Anthropologists’ Fund
parison. Several books in Hualapai have been produced for Urgent Anthropological Research (USA/UK), the
on Hualapai ethnobotany, hunting, traditional foods, Endangered Language Fund (USA), the Foundation
traditional history and narratives, and so forth. for Endangered Languages (UK), the German Soci-
These examples show that for education to be ety for Endangered Languages, and the Linguistic
able to support indigenous and minority language Society of America’s Committee on Endangered Lan-
(and culture) maintenance, serious thought must be guages and their Preservation (USA) (see Table 2.4,
given to language in its ‘cultural envelope’, as at the end of this contribution, for details).
Smolicz (1990) puts it. Linguistically and culturally Numerous electronic resources also exist that
transitional models fail to do this. When given the are relevant to matters of linguistic diversity and
opportunity, indigenous and minority peoples increas- language endangerment. Of major importance is the
ingly choose, or strive toward, shelter and immer- on-line searcheable version of Ethnologue (13th ed.;
sion models, and see the learning of traditional Grimes 1996), to date the most complete catalogue
knowledge (especially through experiential means) of the world’s languages. It provides as reliable in-
as a core element of their education. Crucially, these formation as is available on number of speakers for
educational goals are both fostered by and foster the each language, and pinpoints the especially threat-
re-establishment of intergenerational linguistic com- ened (‘nearly extinct’) status of many of the smaller
munication and knowledge transmission and help linguistic communities. Also essential are the on-
recreate the contexts for language and knowledge line versions of UNESCO’s Red Books on Endangered
use – thus reversing the main processes that lead to Languages. These and other resources are listed in
language and knowledge erosion and loss. Table 2.5, at the end of this contribution.
While these initiatives focus mostly on language
International language support endangerment and on supporting threatened lan-
organizations guages, the US-based international NGO
‘Terralingua: Partnerships for Linguistic and Biologi-
In addition to local initiatives, a growing number of cal Diversity’ is specifically devoted to promoting
non-governmental and other organizations are in- linguistic diversity and to exploring the links between
volved in supporting the preservation of threatened linguistic and biological diversity (Box 2.2). Such a
languages, as well as in advocacy in favour of lin- perspective is in line with the emerging integrated
guistic diversity. Many of these operate on a national conservationist trend, that increasingly stresses the
or regional level; others are international in nature inherent connections between biological and cultural
and/or in the scope of their activities. Only the lat- diversity – and that represents the recognition of
ter can be mentioned here. integral human-environment relationships tradition-
UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scien- ally practised, and now being reclaimed, by local
tific and Cultural Organization) has been devoting peoples around the world. What Terralingua’s per-
attention to language endangerment since the early spective adds to the new trend is evidence that lin-
1990s. In collaboration with the Permanent Inter- guistic diversity is an intrinsic element of the
national Committee of Linguists (CIPL) and the In- equation, and that it must be protected along with
ternational Clearinghouse for Endangered biological and cultural diversity in order to protect,
Languages (ICHEL), UNESCO’s International Coun- and ensure the continued development of, the diver-
cil for Philosophy and Humanistic Studies (CIPSH) sity of life on earth. Terralingua promotes collabora-
has developed the ‘Red Books on Endangered Lan- tion and mutual learning across academic disciplines
guages’. The ‘Red Books’ (modelled after the Red as well as between the concerned scholarly commu-
Books for endangered species) record and monitor nity, the advocacy community, and the world’s indig-
the status of threatened languages by continent or enous and minority peoples struggling to preserve
major area. Red Books for Europe, Northeast Asia, or restore the integrity of their languages, cultures
Asia and the Pacific, and Africa are currently avail- and environments.
STATEMENT OF PURPOSE
A. Terralingua recognizes:
1. that the diversity of languages and their variant forms is a vital part of the world’s cultural
diversity;
2. that cultural diversity and biological diversity are not only related, but often inseparable; and
3. that, like biological species, many languages and their variant forms around the world are now
faced with an extinction crisis whose magnitude may well prove very large.
B. Terralingua declares:
4. that every language, along with its variant forms, is inherently valuable and therefore worthy of
being preserved and perpetuated, regardless of its political, demographic or linguistic status;
5. that deciding which language to use, and for what purposes, is a basic human right inhering to
members of the community of speakers now using the language or whose ancestors traditionally
used it; and
6. that such usage decisions should be freely made in an atmosphere of tolerance and reciprocal
respect for cultural distinctiveness—a condition that is a prerequisite for increased mutual un-
derstanding among the world’s peoples and a recognition of our common humanity.
C. Therefore, Terralingua sets forth the following goals:
7. to help preserve and perpetuate the world’s linguistic diversity in all its variant forms (lan-
guages, dialects, pidgins, creoles, sign languages, languages used in rituals, etc.) through re-
search, programmes of public education, advocacy, and community support;
8. to learn about languages and the knowledge they embody from the communities of speakers
themselves, to encourage partnerships between community-based language/cultural groups and
scientific/professional organizations who are interested in preserving cultural and biological di-
versity, and to support the right of communities of speakers to language self-determination;
9. to illuminate the connections between cultural and biological diversity by establishing working
relationships with scientific/professional organizations and individuals who are interested in
preserving cultural diversity (such as linguists, educators, anthropologists, ethnologists, cul-
tural workers, native advocates, cultural geographers, sociologists, and so on) and those who
are interested in preserving biological diversity (such as biologists, botanists, ecologists, zoolo-
gists, physical geographers, ethnobiologists, ethnoecologists, conservationists, environmental
advocates, natural resource managers, and so on), thus promoting the joint preservation and
perpetuation of cultural and biological diversity; and
10. to work with all appropriate entities in both the public and private sectors, and at all levels from
the local to the international, to accomplish the foregoing.
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 45
Linguistic diversity and language Thus, the fate of languages is of utmost and
rights (Tove Skutnabb-Kangas) growing importance. The struggle over the power
and resources of the world is conducted increasingly
Language, power and diversity through ideological means, and ideas are mainly
mediated through language. This also partially ex-
Language has been seen as an essential, homogeniz- plains the spread of numerically large languages
ing element in state-building since the Age of En- (English, Spanish, Russian, Mandarin Chinese, etc.)
lightenment (e.g. Gellner 1983; Hobsbawm 1991). at the cost of the smaller ones. The ideas of the
It has played a key role in maintaining colonial struc- power-holders cannot be spread, nationally or
tures (Calvet 1974; Mühlhäusler 1990; Phillipson internationally,unless those with less power under-
1992) and in reproducing neo-colonial structures stand the power-holders’ language (e.g. ‘interna-
(e.g. Ngugi 1986; Bamgbose 1991). Language has tional English’ world-wide, or standard Italian in
been an important means of control and domination Italy). Mass media and formal education are used
and its importance is rapidly growing (e.g. Bourdieu for this language learning, which is is mostly organ-
1977; Foucault 1980; Habermas 1985; Fairclough ized subtractively (the ‘major’ language is learned
1989). Education through the medium of majority at the cost of one’s own language, not in addition to
languages or colonial languages has been the most it). Language and culture are in the process of re-
powerful assimilating and homogenizing force for placing ‘race’ as bases for discrimination. Access to
both indigenous children and immigrant/refugee material resources and structural power is increas-
minority children (e.g. Skutnabb-Kangas 1984, 1988, ingly determined not on the basis of skin colour, or
1990; Jordan 1988; Cummins 1989). There is also ‘race’ (as biologically argued racism has it), but on
continuing controversy over the role of the ‘stand- the basis of ethnicity and language(s) (mother tongue
ard’ language (‘proper’ language) as opposed to other and competence, or lack thereof, in official and/or
variants (dialects, sociolects, genderlects, ethno- ‘international’ languages). Linguistically argued rac-
lects). The enforcement of standard languages has ism, linguicism, and culturally argued racism,
likewise been a powerful method for controlling or- ethnicism or culturism, can be defined as ‘ideologies,
dinary people (O’Barr 1982) and for homogenization structures and practices that are used to legitimate,
(Illich 1981). Reducing oral languages to writing is effectuate and reproduce an unequal division of
also homogenizing (Mühlhäusler 1996). power and (both material and non-material) resources
But language is also a psychologically, educa- between groups which are defined on the basis of lan-
tionally and politically crucial tool for counterhege- guage (linguicism) and culture or ethnicity (ethnicism/
mony and self-determination; it is one of several culturism)’ (Skutnabb-Kangas 1988: 13).
mobilizing factors in struggles for national recogni- In the post-Cold-War era, not only tolerance of
tion. This is true for indigenous peoples (e.g. Hamel but indeed preservation, promotion and development
1994a, 1994b on Latin America; Harris 1990 and of linguistic and cultural diversity are vital for world
Fesl 1993 on Aboriginal peoples in Australia; Magga peace and social justice (Galtung 1995; Kalantzis
1994 on the Sámi in Norway; Karetu 1994 on the 1995; Huntington 1996). The non-dominant lan-
Maori in New Zealand; Ekka 1984, Annamalai 1986, guages and the cultural interpretations and knowl-
Khubchandani 1991, 1994 and Pattanayak 1991 on edge of the world of which they are bearers are a
indigenous peoples in India; Stairs 1988 on the Inuit necessary counterweight to the power-holders’ ho-
in Canada). It is equally true for groups reasserting mogenizing and homogenized languages and mes-
themselves after the disintegration of communist sages. With the help of (their own) language(s),
regimes (e.g. Rannut 1994 on Estonia; Druviete 1994 non-dominant peoples can analyse their own situa-
on Latvia). Having control over one’s own language tion and start the decolonization of minds and the
and maximizing its official use are also of paramount reconstruction and revalidation of their own non-
concern to groups seeking self-determination or more material resources (languages, cultures, norms, val-
cultural rights before or indeed after decolonization ues, institutions, knowledges, world-views) which have,
(e.g. Ansre 1979, Mateene 1980, 1985, Rubagumya through stigmatization, been rendered invisible or made
1990, Bamgbose 1991, Akinnaso 1994 and Twahirva to seem handicaps rather than resources.
1994 on Africa; Hassanpour 1992 on Kurdish; Tickoo
1994 on Kashmiri). Language is also central to the Linguistic human rights, linguicide and
demands of most immigrant groups, regardless of monolingual reductionism
whether or not they are aspiring to become new na-
tional minorities (Skutnabb-Kangas and Cummins Given the growing importance of language world-
1988; Skutnabb-Kangas 1996c). wide, state resistance to smaller languages is to be
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 47
to enjoy their linguistic human rights. Lack of these minorities that enjoy linguistic human rights will de-
rights, for instance the absence of these languages mand first internal self-determination, e.g. cultural
from school time-tables, makes indigenous and mi- and other autonomy, and then independent status,
nority languages invisible. Alternatively, minority i.e. external self-determination. By denying them lin-
mother tongues are construed and presented as non- guistic rights and by bringing about homogenization
resources, as handicaps which are said to prevent through linguistic and cultural genocide in educa-
indigenous or minority children from acquiring the tion and elsewhere, states (or rather their leaders)
majority language – purported as the only valued hope to eliminate the threat of groups that may even-
linguistic resource – so that minority children should tually demand self-determination. To deny minori-
get rid of them in their own interest. At the same ties those human rights that are most central to their
time, many minorities, especially minority children, reproducing themselves as distinctive groups –
are in fact prevented from fully acquiring majority namely, linguistic and cultural human rights, and
resources, and especially majority languages, especially educational language rights – while ob-
through disabling educational structures in which serving (or appearing to observe) several of the ba-
instruction is organized through the medium of the sic human rights for all its citizens, including
majority languages in ways that contradict most sci- minorities, is a covert way for a state to make lan-
entific evidence on how education for bilingual edu- guages disappear at the same time as it retains its
cation should be structured (e.g. Pattanayak 1981; legitimacy in the eyes of (most of) its citizens and
Skutnabb-Kangas 1984, 1988, 1990, forthcoming; the international community. Covert linguicide of this
Ramirez et al. 1991; Corson 1992; Padilla and type appears to be extremely effective. It is often far
Benavides 1992; Cummins 1996). more difficult to struggle against covert violence,
The linguistic wrongs that are an important against the colonization of the mind, where short-
causal factor in reducing the linguistic and cultural term ‘benefits’ may obscure longer-term losses, than
diversity of the world are partly symptoms of an ide- it is to fight physical violence and oppression.
ology of monolingual reductionism, which consists of Contra these myths, however, there are strong
several myths. The first four include the beliefs that reasons why states should support, rather than try
monolingualism, at both individual and societal lev- to eliminate, linguistic and cultural diversity and
els, is normal; that it is unavoidable (‘it is a pity but grant linguistic human rights. Some states might
you cannot make people cling to small languages indeed disintegrate in the process, but this should
which are not useful; they want to shift’); that it is be acceptable if the human right of self-determina-
sufficient to know a ‘big’ language, especially Eng- tion is to be upheld (Clark and Williamson 1996). By
lish (‘everything important is in English, or, if it is and large, though, granting linguistic and cultural
important enough and has been written in another human rights to minorities reduces rather than cre-
language, it will be translated into English’; ‘it is ates the potential for ‘ethnic’ conflict, prevents the
the same things that are being said in all languages disintegration of states, and may avoid anarchy in
so why bother?’) and desirable (‘you learn more if which even the rights of the elites will be severely
you can use all your energies on one language in- curtailed. Linguistic and cultural identity are at the
stead of needing to learn many’; ‘monolingual coun- core of the cultures of most ethnic groups (Smolicz
tries are richer and more developed’; ‘it is cheaper 1979). When threatened, these identities can have a
and more efficient to have just one language’). In very strong potential to mobilize groups: ‘[...] at-
fact all these myths can be easily refuted – they are tempts to artificially suppress minority languages
fallacies (Skutnabb-Kangas 1996a, 1996b). through policies of assimilation, devaluation, reduc-
The fifth myth says that the granting of linguis- tion to a state of illiteracy, expulsion or genocide
tic and cultural human rights will inevitably lead to are not only degrading of human dignity and mor-
the disintegration of present states. At this level, ally unacceptable, but they are also an invitation
monolingual reductionism can be characterized as to separatism and an incitement to fragmentation
an ideology used to rationalize linguistic genocide into mini-states’ (Smolicz 1986: 96; emphasis
(especially in education) by states that claim to be added). Thus, promoting diversity by granting lin-
nation-states and purport the existence of (unassimi- guistic human rights can actually promote a state’s
lated) linguistic minorities within their boundaries self-interest.
to be a threat to national unity. The principle of the As Asbjørn Eide (1995: 29–30) of the UN Hu-
territorial integrity and political sovereignty of con- man Rights Commission points out, cultural rights
temporary states is often presented as being in con- have received little attention both in human rights
flict with another fundamental human rights theory and in practice, despite the fact that today
principle, that of self-determination. States fear that ‘ethnic conflict’ and ‘ethnic tension’ are seen as the
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 49
of Europe in 1994. Again the Article covering the sons and members of diasporas. (Art. 1.5.)
medium of education is much more heavily qualified Communities have more rights in the Declara-
than any other: tion than either groups or individuals:
‘In areas inhabited by persons belonging to ‘All language communities are entitled to have
national minorities traditionally or in substan- at their disposal whatever means are necessary
tial numbers, if there is sufficient demand, the to ensure the transmission and continuity of
parties shall endeavour to ensure, as far as pos- their language.’ (Art. 8.2)
sible and within the framework of their education This could be interpreted to mean that all lan-
systems, that persons belonging to those minori- guage communities are entitled to receive from the
ties have adequate opportunities for being taught state the funds needed to organize education in the
in the minority language or for receiving instruc- mother tongue from kindergarten to university. How-
tion in this language.’ (Art. 14.2) [emphases ever, no duty-holders are specified for granting the
added] ‘means’ mentioned in Art. 8.2 – or, for that matter,
Thus the situation is not improving despite new for granting the ‘equal rights’ to which language
instruments in which language rights are mentioned, communities are entitled (Art. 10.1) or for taking
and even treated in detail. Even where linguists have the ‘necessary steps... in order to implement this
participated in drafting new or planned instruments, principle of equality and to render it real and effec-
as in the case of the Draft Universal Declaration of tive’ (Art. 10.3). Likewise, no legal obligations are
Linguistic Rights, the results are far from perfect. specified when it comes to the Articles dealing with
education:
Draft Universal Declaration of Linguistic ‘All language communities are entitled to have
Rights at their disposal all the human and material re-
sources necessary to ensure that their language
The Draft Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights, is present to the extent they desire at all levels
handed over to UNESCO in June 1996, is the first of education within their territory: properly
attempt to formulate a universal code of language trained teachers, appropriate teaching methods,
rights (although it does not mention sign languages). text books, finance, buildings and equipment,
Its 52 Articles, which have already gone through traditional and innovative technology.’ (Art. 25)
twelve drafts, grant rights to three different enti- ‘All language communities are entitled to an
ties: individuals (= ‘everyone’), language groups, and education that will enable their members to
language communities. When the beneficiary is ‘eve- acquire a full command of their own language,
ryone’ unconditionally, the rights are individual (‘in- including the different abilities relating to all
alienable personal rights’, Art. 3.1). When the the usual spheres of use, as well as the most
beneficiary is the language group or community, the extensive possible command of any other lan-
rights are collective. The Declaration considers the guage they may wish to know.’ (Art. 26)
following to be inalienable personal rights which may ‘The language and culture of all language com-
be exercised in any situation: munities must be the subject of study and re-
• the right to the use of one’s language both in search at university level.’ (Art. 30)
private and in public;... Groups have fewer and more vaguely specified
• the right to maintain and develop one’s own rights than communities:
culture;... (Art. 3.1) ‘... the collective rights of language groups may
These individual rights are the only ones that include... the right for their own language and
apply to all unconditionally. Educational language culture to be taught.’ (Art. 3.2; emphasis
rights are not included. added).
Collective rights in the Declaration apply to his- For groups, collective rights to one’s own lan-
torical language communities – including both tra- guage are thus not seen as inalienable. Again, no
ditional national minorities and all numerically small duty-holders are specified.
peoples, such as indigenous peoples – or to language For individuals, only education in the language
groups, that is: of the territory where one resides is a positive right
any group of persons sharing the same language (Art. 26.1). There is no mention of bilingual or multi-
which is established in the territorial space of lingual territories in the Declaration. This means that
another language community but which does for those who speak a language other than the lan-
not possess historical antecedents equivalent guage of the territory, education in their own language
to those of that community. Examples of such is not a positive right. ‘Everyone’s’ right to one’s own
groups are immigrants, refugees, deported per- language is only specified in negative terms:
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 51
‘persons belonging to ... minorities’ only had these ties (Art. 1), and states are reminded not to inter-
rights in states that accepted the existence of such pret their obligations in a restrictive manner (Art.
minorities. This has not helped immigrant minori- 2) (Box 2.4).
ties because they have not been seen as minorities In the section on ‘Minority education at primary
in the legal sense by the states in which they live. and secondary levels’, mother-tongue medium edu-
More recently (6 April 1994), the UN Human Rights cation is recommended at all levels, including bilin-
Committee adopted a General Comment on Article gual teachers in the dominant language as a second
27 which interprets it in a substantially broader and language (Articles 11–13). Teacher training is made
more positive way than earlier (Box 2.3). a duty on the state (Art. 14) (Box 2.5).
It remains to be seen to what extent this Gen- Finally, the Explanatory Note states that
eral Comment will influence the state parties in re- ‘[S]ubmersion-type approaches whereby the
lation to linguistic human rights of speakers of curriculum is taught exclusively through the
smaller languages. It depends on the extent to which medium of the State language and minority chil-
the Committee’s interpretation (‘soft law’) will be- dren are entirely integrated into classes with
come the general norm observed by the countries children of the majority are not in line with in-
where indigenous peoples and migrant, refugee and ternational standards.’ (p. 5).
other minorities live. This means that the children to whom the Rec-
The second positive development is the new ommendations apply might be granted some of the
educational guidelines issued by The Foundation on central educational linguistic human rights. The
Inter-Ethnic Relations for the OSCE (Organization question now is to what extent the 55 OSCE coun-
for Security and Co-operation in Europe) High Com- tries will apply the Recommendations and how they
missioner on National Minorities, Max van der Stoel will interpret their scope. The Recommendations
(The Hague Recommendations Regarding the Edu- could in principle apply to all minorities, even the
cation Rights of National Minorities and Explana- ‘everyone’ with very few rights in the Draft Univer-
tory Note, October 1996). These guidelines were sal Declaration on Linguistic Rights. And since in-
elaborated by a small group of experts on human digenous peoples should have at least all the rights
rights and education (including the author of this that minorities do, these Recommendations might
section). In the section ‘The spirit of international provide them also with a tool, while the Universal
instruments’, bilingualism is set as a right and re- Declaration on Rights of Indigenous Peoples is still
sponsibility for persons belonging to national minori- under discussion.
What a Universal Convention of Linguistic collective human right. There should be no need to
Human Rights should guarantee at an debate the right to identify with, to maintain and to
individual level fully develop one’s mother tongue(s) (the language(s)
a person has learned first and/or identifies with). It
In a civilized state, there should be no need to de- is a self-evident, fundamental individual linguistic
bate the right for indigenous peoples and minorities human right.
to exist, to decide about their own affairs (self-de- What Linguistic Human Rights (LHRs) should
termination) and to reproduce themselves as distinct be guaranteed to individuals for linguistic diversity
groups, with their own languages and cultures. This to be maintained? Necessary individual linguistic
includes the right to ownership and guardianship of rights have to do with access to the mother tongue
their own lands and material (natural and other) re- and an official language in a situation of stable bi-
sources as a prerequisite for the maintenance of non- lingualism, and with language-related access to for-
material resources. It is a self-evident, fundamental mal primary education (Box 2.6).
Box 2.5: The Hague Recommendations Regarding the Education Rights of National
Minorities and Explanatory Note (October 1996) – Articles 11–14.
(11) The first years of education are of pivotal importance in a child’s development. Educational re-
search suggests that the medium of teaching at pre-school and kindergarten levels should ideally be
the child’s language. Wherever possible, States should create conditions enabling parents to avail
themselves of this option.
(12) Research also indicates that in primary school the curriculum should ideally be taught in the
minority language. The minority language should be taught as a subject on a regular basis. The State
language should also be taught as a subject on a regular basis preferably by bilingual teachers who
have a good understanding of the children’s cultural and linguistic background. Towards the end of
this period, a few practical or non-theoretical subjects should be taught through the medium of the
State language. Wherever possible, States should create conditions enabling parents to avail them-
selves of this option.
(13) In secondary school a substantial part of the curriculum should be taught through the medium of
the minority language. The minority language should be taught as a subject on a regular basis. The
State language should also be taught as a subject on a regular basis preferably by bilingual teachers
who have a good understanding of the children’s cultural and linguistic background. Throughout this
period, the number of subjects taught in the State language should gradually be increased. Research
findings suggest that the more gradual the increase, the better for the child.
(14) The maintenance of the primary and secondary levels of minority education depends a great deal
on the availability of teachers trained in all disciplines in the mother tongue. Therefore, ensuing from
the obligation to provide adequate opportunities for minority language education, States should pro-
vide adequate facilities for the appropriate training of teachers and should facilitate access to such
training.
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 53
Box 2.6: Suggestions on What a Universal Convention of Linguistic Human Rights
Should Guarantee at an Individual Level
A universal convention of linguistic human rights should guarantee at an individual level,
in relation to the mother tongue(s), that everybody can:
• identify with their mother tongue(s) and have this identification accepted and respected by others;
• learn the mother tongue(s) fully, orally (when physiologically possible) and in writing (requiring
in most cases for indigenous and minority children to be educated through the medium of their
mother tongue(s), within the state-financed educational system);
• use the mother tongue in most official situations (including day-care, schools, courts, emergency
situations of all kinds, health care, hospitals, and many governmental and other offices).
... and in relation to other languages:
• that everybody whose mother tongue is not an official language in the country where they are
resident can become bilingual (or multilingual, if they have more than one mother tongue) in the
mother tongue(s) and (one of) the official language(s) (according to his/her own choice);
• that suitably trained bilingual teachers are available;
• that parents know enough about research results when they make their educational choices (e.g.
minority parents must know that good mother-tongue medium teaching leads to better profi-
ciency both in the mother tongue and in the dominant language, than dominant-language me-
dium submersion teaching).
... in the relationship between languages:
• that any change of mother tongue is voluntary, not imposed (i.e. it includes knowledge of alterna-
tives and of long-term consequences of choices and is not due to enforced language shift).
... and in the profit from education
• that everybody can profit from education, regardless of what their mother tongue(s) is/are (edu-
cational profit being defined in terms of equal outcome, not just of equal opportunity).
A Universal Convention of LHRs must also earlier version of this chapter: Jonathan Bobaljik,
make states duty-holders, in a firm and detailed way: Nancy Dorian, Mark Fettes, David Harmon, Peter
that is, it must provide enforceable rights. If these Mühlhäusler, Thomas Widlok, David Wilkins and
rights are not granted and implemented, it seems Jeffrey Wollock. Thanks are due to David Harmon
likely that the present pessimistic prognoses of some and Stanford Zent for permitting the reproduction of
90 percent of the world’s oral languages not being graphics from their published and yet to be published
spoken any more by the year 2100 may actually turn work. Maffi and Skutnabb-Kangas also wish to thank
out to have been optimistic. Languages that are not each other for mutual feedback on and close scru-
used as main media of instruction will cease to be tiny of several drafts of their respective and com-
passed on to children at the latest when we reach mon parts of this chapter. Skutnabb-Kangas went
the fourth generation of groups in which everybody far beyond the call of duty as a contributor in her
goes to school – and many languages may be killed collaboration in this project, and her extensive in-
much earlier. There is still much work to be done for put is gratefully acknowledged by the co-ordinator.
education through the medium of the mother tongue The introduction to the chapter incorporates some
to be recognized as a human right. Yet this is what of her writing. The section on language rights and
is most urgently needed to ensure that indigenous parts of the section on language maintenance and
and minority peoples will be able to maintain and revitalization draw extensively on previous writings
develop their languages and perpetuate linguistic by Skutnabb-Kangas.
diversity on earth.
Acknowledgements
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 55
TABLE 2.5: ELECTRONIC RESOURCES ON LANGUAGES AND LANGUAGE ENDANGERMENT.
Endangered-Languages-L List of Language Lists
List address: endangered-languages-l@carmen.murdoch.edu.au Web site: http://condor.stcloud.msus.edu:20020/docs/lnglstcurrent.txt
Contact: Dr. Mari RHYDWEN, List owner Contact: Dr. Bernard COMRIE, List co-owner
Humanities, Murdoch University E-mail: comrie@bcf.usc.edu
Perth, WA 6150, Australia Department of Linguistics, GFS-301
E-mail: rhydwen@central.murdoch.edu.au University of Southern California
Los Angeles, CA 90089-1693, USA
Discussion of language endangerment, linguistic diversity, and indigenous and
Phone: +1 213 740 2986
minority languages.
Fax: +1 213 740 9306
Ethnologue: Languages of the World, 13th ed. (1996) Contact: Dr. Michael EVERSON, List co-owner
Web site: http:/www.sil.org/ethnologue/ E-mail: everson@indigo.ie
Contact: Dr. Barbara GRIMES, Editor
Inventory of electronic bulletin boards devoted to the study of individual lan-
International Linguistics Center
guages and groups of languages.
7500 W. Camp Wisdom Road
Dallas, TX 75236, USA UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Europe
E-mail: editor.ethnologue@sil.org Compiled by T. SALMINEN
http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/europe_report.html
On-line version of the main catalogue of the world’s languages.
Index to the UNESCO Red Book on Endangered languages: Eu-
GeoNative (electronic database of native place names)
rope.
Web site: http://www.geocities.com/Athens/9479
Compiled by T. SALMINEN
Contact: Luistxo FERNANDEZ, Web site owner
http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/europe_index.html
E-mail: txoko@redestb.es
UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Northeast Asia
Dedicated to ‘putting minority languages on the map’; gathers and displays
Compiled by J. JANHUNAN and T. SALMINEN
native place names in the world’s smaller languages.
http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/nasia_report.html
Language Documentation Urgency List (LDUL)
Databank for endangered Finno-Ugric languages
List address: ldul@cis.uni-muenchen.de
Compiled by T. SALMINEN
Contact: Dr. Dietmar ZAEFFERER
http://www.helsinki.fi/~tasalmin/deful.html
Institut für Deutsche Philologie
Universität München UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Asia and the
Schellingstrasse 3 Pacific
D-80799 München, Germany Compiled by S.A. WURM and S. TSUCHIDA
Phone: +49 89 2180 2060/2180 3819 http://www.tooyoo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/asia-pacific-index.html
Fax: +49 89 2180 3871
UNESCO Red Book on Endangered Languages: Africa
E-mail: ue303bh@sunmail.lrz-muenchen.de
Compiled by B. HEINE and M. BRENZINGER
Automatic mailbox and database. Provides information on endangerment sta- http://www.tooyoo.l.u-tokyo.ac.jp/africa-index.html
tus of and need for documentation on the world’s languages.
On-line versions of UNESCO’s Red Books.
Mazisi Kunene
‘People do not follow the same direction, like water.’ (Zulu saying)
LANGUAGE DIVERSITY / 57
C H A P T E R 3
Andrew Gray
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (ANDREW GRAY) ........................................................................................................... 61
General considerations ............................................................................................................. 61
Biodiversity and nature ............................................................................................................. 62
INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ADDRESS THE UN GENERAL ASSEMBLY
SPECIAL SESSION, 23-27 JUNE, 1997 (JOJI CARIÑO) ................................................................................ 66
59
TEXT BOXES
BOX 3.1: ARAKMBUT SPIRITUALITY (ANDREW GRAY)
BOX 3.2: MOBIL IN THE PERUVIAN AMAZON
BOX 3.3: FIVE LEGAL COROLLARIES OF THE SOCIAL CONCEPTION OF ECOLOGY
BOX 3.4: MANOMIN AS A SPIRITUAL GIFT (ANDREW CHAPESKIE)
FIGURES
FIGURE 3.1: THE TANIMUKA AND YUKUNA COSMOS (ELIZABETH REICHEL D.).
FIGURE 3.2: BARÍ TERRITORY IN 1900 (FROM LIZARRALDE AND BECKERMAN 1982).
FIGURE 3.3: BARÍ TERRITORY IN 1983 (FROM LIZARRALDE AND BECKERMAN 1982).
FIGURE 3.4: CROP RINGS AROUND A BARÍ HOUSE: THE TRADITIONAL METHOD IN THE ATSHIRINDAKAIRA,
ICHIDIRRANKAIRA, BARÍ COMMUNITY (FROM BECKERMAN 1983).
Tribute to Dr Gray
Introduction (Andrew Gray) enous peoples whose lives are intimately bound up
with their environments, which not only provides for
General considerations production, but also provides the spiritual inspira-
tion for life.
Over the past twenty years, indigenous peoples have Indigenous peoples’ cultural diversity is
become increasingly vociferous and assertive in en- grounded in territory and locality, drawing together
vironmental negotiations. This is part of a historical their social and natural worlds. This creates a diffi-
process of resistance against colonization which has culty when discussing indigenous peoples. Whereas
a history going back thousands of years (Gray 1995: diversity makes generalizations about indigenous
42-5). peoples difficult, throughout the world they encoun-
Indigenous peoples strongly resist being defined ter similar structural threats in relation to access to
by others: ‘We assert our inherent right to define their resources and defence of their lives and cul-
who we are. We do not approve of any other defini- tures. To emphasize unity at the expense of diver-
tion’ (IWGIA 1995: 26). This right is recognized by sity risks the formation of ‘essentialised images’
the International Labour Organization’s Convention (Brosius 1996: 4), while to talk exclusively of diver-
169 Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples in sity depoliticizes the common indigenous struggle
Independent Countries: ‘Self-identification as indig- which is based on the assertion of fundamental rights
enous or tribal shall be regarded as a fundamental and freedoms.
criterion for determining the groups to which the When looking at the global distribution of in-
provisions of this Convention apply’ (ILO 1989). digenous peoples, there is a marked correlation be-
As a general orientation to the concept of in- tween areas of biological diversity and areas of
digenous, one could say that indigenous peoples are cultural diversity. This link is emphasized in the
distinct peoples, with their own languages, cultures opening contribution to this chapter, by Joji Cariño,
and territories, who have lived in a country since and is particularly significant for rainforest areas
times prior to the formation of the current nation such as the Amazon, Africa and Southeast Asia
state. They have become disadvantaged and vulner- (IUCN, op.cit. 31).
able as a result of colonial invasion of their territo- One reason for this is that the species-diverse
ries either by international colonization or by groups environments in which indigenous peoples live are
within the countries in which they live. deeply embedded in their production activities and
More than 300 million people in the world are spiritual relations. The diversity present in the natu-
indigenous. Arctic peoples, Native Americans, for- ral world adds to the complexity and distinct variety
est dwellers of the Amazon, mountain peoples of the of different interpretations and activities, not only
Andes, African pygmies, pastoralists and Bushmen for each people but also for different communities.
from Africa, tribal peoples of Asia, Aboriginal and These interpretations cover food production, curing,
Maori peoples of Australia and New Zealand, and mythology, and understanding the world in general.
island peoples of the Pacific, all come under the head- This chapter provides several examples: Shepard
ing ‘indigenous’. from the Machiguenga and Rodríguez-Manasse from
Indigenous peoples are culturally distinct and the Barí, both show the intense relationship between
live lives that vary considerably from one locality to mythology and the environment. In each case, mytho-
another. Of the estimated 6,000 cultures in the world, logical figures bring crops to human beings and trans-
between 4,000 and 5,000 are indigenous, which means form people into animals.
that indigenous peoples make up between 70 and 80 However, indigenous peoples are not simply
percent of the world’s cultural diversity (IUCN 1997: reflections of their environment. To say that biologi-
30). Cultural diversity is one of the fundamental at- cal diversity causes cultural variation would risk
tributes of human beings because ‘change, creation and falling into a crude environmental determinism. Ulti-
re-creation, interpretation and re-interpretation, are all mately, cultural variation is a human matter based on
parts of the fabric of everyday experience’ (Carrithers choice and decision. Furthermore, studies increasingly
1992: 9). This is particularly apparent with indig- show how indigenous peoples live in anthropogenic
Andrew Gray
When an Arakmbut shaman from the Peruvian rainforest performs a curing chant for a sick person, he
enters the invisible world to search for the patient’s soul (nokiren). On the basis of the symptoms
observed during the illness, he diagnoses a species of animal, bird or fish which he suspects is respon-
sible and, following its spirit, floats above the forest path calling its name in the chant.
As he passes, he sings out the names of plants, trees, insects or any other species that the spirit
causing the illness recognizes. Sometimes he will sing in the spirit’s own language. If successful, the
shaman finds the soul of the sick person – maybe a group of collared peccary are snuffling around a
muddy area surrounding the soul. Then suddenly the shaman will shout ‘Look out! There’s a jaguar!’
The animals flee from the predator and if his timing is good, the shaman can guide the soul back to the
patient’s body (Gray 1997a).
During this curing ritual, the shaman draws together an encyclopaedic knowledge of species, a prac-
tical personal experience of animal behaviour based on a life-time’s observation and a visionary in-
sight into the invisible spirit world. His chant, learnt from an elderly relative and developed further
from experimentation, will cover as many as fifty different species. This is not a random list, but
consist of clusters of rainforest features. For example, the collared peccaries will include – berries the
animal likes to eat, areas where they like to shelter, birds that pick insects from their skin, or rough
trees good for scratching. Each species is connected to the collared peccary but also relates to the
others in the chant.
No species is isolated, each is part of a living collectivity binding human, animal and spirit. According
to the Arakmbut, animals originally had a human form, and frequently still appear to each other in
that way; spirits can also appear as people or animals, while humans, through shamanic visions and
dreams, can communicate with both. In the Arakmbut invisible world, the distinction between animal,
human and spirit becomes blurred.
In the act of curing, the Arakmbut demonstrate their relationship with the diversity of species in the
rainforest and illustrate the practical application of their knowledge. Often the ritual will involve
prohibitions on eating or hunting particular species. Health is thus restored by combining production
knowledge and its moral values: for a hunter this means the number of animals that can be killed and
how the meat should be distributed. Underlying these practices lie the spiritual dimensions to Arakmbut
life, which constitute an imminent presence, constantly manifest and mediating between different
species.
The Arakmbut curing ritual draws together several of the themes that will appear in this chapter. The
relationship between indigenous peoples and their environment concerns culture, biological diversity,
moral values, spirituality and rights. In daily life, these are intimately bound up with each other, and
for indigenous peoples such as the Arakmbut, they are expressed in practical activities. A common
way of encapsulating the complexity of indigenous peoples’ relationship with the natural world is
through their mythology and ritual which, as with the Arakmbut curing chant, express the invisible
spiritual connection between people and other species.
Sources: Gray 1996, 1997a and 1997b.
thermore, sustainability in indigenous production meth- land invasions, leaving them with insufficient re-
ods is a consequence of practical knowledge that em- sources. At the root of this problem is the commo-
bodies sustainable principles (IUCN 1997: 36). dification of labour and knowledge, the main focus
Unfortunately, in some parts of the world in- of Whitt’s contribution to this chapter. She argues
digenous peoples’ territories have been devastated that indigenous peoples have the principles of
by un-sustainable economic activities – some car- sustainability embedded in their knowledge, but that
ried out by indigenous peoples themselves (Ellen these can only be preserved by recognizing rights
1993; Posey 1997). These examples almost inevita- and respecting cultures.
bly arise in areas where indigenous rights have not Indigenous knowledge and technology is passed
been respected and the people have been subject to down through the generations and comes from
universal definition of ‘traditional knowledge’, and The use of the term ‘traditional’ implies the
would prefer that the international community agree repetition, from generation to generation, of a fixed
that traditional knowledge must be acquired and body of data, or the gradual, unsystematic accumu-
used in conformity with the customary laws of the lation of new data. On the contrary, each generation
peoples concerned. of indigenous people makes observations, compares
Indigenous peoples also feel that their approach their personal experiences with what they have been
to sharing knowledge is incompatible with the told by their teachers, conducts experiments to test
‘commodification’ of the arts and scientific discov- the reliability of their knowledge, and exchanges
eries in contemporary intellectual property law. In- their findings. All ‘tradition’, in actuality, is continu-
tellectual property law has two objectives: to ally undergoing revision.
encourage innovation by providing the innovator with Individuals must be scientists in order to sur-
monopoly control of the commercial applications, and vive as hunters, fishers, foragers or farmers with
to encourage the diffusion of technology by limiting minimal mechanical technology. Since every indi-
the duration of the innovator’s monopoly. Among in- vidual is necessarily engaged in a lifelong personal
digenous peoples, higher priority is given to the proper search for ecological understanding, moreover, the
use of knowledge locally, rather than accelerating standard of ‘truth’ in indigenous knowledge systems
growth in the total quantity of knowledge globally. is direct personal experience. Indigenous people are
Indigenous peoples are not indifferent to the suspicious of second-hand claims (which form the
importance of innovation. Indigenous cosmologies bulk of Western scholars’ knowledge), but at the
portray a universe in continuous flux, driven by same time they are reluctant to challenge the valid-
known forces as well as a diversity of powerful ran- ity of anyone’s own observations.
dom elements (‘tricksters’). Everything is bound Thus, what is ‘traditional’ about traditional
eventually to change in ways that cannot be fore- knowledge is not its antiquity, but the way in which
cast accurately, hence the need for humans to re- it is acquired and used, which in turn is unique to
main vigilant and adaptive. each indigenous culture. Much of this knowledge is
Andrew Chapeskie
A great Ojibway leader from Wabigoon named Mis-Koona-Queb was paddling on Rice Lake for some
particular purpose. Located on the north end of the lake are sacred rock paintings. In the south-west
corner of the lake is a large cliff. From a space in that cliff close to the water came a voice calling Mis-
Koona-Queb to come over with his canoe. The figure had long hair, and was dressed in a moose-hide
breech cloth. When Mis-Koona-Queb paddled his canoe over, the figure told him to turn the canoe
around.
The figure was Nanabozho. There was only one paddle in the canoe. Nanabozho told Mis-Koona-Queb,
sitting in the front of the canoe, to paddle and to be careful not to look back. Mis-Koona-Queb was
given precise directions as to how he was to work the canoe around the lake. Going through the plants
as he was directed to, Mis-Koona-Queb heard sticks working behind him. He didn’t dare look back. At
the end of the travelling Mis-Koona-Queb was told to turn around and look into the canoe. The canoe
was made of birch bark. Mis-koona-Queb asked what was in the canoe. Nanabozho said, ‘This is
Anishinaabe manomin. This is medicine and it will support you and give you nourishment.’
Nanabozho then showed Mis-Koona-Queb how to process the manomin that was in the canoe and told
him to use a birch bark dish for winnowing the manomin in the wind. Mis-Koona-Queb then tasted the
manomin after this process and it tasted very good. Nanabozho then cooked it in an Anishinaabe
cooking pot with water in it over a fire. Mis-Koona-Queb was then told for each and every year from
then on when to begin to harvest the Anishinaabe manomin and was told that he and his people must
first pick some manomin and have a feast. The rules of the feast were then given.
During this time, Mis-Koona-Queb was also told how the harvest must be organized and how the
Anishinaabe manomin must be respected. Nanabozho showed him all of this.
During this time, Nanabozho also taught Mis-Koona-Queb many other things, including how to har-
vest, preserve and care for blueberries. Finally, after teaching many things Nanabozho made a swing.
He swung on this large swing four times in the four directions and after swinging himself in the fourth
direction he disappeared from our Anishinaabe people.
(Chapeskie 1990: 130)
its ‘natural resources’. As an anthropogenic land- given that it is an annual plant, and the manomin
scape, the interaction of Ojibway people with it has fields themselves must retain their capacity to sup-
obviously been intense. Yet, neither the area nor any port fur-bearers, fish brood stocks and other ‘re-
of its resources is ‘owned’ by any Ojibway person. sources’ (e.g. ‘ethno-botanicals’).
Further, everyone in the community has access to It is within this context of equitable access to
this landscape for livelihood purposes. When ‘re- the total landscape that the diversity it offers is able
sources’ such as manomin, whose productivity is to yield its greatest value to the Ojibway people liv-
cyclical, are abundant here to an extent they are not ing there. Because the value of this diversity is equi-
elsewhere, broad participation in the harvest occurs. tably and co-operatively distributed, it is not
Regulation of the harvest does not focus on exclud- insignificant that the group as a whole has an inter-
ing members from the harvest to limit exploitation est in conserving it. The practice of equity and co-
of the resource but rather on ensuring that the total operation on this landscape opens up its own
amount harvested by the group is sustainable. For particular possibilities for the accumulation and ap-
other resources of the area which are found more plication of ecological knowledge. Such Indigenous
evenly distributed throughout other regions of the Knowledge flows synergistically among the ‘users’
ancestral lands of Wabigoon people, some members of different ‘resources’. Such knowledge of these
of the group will access the landscape at different ‘resources’ reinforces an intense respect for the ‘re-
times. All of these livelihood interests in the loca- sources’ themselves. The flow of this knowledge has
tion must be kept in a consensual balance. Thus it customarily been so important to the affluence of
is, for example, that manomin must be left to draw these people that its accumulation and transmission
ducks for the fall hunt as well as to re-seed itself, is often accompanied with ‘ritual’ behaviours
Maracaibo
Caracas
VENEZUELA
1900 Maracaibo
Caracas
VENEZUELA
1983
COLOMBIA COLOMBIA
Bogota Bogota
LAGO LAGO
DE DE
MARACAIBO MARACAIBO
COLOMBIA COLOMBIA
VENEZUELA
O 50 O 50
Km Km
Source: Lizarralde and Beckerman (1982). Source: Lizarralde and Beckerman (1982).
Sabaseba laboured all hours to make the world flat, ‘Bam, bam, bam...’ As the people play... the spirit of
to do away with the overwhelming presence of the the dead Barí sees them, climbs down from the small
mountains. Then, tired of so much hard work, he rowboat and goes running towards the people. When
pulled up a pineapple to eat and broke it in half. In in the sky, an elder brother who has died first wel-
its heart there was a man, a woman and a baby Barí. comes his brother...
Sabaseba opened a great many pineapples, and The new Spirit-Brother told elder brother
from within them came men, women and children. Bashunchinba, ‘I’m hungry’, and was given a huge
Those that came from the purple pineapple were called plantain. It was enormous! Bashunchinba told him,
Ichigbari and those from the yellow were called Barí. ‘If you eat this you will have to live here’. When he
Sabaseba told them, ‘You will be Barí and will not saw some huge sugarcane he said, ‘If you really want
look at the faces of the Ichigbari. The Barí will walk to eat them you should cut them and come and live
on the ground while the Ichigbari will fly’. Then with me in the sky’. Then he cut the huge plantain
Sabaseba told the Barí to unite and build houses. and began to eat it.
Sabaseba means both ‘soft wind’ and ‘knowl- But one day the younger brother decided to cut
edge’. Pineapple in Barí is called ‘Nangandú’. It is the dry stem and tie up the roots to take them to the
one of the oldest plants in existence. The Ichigbari earth where his living brothers resided. As he was
have their farm land on top of the trees between the tying them up, Bashunchinba told him, ‘That is mine’.
land and the sky. The Taibabioyi were born out of The younger brother replied, ‘I am going to take this
rotten pineapples. They live in the water where they to my house from where you brought me’. The young
have their farm lands. Sabaseba made a flint axe, from Bashunchinba walked but did not fall. Everything was
the haft of which he made téchi bows and arrows. completely silent. But he kept on walking and the
Bashunchinba (Spirit God) protects the Barí sun darkened while he walked on. Another sun rose
from the Taibabióya with the Bikogdó: a rainbow. A and yet another. Then he began to perceive the earth
Bashunchinba is a Barí who has died physically but heard the footsteps of the Barí.
not spiritually. When they die, the Barí begin to have But he was not happy. The elder Bashunchinba
a great headache, and after death they go upwards to had already infected him with the smell of death. Peo-
Barún where they sit on the ground and wait. ple said to him, ‘Leave us in peace’. His sister whis-
Bashunchinba, who have died previously, begin to pered to him, ‘Your laughter will make you sleep, you
come to pick up the dead body. They place the dead will not be able to stay’. Then, he realized that
person in a small boat and play the drums loudly: Bashunchinba had already contaminated him and his
Plátano/Plane tree/Borogbá
Yuca/Yucca/Mashú
Piña (Anana)/Pineapple/Nagandú
Tabaco/Tobacco/Lo
Ají/Red pepper/ Coréra
C D Ñame/Yucca species/Ouá
B E Caña de azúcar/Sugar cane/Bagchibá
F
A Barbasco (plant used for fishing)
G
Algodón/Cotton/Kará
I H
skin had dried out; he was forced to return to the Then the little girl returned home. She brought
place where he had come from. a turtle for her parents and she brought them all kinds
When he came to earth, he had brought the few of meat: monkey, mountain pig and turtle. Even
seeds of spicy pepper, pineapple, plantain and sweet though the door of the farmhouse was shut, Dababosá
potato, and told his living brother to plant the roots, and the little girl entered without having to open it.
which he did. From the seed that Bashunchinba brought Dababosá showed the father the secret of curing
we cultivated farm lands and now we have equipment to wounds. If Dababosá stayed with the Barí, women
fish and hunt with. From the seed that Bashunchinba would not suffer while giving birth.
gave to the Barí, they were able to cultivate all the lands. Sabaseba had told Dababosá, ‘Teach them the
secrets of tobacco that can cure wounds’. When
Dababosá told the Barí, ‘You will learn ways to cure he had done so, Dababosá told the parents of the
yourselves’. They were surprised, but never forgot little girl, ‘I will not return again. I am going to
what Dababosá taught them. Thanks to him we are stay with Sabaseba’.
still curing the sick. From that time on, we have been This is true, because this is what wise men
able to protect ourselves so as not to die from illness. have taught us. This is biodiversity – ‘bobórayi’ in
Dababosá could take on the guise of a jaguar. Yet, the Barí language.
although he taught us much, we are now suffering
more than before. Still, we are saving the lives of our Acknowledgement
children with his teachings. The author is grateful to David Simon M.A., Latino-
Dababosá took young people and made them American Studies, for the translation of this con-
grow before returning them to their parents. One day tribution.
he took a little girl and brought her under the earth
to his cave where the sun rises. Then he left, turned
into a jaguar and spoke to the girl’s father. But he
could not understand Dababosá and shot him with an
arrow. Then Dababosá cured himself and returned to
the father, speaking in Barí, and taught him the se-
cret of how to cure people. He did this at night.
Songs and song texts do not necessarily reflect in According to Maori, the creation of all living things
a straightforward manner the ‘real’ world of actions on earth is a great epic love story, one in which
and daily life. People on Siberut have gone through Ranginui (Sky Father) and Papatuanuku (Earth
rapid processes of change including missionary work, Mother) sacrificed their deep love for each other and
large-scale logging, incorporation into a market separated, because in their earthly embrace they
economy, and, during the last few decades, ecotourism. were suffocating their children. Ranginui was pushed
To some extent these forces have affected their world- into the sky in order that their children could have
view, life-style and range of material possessions, in- air, light and space and be able to move freely and
cluding also their hunting devices. This has certainly grow between them. Their separation was a heart-
widened the gap between views and beliefs as expressed wrenching and violent one and it is recorded that
in rituals or texts of myths and songs on the one hand the children had to cut off the arms of Ranginui be-
and patterns of activities related to the environment cause he would not let go of Papatuanuku. The form
on the other. In other words, there may be symbolic of Papatuanuku is female with her head lying face
continuity in spite of ecological or economic change. down to the east, her legs to the west. When
The changes have also given rise to new songs Ranginui was finally positioned in the sky, where he
focusing on these modern elements. But the past remains today, the blood from his arms dripped down
has also taught that many of these changes come on to Papatuanuku, and hence the horu [red oxide of
and go without lasting effects. The material iron, used to paint houses, canoes and the face], and
wealth, for instance, which came after the gaharu the pukepoto [blue phosphate of iron] that his de-
boom (see below) in the late eighties, disappeared scendants use in painting.
within a few years. Basically people fell back on Initially, Papatuanuku faced upwards, to-
familiar ways and possessions. Traditional culture wards her husband, but such was the impact of
was repressed during some periods in the past but the sorrow of Papatuanku and Ranginui, that his
regained some of its strength once outside pres- tears throughout the day and night caused heavy
sure was released. To a certain extent these rain and snow storms, and her tears caused clouds
changes can be temporary, but they help to rede- and mists. Combined, they both muffled the light
fine, in their own manner, the relations between and stifled the air. Their children still could not
humans and between humans and nature. In that see and so Papatuanuku’s head was turned to face
respect it is important to note that the people of the ground away from the vision of Ranginui. This
Siberut themselves hang on to the symbolic expres- is why the inner earth still trembles with earth-
sions of biodiversity and its relevance for the world quakes.
of humans as well as for the spiritual world con- The seventy children of Ranginui and
tained in its ‘natural’ manifestation. Papatuanuku were all male and are the ancestors
that we still acknowledge today, such as Tanemahuta
[Gaharu is a highly valued non-timber forest prod- (god of the forests) and Tangaroa (god of the oceans).
uct. It is produced in the core wood of the Aquilaria Every living being, in its smallest microbial form, is
tree as a result of fungus infection. Gaharu is used descended from Ranginui and Paptuanuku. Far from
in the pharmaceutical industry in the Middle East. this being a vague notion, Maori genealogy
In the late eighties traders offered large sums of (whakapapa) is very detailed. Every species of ma-
money or products in kind to Mentawaians for this rine life, every plant and animal endemic to this re-
infected wood. Within a few years the supply was gion, can be traced back to Ranginui and
exhausted and the economic boom was over.] Papatuanuku. Maori traditional knowledge of both
Inés Hernández-Ávila
For the spirit of the bear cub stoned to death by Boy Scouts in Yosemite National Forest in the
summer of 1996.
Little one, I must sing for you
if not my throat will close in heartbreak
Each time I see your startled body receive the first blow
sadness wants to overtake me and leave me
almost surrendering to petrifying grief
As I imagine a moment to moment replay of the beating
that caused you to cross over into spirit
it is as if time has not passed
I hear your cries and I am helpless
My will cannot enter that moment to stand between you and the callously
irreverent and unconscious arms of death
My screams now cannot halt the stones that have already been thrown
As your life is wrenched from you,
your mother in the shadows of the trees
stands frozen in space beside her other little one
she cannot believe her eyes and goes deep inside herself
For several moments she holds back from shock
even when the pain of her vision reaches all the cells of her body
she still remains with your sister in fear
of the godless ones who have done this to you
Your sister cannot begin to fathom the vehement assault
Just a short time ago you were a strong Little Bear
walking with your mother and your sister
touching the earth touching you back with so much love
now your life on earth is gone
and you are spirit
Little Bear
I sing Grampa’s song for you
this song for the Ancient Ones,
the Oldest Bear Couple from the Beginning of Time
They are sleeping when I begin and as I sing they begin to wake
As the song calls them forward in time they are not as drowsy as before
Soon they are dancing to their own music and feeling pretty good
Suddenly, Little One, they see you in the distance
standing so forlorn and alone their hearts leap forward to you
It comes to them why they have been awakened
Grampa shows up, too, and he takes the lead in moving towards you
dancing a gentle grampa bear’s dance so you will not be afraid
Your little head is hanging down in sorrow
the hurt of your wounded spirit creating a path to you
Ranil Senanayake
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (ISABELLA MASINDE AND CARMEN TAVERA) ....................................................................... 121
The ties to the land ................................................................................................................. 121
The value of biodiversity ......................................................................................................... 122
Coping with change ............................................................................................................... 122
Spirituality and nature ............................................................................................................ 122
Man’s special relationships with plants and animals ................................................................. 123
Conservation of resources, beliefs and customary law .............................................................. 123
THE COLLECTION OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLE’S STATEMENTS
(JERRY MOLES AND RANIL SENANAYAKE) ............................................................................................... 124
VOICES OF THE EARTH ....................................................................................................................... 125
Henrietta Fourmile, Australia .................................................................................................. 125
Mick, Australia ...................................................................................................................... 126
Kathrimila Mulazana, Botswana ............................................................................................. 128
Pera, Botswana ...................................................................................................................... 129
Kipelelo Waker, Botswana ...................................................................................................... 130
Kaichela Dipera, Botswana ..................................................................................................... 131
Rekamani Mutupi, Botswana ................................................................................................... 132
Daniel Matenho Cabixi, Brazil ................................................................................................ 132
Gamaillie Kilukishak, Canada (translator Meeka Mike) ............................................................ 134
Juan Vargas, Rodolfo Mayorga, Carmen Leiva, Aníbal Morales, Gloria Moyorga,
Juanita Sánchez, Eustacia Palacios and Catalina Morales, Costa Rica ...................................... 135
Cristina Gualinga, Ecuador .................................................................................................... 136
Bolivar Beltrán, Piedad Cabascango, Raúl Tapuyo, Nancy Velas, Fredy Pianchiche,
Bayardo Lanchimba, Yessenia Gonzales and Melecio Santos, Mari Yagual, Consuelo Méndez,
Segundo Bautista, Maribel Guacapia, José Aapa, Ecuador ...................................................... 137
Moi Angulema, Ecuador ......................................................................................................... 143
Nina Pacari Vega, Ecuador .................................................................................................... 144
The Nuaulu People, Indonesia ................................................................................................. 146
Patrick Segundad, Malaysia ................................................................................................... 147
Eidengab, Nauru ................................................................................................................... 150
119
Aroha Te Pareake Mead, New Zealand ................................................................................... 150
Johan Mathis Turi, Norway ..................................................................................................... 152
Atentio López, Panamá .......................................................................................................... 153
Morea Veratua, Papua New Guinea ....................................................................................... 154
Michael Kapo, Papua New Guinea ......................................................................................... 156
Adolfo García Laulate, Silvia del Aguila Reina, David Vargas, Anastacio Lázaro
Milagro, Susana Dávila, Walter Gabriel Yanesha, Enrique Gonzales Miranda,
Walter Reiner Jipa, Glorioso Castro, Mario Sijo Sajami, David Camacho Paqui,
Justo Funachi Inuma, Giulianna Montalvo Espejo, Fidel Sánchez, Ciro Cosnilla Olivares,
Reyner Castro Martínez, Eliazar Muñoz, Guillermo Gómez, Elmer Guimaraes,
Leoncio García, Abel Alado Tello, Irma Castro de Salazar, Tomás Huaya Panduro,
Oswaldo Cairuna Fasaba, Hugo Ochavano Sanaciro, Zoila Canaquiri Bardales,
Juan Muñoz Mamani, Marcial Rodríguez Panduro, Teresa Elecputu, Policarpo Sánchez,
Emilio Agustín, Josue Faquin, Fidel Sinarahua, Delia Isuiza and Francisco Muñoz, Perú ............ 158
Moises O. Pindog, Omis Balin Hawang and Baliag Bugtong, Philippines .................................. 161
Ruth Lilongula, Solomon Islands .............................................................................................. 162
Mudianse Tenekoon, Sri Lanka ................................................................................................ 164
Siosiane Fanua Bloomfield, Tonga ........................................................................................... 165
Korosata To’o, Western Samoa ............................................................................................... 165
Reverend Asotasi Time, Western Samoa .................................................................................. 165
Evanson Nyamakao, Zimbabwe ............................................................................................. 165
Ralph Mogati, Zimbabwe ....................................................................................................... 166
Voices of the Earth
Ranil Senanayake
L. Jan Slikkerveer
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (L. JAN SLIKKERVEER) .................................................................................................... 169
Background ........................................................................................................................... 169
Cognitive anthropology, ethnoscience and TEK ........................................................................ 170
The dynamic context of knowledge systems interactions ............................................................ 171
Ethnomethodology and the ‘ethnosystems approach’ ................................................................ 172
Towards conservation of bio-cultural diversity .......................................................................... 174
ETHNOSCIENCE, ‘TEK’ AND CONSERVATION ........................................................................................... 177
On power and indigenous knowledge (Arun Agrawal) ............................................................ 177
Embeddedness of indigenous environmental knowledge
(Roy Ellen and Holly Harris) .................................................................................................... 180
Local community knowledge and practices
(Ashish Kothari and Priya Das) ............................................................................................... 185
Traditional knowledge, culturally-based world-views and Western science
(Raymond Pierotti and Daniel R. Wildcat) ................................................................................ 192
Are indigenous groups and local knowledge threatened in today’s world society?
(Maj-Lis Follér) ....................................................................................................................... 199
Indigenous resource management systems (Janis Alcorn) .......................................................... 203
Diversity and sustainability in community-based conservation
(Michel P. Pimbert and Jules N. Pretty) ..................................................................................... 206
Agriculture and cosmovision in the contemporary Andes: the nurturing of the seeds
(Tirso Gonzales, Nestor Chambi and Marcela Machaca) ......................................................... 211
Cosmovisions and agriculture in India (Prabha Mahale and Hay Sorée) .................................... 217
Cosmology and biodiversity of the Kasepuhan community in the
Mount Halimun area of West Java, Indonesia (Kusnaka Adimihardja) ...................................... 223
Collaborative environmental research with Kuku-Yalanji people in the
Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area, Australia
(Rosemary Hill and Dermot Smyth) .......................................................................................... 227
Enhancing protected area management through indigenous
involvement: the Uluru model (Julian Barry) ............................................................................. 232
Dryland plants and their uses
(Hew D. V. Prendergast, Stephen D. Davis and Michael Way) .................................................. 233
Termites, society and ecology: perspectives from West Africa
(James Fairhead and Melissa Leach) ....................................................................................... 235
Mirrors to humanity? Historical reflections on culture and social insects
(J. F. M. Clark) ....................................................................................................................... 242
Landscape perception and sensory emplacement (Terence Hay-Edie) ........................................ 246
Cities, nature and protected areas: a general introduction (Jeffrey A. McNeely) ........................ 249
Toward urban sustainability (Herbert Girardet) ........................................................................ 255
Towards a political ecology of biodiversity (Josep-Antoni Gari) ................................................ 258
167
TEXT BOXES
BOX 5.1: PEOPLE, LAND MANAGEMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL CHANGE (PLEC) (HAROLD BROOKFIELD)
BOX 5.2: PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF REVITALIZATION OF LCS
BOX 5.3: CASTE AND RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
BOX 5.4: ‘FOLK’ PRACTITIONERS AS INNOVATORS OF TRADITIONAL SCIENCE (A. V. BALASUBRAMANIAN AND K.
VIJAYALAKSHMI)
TABLE 5.1: THE MOST IMPORTANT ‘VISIBLE’ FORMS OR MODALITIES OF APPROACHING THE SEED.
TABLE 5.2: INCORPORATION OF THE NEW SEED INTO THE NEW QUISPILLACTAN FAMILY.
TABLE 5.3: MODALITIES OF STRENGTHENING THE DIVERSITY OF SEEDS IN CONIMA, PUNO.
Ethnoscience, ‘TEK’ and its Application to Conservation
L. Jan Slikkerveer
Harold Brookfield
PLEC is a project of the United Nations University (UNU), approved in 1997 by the Council of the
Global Environment Facility (GEF) for implementation under the GEF work-plan, with the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as ‘implementing agency’, and executed by UNU. The project,
initiated in a small way in 1992, has had a long preparatory phase during which a great deal of
targeted research has been undertaken on small farmers and their management of the environment.
PLEC brings together the guided work of five ‘clusters’ of scientists for common aims in the testing
and demonstration of good farmers’ practices in conservationist and sustainable resource manage-
ment. There is particular emphasis on conservation of biodiversity, including crop biodiversity. Diver-
sity in resource management practices, crop biodiversity, and the dynamism of change in farmers’
adaptations, together define the ‘agrodiversity’ which is central to PLEC work (Brookfield and Padoch
1994).
The ‘clusters’ are in West Africa (Ghana and Guinea), East Africa (Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania),
China (Yunnan province), Papua New Guinea and Brazilian Amazonia. There are associated groups,
outside the ambit of the GEF project but within UNU/PLEC, in Thailand, Mexico, Jamaica and Peru.
Each contains experienced as well as more junior scientists, and students. All groups are
multidisciplinary, with both natural and social scientists working together. The core of PLEC work
lies in its ‘demonstration sites’, where scientists learn from farmers, and facilitate the demonstration
to others of successful techniques developed by the best farmers. The demonstration sites belong to
the rural people, and the work done in them is the farmers’ own. The scientists’ role is to measure and
evaluate what they do, help select what is best and most likely to be sustainable, and get behind the
farmers’ own experimentation. Demonstration sites have already been set up in Ghana, China and
Amazonia, and are being formed in other areas. In those already in operation, co-operating farmers
have been identified, and plots have been set up for measurement and experiment.
PLEC places its primary emphasis on what farmers do. The local knowledge that underlies their
practices is unequally distributed among farmers of both sexes and is not always shared. Moreover, it
cannot be understood outside the social and cultural context in which knowledge is handed on, and in
which new information and experience are interpreted. Scientists’ interpretations of information they
gather on local knowledge have to be drawn up in relation to the farmers’ own perceptions, best first
approached through close observation of the practices that are followed. PLEC views ‘local knowl-
edge’ not as a fixed or traditional pool, but as constantly changing, being renewed by information and
experience, and tested by ongoing experiment. This in turn is the basis of dynamism in peoples’
farming systems on which PLEC relies for success in extracting best elements from peoples’ own
resource management practices.
Each cluster has its special strengths. The analysis of biodiversity in an agricultural context is strongly
developed in Yunnan (China), West Africa (Ghana, Guinea) and Amazonia (Brazil). The Papua New
Guinea group has gone further than others in the quantitative analysis and mapping of agricultural
systems using diagnostic characteristics. The East African cluster has particular strength in the dy-
namics of soil and water conservation in diverse and sensitive environments. Promotion of South–
South interchange across the network is one important strategy by which to share expertise.
North–South networking in support of clusters’ attainment of their objectives relies on the three
Scientific Co-ordinators who keep in close touch with clusters, and on Scientific Advisors appointed
on limited-term contracts to provide particular expertise in areas such as, for example, biodiversity
measurement, soil-degradation assessment, GIS applications, or experimental method. The Co-
ordinators visit clusters from time to time, and Scientific Advisors will be specifically charged with
missions to particular clusters. Networking has also been achieved by correspondence, and by re-
gional and general meetings held in the period 1993–1997 in West and East Africa, Southeast Asia
and Amazonia. The project periodical PLEC News and Views, a newsletter with substantive articles, is
of major importance, being made available to all PLEC members as well as being a vehicle for wider
information to interested parties. Eight issues have been published on an approximately half-year
schedule, and PLEC News and Views now has distribution of 400 copies.
The method used in a demonstration site varies in detail from country to country. Often, it begins with
a joint inventory of resources and their uses, and goes on through participatory appraisals (using both
formal and informal methods) of participatory re-structuring of land use, which includes conservation
of threatened natural or quasi-natural areas. Along the way are biodiversity inventories and soil sur-
veys, and determinations of the problems faced by farmers which constrain their freedom of decision.
Operationally, the joint team of farmers and scientists then experiments with tried crops and methods,
and introduces innovations. Scientific observation, monitoring and measurement of outcomes are con-
tinuous; technical help is provided on demand. Later, the participatory approach is popularized among
other communities, and demonstrated to officials and policy-makers. Finally, GIS and field methods
are used to find areas in which similar solutions can be adopted.
A guiding principle in the choice of methodology is the use of short-cut methods that will achieve
reliable results without serious loss of scientific rigour. A simple method of rapid diversity measure-
ment for small areas within a landscape framework is one such technique (Zarin 1995). Another is the
use of ‘participatory environmental monitoring’ in which particular indicators, selected by both obser-
vation and enquiry, are used to build up a reliable general view of trends that can be used as it stands
or form the basis for more detailed inquiry into local knowledge about the environment and its proc-
esses. Not all PLEC work can be done by rapid methods. Monitoring in the demonstration sites has to
be illuminated by the sort of understanding that can only be gained through time. Long-resident work
in village communities is mainly carried out by students who are simultaneously being trained, or by
assistants employed locally. It is an essential complement to the reconnaissance methods, and briefer
visits by the scientists. Moreover, experimental work measuring the utility of farmers’ methods re-
quires a long period. It can be initiated within the life of PLEC, and indicative results can be obtained,
but it is so structured in collaboration with the farmers and the agricultural authorities that it can be
sustained beyond project life.
Farmers have to cope with many problems, in economic, political and environmental fields, and also
respond to new opportunities. Experimentation is constant, leading to adoption or rejection of new
crops and practices, and to restructuring of the use of ‘farming space’ in response to changing needs
and opportunities. Where they are faced with declining rewards for their efforts, farmers often experi-
ment with ways to manage its consequences and reverse the trend. PLEC is a practical programme in
support of farmers’ own goals, but it also aims to inform policy. Farmers’ adaptations to environmen-
tal and socio-economic change can often be successful if the conditions of wider society permit free-
dom and provide encouragement, but the real conditions of farmers’ decision-making are often poorly
understood. Recent work in several regions of the world has shown that prevailing conclusions about
environmental change and its causes rest on incorrect assumptions, even about the direction of envi-
ronmental change itself. Policy interventions are very likely to miss the mark if trends and causation
are not firmly established.
resource, cultural and intellectual property rights are Gonzales, Nestor Chambi and Marcela Machaca de-
secured. Janice Alcorn also emphasizes the signifi- scribe in this context the central role of the seed in
cance of such collaboration for improved Indigenous the cosmovision in contemporary Andean agriculture,
Resource Management Systems (IRMS), based on a while Kusnaka Adimihardja provides an account of
case study on collaboration among various castes in the Sundanese cosmology in traditional agriculture
Kanataka (India). in West Java (Indonesia). Cosmovisions prevalent in
The crucial role of cosmology and world-view the ‘Great Tradition’ and ‘Little Tradition’ of India
in the use and management of resources is further are documented by Mahale and Soree, who conclude
demonstrated in different settings. So, Raymond that traditional and modern knowledge systems can
Pierotti and Daniel Wildcat compare and analyse be integrated for sustainable management and con-
local beliefs about the close relationship with na- servation.
ture among the indigenous peoples in North America Michel Pimbert and Jules Pretty pay special
as opposed to the concepts of the environment of attention to the great potential of community-based
Western European immigrants. Terence Hay-Edie TEK for conservation, arguing that decentralized
demonstrates that local landscape perception and local systems are critical to successful conservation
sensory emplacement are important factors to be policies. Ashish Kothari and Priya Das show that
included in decision-making for environmental strat- Western science and resource use have eroded most
egies. The role of local belief systems in the man- local knowledge systems in India, as in the rest of
agement of resources is an important issue, and Tirso the world. They describe a number of efforts that
ate
Ha
sas. It is the ‘offering to the earth’, according to the
d•
•
COMMUNITIES OF
principle of reciprocity. Good labour in the chacra,
Variable
THE SALLQA
Sacred
responsible and dedicated, is another way to feed
* * the earth, ‘nurturing chacra’ and producing the fer-
CHACRA tility of the earth.’
COM HE HUA
RUN OF
THE NITIES
MU
T
tia l
The ayllu is a kinship group, but it is not re-
Dive
AS
NIT AS
MU
IES
COM
OF
ta n
of the local pacha (local landscape) (cf. Grillo 1993,
rse
• Beyond the family circle or groups of collective work within the ayllu: communal assemblies.
• Ruykay (barter/trueque)
• Haymay (to help later)
• Yanapakuy (to co-operate)
• Llankin (‘gift’)
TABLE 5.2: INCORPORATION OF THE NEW SEED INTO THE NEW QUISPILLACTAN FAMILY.
YEARS OF BECOMING ACCUSTOMED
1ST YEAR 2ND YEAR 3RD YEAR 4TH YEAR 5TH YEAR
Approaching 1st Agricultural Season 2nd Agricultural Season 3rd Agricultural Season 4th Agricultural Season
GARDEN SOIL TRIAL WEATHER TRIAL INCORPORATION
Special plot In the same ecological niche In different ecological niches In different plots
The Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (CIKS) has compared the practices and knowledge of
farmers in the North Arcot district in Tamil Nadu with traditional Indian knowledge as described
in classical texts of the Vedas. The cosmovision of the farmers is described from the celebration
of festivals as they show the awareness of the relationship of the people to various forces of
nature. For farmers there is a special relationship with water which is the very basis of agricul-
ture. Before the commencement of any agricultural practice, they worship their implements and
also the field. Worship is done by offering sacred water, incense, lighting of the lamp and worship
of the Mother Earth: the Mother Earth being the bestower of all wealth, who is the mother of all
creatures in this world, and who brings happiness and prosperity. After offering prayers and
doing pradakshina to the field, keeping the field always to one’s right side, one should also wor-
ship the Sun God, Wind God and other gods.
A very important feature of our traditional Indian science and technology is that its knowledge,
theories and principles are not meant to be reposed in a small number of experts, institutions or
texts, but are also found with the day-to-day practitioners of the arts and sciences. The ‘folk’
practitioners are also equally the innovators in the frontiers of their discipline, and the theories
and technical categories belong to their domain as well. If we consider, for example, a highly
developed branch of Indian science such as medicine, the basic theories at its foundation – such
as the Panchabhuta theory of matter and the Tridosha theory of causation of disease and its treat-
ment – are part of the common knowledge of our people, and a number of technical terms, such as
vata, pitta, kapha, agni, rasa, ushnna, sheeta, veerya etc. are all part of the vocabulary of our house-
holds. The expert, or specialist, seems to play a very different kind of role here, namely that of
systematizing the corpus of knowledge.
The major change due to the interaction of indigenous practices with outside sources of knowledge
has been attributed to the Green Revolution, leading to a dramatic decrease in biodiversity. High-
yielding varieties are central to this approach. Yet, biodiversity and sustainability debates have led to
a rethinking of the value of traditional agriculture. It has been shown that several traditional varieties
are being preserved by farmers which fare well on marginal lands, assuring farmers at least food
security for one year. Several initiatives can be envisaged to assist farmers in maintaining their iden-
tity and strengthening their traditional scientific knowledge:
• use of natural products for pest control and crop protection (provision of information, work-
shops, assessment of the efficacy of use and survey of farmers’ knowledge and innovations);
• set up of rural gene banks for traditional paddy varieties (collections, making a selection of
seeds available, maintaining specific varieties in small plots, and providing natural pesticides to
farmers);
• the publication of a panchangam (‘almanac’) for farmers containing auspicious and inauspicious
dates for various agricultural activities; indications of rains and methods of forecasting; omens,
proverbs, day-to-day entries.
Farmers reported that they consult the Panchangam, at least for critical operations. They are read by
the local astrologer, while the impetus to use them comes from the women. They offered a number of
suggestions to improve the Panchangam, such as: including addresses of farmers practising organic
agriculture, and listing available literature; methods for detecting ground water; traditional varieties
of cattle; fairs and festivals in the region; and advice for agricultural operations, depending on the
birth star of the farmer.
In addition to their uses for food and hides, animals have many other traditional uses. In dryland
areas in Nigeria, Adeola (1992) found that wildlife products had important roles in cultural ceremo-
nies (e.g. funerals and installation of rulers), the performance of traditional rites (e.g. invoking and
appeasing traditional gods and witches), and as constituents in traditional medicines or for aphro-
disiac, fertility or potency purposes. Animals used included large game, rodents, reptiles, birds and a
mollusc, the African giant snail.
Like plants, (cf. Box 5.6) animals have an important role as indicators of the seasons. On the Logone
River in Cameroon, the floodplain fishing season starts after the waters have risen in the annual
flood. The timing of the ritual moutwak opening ceremony depends on the arrival of a particular fish
species called hiya (Alestes nurse) (Drijver et al. 1995).
In drylands the arrival of rain at the end of the dry season is a long-awaited event. Many species are
used to predict the arrival of coming rain (Niamir 1990). In western Kenya people use frogs, birds and
white ants as indicators. In north-east Tanzania, changes in the patterns of behaviour of birds, insects
and mammals are important signals. The Ariaal of Kenya cite several indicators of rain including the
appearance and singing of several birds, the movement of safari ants, frogs calling, and changes in
the texture of termite mounds (Clarfield 1996). The Turkana of Kenya say that several birds (ground
hornbill, green wood hoopoe, spotted eagle owl and nightjar) and frogs are prophets of rain.
Attitudes to wildlife are often far from positive; for agriculturists many animals represent a threat to
their precious crops, while to herders other species represent a threat to their stock. Many ‘bio-
sphere’ people (Gadgil 1993a) are in direct competition with wild animals for food. Clarfield (1996)
reports that among the Ariaal of Kenya, animals were predominantly classified according to their
threat to livestock (predators) or their danger to people (mainly lions, snakes and buffalo).
[Biological Diversity in the Dry Lands of the World. 1994. Secretariat, UN Convention to Combat Desertification
in countries experiencing serious drought and/or desertification, particularly in Africa.]
the duration of sunshine is 5 to 15 percent less than colonization and habitat diversity.
in the rural surroundings; annual mean temperature In short, urban habitats are highly diverse and
is 1˚C–2˚C more; the annual mean wind speed is 10 help contribute to the world’s biodiversity. They
to 20 percent less; relative humidity is 2 percent less should be considered as part of national strategies
in winter and 8-10 percent less in summer; precipi- and action plans for conserving biodiversity, as called
tation is 5 to 30 percent more; cloud cover is 5 to 10 for in the Convention on Biological Diversity (which
percent more and fog is as much as 100 percent more; was signed by 157 countries at the Earth Summit in
and condensation nuclei are 10 times more. These 1992, entered into force at the end of 1993, and has
climatic conditions often support a rich diversity of now been ratified by nearly 120 countries).
species, of a mix that is quite different from that of
the countryside. Biodiversity in cities: which species survive?
Middleton (1994) points out that in Canada the Urban metropolises are burgeoning, crowded, over-
greatest diversity of organisms in cities is found in stressed habitats with little room for nature. Or so it
the ravines, stream valleys, abandoned industrial seems at first glance. Hidden within the maze of con-
sites, rail lines, waterfronts and other derelict or crete, steel, plastic and thatch, however, a surpris-
undeveloped areas that form a significant proportion ing amount of wildlife still survives. Pigeons, swifts
of the land area of most Canadian cities. Stanley Park and kestrels fond of rocky crags are at home in a
in Vancouver and Mount Royal in Montreal contain forest of man-made crags, as are black rats, house
substantial remnants of the original ecosystems, and mice, and shrews in man-made burrows, where they
the Lesley Street Spit in Toronto harbour – a four- feast on the detritus of human society. One of the
kilometre artificial peninsula made from construc- reasons that cities can support relatively high num-
tion debris – was home to 150 species of plants and bers of species is that they provide a mosaic of dif-
was visited by 150 species of birds within 20 years ferent types of habitats, ranging from skyscrapers
of the start of construction, all within a few kilome- to gardens to forests and fields. In a few cases, ur-
tres of the centre of Canada’s largest city. Gemmell ban populations of certain wildlife species can be a
(1980) found that industrial habitats are of signifi- significant factor in their survival. For example, a
cant botanical importance in Northwest England. small lake in the centre of Hanoi in Vietnam har-
They include several types of calcareous waste, no- bours the only surviving population of the giant fresh-
table for their orchid-rich calcicolous floras and the water turtle (Pelochelys bibronii) (Quy 1995).
presence of uncommon species. Pulverized fuel ash In Canada, the corridor stretching from Que-
and habitats created by industrial excavations such bec City to Windsor includes both Toronto and Mon-
as clay pits are also important for some species. He treal, forming a large urban system of around 34,000
concludes that industrial habitats are valuable for square kilometres. This region coincides with Cana-
the conservation of uncommon species, research and da’s deciduous forest zone, one of the most species-
education, but new habitats need to be created from rich in Canada; it is now home to almost half of
industrial workings, using techniques to encourage Canada’s threatened or endangered species. One of
Gerard Bodeker
CONTENTS
TRADITIONAL HEALTH SYSTEMS (GERARD BODEKER) .................................................................................. 263
THE SPIRITUAL DIMENSION OF MEDICINAL PLANTS IN THE VEDIC TRADITION OF INDIA
(DARSHAN SHANKAR) ........................................................................................................................ 267
TRADITIONAL KNOWLEDGE, CULTURE AND RESOURCE RIGHTS: THE CASE OF TULASI
(BHANUMATHI NATARAJAN) ................................................................................................................ 268
TRADITIONAL HEALTH CARE IN NATIVE CANADIAN COMMUNITIES
(JEAN GOODWILL) ............................................................................................................................ 270
LEARNING TO CONNECT SPIRIT, MIND, BODY AND HEART TO THE ENVIRONMENT: A HEALER’S PERSPECTIVE
(LEA BILL – RIPPLING WATER WOMAN) ................................................................................................... 272
GENERAL OVERVIEW OF MAYA ETHNOMEDICINE
(ELOIS ANN BERLIN AND BRENT BERLIN) ................................................................................................. 273
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL STUDIES AND BIOLOGICAL CONSERVATION IN BELIZE: VALUATION STUDIES
(MICHAEL J. BALICK, ROSITA ARVIGO, GREGORY SHROPSHIRE AND ROBERT MENDELSOHN) ............................... 275
‘VEGETALISMO’ AND THE PERCEPTION OF BIODIVERSITY: SHAMANIC VALUES
IN THE PERUVIAN UPPER AMAZON
(FRANCOISE BARBIRA-FREEDMAN) ........................................................................................................ 277
‘FOOD’ AND ‘DRUGS’ IN NORTH-WEST AMAZONIA
(STEPHEN HUGH-JONES) ..................................................................................................................... 278
THE ROLE OF FOOD IN THE THERAPEUTICS OF THE AKA PYGMIES OF THE CENTRAL AFRICAN REPUBLIC
(ELIZABETH MOTTE-FLORAC, SERGE BAHUCHET AND JACQUELINE M. C. THOMAS) ........................................... 280
SYMBOLS AND SELECTIVITY IN TRADITIONAL AFRICAN MEDICINE
(MAURICE MMADUAKOLAM IWU) ......................................................................................................... 282
261
TEXT BOXES
BOX 6.1: BUMETHA RUKARARWE: INTEGRATING MODERN AND TRADITIONAL HEALTH CARE IN SOUTH-WEST
UGANDA (OLIVE TUMWESIGYE)
BOX 6.2: THE CHIANG MAI DECLARATION: SAVING LIVES BY SAVING PLANTS
BOX 6.3: THE ARUSHA DECLARATION
BOX 6.4: SPIRIT, STORY AND MEDICINE: SACHAMAMA – AN EXAMPLE OF THE ANCIENT BEINGS OF THE AMAZON
RAINFOREST (FRANCISCO MONTES, TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY KATHLEEN HARRISON)
BOX 6.5: AUSTRALIAN POEMS: BILL NEIDJIE, WITH S. DAVIS AND A. FOX, AND ABORIGINAL SONG FROM THE
OENPELLI REGION
FIGURES
FIGURE 6.1: A WOMAN WORSHIPPING TULASI EARLY IN THE MORNING IN THE CITY OF MADRAS, TAMIL NADU,
INDIA. (PHOTOGRAPH: BHANUMATHI NATARAJAN)
Valuing Biodiversity for Human Health and Well-being:
Traditional Health Systems
Gerard Bodeker
Traditional health systems and his or her inner and outer environment (Bodeker
(Gerard Bodeker) 1996).
Speaking in Caracas in 1995, at the South and
The understanding and use of biodiversity as a means Central American Regional Meeting of the Global Ini-
of sustaining human health and well-being in non- tiative For Traditional Systems (GIFTS) of Health,
Western societies reflects a cultural, and often spir- Dr F. Pocaterra, a Western-trained medical doctor
itual, appreciation of both the biological environment from the Wuayuu people, put it this way: ‘Traditional
and the deeper forces perceived to influence it. Tra- Wuayuu medicine, as that of other indigenous peo-
ditional health systems extend to an appreciation of ples of the continent, and other great cultures like
both the material and non-material properties of India and China, is based on universal laws that can
plants, animals and minerals. Here, the term ‘sys- be divided into three categories: the divine or super-
tems’ is used to reflect the organized pattern of natural, the human, and the earthly. The Wuayuu
thought and practice – diagnostic, clinical and phar- people are animist. We attribute life to all things –
macological – that shapes and maintains most bod- to the flora, the fauna, to natural phenomena, to
ies of traditional health knowledge. These are water and to mountains. We mystify our relation-
systems of knowledge that include concepts of both ship with nature and the superior entities, as it is a
the sacred and the empirical; frameworks for under- material culture, with spiritual symbolism, in which
standing health and healing; assumptions of cosmos magical–religious rituals are transcendental. For the
and causality, and taxonomies which address a per- Wuayuu, everything has a soul, everything has a life,
ceived order in nature. They range from the cosmo- a spirit. Everything is eternal.’ (Pocaterra 1995).
logical to the particular in addressing the Native American communities incorporate tra-
physiological make-up of individuals, their commu- ditional forms of treatment into the US Indian Health
nities, and the specific categories of materia medica Service (IHS) alcohol rehabilitation programmes. In
– plants, animals and minerals – used for therapeu- a study of 190 IHS contract programmes it was found
tic purposes to enhance health and well-being. Food that 50 percent of these offered a traditional sweat
and medicine may not be separated into discrete lodge or encouraged its use. Treatment outcomes
categories. were found to be better for alcoholic patients when
From early palaeontological records it is possi- a sweat lodge was available. In addition, the pres-
ble to see that plants and animals were used in the ence of medicine-men or healers, when used in com-
past for both medicinal and ritual purposes. Indeed, bination with the sweat lodge, greatly improved the
it is likely that healing practices synthesized both outcome (Hall 1986).
spiritual and medicinal modalities. In the late twen- In the Vedic tradition of India, the source from
tieth century, the World Health Organization esti- which the Ayurvedic medical system derives (Ayur
mates that around 80 percent of the population of = life, Veda = knowledge), consciousness is consid-
most non-industrial countries still relies on tradi- ered the basis of all material existence. ‘The infinite
tional forms of medicine for everyday health care consciousness alone is the reality, ever awake and
(WHO 1993). enlightened...’; ‘... wind comes into being, though
A fundamental concept in traditional health that wind is nothing but pure consciousness.’ ‘Within
systems is that of balance: between mind and body, the atomic space of consciousness there exist all the
between different dimensions of individual bodily experiences, even as within a drop of honey there
functioning and need, between individual and com- are the subtle essences of flowers, leaves and fruits.’;
munity, individual/community and environment, and ‘... even what is inert is pure consciousness...’; ‘It is
individual and the universe. The breaking of this in- pure consciousness alone that appears as this earth.’
terconnectedness of life is a fundamental source of (Venkatesananda (trans.) 1984.)
dis-ease, which can progress to stages of illness and Within this framework, consciousness is of pri-
epidemic. Treatments, therefore, are designed not mary significance and matter is deemed secondary.
only to address the locus of the disease but also to Accordingly, pure forms of Ayurvedic medical treat-
restore a state of systemic balance to the individual ment will first address the spiritual and mental state
biodiversity and its benefit to human health is less percent of its medicinal plants from uncultivated
well understood and is valued less as a result (Motte- sources.
Florac et al. 1993). Herbalists world-wide are concerned about the
The ancient Ayurvedic text Caraka Samhita growing scarcity of medicinal plants. Michael Balick
states that ‘The best of the mountains, the Himala- and colleagues draw attention to this in their contri-
yas, are the excellent habitat of medicinal plants. bution. Balick, with Paul Cox, has reported that in
Therefore, fruits of haritaki (Terminalia chebula) and 1940 the Belize healer Don Elijio Panti had to walk
amalaki (Emblica officinalis) which grow on the moun- only ten minutes to collect medicinal plants. By 1988,
tain range, should be collected in the proper season, Don Elijio had to walk seventy-five minutes to reach
when they are matured and rich with manifested adequate sites (Balick and Cox 1996). Balick et al.
rasas and potency by following the prescribed proce- note in this chapter that it seems likely that the value
dure. These fruits should have been mellowed by the of tropical forest for the harvest of non-timber for-
sun ray, wind shade and water and un-nibbled at by est products will increase relative to other land uses
birds, unspoiled and unafflicted with cuts and dis- over time, as these forests become more scarce. The
eases.’ (Caraka Samhita, p. 15, Vol. III.) Chiang Mai Declaration of 1988 (Box 6.2), called a
Today, the Himalayas are in danger of losing global alert to the critical situation with regard to
their medicinal plant biodiversity. India, which re- loss of medicinal plants through over-harvesting and
portedly harvests 90 percent of its medicinal plants habitat destruction (Akerele et al. 1991).
from uncultivated sources, exports tens of thousands In Africa, which has the highest rate of urbani-
of medicinal plants a year and is one of the main zation in the world, the larger the urban settlement,
suppliers of the European herbal market. China, the larger the traditional medicine markets tend to
which uses/exports four times the volume of medici- be. To meet the demand from urban communities,
nal plants used by India (Lange 1996), gathers 80 traditional medical practitioners must resort to
We, the health professionals and plant conservation specialists who have come together for the first
time at the WHO/IUCN/WWF International Consultation on Conservation of Medicinal Plants, held in
Chiang Mai, 21-26 March 1988, do hereby reaffirm our commitment to the collective goal of “Health
for All by the Year 2000” through the primary health care approach, and to the principles of conserva-
tion and sustainable development outlined in the World Conservation Strategy.
We:
Recognize that medicinal plants are essential in primary health care, both in self-medication and in
national health services.
Are alarmed at the consequences of loss of plant biodiversity around the world.
View with grave concern the fact that many of the plants that provide traditional and modern drugs
are threatened.
Draw the attention of the United Nations, its agencies and Member States, other international agen-
cies and their members, and non-governmental organizations to:
• the vital importance of medicinal plants in health care;
• the increasing and unacceptable loss of these medicinal plants due to habitat destruction and
unsustainable harvesting practices;
• the fact that plant resources in one country are often of critical importance to other countries;
• the significant economic value of the medicinal plants used today and the great potential of the
plant kingdom to provide new drugs;
• the continuing disruption and loss of indigenous cultures, which often hold the key to finding
new medicinal plants that may benefit the global community;
• the urgent need for international co-operation and co-ordination to establish programmes for
conservation of medicinal plants to ensure that adequate quantities are available for future gen-
erations.
We, the members of the Chiang Mai International Consultation, hereby call on all people to commit
themselves to Save The Plants That Save Lives.
Chiang Mai, Thailand, 26 March 1988
Source: Akerele, O., Heywood, V. and Synge, H. (eds) (1991) The Conservation of Medicinal Plants.
Cambridge University Press.
commercial sellers, who are at the end of a chain issued from a WHO-sponsored meeting held in Arusha,
which starts with the large-scale gathering of me- Tanzania. The Arusha Declaration called on national
dicinal plants from wild sources. This harvesting and international organizations to seriously address the
occurs on a scale that is far greater than the sus- role of medicinal plants and traditional medicine serv-
tainable levels that were the case when local practi- ices in providing important health care to the majority
tioners gathered herbs in their area for use in local of the population in Africa (Box 6.3).
health care. Consequently, ‘the supply of plants for Spirituality may be inseparable from empirical
traditional medicine is failing to satisfy demand’ validity, as reflected in the ancient Vedic text the
(Cunningham, UNESCO, 1993). Shrimad Bhagavatam: ‘The sun is the soul of the dei-
As Shankar highlights in his contribution, in- ties, men, beasts, reptiles, creepers, and seeds...’ (Rishi
telligent use of medicinal plants and a generational Sukadeva, XXII, p. 508-9; Shrimad Bhagavatam 1988).
perspective on sustainability are needed to ensure their Maurice Iwu’s contribution, for example, draws at-
role in sustaining the health of the nation. Such think- tention to the symbolic and spiritual values of me-
ing is reflected in the Arusha Declaration of 1991, dicinal plants in traditional African medicine.
Indigenous perspectives offer new directions in cannot exist without spirit. According to the
planning for medicinal plant biodiversity conserva- Samkhya philosophical school there are two aspects
tion. Where a spiritual approach to healing guides of creation. The manifest (Prakrti) which is expressed
the therapeutic use of medicinal plants and other in the form of a matter-spirit combination and the
forest biodiversity, high value is placed on the life of unmanifest (Purusa) which is formless. It is the
the forest (see contributions by Montes and Harrison, grosser expression of matter (Prakrti) that is usu-
and by Barbira-Freedman). Some traditions, such as ally appreciated through sensory perception but the
those of the Native North American indigenous peo- spiritual expression in matter lies beyond normal
ples (see contributions by Goodwill and by Bill) con- sensory perception. Consciousness is the name given
sider themselves being called to serve as guides to to the spiritual expression in nature. In addition to
the spiritual meaning of balance and the capacity of the material world known to physicists, chemists,
the environment to heal or harm human life accord- botanists and geologists, there is this spiritual world.
ing to its condition. The two worlds are in fact not seen to be separate
Honouring and using, revering and understand- but, rather, interconnected. The spiritual world is
ing, harvesting and conserving – these may not rep- the subtler dimension of what appears to the normal
resent the polarities that they appear to be. Their senses to be purely a material world. The manifest
co-existence in indigenous relationships with medici- world is phenomenal and ever-changing. When one
nal plants may be more than the tolerance of incon- orients one’s mind and senses inwards the subtle
sistency or the capacity to live with paradox. Rather, states of existence can be seen and experienced.
it may express an appreciation for deeper levels of Padarath Vijnan, ‘knowledge of that which exists’,
unification in life, where paradox is seen more as deals with this spiritual–material world-view.
the reflection of a superficial or fragmented percep- Thus spiritual dimensions of medicinal plants
tion than as an accurate rendition of a meaningless are implicit in their existence. The Cakrapani com-
universe. It is this dimension of traditional health mentary of the Carakasamhita, an Ayurvedic treatise
knowledge that is recognized when cultural and spir- of 500BC, refers to consciousness in plants. This
itual values are called on in the assessment of bio- consciousness is reflected in the morphology and
diversity. biological properties of the plant, but the properties of
the plant can be significantly enhanced if one knows
The spiritual dimensions of medicinal how to access its spiritual state. To the traditional mind
plants in the Vedic tradition of India the subtler spiritual properties are as real and certainly
(Darshan Shankar) more powerful than the gross properties.
In local health traditions, collectors of plants
Ayurveda (Ayur = life; Veda = knowledge) has evolved worship plants and pray to them before collecting
from a profound cultural and philosophical perspec- them. The real intention here is to recognize and
tive that is also shared by other Indian Sastras, or acknowledge the spiritual properties of the plant. A
branches of Vedic literature. In this perspective the plant when processed both spiritually and materi-
world is conceived in terms of matter and spirit which ally becomes more potent. Preparation and adminis-
exist in conjunction. The spiritual dimension there- tration of herbal medicines entails use of mantras to
fore is intrinsic in every material form, and matter enhance the efficacy of the drug.
When we speak of la Sachamama, we usually refer to a gigantic boa, a serpent of the forest. This boa
is forty metres long, with a diameter of two metres. The head has a form similar to that of the reptile
called an iguana. Sachamama possesses magnetic power that can pull to her whatever type of animal
or person that passes in front of her head. This boa is incapable of moving to either side, due to its
gigantic size, and also because it is covered with trees, herbs, bushes and lianas. I am telling you that
upon this giant boa grow trees.
We know very well that all the plants, trees, bushes and vines that grow on top of la Sachamama are
healing plants, with strong curative powers. These plants that grow on la Sachamama have special
qualities, their own unique curative powers, different than the plants that grow elsewhere. The fol-
lowing are some examples.
• Puma sanango, used to cure witchcraft and the effects of sorcery (brujeria or hechizos). For this
one uses the cooked root. The genie or spirit (el genio) of the puma sanango is an enormous fierce
jaguar.
• Puma huasca, a liana with properties to cure brujeria (sorcery) or hechizos (spells). One takes the
cooked stem of the vine. This liana teaches one to be a very good curandero (curer). Its genio is the
yana puma, or black jaguar, a very fierce animal. All these animals have magnetic powers like la
Sachamama. This is because they grow right out of la Sachamama; it is she that gives them the power
to pull or attract.
• Zorrapilla or shapumbilla, a small herbaceous plant which we have introduced into our garden, El
Jardín Sachamama. The curing property of this herb is that it heals cuts or whatever kind of injury.
• Boa huasca is a liana that also grows upon la Sachamama. The resin of this plant has healing
qualities.
• Lluasca huasca is a vine that has a resin resembling phlegm. With this vine the indigenas (natives)
cure blemishes on the face.
Sometimes there also grows there a gigantic tree, very difficult to find in the forest. The name of this
tree is trueno caspi or rayo caspi, also called lluvia caspi. This tree is known by all three names: ‘thun-
der tree’, ‘lightning tree’ or ‘rain tree’. The curandero takes in his diet the cooked bark of this tree to
learn; then this man is capable of causing thunder, lightning and rain, but is also able to stop the rain
or silence the thunder. The man that eats of this tree is very dreaded, and nobody messes with him.
The spirits of the trueno caspi are dedicated to controlling the rain, thunder and lightning, because
together these are the forces of la Sachamama. You may see by all this that la Sachamama has many
relationships with plants and people. Because in reality the spirit of la Sachamama is connected to the
spirits of the plants, you yourself may see and believe the effects of these plants that I describe.
5. ‘Contaminacion de la
Amazonia’ (Pollution of the
Amazon). Indigenous
federations in Ecuador’s
Amazon basin have been
struggling for years to
limit oil exploration and
development in their
traditional lands. Texaco’s
activities in the last decade
caused serious
environmental pollution
which affected both human
and animal populations
and dramatically disrupted
the harmony and care that
characterize the
relationship between
indigenous people and
nature. (From Tigua,
Ecuador. Artist: Gustavo
Toaquiza. Photo/caption
courtesy of Jean Colvin.)
10. Indigenous farmers from Yauri, Cuzco, in 11. Quechua Indians from a community near
Peru, tending a potato “chacra” with a Cuzco, Peru, doing communal work.
unique tool designed by them. (Photograph: Tirso Gonzales: see Chapter 5.)
(Photograph: Ramiro Ortega: see
Chapter 5.)
13. A proud
indigenous
woman from
Chivay,
Arequipa, in
Peru,
exhibiting at a
local Seed Fair
the outcome of
nurturing
various types
of seeds.
(Photograph:
Tirso Gonzales:
see Chapter 5.)
14. A bobolink in flight
over a hay field
before ploughing.
The bird’s nest is in
the field. David
Kline farm.
(Photograph:
Richard Moore: see
Chapter 7.)
Kristina Plenderleith
CONTENTS
THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL FARMERS IN CREATING AND CONSERVING AGROBIODIVERSITY
(KRISTINA PLENDERLEITH) .................................................................................................................... 287
THE AGROECOLOGICAL DIMENSIONS OF BIODIVERSITY IN TRADITIONAL FARMING SYSTEMS
(MIGUEL A. ALTIERI) ........................................................................................................................... 291
The nature of traditional farming knowledge ............................................................................ 292
Andean farming systems as a case study ................................................................................. 293
Traditional farming and agrobiodiversity: the future ................................................................. 295
THE CHALLENGE OF STATIONARY SHIFTING CULTIVATION: FARMING IN THE PAPUA NEW GUINEA HIGHLANDS
(PAUL SILLITOE, WITH WABIS UNGUTIP, JIM PELIA, KULI HOND AND BEN WABIS) .............................................. 297
RICE CULTIVATION BY THE DAYAK PASIR ADANG COMMUNITY, EAST KALIMANTAN
(IDENG ENRIS AND SARMIAH, EDITED BY RIZA V. TJAHJADI) ........................................................................ 300
CAIÇARA AGROFORESTRY MANAGEMENT
(DANIEL DI GIORGI TOFFOLI AND ROGERIO RIBEIRO DE OLIVEIRA) ................................................................ 302
HONOURING CREATION AND TENDING THE GARDEN: AMISH VIEWS OF BIODIVERSITY
(RICHARD H. MOORE, DEBORAH H. STINNER, AND DAVID AND ELSIE KLINE) .................................................. 305
Influences of Amish land management on biodiversity .............................................................. 306
Local knowledge of biodiversity .............................................................................................. 308
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 308
WHAT AFRICAN FARMERS KNOW (DAVID BROKENSHA) ............................................................................. 309
THE CULTURAL VALUES OF SOME TRADITIONAL FOOD PLANTS IN AFRICA (CHRISTINE KABUYE) ........................... 312
CASTING SEED TO THE FOUR WINDS: A MODEST PROPOSAL
FOR PLANT GENETIC DIVERSITY MANAGEMENT (PAUL RICHARDS) ................................................................. 315
285
FIGURES AND TABLES
FIGURE 7.1: YIELD VARIANCE AND RISK REDUCTION FOR AN ANDEAN HOUSEHOLD ACCORDING TO THE NUMBER
OF FARMED FIELDS (AFTER GOLAN 1993).
FIGURE 7.3: ALTERNATIVE PATHS FOR THE CONVERSION OF PEASANT SOCIETIES TOWARD SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT.
The role of traditional farmers in enrich the soil and improve its structure, regulate
creating and conserving water retention, and provide shade for crops, people
agrobiodiversity (Kristina and livestock. Unlike the monocultures of modern
Plenderleith) industrial agriculture, traditional farmers’ mixed
systems maximize the land’s productivity whilst mini-
Agrobiodiversity, one of the greatest expressions of mizing the effects of pests and diseases. All these
collaboration between people and nature, is under activities are the product of knowledge and experi-
threat. The diversity of farm animal breeds and crop ence passed down through the generations and
plant varieties that were present in the world at the shared in the communities.
beginning of the twentieth century existed as a re- These traditional farmers are individuals (fre-
sult of thousands of years of selection and breeding quently women) or family groups, who work either
by local farmers. However, during this century that small settled landholdings, or swidden plots, and still
creative survival process has been overwhelmed by remain largely independent of the wider market for
the commercialization of farming. Markets have been their livelihood. Their understanding of the local
opened up in the shift from a predominantly rural to environment has enabled them to take full advan-
a predominantly urban world population, and there tage of available resources. For example, in the
has been a growth of monopoly controls to enable deserts of North Africa, cultivators exploit the high
breeders and farm suppliers to protect their com- water table surrounding oases by using layered
mercial investment in seeds and domesticated ani- plantings to create a humid microclimate which mim-
mal breeds, fertilizers, pest control chemicals and ics the natural forest structure. Tall palms shade
veterinary medicines. As a result, local diversity, smaller fruit trees, beneath which in the cool moist
knowledge and skills have been lost – with the ex- air further layers of crops are planted. Such efficient
tent of that loss only now being assessed. The pros- use of a limited resource in a harsh climate made
pect of world food shortages resulting from possible the development of the town of Nefta in
population growth and urbanization gave rise to the southern Tunisia, where the inhabitants cultivate the
Green Revolution, whose high-yielding crop varie- oasis and live in houses built into the sandstone cliffs
ties (HYVs) – developed by commercial breeders from encircling it. Miguel Altieri (this chapter) describes
farmers’ varieties – were acclaimed as the solution another sophisticated form of land management in a
to food insecurity. But that revolution not only failed harsh environment – the centuries-old waru-waru farm-
to live up to its promise, it also destroyed much of ing systems created by the inhabitants of the Andes.
the skills and knowledge of traditional farmers that Farmers would not have been able to retain the
resulted in the agrobiodiversity upon which commer- sustainability of their land without understanding
cial plant and animal breeding is founded, and which the functions of the soil. The importance of soil
continues to be endangered by twentieth-century fertility and soil structure to crop yield is funda-
erosion of traditional culture and life-styles. mental, and understanding the complexity of soil
Indigenous and traditional communities, for the management is an essential feature of local farm-
most part, still retain their holistic, adaptive and ing systems that recurs in several contributions
innovative approach to the land. They plant, breed, to this chapter. The continuing fertility of the
experiment and conserve. They grow food and cash mounds cultivated by the Wola in Papua New
crops, herbs and medicinal plants, and rear livestock. Guinea (Sillitoe and Ungutip), and the swidden
They make use of off-farm resources by gathering, cultivation of the Caiçara in Brazil (Toffoli and de
either regularly (firewood), seasonally (fruits, edible Oliveira), are dependent on this knowledge. Also,
plants, medicinals), or occasionally (for famine foods their sophisticated use of fire to recycle nutrients
when crops are meagre or fail, and for construction is a totally different activity from the wide-scale
materials such as rattan), and they boost their pro- forest burning carried out by plantation managers
tein intake by hunting, trapping and fishing. As and shifted cultivators that is decimating tropical
agroforesters they plant and tend trees to provide forests today (see also Enris and Sarmiah, this
fruit, building materials, fodder and oils. These trees chapter).
10000
8000
Maximum Yield
6000
4000
Minimum Requirement
2000
Minimum Yield
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Figure 7.1: Yield variance and risk reduction for an Andean household according to the number of farmed fields.
Source: After Golan (1993).
external subsidies and to limit environmental deg- plexity has a deep ecological rationale as the kinds
radation. Such stabilizing qualities of traditional ag- of agriculture with the best chance of enduring are
riculture must be supported and complemented by those that deviate least from the diversity of the
agroecological practices that enhance the soil, wa- natural plant communities within which they exist.
ter and germplasm conservation potential of tradi- Many lessons on how to preserve and manage agro-
tional technologies, and that also provide biodiversity are intrinsic to traditional forms of agri-
diversification guidelines on how to assemble func- cultural production.
tional biodiversity so that peasant systems can spon- These microcosms of traditional agriculture
sor their own soil fertility, plant health and offer promising models for other areas as they pro-
productivity (Chavez et al. 1989). Since most tradi- mote biodiversity, thrive without agrochemicals, and
tional systems are part of larger landscapes, an sustain year-round yields. It is particularly evident
agroecological approach to watershed management from the examples provided here, and in the exten-
is absolutely essential for understanding and man- sive literature on the subject, that ancient agricul-
aging the processes that affect the natural resource tural systems and technologies can aid in the rescue
base in areas broader than just individual or com- of today’s peasants from the vicious cycle of rural
munal plots (Figure 7.2). poverty and environmental degradation. For
agroecologists, what have been especially useful are
Traditional farming and agrobiodiversity: the ecological principles that underline the
the future sustainability of traditional farming systems, which
– once extracted and systematized – can be com-
The persistence of more than three million hectares bined into alternative production systems for peas-
under traditional agriculture in the form of raised ants, such as those promoted by hundreds of NGOs
fields, terraces, polycultures, agroforestry systems, throughout Latin America, Africa and Asia (Pretty
etc. documents a successful indigenous agricultural 1995). Most agroecologists recognize that traditional
strategy and embodies a tribute to the ‘creativity’ of systems and indigenous knowledge will not yield
peasants throughout the developing world. It also panaceas for agricultural problems. However, tradi-
demonstrates that the peasant strategy towards com- tional ways of farming refined over many generations
AGROECOLOGICAL PRACTICES
WATER HARVESTING
ANDEAN BIOLOGICAL CONTROL
RECONSTRUCTION AND
SUSTAINABLE SOIL ORGANIC MANAGEMENT
REHABILITATION OF
AGRICULTURAL IN-SITU CONSERVATION
TRADITIONAL SYSTEMS
PRODUCTION LIVING BARRIERS, TERRACING
(terraces, raised fields, etc.)
CULTURAL WEED AND
DISEASE MANAGEMENT
DIVERSIFICATION OF PRODUCTION
Figure 7.2: The integration of traditional and agroecological technologies to achieve sustainable production in the Andes.
by intelligent land users provide insights into man- strongly with many modern agricultural development
aging soils, water, crops, animals and pests. Re- projects, characterized by broad-scale technological
search can assess the benefits of aspects of recommendations, which have ignored the rationale
traditional systems – their economic structure, ge- and heterogeneity of traditional agriculture, result-
netic diversity, species composition and function as ing in an inevitable mismatch between agricultural
agroecosystems – as well as their social and eco- development and the needs and potential of local
nomic characteristics and potential for wider appli- people and localities.
cation. The research process can have additional What is alarming is that economic change,
benefits by fostering collaborative relationships be- fuelled by capital and market penetration, is leading
tween researchers and indigenous people, and provid- to an ecological breakdown that is starting to de-
ing the groundwork for successful local development stroy the sustainability of traditional agriculture.
projects. After creating resource-conserving systems for cen-
While it generally lacks the potential for pro- turies, traditional cultures in areas such as
ducing a meaningful marketable surplus, subsistence Mesoamerica and the Andes are now being under-
farming does ensure food security. Many scientists mined by external political and economic forces. Bio-
wrongly believe that traditional systems do not pro- diversity is decreasing on farms, soil degradation is
duce more because hand tools and draft animals accelerating, community and social organization is
place a ceiling on productivity. Productivity may be breaking down, genetic resources are being eroded,
low, but the cause appears to be social, not techni- and traditions are being lost. Under this scenario,
cal. When the subsistence farmer succeeds in pro- and given commercial pressures and urban demands,
viding sufficient food there is no pressure to innovate many developers argue that the performance of sub-
or to enhance yields. Nevertheless, agroecological sistence agriculture is unsatisfactory, and that in-
research shows that traditional crop and animal com- tensification of production is essential for the
binations can often be adapted to increase produc- transition from subsistence to commercial produc-
tivity when the biological structuring of the farm is tion. Actually, the challenge is how to guide such
improved and labour and local resources are used transition in a way that yields and income are in-
efficiently (Altieri l995). Such an approach contrasts creased without raising the debt of peasants and
GREEN REVOLUTION
NEOLIBERAL POLICIES
Figure 7.3: Alternative paths for the conversion of peasant societies toward sustainable development.
further exacerbating environmental degradation. other institutions to search actively for new kinds of
Many agroecologists contend that this can be done agricultural development and resource management
by generating and promoting resource-conserving strategies, based on local participation, skills and
technologies, a source of which are the very tradi- resources, that have enhanced small-farm produc-
tional systems that modernity is destroying. Al- tivity while conserving resources in many parts of
though it may be impossible to return traditional the world (Thrupp 1996). What are urgently needed
agriculture to its original state of equilibrium, what are the right policies and partnerships to scale up
is possible is to reverse the current process of agri- such local successes.
cultural ‘involution’ spearheaded by short-sighted
development, guiding the transition of the various The challenge of stationary shifting
phases of ‘modified’ peasant agriculture to a more cultivation: farming in the Papua New
sustainable rural society (Figure 7.3). Guinea highlands (Paul Sillitoe, with
As the inability of the Green Revolution to im- Wabis Ungutip, Jim Pelia, Kuli Hond
prove food security, production and farm incomes for
and Ben Wabis)
the very poor becomes apparent, a quest has begun
in the developing world for affordable, productive The idea of stationary cultivation under a shifting
and ecologically sound small-scale agricultural al- regime appears a contradiction in terms, but this
ternatives. The emergence of agroecology has stimu- antilogy characterizes farming systems in the Papua
lated nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and New Guinea Highlands. Although people here may
The Caiçaras use slash-and-burn agriculture to The plots are used mainly for subsistence crops.
supplement their fish-based diet. Their diversified Crops are grown in rotation, but it is common to see
subsistence farming is based on Atlantic-forest re- many different crops planted at the same time, in-
generation traits, where nutrients contained in the cluding cassava (Manihot spp.), beans (Phaseolus
biomass of the secondary forest are temporarily put vulgaris), pigeon peas (Cajanus cajan), taro
to use. Elements of the indigenous culture are ob- (Dioscorea and Colocasia spp.) squash (Cucurbita
served in both the management of the environment spp.), corn (Zea mays), rice (Oryza sativa), papaya
and in the produce that is processed. Their main prod- (Carica papaya), watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris),
uct is cassava flour (eaten at most meals), which sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas), etc. Vegetables
has been used as a substitute for the bread of the such as kale (Brassica oleracea), lettuce (Lactuca
Europeans since time immemorial. For this reason sativa) and onions (Allium cepa) are also planted
it is sometimes called the ‘Bread of the Tropics’ in small beds spaced between rows of the main
(Mussolini 1980). A wide range of other crops and crop. Many of these crops have several different
medicinal herbs are also a part of Caiçara agriculture. varieties, and more than ten different varieties of
Caiçara agroforestry management techniques are cassava are known at Ilha Grande. Tuberous spe-
very similar to those of slash-and-burn agriculture in cies are preferred because these do not require
the tropical world. The soil is prepared for planting by storage; the edible part of the plant (root) can be
first cutting down the forest or regrowth vegetation. A left in the soil for a long time without rotting. Some
few weeks later, the brush and stumps are burned, but secondary foods like yams (Dioscorea bulbifera) are
first a wide swath is cleared around the perimeter. The also grown in the plots, as well as edible weedy
fire is set early in the morning when the soil is still species like the green amaranth (Amaranthus
cold. Since the brush is scattered more or less uniformly viridus) and elephant’s ear taro (Colocasia esculenta
over the entire area, the fire sweeps rapidly over the var. antiquorum). Medicinal herbs are also tended
ground, so the soil structure and biota are not greatly in the plots (e.g. ‘carqueja’, Baccharis spp. and
affected. Moisture loss in the upper 5cm of soil is less ‘melão-de-São Caetano’, Mormodica charantia). Chaos
than 20 percent which greatly reduces impact on the apparently reigns in these plots because everything
soil fauna (Oliveira et al. 1994). Tree stumps are left is planted haphazardly. But this system reproduces,
standing, which helps to reduce erosion, improves the on a smaller scale, the diversity and spatial distribu-
infiltration capacity of the soil and contributes to re- tion of the forest species, which helps to control pests
generation of the native plant cover when the plot is and reduces local competition for nutrients (Meggers
abandoned. 1977; Posey 1983). The ‘saúva’ ant (Ata spp.) is a
Digitaria exilis, Staple crop, grown on poor soils in West Africa. Grains are ground into flour for porridge, or mixed with other cereals. It is also used for
making beer. (Purseglove 1975)
Hungry rice,
Fonio
Eleusine coracana, Important cereal in several African countries. Grains are ground into a flour for porridge, or a stiff meal is made with boiling water, and
eaten with a sauce. In Ankole, western Uganda, a sowing ceremony was undertaken to ensure good harvest (Williams 1936). In Kenya,
nursing mothers eat porridge made from fermented grain to increase milk production. The porridge is a good weaning food for children
and digestible for the elderly. Often served at social functions and festivities. The flour is used to make beer.
Finger millet,
Bulo (Uganda)
Wimbi (Kenya)
Eragrostis tef, Over half the grain in Ethiopia comes from teff, the only teff-producing country. Used for a staple food, ingera, similar to a pancake, made
from the fermented flour and served with various sauces.
Teff
(II) LEGUMES
Lablab purpureus, A bean rich in iron grown in the Kenya highlands. Served at social gatherings. The Kikuyu of Kenya give it to nursing mothers. Young pods
and leaves can be used as vegetables.
Hyacinth bean,
Njahi (Kikuyu – Kenya)
Vigna subterranea, Cultivated in western Kenya, eastern Uganda, and West and Central Africa. Rich in protein (16–21 percent) and carbohydrate (50–60
percent), the hard seeds are usually soaked, boiled or roasted and made into flour. The roast bambara with simsim are kept in small pots
by the Luhya of Kenya to be offered to special visitors. As a sign of binding two friends together a nut is shared between them.
Bambara groundnut,
Mpande (Luganda - Uganda)
Vigna unguiculata, Pulse with seeds rich in protein (23.4 percent) and carbohydrates (56.8 percent). The young leaves (28.5 percent protein) are cooked
as a vegetable. In Uganda leaves are cooked, dried and pounded into powder, stored in small packets of banana fibre. It can keep for a
long time. A sauce is made by adding water or adding it to groundnut or simsim sauce. Mpindi is one of the clan totems in Buganda and
people of the clan do not eat any of its parts.
Cow pea,
Mpindi (Luganda - Uganda)
(III) PLANTS USED FOR OIL
Sesamum indicum, The plant, an erect annual with lilac flowers, is usually grown as a source of sesame oil. Fruits are oblong capsules producing many seeds,
containing 45–55 percent oil, 19–25 percent protein and 5 percent water. Seeds eaten whole, roasted with groundnuts, or made into
balls by adding sugar, or roasted, pounded and made into a paste, stored in small packets of banana fibre and eaten whole, or made into
a sauce added to vegetables. At weddings, the seeds are thrown at the bride and bridegroom as a sign of fertility, to wish them many
children and plenty of food. Various parts of the plant are used in medicines.
Simsim,
Entungo (Luganda – Uganda)
Vitellaria paradoxa, A butter is prepared by roasting the seeds then pounding them into a paste. This is boiled and skimmed to obtain the butter which
contains 45–60 percent oil by weight and 9 percent protein. The tree is very important in the diet of people in northern Uganda. It is
common where it occurs and is conserved in situ. The Acholi of northern Uganda apply the oil to their bodies during ceremonies. The tree
is also important in West Africa with a number of varieties, and it is protected and inherited in northern Nigeria.
Shea butter tree,
Yaa (Luo - Uganda)
Cleome gynandra, Grows in home gardens or wild and is widely distributed in wastelands in Africa. Leaves and young shoots are used as a vegetable, boiled
and left to simmer with or without fat. Sometimes milk is added before eating. During some Kisii ceremonies in western Kenya it is eaten
without salt. The leaves are rich in protein (35.8 percent by weight). It is recommended for mothers after birth to increase breast milk.
Leaves are rubbed on the head to relieve headaches.
Spider herb
Solanum nigrum, Found in wasteland or as a weed in cultivation. Often saved when weeding, and the leaves harvested as a vegetable, or grown in home
gardens. The leaves contain 29.3 percent protein and are said to be good for pregnant mothers.
Black nightshade
Vernonia amygdalina, Shrub often planted as a hedge in home gardens in West Africa. The leaves, although bitter, are a favourite vegetable. Young leaves are
soaked in several changes of water and used in soup as a digestive tonic. The leaves are rubbed on the skin to stop itching or to treat
other skin diseases.
Bitter leaf
(V) FRUITS
Adansonia digitata, The fruit pulp is eaten raw or made into a drink. The juice is sometimes added to porridge or milk. Seeds are roasted like groundnuts. The
tuber-like root tips are cooked and eaten in times of famine. Young leaves are used as a vegetable and can be dried and ground into
powder to be used when needed for sauce. Used for medicine (fruit pulp can also be used in treating fever), and as a source of fibre for
making ropes and baskets.
Baobab
Sclerocarya birrea A shrub common in wooded grasslands of East, Central and southern Africa. The seeds are oily and are eaten raw. The greenish fruit pulp
is eaten raw or made into a drink. In southern Africa the tree is well known for marula, a drink made from the fruits.
(VI) BEVERAGES
Coffea spp., Both Coffea arabica and C. canephora are widely cultivated in various parts of Africa. C. arabica originated in Ethiopia where the coffee
drink still has a unique social role in the care taken to prepare it for visitors. In Uganda C. canephora is the common species. The Baganda
cook the fruits with Ocimum basilicum and keep them tied in small packets of banana fibre ready to be offered to visitors.
Coffee
Musa spp., Beer-making is important in African customs, and is made from various plants. In Buganda, the most important is the banana, two kinds
being used: the small sweet banana, kisubi, and the big one, mbidde, especially cultivated for beer. The juice is extracted by pressing and
squeezing the bananas with blades of a grass, Imperata cylindrica, in a wooden canoe-like trough or any suitable container. Ground
sorghum or finger millet is added, left to ferment for one or more days, and strained. In some parts of East Africa beer is prepared from
a mixture of warmed honey and water to which halved fruits of Kigelia africana, the sausage tree, are added.
Banana
(VII) MUSHROOMS
Mushrooms are collected from the wild in season, dried, and stored to be used when wanted. The small white-capped Termitomyces
microcarpus, which grows in swarms in the first few weeks of the rains, is important in Baganda customs. Grows in waste nest material
cleared by termites out of mounds and scattered. Traditionally, if a woman sights these mushrooms, obutiko obubaala in Luganda, she
must call others in the village to harvest with her. This ensures each family has a supply for the occasions they are needed. The
mushrooms are cooked fresh, or mostly dried and stored in banana fibre packets. They are soaked and cooked in a sauce prepared for a
girl by her mother the night before she gets married (Bennett et al. 1965). The girl also takes some to prepare for her husband. They
may be added to groundnut or simsim sauce. Obutiko is a clan totem and people of this clan do not eat them.
(VIII) ROOTS
Dioscorea spp., Cultivated for their root tubers, they are a very important food in West Africa, and to a small extent in East and Central Africa. In West
Africa they are used to make Fufu, prepared by pounding boiled yams (Purseglove 1975). Yams are also boiled, roasted or fried, and
eaten alone or with a sauce. Dioscorea dumetorum, found wild in forested areas in tropical Africa, was used for food in famine years.
Yams
Figure 7.5: Vavilov Centres of Plant Genetic Diversity: Areas of High Crop Diversity and Origins of Food Crops, according to N. Vavilov
NEAR EAST
CENTRAL ASIA
MEDITERRANEAN
INDIA
INDO-MALAYA
ETHIOPIA
BRAZIL AND
PARAGUAY
PERU, ECUADOR BOLIVIA
CHILE
Source: N. Vavilov, 1949, Chronica Botanica Vol 13. Waltham, Massachusetts, adapted by Reid, Walter and Kenton Miller, 1989.
Keeping Options Alive: The Scientific Basis for Conserving Biodiversity. World Resources Institute, Washington DC.
Rice Sri Lanka From 2,000 varieties in 1959 to less than 100 today. 75% descend from a common stock
Rice Bangladesh 62% of varieties descend from a common stock
Rice Indonesia 74% of varieties descend from a common stock
Wheat USA 50% of crop in 9 varieties
Potato USA 75% of crop in 4 varieties
Soybeans USA 50% of crop in 6 varieties
Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth’s Living Resources (Brian Groombridge, ed.). Chapman &
Hall, London.
Source: Cary Fowler and Pat Mooney (1990). The Threatened Gene – Food, Politics and the Loss of Genetic Diversity. The Lutworth Press, Cambridge.
Source: World Conservation Monitoring Centre (1992). Global Biodiversity: Status of the Earth’s Living Resources (Brian Groombridge, ed.). Chapman &
Hall, London.
further expansion of cropland, which could add to affect the use of biological resources to ensure
this degradation. that local people have rights and access to nec-
essary resources;
Policy and institutional changes • regulations and incentives to make seed and
agrochemical industries socially responsible;
Effective reforms and dramatic agrobiodiversity con- • development of markets and business opportu-
servation policies that benefit the public, especially nities for diverse organic agricultural products,
the poor, are urgently needed. Policy changes that and
attack the roots of problems and ensure peoples’ • changing consumer demand to favour diverse
rights include: varieties instead of uniform products.
• ensuring public participation in the development Building complementarity between agriculture
of agricultural and resource-use policies; and biodiversity will also require changes in agri-
• eliminating subsidies and credit policies for cultural research and development, land use and
HYVs, fertilizers, and pesticides to encourage breeding approaches. The types of practices and
the use of more diverse seed types and farming policies constitute potential solutions and promis-
methods; ing opportunities. Such changes are urgently needed
• policy support and incentives for effective to overcome threats from the ongoing erosion of ge-
agroecological methods that make sustainable netic resources and biodiversity. Experience shows
intensification possible; that enhancing agrobiodiversity economically ben-
• reform of tenure and property systems that efits both small-scale and large-scale farmers, while
Local: 80 percent of the South’s medical needs Almost 90 percent of the South’s food Almost 100 percent of the biodiversity ‘hot spots’ are
are met by community healers using local requirements are met through local production. in areas nurtured by indigenous communities and/or
medicine systems. Two-thirds are based on community bordering the South’s farming communities.
farming systems.
Global: 25 percent (and growing) of Western 90 percent of the world’s food crops are derived The wild relatives of almost every cultivated crop
patented medicines are derived from medicinal from the South’s farming communities and are found in biologically-diverse regions of the
plants and indigenous preparations. continue to depend on farmers’ varieties in South and are nurtured by indigenous communities.
breeding programmes.
Market: The current value of the South’s The direct commercial value derived from farmers’ 90 percent of the world’s most biologically diverse
medicinal plants to the North is estimated seeds and livestock breeds is considerably more lands and waters have no government protection
conservatively at US$32 billion annually. than US$6 billion a year. and are nurtured exclusively by rural communities.
Expertise: Well over 90 percent of all health 99 percent of all plant breeders and other 99 percent of all practised biodiversity expertise
practitioners are community healers. agricultural researchers are based in rural resides in indigenous and other rural communities.
communities.
Risk: Almost all local knowledge of medicinal Crop diversity is eroding at 1–2 percent per Rainforests are coming down at a rate of 0.9 percent
plants and systems as well as the plants annum. Endangered livestock breeds are per annum and the pace is picking up. Much of the
themselves could disappear within vanishing at rates of about 5 percent a year. earth’s remaining diversity could be gone within one
one generation. Almost all farmers’ knowledge of plants and or two generations.
research systems could become extinct within
one or two generations.
Note: The Challenge of Stationary Shifting Cultivation: Farming in the Papua New Guinea Highlands (Paul Sillitoe, with
Wabis Ungutip, Jim Pelia, Kuli Hond and Ben Wabis) is an abridged version of an article published in Mountain Research
and Development, May 1998, Vol. 18, Number 2, pp. 123-134.
Edwin Bernbaum
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (EDWIN BERNBAUM) ..................................................................................................... 327
THE HUNTSMAN AND THE DEER (ADAPTED FROM THE HUNDRED THOUSAND
SONGS OF MILAREPA, TRANSLATED BY GARMA C. C. CHANG, 1970) ......................................................... 332
CREATION OF THE SACRED MOUNTAINS OF THE DINEH (NAVAJO)
(ADAPTED FROM WASHINGTON MATTHEWS, 1897) ................................................................................. 333
SHERPA PROTECTION OF THE MOUNT EVEREST REGION OF NEPAL
(STANLEY F. STEVENS, 1993) .............................................................................................................. 334
BADRINATH: PILGRIMAGE AND CONSERVATION IN THE HIMALAYAS
(A. N. PUROHIT AND EDWIN BERNBAUM) .............................................................................................. 336
SACRED MOUNTAINS OF CHINA (MARTIN PALMER AND TJALLING HALBERTSMA) ............................................. 337
THE ROCKY MOUNTAINS: SACRED PLACES OF THE STONEY PEOPLE
(CHIEF JOHN SNOW, 1977) ............................................................................................................... 338
OF TELESCOPES, SQUIRRELS AND PRAYERS: THE MT. GRAHAM CONTROVERSY
(EVELYN MARTIN, 1993) .................................................................................................................... 339
ENVIRONMENTAL CONSERVATION BASED ON SACRED SITES (THOMAS SCHAAF) ............................................ 341
TEXT BOX
BOX 8.1: ‘THE LAND IS YOURS’ (ROGER PULLIN)
325
Mountains: The Heights of Biodiversity
Edwin Bernbaum
Introduction (Edwin Bernbaum) ments and ecosystems have remained relatively in-
tact. However, with the advent of helicopters and
For many people around the world, mountains have modern technology, even remote mountain areas
a peculiarly evocative nature. The sight of a peak have become vulnerable to exploitation. Clear-cut
reaching toward the clean blue heights of the sky logging is wreaking havoc on the forests of previ-
lifts the mind and spirit, conjuring up visions of a ously inaccessible ranges of British Columbia, while
higher, more perfect realm of existence. The eerie a mine is chewing an enormous hole in the upper
clouds and mist that frequently veil a mountain, cut- slopes of the highest range in New Guinea, deep in
ting it off from the world below, enshroud it in an the jungle-filled interior of the island (Messerli and
aura of mystery that seems to conceal some deeper, Ives 1997).
more meaningful reality. The storms that swirl The inaccessibility and remoteness of moun-
around them, punctuated with flashes of lightning tains have also helped to preserve cultural diversity.
and crashes of thunder, make mountains awesome The isolation of mountain communities has kept
places of power, both natural and supernatural. The them out of the way of modernization and allowed
harsh environment of high peaks – forbidding cliffs, them to retain traditional ways of life abandoned in
tangled forests and treacherous glaciers – speaks the more accessible lowlands. At the same time, dis-
of an alien realm of existence, the abode of forces senting groups with cultures opposed to mainstream
outside human control, to be feared and avoided. The societies, or persecuted by them, have traditionally
rain clouds that form around their summits and the sought refuge in mountains in order to preserve their
rivers that well out of their slopes lead many to look cultural integrity. Heretical European sects such as
up to mountains as divine sources of water and life. the Albigensians and the Vaudois fled to the safety
The massive form of a hill or mountain can also serve of the Alps and Pyrenees while myths of hidden val-
as a natural fortress and point of reference, giving leys free from religious and political oppression have
people a sense of security and orientation, both physi- drawn Tibetans to settle the Himalayan border re-
cal and spiritual. gions of Tibet, most notably the principality of Sikkim
The evocative power of mountains highlights (Bernbaum 1990; Ramakrishnan 1996). The advent
basic cultural and spiritual values and beliefs that of modern communications, with satellite television
deeply influence how people view and treat the world. and VCRs, however, has opened even the most iso-
These values and beliefs determine to a great ex- lated communities to the corrosive cultural influ-
tent which resources people are willing to exploit ences of the outside world.
and which features of the environment they feel The vertical topography of mountains means
motivated to protect. For any assurance of long-term that they harbour a great multiplicity of microcli-
success, measures directed toward environmental mates. Variations in altitude, steepness of terrain,
preservation and sustainable use need to take such the direction a slope faces, and the composition of
spiritual and cultural factors into account; otherwise the soil all make for widely differing climatic condi-
they will not win the support of local communities and tions and habitats. Within a few thousand vertical
others with the greatest stake in what is going on. feet, we find plant and animal species that are sepa-
Moreover, the reverence that mountains tend to awaken rated at sea level by thousands of miles. In order to
in cultures around the world provides a powerful source survive, people need to know and cultivate many
of motivation for preserving biodiversity. indigenous crops to fit the different ecological niches
The physical characteristics of mountains have of their fields and land, thereby reinforcing the natu-
made them important strongholds of biological and ral biodiversity of the mountains (Messerli and Ives
cultural diversity. Their remoteness, difficulty of 1997).
access, and rugged terrain have combined to make In fact, of all the different kinds of natural land-
them among the last places on earth to be exploited scapes that possess spiritual or cultural value, moun-
and developed. It is no coincidence that a large tains contain the most diverse and complete
number of wilderness and protected areas around environments and ecosystems. If we consider them
the world lie in mountainous regions where environ- in their entirety, from their bases to their summits,
Roger Pullin
Sarah A. Laird
CONTENTS
FORESTS, CULTURE AND CONSERVATION (SARAH A. LAIRD) ....................................................................... 347
The economic importance of traditional knowledge and forest management systems .................. 348
Trees, forests and sacred groves – myths, lore and legends ....................................................... 349
The cultural context of conservation ......................................................................................... 354
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 358
TREES AND THE SYMBOLISM OF LIFE IN INDIGENOUS COSMOLOGIES (LAURA RIVAL) ........................................ 358
The Amazon ‘World Tree’ ....................................................................................................... 358
Trees and humans in South India ............................................................................................. 361
Trees – symbols of life and regeneration .................................................................................. 362
CULTURAL LANDSCAPES, CHRONOLOGICAL ECOTONES AND KAYAPÓ RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
(DARRELL A. POSEY) .......................................................................................................................... 363
INVISIBLE INCOME: THE ECOLOGY AND ECONOMICS OF NON-TIMBER FOREST RESOURCES
IN AMAZONIAN FORESTS (PATRICIA SHANLEY AND JURANDIR GALVÃO) ....................................................... 364
345
PEASANT COSMOVISIONS AND BIODIVERSITY: SOME REFLECTIONS FROM SOUTH ASIA
(PRAMOD PARAJULI) ........................................................................................................................... 385
THE CONSTRUCTION AND DESTRUCTION OF ‘INDIGENOUS’ KNOWLEDGE IN
INDIA’S JOINT FOREST MANAGEMENT PROGRAMME (NANDINI SUNDAR) ...................................................... 388
OF DANCING BEARS AND SACRED TREES: SOME ASPECTS OF TURKISH ATTITUDES TOWARD
NATURE AND THEIR POSSIBLE CONSEQUENCES FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (SARGUN A. TONT) ......................... 392
TEXT BOXES
BOX 9.1: FOREST PRODUCTS AS AN ECONOMIC ALTERNATIVE
BOX 9.6: LORE, LEGEND AND FOREST CONSERVATION IN THE EASTERN AMAZON
(PATRICIA SHANLEY AND JURANDIR GALVÃO)
BOX 9.7: TRESPASSING ON THE DEVIL’S LAND: AFRICAN AND WEST INDIAN VARIANTS (HAROLD COURLANDER)
BOX 9.8: TURKISH NATURE POEMS: ‘MY TREE’ (ORHAN VELI KANIK, TRANSLATED BY MURAT NEMET-NEJAT)
AND ‘I BECAME A TREE’ (MELIH CEVDET ANDAY, TRANSLATED BY TALAT SAIT HALMAN)
BOX 9.9: ‘ON ENTERING THE FOREST’ (DR FREDA RAJOTTE), ‘THOUGHTS ON MANITOBA MONOCULTURE
(DR FREDA RAJOTTE) AND ‘WINDS OF CHANGE’ (ROGER PULLIN)
TABLE 9.2: LIST OF VALUES FOR VARIOUS SPECIES BASED ON THE TWO METHODS OF ASSIGNING VALUE.
Forests, Culture and Conservation
Sarah A. Laird
FORESTS AND CULTURE HAVE INTERTWINED THROUGHOUT resource use and management, and the cultural land-
human history. Forest landscapes are formed and are scapes, of the Amazonian Kayapó Indians, and cites
strongly characterized by cultural belief and man- examples throughout the region whereby presumed
agement systems, and cultures are materially and ‘natural’ ecological systems are products of human
spiritually built upon the physical world of the for- manipulation. The Kayapó initiate and simulate the
est. Just as people have acted upon and altered formation of islands of forest, or apêtê, in the campo-
forests throughout history, so too have forests pro- cerrado (savannah), through the careful manipula-
foundly influenced human consciousness and culture. tion of micro-environmental factors, knowledge of
As a result of these long histories of co-development soil and plant characteristics, and the concentration
between forest ecosystems and local cultures, cul- of useful species into limited plots. The integration
tural and biological diversity are intimately con- of forest and agricultural management systems de-
nected and cannot effectively be separated from each pends upon the manipulation and use of transitional
other. Programmes designed to achieve the conser- forests, and agriculture is but one phase in a long-
vation of biodiversity, therefore, must be undertaken term forest management process.
with a full grasp of the cultural context within which The creation of mosaics of ‘eco-units’ by the
forests exist. Mexican Huastec and Peruvian Bora farmers means
‘Culture’, as it broadly relates to forests, in- that at any given time lands are open for agricul-
cludes what Balée (1994) refers to as a ‘mental ture, secondary successional species are reproduc-
economy’. This mental economy is composed of the ing elsewhere in the mosaic, and in another unit
elements forest-dwelling communities employ to mature forest species are reproducing. In this way,
strategically manipulate the natural environment. It the elements necessary to regenerate forests are
includes not only traditional ecological knowledge, retained in the system (Alcorn 1990). Ka’apor man-
such as that on relations between species of flora agement in the Brazilian Amazon also involves man-
and fauna, edible versus inedible foods, and forest aged vegetation zones in different phases of recovery,
management systems, but also shared notions of from house gardens to young swidden, old swidden
kinship, marriage, taboos, cosmology and ritual. and fallow. Within these diverse vegetational zones
Traditional forest management relies on a com- exist environments in which unusually high densi-
plex of ecological processes, management of ‘eco- ties of useful plants and animals exist (Balée 1994).
zones’, and a variety of habitats to maximize the In the Jharkhandi region of India, the landscape
range of products and services that forests can pro- is managed on a continuum that does not recognize
vide. These systems are highly site-specific, diverse breaks between farm, forest and settlements
and ever-changing, and generally promote and re- (Parajuli, this chapter). In parts of Ghana, it is simi-
quire the maintenance of forest structure and spe- larly difficult to distinguish between ‘forested’ and
cies diversity (Gomez Pompa and Burley 1991; ‘cultivated’ land, and generally there exists a gradi-
Alcorn 1990; Posey and Balée 1989; Anderson 1990; ent of vegetation types passing from recently cleared
Balée 1994; Posey 1997; Padoch and de Jong 1992; farm land to secondary forest in farm fallows, to for-
Redford and Stearman 1993). In fact, Balée (1994) est stands that have not been cleared for hundreds
defines ‘management’ in reference to the Ka’apor in of years (Falconer, this chapter).
Brazil, as ‘... the human manipulation of inorganic Traditional management and knowledge sys-
and organic components of the environment that tems also include regimes to sustainably harvest and
brings about a net environmental diversity greater process materials from individual species. For ex-
than that of so-called pristine conditions, with no ample, Ficus natalensis and F. thonningii bark har-
human presence’. vesting in Buganda involves elaborate protocols,
Traditional systems of management have including the tying of banana leaves to the de-barked
shaped forests throughout the world, and many so- tree, followed by the application of cow-dung. Sub-
called ‘natural’ forests in fact represent arrested sequent beating of the bark to make cloth is an ex-
successional forest once managed by people. For tremely complex process, and also the result of long
example, Posey (this chapter) describes a system of experience of traditional use (Kabuye, this chapter).
‘Forest ecosystems are vital for biological diversity government policies and those of private sector
as they provide the most diverse sets of habitats for industry [that] are geared to exploit forest and
plants, animals and micro-organisms, holding the mineral resources to the fullest extent for purely
vast majority of the world’s terrestrial species. This economic gain. These policies are often incompat-
diversity is the fruit of evolution, but also reflects ible with other existing forest conservation poli-
the combined influence of the physical environment cies. Such policies include substituting forests with
and people. Forests and forest biological diversity industrial tree plantations for the pulp industry;
play important economic, social and cultural roles oil and gas exploration by trans-national corpora-
in the lives of many indigenous communities.’ (The tions; uncontrolled mining operations; and estab-
Clearing House Mechanism, The Convention on Bio- lishing nuclear waste storage sites on indigenous
logical Diversity.) territories.
Incorporating the perspectives and voices of for- Given this identification of the underlying
est people causes of deforestation, suggested solutions and pre-
The bulk of the world’s biodiversity and forests requisites for sustainable management include: se-
exist outside protected areas, and outside the ac- cure land tenure and long-term guarantees to land
tive management authority of conservation and territories; recognition that forests are funda-
projects and forestry departments. Local commu- mental to the survival of cultural diversity, and the
nities are, therefore, and often de facto, the pri- welfare of indigenous peoples, and form the basis of
mary stewards of forests. Lack of secure land their livelihoods, cultures and spirituality; recogni-
tenure, rights to resources, self-determination and tion that traditional forest-related knowledge is es-
other factors obstruct and interfere with what in sential to sustainable forest management, and is
many cases are long histories of traditional man- intimately bound up with ownership and control of
agement of forests and resources on the part of lands and territories and the continued use, man-
indigenous peoples and local communities. Genu- agement and conservation of all types of forest; tra-
ine participatory mechanisms need to be developed ditional knowledge must remain alive, cultures must
to allow indigenous peoples and local communi- continue to develop, and indigenous contemporary
ties a decisive voice in evaluations of deforesta- knowledge and technologies must be respected; and
tion processes and the evolution of an appropriate it must be recognized that nearly all forests are in-
policy response. For example, the Leticia Decla- habited.
ration, December 1996 (Appendix 1.16) states: On a local level, however, most forest peoples’
voices are not incorporated into the identification of
Underlying causes of deforestation and forest species and ecosystem conservation priorities. In
degradation North-Central Tanzania, for example, there exists a
great deal of international interest and involvement
Deforestation and forest degradation is exacerbated in conservation, which has meant that local peoples’
by a lack of understanding of the holistic world voices can often be drowned out, or ignored, or their
knowledge and perspectives inadequately repre- alize their participation and valorize their knowledge
sented in conservation programmes (Smith and in particular schemes.
Meredith, this chapter). However, local values for Valorizing indigenous knowledge and local com-
ecosystems and resources will often not correspond munity perspectives per se is not necessarily a boon
to externally-established values. Working with the to local people. If the incorporation of local commu-
Batemi, Smith and Meredith have begun to explore nities’ perspectives, and the application of traditional
procedures to assign species conservation priorities ecological knowledge to local environmental con-
based on the relationship between three key factors: cerns requires a quantifiable, static, cultural and
the importance to local people and traditional use; knowledge base, then it will not succeed: ‘Indigenous
the relative scarcity of the species in the landscape; or local knowledge is not a frozen, inert, or timeless
and the intensity of pressure that may serve to re- entity, but is dependent on the material conditions
duce species availability, including the availability of those whose knowledge it is, the changing envi-
of substitutes. They acknowledge that tools such as ronment in which they find themselves and the uses
these will ultimately fall short because they ‘entail to which it is put.’ (Sundar, this chapter.) In many
quantification and presume that value is objective cases environmentalists underestimate the multiplic-
and static rather than subjective and dynamic’. ity of interests which different groups within a vil-
‘However, if such tools strengthen the position of lage can have, and ‘projects end up ventriloquizing
local groups in protecting their culturally-defined villager’s needs... because artful and risk-adverse
resources, they will contribute to shifting the villagers ask for what they think they will get. It is
power balance in biodiversity conservation deci- also because various development agencies are able
sion making.’ to project their own various institutional needs onto
However, the process of incorporating indig- rural communities’ (Mosse 1995).
enous perspectives, and the application of TEK, to
conservation and development problems is a com- The culture of forest conservation
plex and difficult one, and can at times be problem- The way in which the field of conservation identifies
atic. Based on experience with the Joint Forest problems and crafts solutions is a culturally-framed
Management Programme in India, Sundar (this chap- activity, and one which to date has largely ignored
ter) is wary of external efforts to extract indigenous the importance of culture as an element in conser-
perspectives and knowledge for conservation and de- vation. Cultural values, which are highly variable and
velopment purposes, and doubts the sincerity of some difficult to quantify, often contrast markedly with
programmes attempting to do so. For example, in values illuminated through modern scientific ap-
Bastar, the most forested district in Madhya Pradesh, proaches, which are the foundation for most conser-
India, while larger political and economic processes vation and forest management programmes today
conspire to marginalize certain types of rural peo- (Dove, Parajuli, both this chapter; Burnham 1993;
ple, both through physical displacement and by the Richards 1996; Sharpe 1997).
denigration of their life-styles and systems of knowl- Culturally-driven debates about ‘untouched’ and
edge, the government is also seeking to institution- ‘wild’ spaces are currently under way in Europe and
Oliver Rackham
[In Britain, a culturally-driven debate rages about ‘untouched wildwood’: one which Oliver Rackham
addresses in this excerpt from his letter to the Editor of Tree News (Spring 1996).]
Coppicing and conservation
... The fact is that in Britain, of all countries, human influence is pervasive and not always negative; it
has destroyed species and habitats, but has also created new species and habitats. The cultural land-
scape, formed by the interaction between mankind and the natural world, is all the landscape that we
fully know about. Many aspects of it are of value in their own right as biological habitats, such as
meadows, chalk-pits and medieval churches. Coppice woods do not claim to be wildwood, and are not
just an inferior substitute for it. Biological conservation cannot be isolated from the conservation of
artefacts and cultural values.
Trees in this country have a continuous history of some 12,000 years since the end of the last Ice Age.
Human activity has been an obvious major influence for a little over half that period. British wildwood
disappeared so long ago that we do not know in detail what it looked like. Even 12,000 years ago,
Palaeolithic hunters had already taken their toll of the great Pleistocene beasts, which may explain
why the ensuing wildwood was different from that of corresponding periods in earlier interglacials.
Wholly natural wildwood is an elusive concept. In Britain it lasted for a relatively brief period during
the Mesolithic. Who knows how it would have changed over the last 6,500 years had it been spared?
In North America and Australia, human activities have determined whole continents throughout the
post-glacial period. By Columbus’ time there were not many forests on earth, other than on uninhab-
ited islands, that had never been altered by peoples’ activities. The obsession of some conserva-
tionists with untouched wildwood has been steadily undermined by archaeological research.... Wildwood
cannot be re-created either by doing nothing or by management. An abandoned coppice wood will not
turn into either wildwood as it was in 4500BC, or the wildwood that might have developed by 2000AD
had it never been encoppiced...
Oliver Rackham, Corpus Christi College, Cambridge.
The ceibo tree, like other plants and trees, is a Trees and humans in South India
physical expression of life, growth and vigour. It is
primarily praised for its kapok (a fluff used as wad- In South India, the vitality of trees is seen as ema-
ding and feather), an essential part of the hunting nating from the supernatural life force of ghosts, the
gear. One of the three ‘seasons’ is named after this wandering spirits of the recently dead (Uchiyamada,
material: the ‘season of wild cotton’ (bohuèca tèrè). in press). Middle caste Nayars bury the cremated
From August to September, ceibo kapok, blown by remains of their dead relatives in funeral urns at the
the winds, floats all over the forest and becomes foot of jack-fruit trees. A year or so later, the urns
available in great quantities. The ceibo tree, with its are excavated and the exhumed bones brought to
impressive height and solitary character, is also used the coast, where they are left to drift in the Arabian
as a landmark. Trekkers climb to its top to orientate Sea. After this ceremony, the soul attains liberation
themselves when lost, or whenever they wish to and the deceased finally becomes an ancestor. The
embrace in one panoramic view the forested land- jack-fruit tree, which represents the life-span of the
scape – their homeland. The theoretical challenge family (including the ascendants) and its ancestral
remains, however, to understand adequately the re- house, is sacred. By contrast, the souls of dead
lationship between a real ceibo tree as observed and Untouchables, considered inherently impure and
used in the forest, and its ideal representation, as polluted, never attain liberation. They remain at-
found in the myth of origin. tached to the soil, and become wandering lineage
Box 9.6: Lore, Legend and Forest Conservation in the Eastern Amazon
Plants are important not only for our stomachs but also for our spirits. Unrecognizable to many mod-
ern city dwellers, people living close to the earth have perceived that forests offer not only food and
material resources but spiritual benefits as well. Many indigenous tribes have customs to thank na-
ture through prayer and offerings. But the customs, legends and myths that traditionally protect
forests are eroding. Today, many people think that lore is mere superstition: however, myths and
legends serve important practical ecological, socio-economic and spiritual functions. Emotional ties
with nature, and legends, are two of the most powerful incentives to conserve and respect forests.
In the Brazilian Amazon, both scientists and indigenous groups believe in the legends of the grand
cobra, the giant sloth and the curupira. The grand cobra swims the depths of the rivers and curbs
fisherman from over-fishing. The giant sloth roams deep forests sending men screaming in fear, and
the curupira tricks disrespecting woodsmen by making them lose their way in the woods. The curupira
has feet pointed backward, curly black hair and sleeps in the huge buttresses of the tall tauri tree.
When you are lost in the woods, walking in circles, always returning to the same place, it is the
curupira that is following you, because you did something greedy or foolish to make him angry.
To find your way out of the forest, you need to leave tobacco for the curupira. If you have no tobacco,
you must instead find a vine and make a complicated knot, hiding the point as well as possible in the
middle. Next, toss the knot over your shoulder for the curupira to discover. While the curupira is
looking for the point, you must run quickly from the woods. If you enter the forest and do not respect
her – the curupira will get you. She makes sure that you do not hunt excessively and that you treat the
plants and animals as you care to be treated.
Harold Courlander
This story is found in a number of versions in West Africa, and has found its way to the West Indies as
well as to Surinam. The following is a Yoruba version, from Nigeria.
In a certain village there was a young man named Kigbo. He had a character all his own. He was an
obstinate person. If silence was pleasing to other people, he would play a drum. If someone said
‘Tomorrow we should repair the storage houses,’ Kigbo said ‘No, tomorrow we should sharpen our
hoes’. If his father said ‘Kigbo, the yams are ripe. Let us bring them in,’ Kigbo said ‘On the contrary,
the yams are not ready’. If someone said ‘This is the way a thing should be done,’ Kigbo said ‘No, it is
clear that the thing should be done the other way around’.
Kigbo married a girl of the village. Her name was Dolapo. He built a house of his own. His first child
was a boy named Ojo. Once, when the time came for preparing the fields, Kigbo’s father said to him,
‘Let us go out tomorrow and clear new ground’.
Kigbo said: ‘The fields around the village are too small. Let us go into the bush instead’.
His father said: ‘No one farms in the bush’.
Kigbo said: ‘Why does no one farm in the bush?’
His father said: ‘Men must have their fields near their houses’.
Kigbo said: ‘I want to have my fields far from my house’.
His father said: ‘It is dangerous to farm in the bush’.
Kigbo replied: ‘The bush suits my taste’.
Kigbo’s father did not know what else to say. He called Kigbo’s mother, saying ‘He wants to farm in the
bush. Reason with him’.
Kigbo’s mother said ‘Do not go. The bush spirits will make trouble for you’.
Kigbo said ‘Ho! They will not trouble me. My name is Kigbo’.
His father called for an elder of the village. The village elder said, ‘Our ancestors taught us to avoid
the bush spirits’.
Kigbo said ‘Nevertheless, I am going’.
He went to his house. His wife Dolapo stood at the door holding Ojo in her arms. Kigbo said, ‘Prepare
things for me. Tomorrow I am going into the bush’. In the morning he took his bush knife and his
knapsack and walked a great distance. He found a place and said ‘I will make my farm here’.
He began to cut down the brush. At the sound of his chopping, many bush spirits came out of the trees,
saying ‘Who is cutting here?’
Kigbo said ‘ It is I, Kigbo’.
They said ‘This land belongs to the bush spirits’.
Kigbo said ‘I do not care’ and went on cutting.
The bush spirits said, ‘This is bush spirit land. Therefore, we also will cut’. They joined him in clear-
ing the land. There were hundreds of them, and the cutting was soon done.
Kigbo said ‘Now I will burn,’ and he began to gather the brush and burn it.
The bush spirits said ‘This is our land. Whatever you do, we will do it, too’. They gathered and burned
brush. Soon it was done.
Kigbo returned to his village. He put corn seed in his knapsack. His father said ‘Since you have
returned, stay here. Do not go back to the bush’.
His mother said ‘Stay and work in the village. The bush is not for men’.
Kigbo said, ‘In the bush no one gives me advice. The bush spirits help me’. To his wife Dolapo he said
‘Wait here in the village. I will plant. When the field is ready to be harvested, I will come for you’.
He departed. And when he arrived at his farm in the bush, he began to plant. The bush spirits came out
of the trees, and said: ‘Who is there?’
He replied ‘ It is I, Kigbo. I am planting corn’.
They said ‘This land belongs to the bush spirits. Therefore, we also will plant. Whatever you do, we
will do’. They took corn seed from Kigbo’s knapsack. They planted. Soon it was finished.
Attitudes towards, and beliefs in, traditional groves are important sources of medicines used by
deities and groves also vary according to the spirit healers, especially by those whose healing powers
and grove in question. In Nanhini, for example, no are derived from the spirits.
villagers enter the grove of the goddess Numafoa or Most sacred groves and rivers have sacred days
ignore her taboos. In the same village, a second de- (daboni) associated with them, at which times farm-
ity has less influence and so the taboos associated ing activities are prohibited. The days are often in
with its grove are not so strictly followed. Each grove remembrance of particular historical events such as
has particular governing rules. In some cases, entry battles or settlements of disputes in which the par-
to a sacred grove is strictly limited, but in others the ticular deity played a role. For example, in Essuowin
area maybe exploited or restricted for certain forest the sacred day is Thursday, and no farming activi-
resources and not others. In Nanhini, for example, ties are permitted. In some communities there are
one grove cannot be farmed or hunted in, nor can several dabonis and adherence to one or the other
snails be collected, but the palms can be tapped for depends on personal circumstances. For example,
wine, and goods and medicines gathered. In all the in Koniyao several rivers and streams are consid-
cases we encountered, clearing sacred areas for ered sacred. Each has a daboni which prohibits peo-
farming is strictly prohibited. Generally, the sacred ple from crossing it on that day; thus, depending on
TABLE 9.1: NUMBERS USED TO CALCULATE VALUES FOR THE VARIOUS TYPES OF USE.
(Construction and implement uses are subdivided into their respective categories).
USE CITATIONS IMPORTANCE CONSUMPTION
Construction
Poles 53 60 3
Bee 39 10 1
Gate 3 2 1
Trap 5 2 1
Door 5 5 1
Rope 3 5 1
Furniture 2 5 1
Fences 10 20 3
Implements
Walking stick 13 5 1
Rungata 1 1 1
Digging stick 4 1 1
Handle 2 2 1
Bow and arrow 7 2 1
Toothbrush 5 1 1
Other 2 1 1
Firewood 32 75 4
Services 7 15 1
technological and environmental circumstances. mation, and they do appear to be effective in identi-
None the less, the difficulty of determining absolute fying species that should at least receive closer scru-
values should not be seen as a major barrier because tiny as conservation strategies are developed.
the results are, at least initially, intended only as Biodiversity conservation is an activity that
aids to discussion and planning. must recognize the legitimacy of human actors in
The assigning of use-values to various species the landscape and must acknowledge the absolute
illustrates the difficulties involved in establishing importance of local involvement in and support of
objective or at least consistent conservation priori- conservation strategies. The tools described in this
ties. By combining biological data on the abundance paper provide a way in which local priorities can be
and distribution of the various woody species with defined, communicated and defended. They are there-
use data, key socio-economic species that may repre- fore potentially tools of empowerment that will al-
sent conservation priorities can be identified. Certain low local groups to participate more fully and fairly
species, including Acacia mellifera and Haplocoelum in local conservation. This is the first step in incor-
foliosum were identified as being of potential concern, porating the full array of biodiversity values into
or priorities for further work. The quantitative val- decision-making, and wresting control over decision-
ues presented serve as a way of integrating infor- making from technocrats.
O
SARAWAK
E
Kuching
East
West Riv
er
N Kalimantan
Kalimantan
0° Kapua
s Semitau R 0°
Pontianak O KALIMANTAN
B Balikpapan
Central Kalimantan
Palangkaraya
South
Lobok Kalimantan
Border Antu
Ka Banjarmasin
nt Ri v er
u'
Em
I N D O N E S I A
pa
na
g
n
5° 5°
Ri
v
er
KEDEMPAI PEAK
Kapua ver
Ri O 200 Miles
Figure 9.1: The Kantu’ territory in
s
Semitau
Kalimantan, Indonesia. O 200 Kilometers
115 ° 120 °
Forest augury in Borneo: indigenous on a case study of the forest augury of the Kantu’,
environmental knowledge – about the one Dayak group of West Kalimantan (Figure 9.1).
limits to knowledge of the The Kantu’ are a tribal people who meet subsist-
ence food needs through the cultivation of upland
environment (Michael R. Dove)
rice and a wide variety of non-rice cultigens in for-
Current interest in ‘indigenous environmental knowl- est swiddens; they meet market and trade needs
edge’ is based on the premise that indigenous com- through the cultivation in forest gardens of Parà
munities possess knowledge of their physical rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and, to a lesser extent,
environment that is privileged by virtue of great time- black pepper (Piper nigrum).
depth, intimate daily association, and unique cultural Kantu’ augury is based on the belief that the
and ritual perspectives. It is argued that scientific major deities of the spirit world foresee events in
study of this knowledge can yield lessons that the the human world and that, out of benevolence, they
wider world can use to improve its own environmen- endeavour to communicate this knowledge to the
tal relations. This is an overly narrow view and an Kantu’. By reading the intended meaning of these
inadequate appreciation of indigenous environmen- communications correctly, they believe that they
tal knowledge. One of the lessons of such knowl- too can possess this foreknowledge. The most
edge involves not extending but circumscribing the common media through which the deities express
bounds of knowledge, to tell us not what we can themselves are believed to be seven species of for-
know about the environment, but what we cannot est birds, which are thought to be the sons-in-law
know. This counter-intuitive view is in keeping with of the major deity Singalang Burong. The birds vary
the current turn in science toward less determinis- in age and hence in authority. In ascending order
tic theorizing, as exemplified in chaos theory and they are the Nenak (white-rumped shama,
the study of complex systems. This analysis is based Copsychus malabaricus), Ketupong (rufous piculet,
I Became a Tree
One of the earliest Turkish poems about trees was tural ties with our environment are only one prerequi-
written by the fifteenth-century folk poet Ismail Safevi: site for maintaining a healthy ecosystem. Wars and
famine and the vagaries of climate may play havoc with
I am a pine tree ecosystems no matter how close and powerful our cul-
I look lovely tural ties with the environment are. After all, as an
I moved to the valley from the mountains anonymous Turkish poet once said, ‘If a man is hungry
I am a gift (of nature) to mankind enough, he will eat his own hunger’.
I am the bridges over the river.
(Bezirci 1993; translated by S. A. Tont) Gods of the forest – myth and ritual in
community forestry (William Burch Jr.)
Some traditions widespread throughout Anatolia
have a very positive impact on the state of woodlands. ‘... Human beings from all cultures and all times have
A tree is planted after a child is born, when a son is looked deeply into the forest for larger meaning, yet,
drafted into military service, after a wedding, and also in the end, what we seek to understand is ourselves.
as a memorial to the deceased. Even a disinterested Consequently, we interpret the structure and func-
observer would be impressed by the large number of tioning of forested ecosystems in ways that make
people, ranging from school children to the heads of sense to our specialized vision of the world. Our for-
major corporations, who donate time and money to re- est practices and responses to trees are effigies of
forestation campaigns. But intimate and healthy cul- our predominant social values. They mirror our class
Dr Freda Rajotte
Entering into the shadows of the forest floor, Rolando stood still, every sense
alert to the symphony of sound, movement, light, colour and perfume. Finally,
with awe, he said, ‘You are entering now into the womb of creation! Here evolu-
tion is taking place all around you. On every slope, in every stream, along each
valley and on each hill some unique life form is emerging to fit a specialized
niche. It will form a new link in the chain of interdependent life forms that
constitute the marvel of the Ecuadorian rainforest – the uniqueness of every
slope and every stretch of river.’
Dr Freda Rajotte
Before me stretches the monoculture world
designed by the techno-scientific monoculture of the mind,
which asks only how to increase productivity,
how to grow more grain.
Now the forests are cleared, the marshlands drained,
the rivers dammed, soils chemically ‘enhanced’.
Gone is the lark from the bright sky singing,
the dappled trout in the shady pool,
purple crocus, bramble, fern and toadstool,
frogs’ morning chorus, the bindweed clinging.
And the Devil came to him and said,
‘Order these stones to turn into bread’.
But Jesus answered, ‘The scripture says,
“Man cannot live on bread alone,
but needs every word that God speaks”’.
Winds of Change
(for the Isle of Man)
Roger Pullin (Words spoken over the Lament and Lullaby by Roger Pullin)
Winds of change
Shape the Trees
Shape the rocks, the shoreline
Winds of change
Shape all who
Take the Island to heart.
Winds of change
Blowing strong
Rock the island cradle
Winds of change, make us strong
Through the times apart
Change
On the outside
But deep within the same
Change
On the outside
But deep within the same
Just like the calm
After a storm at sea
And every year the seasons
The seasons of flowers
And frosts
And the Island strong and fair
Through winds of change
The Island strong and fair
Through winds of change
Change
On the outside
But deep within the same.
Paul Chambers
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (PAUL CHAMBERS) ........................................................................................................ 399
Local environmental knowledge .............................................................................................. 399
Local resource management systems ....................................................................................... 400
Conflicts over resource values ................................................................................................. 401
SACRED WATERS (CLAUS BIEGERT) ........................................................................................................ 402
‘PAAVAHU’ AND ‘PAANAQSO’A’: THE WELLSPRINGS OF LIFE AND THE SLURRY OF DEATH
(PETER WHITELEY AND VERNON MASAYESVA) .......................................................................................... 403
Of coal-mines and slurries ...................................................................................................... 405
THE DISCOURSE OF ECOLOGICAL CORRECTNESS: OF DAM BUILDERS
‘RESCUING’ BIODIVERSITY FOR THE CREE (MARIE ROUÉ AND DOUGLAS NAKASHIMA) ...................................... 406
Upichuun – The First Rapids: place of production and reproduction .......................................... 408
Coasters and Inlanders: segmentation and complementarity ..................................................... 408
Men’s roles – women’s roles .................................................................................................... 410
Biodiversity conservation, but the fish nevertheless are lost ....................................................... 410
GWICH’IN ATTITUDES TO FISH (GLEB RAYGORODETSKY) ............................................................................ 412
Dhik’ii – Dolly Varden Charr ................................................................................................... 412
Luk zheii – Whitefish .............................................................................................................. 413
SEASONAL WETLANDS (FLEUR NG’WENO) ............................................................................................. 414
COMPETITION BETWEEN ANCESTORS AND CHINESE TRADERS IN THE ARU ISLANDS, INDONESIA
(MANON OSSEWEIJER) ...................................................................................................................... 416
THE LOSS OF CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND MARINE RESOURCE SUSTAINABILITY: THE IMPACT IN HAWAI’I
(WILLIAM WALLACE MOKAHI STEINER) ................................................................................................... 417
The kapu system as a response to natural laws ........................................................................ 418
Problems in Paradise .............................................................................................................. 419
Loss of world .......................................................................................................................... 420
WESTERN SAMOAN VIEWS OF THE ENVIRONMENT (CLARK PETERU) ............................................................ 421
CUSTOMARY MAORI FISHERIES (NGA KAI O TE MOANA, MINISTRY OF MAORI DEVELOPMENT) ........................... 422
INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE AND AMAZONIAN BLACKWATERS OF HUNGER
(JANET M. CHERNELA) ....................................................................................................................... 423
Tukanoan fishing .................................................................................................................... 424
The agricultural alternative ..................................................................................................... 425
Conclusions ........................................................................................................................... 426
397
A JAPANESE VIEW ON WHALES AND WHALING (ARNE KALLAND) ............................................................... 426
The cultural significance of whaling ......................................................................................... 427
Discussion .............................................................................................................................. 430
GLOBAL PRESERVATION AND THE CREATION OF A PEST: MARINE MAMMALS AND
LOCAL RESPONSE TO A MORATORIUM IN ARCTIC ICELAND (NÍELS EINARSSON) .............................................. 431
TEXT BOXES
BOX 10.1: THE FLOODING OF RIVER SIO (BEATRICE B. MALOBA)
FIGURE 10.2: SERIES OF PHOTOGRAPHS BY J. BOBBISH ILLUSTRATING THE SEINE-FISHING TECHNIQUE USED BY THE
CHISASIBI CREE AT THE FIRST RAPIDS SITE ON LA GRANDE RIVER, QUEBEC.
Introduction (Paul Chambers) symbol– than water in Hopi religious thought and
practice.’ For the Tukanoan fishermen of the Brazil-
Rivers, lakes, seas and oceans and the plant and ian Amazon, the integrity of the river-margin spawn-
animal life associated with them are important to ing grounds of the fish they depend on are crucial to
every culture on the planet and form an explicit or the long-term maintenance of their fisheries.
implicit part of the religious beliefs and cultural her- Chernela (this chapter) describes how these very
itage of almost all human cultures. They are focal sites are frequently deemed sacred and therefore
points of myth, folklore, art, cultural and religious protected. In the Japanese coastal towns where whal-
imagery, diet, trade, and leisure and recreation. ing has been a way of life for centuries, whales have
From the spiritual value of a sacred spring to come to acquire great cultural, social and religious
the daily catch of fish from a tropical reef, many peo- importance as well as providing an important source
ples have an ancient and intimate relationship with of food. A taboo on hunting whales with calves serves
the water around them and the life it contains. For to conserve whale stocks.
many, the plants and animals that the sea or rivers The essays in this chapter serve to remind us
provide are valued as sources of food, medicine or that the value of the natural environment cannot sim-
income. For an artisanal fisherman, for example, the ply be measured with a check-list of plant and ani-
sea represents a source of food for the family or of mal species and their abundance and distribution.
goods to trade or sell at the market. Clark (this chap- Roué and Nakashima’s study of the effects of a hy-
ter) describes the essentially utilitarian views of dro-power project on the Chisasibi Cree of Quebec
nature in Western Samoa: ‘Survival requires prag- powerfully illustrates the consequences of ignoring
matism not aestheticism… Nature exists to feed, to the cultural aspects of biodiversity. In this instance
house, then to satisfy cultural obligations’. the unique features of the site that once made it so
Andersson and Ngazi (1995) conducted a de- important to the Cree as both a fishing spot and a
tailed survey of the perceptions and values of ma- meeting place were lost, although threatened fish
rine resources by the inhabitants of Mafia Island, populations were preserved .
Tanzania’s first marine National Park. They found Indigenous peoples can, and indeed must, play
that overwhelmingly the most important values given a central role if marine and aquatic resources are to
were either direct ‘consumption values’ – the provi- be effectively conserved. Local communities often
sion of food or building materials – or ‘production have a detailed knowledge of their environment
values’ – the provision of goods that could be sold gained by observation over many generations. They
or exchanged. Spiritual or cultural values may be may also implement traditional resource manage-
harder to define or measure but they are surely no ment frameworks such as rules of tenure and exclu-
less important in determining the priorities for con- sion which have successfully served to sustain or
servation efforts. Cultural and utilitarian values are even augment biotic diversity over many centuries
often closely interlinked so that those resources with (McNeely 1992; Toledo 1991). ‘Biosphere people’
great utilitarian value – such as a spring or a par- (Gadgil 1993a) are the best-motivated guardians of
ticularly important plant or animal species – may be their marine and aquatic environments because they
given a religious or ritual significance that ensures are materially dependent on their long-term preser-
their safeguarding. vation.
Among the Hopi of the South-western United
States (Whiteley and Masayesva, this chapter), wa- Local environmental knowledge
ter is the key to their survival in a desert environ-
ment and their relationship to water has been Many studies have documented the extensive envi-
enshrined at the core of their culture and beliefs. ronmental knowledge of traditional coastal (includ-
‘How Hopis get and use water is a major part of their ing river and lake shore) societies. This knowledge
identity, religious beliefs, ritual practices, and their is most often practically-oriented and directed to-
daily engagements and concerns… It is hard to im- wards means of locating and harvesting resources.
agine anything more sacred –as substance or In this chapter, for example, Raygorodetsky
au
Kuujjuarapik
sc
api
Lac
a ni
Whapmagoostui R.
C
Bienville
Gra
nd
r i v iè re de Baleine
e
la
G re
a t whal e R.)
(
Fontagnes
(Lake Bienville)
R. Kanaaupscow
Km 520
Km 580
Réservoir ncelo
R. Vi t t e
de La Grande 2 Réservoir
(La Grande 2 Reservoir) de La Grande 3
LG 1 (La Grande 3 Reservoir) Km 460
Chisasibi L a G ran d e R i v i è r e LG 2 Réservoir
LG 3 LG 4
Km 20 Km 400 Caniapiscau
Km 80 Km 340
Km 580 (Caniapiscau Reservoir)
Km 280 Réservoir
Km 40 Km 100
Km 220 de La Grande 4
Km 160
R. (La Grande 4 Reservoir)
Lac a kami
S
Km 520
Wemindji Sakami
(Lake Sakami)
Lac
Km 460 Boyd
(Lake Boyd) Restriction only for women 15 to 40 years old
Restriction seulement pour les femmes de 15 à 40 ans
Baie James Réservoir
(James Bay) aca Km 400
R . O pin Opinaca
Eastmain (Opinaca reservoir) ain
ain
stm
R . E astm Do not eat any of the predatory species
. Ea
R Ne pas consommer les espèces prédatrice
0 20 100 km Do not eat any fish from that part or the river
Matagami Ne pas consommer de poisson de cette partie de la rivière
Figure 10.1: Map of eastern James Bay, Quebec, showing the village of Chisasibi near the mouth of La Grande River and the series of
reservoirs created by the La Grande Hydroelectric Project. This map is part of a pamphlet prepared by the Cree Board of Health, the Cree
Regional Authority and Hydro-Quebec, which instructs the Cree not to eat any fish of any kind caught in the river between the LG1 (First
Rapids) and LG2 dams because of high concentrations of mercury in their flesh.
of exceptional cultural importance. It symbolized the to Hydro-Quebec, the State hydroelectric company,
separation and unity of ‘Coaster’ and ‘Inlander’ Cree, the land area flooded by Phase I of the La Grande
a place of sharing and exchange. Here, amidst the Hydroelectric Complex is no more than 3.4 percent
bounty of fish returning fat from the sea and ripen- (Chartrand 1992; Figure 10.1). Through this statis-
ing berries thick on the land, the two groups reu- tical abstraction, parcels of land are judged to be
nited each year to renew social ties, to fish in tandem, equivalent, brushing aside the possibility that flooded
to join forces in work and pleasure, and to celebrate lands (riparian habitats, valley bottoms, rapids, etc.)
in this manner a partnership of long date. Construc- may be of exceptional ecological or cultural signifi-
tion of the La Grand 1 powerhouse over the First Rap- cance. And fundamental to the issue of scale is the
ids obliterated this privileged site of encounter between question, ‘3.4 percent of what?’ For the State, the
these complementary groups and the fish that they unit of reference is the recently-created adminis-
came together to harvest. Without a place for the en- trative zone of 350,000 square kilometres, two-
counter, the encounter could no longer take place. thirds the size of France. This ‘James Bay
The question ‘for whom is biodiversity con- Territory’ represents for them ‘an immense terri-
served?’ raises the issue of scale. When – under the tory for development’, awaiting the progressive
impetus of the Convention on Biological Diversity – exploitation of water, forest, mineral and other
threatened genomes, species or ecosystems are in- natural resources. For the traditional inhabitants
ventoried and actions for conservation are advocated of the land, however, the unit of reference has quite
at the planetary level, the concern is for biodiversity another set of boundaries. It is the local hunting
as a global inheritance. For those who rely directly band, or more recently the village, which deter-
upon these resources, however, conservation of mines territory and identity for the Cree. Cree ter-
‘their’ animals and plants is a local concern, delim- ritories are many times smaller than the James
ited by territories whose culturally-defined bounda- Bay Territory of the State, and for the Chisasibi
ries are distinct both from those of the scientist and band in particular the percentage of land that has
those of the State. vanished beneath the La Grande reservoirs is an
In the James Bay case, issues of scale and the order of magnitude greater than the figure set forth
definition of region or territory are crucial. According by Hydro-Quebec.
Beatrice B. Maloba
The River Sio empties into Lake Victoria in the Samia district in Western Kenya. The river in spate
causes the lake to flood and the fish mentioned are actually lake fish, but only get swept out onto the
land when the river floods. There are many causes for reduced annual flooding on the River Sio and in
Kenya in general. They include a changing rainfall pattern, clearing of forest and wetlands for agricul-
ture, soil erosion from farmland, cultivating close to river banks and construction along the lake
shore. These factors reduce beneficial annual flooding but cause destructive floods every few years.
‘A long time ago, the people of Sianja village in Samia looked forward to the River Sio’s floods with
joy. With joy, because the floods made fish readily available by spilling them into the Sianja swamp.
River Sio usually flooded in April and May. It burst its banks just a few kilometres before spilling into
Lake Victoria. As soon as the floodwaters subsided, village folk, both fishermen and non-fishermen,
rushed to the swamp. There they simply picked up the fish of their choice. They left the unwanted fish
to waste away, or for the birds to eat.’
‘The village people preferred to collect tilapia, called engeke, and lungfish, called obuyoko and emumi.
Tilapia and lungfish were a delicacy, as well as being easy to preserve for future use. Sianja people ate
obuyoko and emumi almost throughout the year. As soon as the people returned home, with special
baskets full of fish, the fresh engeke was eaten. Engeke were cleaned, the scales scraped off, and the
stomach cut open. The eggs were used as food, and the rest of the insides were thrown away. The fish
was then cut into pieces and cooked in a pot. About six medium-sized tilapia fish could fit into a large
pot. It was a big feast for a family.
‘After eating there was a bit of rest. Then tasks were divided among the people. The women in the
homestead fetched water for cleaning the rest of the fish. In preparation for smoking, the young girls
went to collect firewood. The young men split logs for making fires for smoking the roasting fish. Fish
was an important food for the Samia people. In Sianja village there were experts in smoking and sun-
drying techniques. In each homestead there was a special spot for preparing fish. Tilapia were pre-
pared for smoking in much the same way as for eating fresh. Small lungfish were cleaned and the
inner organs removed. Then they were strung on a special stick. Lungfish are long and narrow. The
fish’s tail was pierced, and the stick passed through it. Then the fish was folded over, and the stick
passed through its open mouth. A stick would hold a row of five to eight small lungfish. Depending on
the catch, some families would prepare a basket full of sticks, holding a lot of small obuyoko. Emumi,
the large lungfish, were cleaned in the same way. If there were any eggs, they were removed very
Competition between ancestors and lar areas of land and sea (including flats and beaches)
Chinese traders in the Aru islands, although marine resources are commonly utilized with-
Indonesia (Manon Osseweijer) out asking permission.
Beside the local Aruese there are other, non-
The Aru islands are located in the extreme south- local, people active in this region: Buginese and
east of Maluku province, near Irian Jaya in Indone- Butonese (from Sulawesi province) fishermen in-
sia. The archipelago consists of six main islands – volved in large-scale shark fisheries; Sumatran–Chi-
Kola, Wokam, Kobroor, Maikoor, Koba and Trangan nese or Taiwanese fishing for ikan merah (red
– which are separated by deep channels, and many snappers); Benjina-based shrimp trawling fishermen;
smaller islands along the east coast, surrounded by live-fish traders from Hong Kong; Chinese owners
vast coral reefs and sandy seagrass beds. The Aru of pearl oyster farms; and Chinese traders–shopkeep-
islands are thinly populated with a population of al- ers in the villages. Marine resources, as well as other
most 60,000 in 1994 (Djohani 1996) spread over products like sago (Metroxylon), copra and some-
8,000 square kilometres with the majority living in times meat and vegetables, are all sold to these shop-
one of 125 small villages. Beltubur is one such vil- keepers, either in the villages or in Meror, a small
lage on the southernmost island, Trangan. trade settlement. Trade in marine products has long
The Aruese are sedentary coastal foragers, been in the hands of outsiders – first the Buginese,
mainly involved in deer and pig hunting, gardening, Makassarese and ‘Malays’, and later, since the sec-
fishing and gathering in the mangroves, on the beach ond half of the nineteenth century, the Chinese (Van
and at sea. These activities are partly dependent on Eijbergen 1866). Aruese villagers collect marine
the two climatic seasons, the monsoons: in general, products to sell to Chinese shopkeepers in exchange
the east monsoon (May–November) allows people to for cash or to barter for commodities like consumable
collect shellfish, crabs and sea cucumbers on the goods. Traders or shopkeepers allow villagers to take
beach in front of the village and on the tidal flats; to goods from the shop before their foraging trips and then
do some subsistence fishing; to work in their gardens; bring back marine produce to settle the debt.
and to hunt deer and wild pig in the savannah and for- The Chinese shopkeeper can also give credit to
est. During the west monsoon (December–April) peo- buy an engine for a locally made boat (belang) or to
ple mainly focus on marine resources and are involved finance weddings, adat ceremonies or feasts such as
in skin-diving for pearl oysters, collecting sea cucum- Lebaran (the end of Ramadan, the Moslem fasting
bers on the tidal flats and in deeper areas, and very month). Most of the time people have ongoing debts
small-scale commercial fishing (sharks and grouper to the shopkeepers.
species). Every village has specific family groups, called For some within the Beltubur community, an-
kalaimon (clan) and golan (lineage), which own particu- cestors are important and people understand the
Restrictions on harvest kapu days dependent on spawning season or seasonal, not dependent on spawning but
religious restriction some size restrictions
Market restricted to local population not necessarily restricted, world-wide in some cases
as if they owned it; there it was, apple for the picking; they
swept all before their wave, not knowing or caring
or sometimes even noticing anyone else was there, that
world had adjusted to us, that the different songs in the
different voices promoted the same thing, a kind of
a thinking brain and reacted only in need which raises the question
what is the need of this tiresome and pale race? And how about
that other theory, the one that was used to subtract the Indian,
the Hawaiian, the Aborigine from the spirit of some nurturing
soil or sea, you know, the one which said we did not know
what to do with what we had. Did not know how to be efficient killers
and miners and traders enough so as to control, to own, to build
empires with the resources at our feet; they would teach us how
even if we did not want their language, their plans, their seed,
even if we did not need these new thoughts on how to be a human.
And in the thinking about these things I have a new theory, a kind of
pathogenic idea, one which builds on the very best of their own knowledge
and is the only explanation I can see. It goes like this: suppose there
is a virus that recognizes only certain gene sequences in the
archetype of the pale ones; suppose it knows how to destroy the spirit of
Moral Conscience.....?
Jeff Golliher
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (JEFF GOLLIHER) ........................................................................................................... 437
Environmental philosophy and ecology as values criticism ........................................................ 437
The earth and sustainable communities ................................................................................... 445
Has a global ethic emerged? .................................................................................................. 446
Conclusions: biodiversity and the sacred ................................................................................. 448
ALL MY RELATIONS: PERSPECTIVES FROM INDIGENOUS PEOPLES (CHIEF OREN LYONS) ...................................... 450
HOMELESS IN THE ‘GLOBAL VILLAGE’ (VANDANA SHIVA) ........................................................................... 452
SPIRITUAL BELIEFS AND CULTURAL PERCEPTIONS OF SOME KENYAN COMMUNITIES
(MARY GETUI) .................................................................................................................................. 455
ECOFEMINISM: DOMINATION, HEALING AND WORLD VIEWS
(ROSEMARY RADFORD RUETHER) ........................................................................................................... 457
TWO CONCEPTIONS OF BIODIVERSITY VALUE (JOHN O’NEILL AND ALAN HOLLAND) ........................................ 460
Sustainability and natural capital ............................................................................................ 461
Time, history and biodiversity ................................................................................................. 461
KANTIAN AND UTILITARIAN APPROACHES TO THE VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY (MARK SAGOFF) .............................. 463
Two frameworks for decision-making ...................................................................................... 463
Is human well-being the only obligation? ................................................................................. 465
SELLING PIGEONS IN THE TEMPLE: THE BLASPHEMY OF MARKET METAPHORS IN AN ECOSYSTEM
(TIMOTHY C. WEISKEL) ....................................................................................................................... 466
NATURE AND CULTURE IN THE VALUATION OF BIODIVERSITY (BRYAN G. NORTON) .......................................... 468
New beginnings ..................................................................................................................... 469
Valuing biodiversity in place ................................................................................................... 470
ON BIORESPONSIBILITY (JAMES A. NASH) .............................................................................................. 471
BIODIVERSITY, FAITH AND ETHICS (DIETER T. HESSEL) ................................................................................. 474
INTERBEING: PRECEPTS AND PRINCIPLES OF AN APPLIED ECOLOGY
(JOAN HALIFAX AND MARTY PEALE) ...................................................................................................... 475
The ramifications of dualism ................................................................................................... 475
Shifting the emphasis to relationships ...................................................................................... 476
PSYCHOSPIRITUAL EFFECTS OF BIODIVERSITY LOSS IN CELTIC CULTURE AND ITS
CONTEMPORARY GEOPOETIC RESTORATION (ALASTAIR MCINTOSH) .............................................................. 480
Celtic nature poetry ................................................................................................................ 480
Cauterization of the heart? ..................................................................................................... 481
Towards a cultural psychotherapy ........................................................................................... 482
THE ECOLOGY OF ANIMISM (DAVID ABRAM) ........................................................................................... 483
WHERE IS THE ENVIRONMENT? (JAMES HILLMAN) .................................................................................... 486
435
RECONNECTING WITH THE WEB OF LIFE: DEEP ECOLOGY, ETHICS AND ECOLOGICAL LITERACY
(FRITJOF CAPRA) ............................................................................................................................... 489
Deep ecology and ethics ......................................................................................................... 489
Ecological literacy .................................................................................................................. 490
FORMING ‘THE ALLIANCE OF RELIGIONS AND CONSERVATION’ (TIM JENSEN) ................................................ 492
Common key-concepts of the religions ..................................................................................... 494
Religiously based projects ....................................................................................................... 496
The ‘greening’ of world religions ............................................................................................. 497
TEXT BOXES
BOX 11.1: ART AND ENVIRONMENT, OR LOOK HERE (MARGOT MCLEAN)
BOX 11.3: TEN THESES FOR BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT (DENIS GOULET)
BOX 11.5: ‘ALL THAT IS – IS A WEB OF BEING’ (WILLIAM N. ELLIS AND MARGARET M. ELLIS)
BOX 11.6: OF PANDAS AND RELIGION: THE ROAD TO ASSISI (MARTIN PALMER)
BOX 11.7: ‘COMMUNING BEFORE SUPERMARKETS’AND ‘BRINGING IN THE SHEAVES’ (CARTER REVARD)
Ethical, Moral and Religious Concerns
Jeff Golliher
Margot McLean
When speaking about art and the environment one must ask a few questions: What constitutes envi-
ronment? Is it to be perceived mainly as habitat? If so, what habitat? How does the public connect
with ‘environmental issues’, and how does the scientific study of ecological processes bear on the
mind and hand of the artist? Does the artist follow trends or advance societal consciousness? What
are the spiritual connections, and can a work of art challenge our habitual perceptions of how we look
at the world – how we ‘see’?
As a visual artist, I would like to take up one of these issues; namely, the challenge to our habits of
seeing. How we ‘look’ at what’s there, how we see the world, is directly related to how we regard it,
and therefore what we do with it. The more unconscious we are of our surroundings, the less we have
to take them into account and the more likely we are to neglect or abuse them. This is one purpose of
the artist: to make our perceptions more conscious.
Another purpose is to change perceptual habits, which is not a simple task in a place like Manhattan
where the pace is moving faster and faster and information overwhelms our perceptual apparatus.
Here, in New York, we are a culture that ‘looks’ just long enough to identify and classify. It’s easy, but
do we observe what is actually here? A tree, a mouse, a building – the world becomes generic. Moreo-
ver, doesn’t this inability to see diversity in the things around us add to our acceptance of a monoculture
and the loss of biodiversity? What about that particular tree that has been growing in that particular
place for the last 200 years, holding that specific ground together with its roots which spread halfway
across that town. Do we even have the capacity to respond to a particular tree rather than to trees in
general? I believe we do; however, there is a risk in seeing. The risk is that some unknown emotion,
some unknown feeling may be exposed, uncovered. To look carefully is to be surprised.
Artists have always tried to show things in a different way: to break habitual images and make fresh ones.
Artists are the culture’s image-makers. In our increasingly conservative climate, politically, art has taken
a marginal role in the shaping of philosophies and psychologies, and therefore has had little influence on
our thinking about the environment. This political climate is self-serving and human-centred. My notion of
environmental art is other than human-centred. Perhaps it is ‘place’ centred, allowing specific faces of the
world – particular animals and plants – to speak to human consciousness through the work.
For many years, my work focused on the more political aspect of our ecological crisis – which I
consider as my finger-pointing work. But I moved away from the more in-your-face kind of preaching
art because I realized I had failed to allow the spirit of what was being painted to enter into the piece.
It remained a political idea. A good idea, but not what I was trying to accomplish. It felt as if I were
worshipping at an altar that was far too strict, closing out other voices and emotions. I wanted to
create a prayer to those things other-than-human – a space where the viewer could enter and not be
preached at, but be left alone to look. Whatever it was that invoked in me to paint, that is what I
wanted to reverberate out to those who looked.
The first step in restoring the value of the ‘other-than-human’ world is to see the image of things as they are
– before scientific knowledge analyses it, before its place in the human scheme of things is assigned, before
our judgements about beauty and ugliness, good and bad are formed. The image will reveal meaning.
There is an objectivity in the eye perceiving the image of an animal, a street, a chair – and I think this
objectivity is like that of scientists and therefore of equal importance to understanding the world. This
creative eye allows things out there to show themselves beyond one’s own personal opinions and
feelings. David Ignatow once wrote: ‘I should be content to look at a mountain for what it is and not as
a comment on my life’.
Finn Lynge
Humanity is torn between diverse identities on the one level and strong currents towards greater unity on the
other, and we are only at the beginning of finding out what is ‘good’ or ‘bad’ for humankind as a whole.
(Robert Muller 1984)
These prophetic words have been highlighted by remarkable developments and initiatives on the in-
ternational scene, as policy-makers try to safeguard not only biological diversity, but cultural diver-
sity as well. The 1980s saw the upsurge of basic concerns about the ethical dimensions of conservation
and the proper assessment of indigenous peoples in the use and management of nature. Ethical issues
seemed to spring primarily from a growing public concern for animal welfare, while questions of
defining the proper place for indigenous peoples in the consultation and decision-making processes of
nature management appeared from human rights-oriented NGOs.
Obviously, the two concerns ought not be in conflict with one another since both deal with rights and
duties on the part of humans. But in practice, the two have often clashed. The anti-seal-skin cam-
paigns, for example, have reoccurred since the 1970s depending upon public sentiment for the endear-
ing pups. These campaigns have resulted in the collapse of the international market for seal skins,
followed in turn by the collapse of the traditional Inuit economy. Seal skins are the only traditional
product of any consequence that the Inuit of the Arctic are able to market internationally, and Inuit do
not take pups. The Inuit seal hunt is certainly encompassed by the two international human rights
conventions of 1966, which guarantee that under no circumstances may a people be deprived of their
capacity to live by their own natural resources. However, when it comes to the seal-skin issue, practi-
cally no government has ever taken occasion of these conventions to assume an appropriate leader-
ship role in the shaping of public opinion.
In Tanzania, Western conservationists have been operative in motivating the government to drive the
Maasai off their traditional lands in order to create the – admittedly wonderful – natural reserves of
Serengeti and Ngorongoro. There has never been any proper consultation with the aboriginal peoples
of these lands, the Maasai or others, not to mention efforts towards creating mechanisms for their
participation in the decision-making process. Decidedly, in the Serengeti case, there has been, and
still is, a breach of the human rights of the local populations.
Two more examples need to be mentioned because of the attention they command in public opinion:
the campaigns against the fur trade, which are threatening the livelihood of remaining Indian cultures
of North America, and the campaigns against the trade in elephant ivory, which are contested by
States where elephants abound. In both cases, governments are faced with problems that cannot be
resolved simply by pointing to the principle of sustainability. There is no problem with the abundance
of the animal populations in question. They can readily be harvested in a sustainable manner. The
problem lies elsewhere. As it is stated in Caring for the Earth (IUCN/UNEP/WWF 1991): ‘Perhaps
there is no issue over which human rights and animals have collided with such emotional force. Such
conflicts reveal radically different cultural interpretations of the ethic of living sustainably. Ethical
principles need to be developed to resolve these dilemmas.’ Genuine global co-operation over the
principles underlying good nature management depends upon ‘the recognition of the interdependent
wholeness of humanity’.
We have a right to be listened to, and the fact that some countries have the economy to put up satel-
lites and dominate media and communications does not give them the moral right to impose their own
conservation rationale on others. That is no easy programme to set up. In the debate for and against
consumptive use of nature, polarization has become virtually extreme, and in the rare cases where
dialogue is attempted, the counterparts pose rather like two groups of people trying to shout some-
thing to one another, each from their side of the Grand Canyon. You can see the others moving their
arms and legs, but you cannot hear what they are saying.
Yet, there is no way around it. We must try and hear the others. In matters of conservation and nature
management there must be room for cultural diversity. Otherwise things will simply not function.
Animal rights as an ethical issue also entails respect for human rights, for the human being is also an
animal, and therefore the rights of all animals intertwine. The human rights of the 300 million indigenous
which human welfare and concerns are regarded as however, recent ecotheological work on biodiversity
the primary measure of value; (2) a biocentric ap- from a biblical perspective also contradicts any
proach which considers criteria, e.g. conation or sen- justification of human efforts to dominate our fel-
tience, for establishing the moral standing of low creatures (Nash, Hessel, this chapter). Rep-
individual non-human life-forms; and (3) an ecocentric resentatives of Eastern traditions (Appendix 2;
approach which is informed by the ecology of whole Halifax and Peale, this chapter), on the other hand,
communities and their interdependent relationships. find the ecocentric approach to be generally com-
Ecocentrism challenges the anthropocentric tradi- patible with their spiritual teachings. Although
tions of Islam, Judaism and Christianity (Appendix 2); some environmental ethicists (e.g. Attfield 1991;
Box 11.3: Ten Theses for Biological Diversity and Ethical Development
Denis Goulet
J. Baird Callicott
With the current and more ominous global dimension of the twentieth century’s environmental crisis
now at the forefront of attention, environmental philosophy must strive to facilitate the emergence of
a global environmental consciousness that spans national and cultural boundaries. In part, this re-
quires a more sophisticated cross-cultural comparison of traditional and contemporary concepts of
the nature of nature, human nature, and the relationship between people and nature, than has so far
characterized discussion. I am convinced that the intellectual foundations of the industrial epoch in
world history are an aberration, and agree with Fritjof Capra that a new paradigm is emerging that
will sooner or later replace the obsolete mechanical world-view and its associated values and techno-
logical esprit.
What I envision for the twenty-first century is the emergence of an international environmental ethic
based on the theory of evolution, ecology and the new physics, and expressed in the cognitive lingua
franca of contemporary science. Complementing such an international, scientifically grounded and
expressed environmental ethic – global in scope as well as focus – I also envision the revival of a
multiplicity of traditional cultural environmental ethics that resonate with it and that help to articu-
late it. Thus we may have one world-view and one associated environmental ethic corresponding to
the contemporary reality that we inhabit one planet, that we are one species, and that our deepening
environmental crisis is common and global. And we may also have a plurality of revived and renewed
world-views and associated environmental ethics corresponding to the historical reality that we are
many peoples inhabiting many diverse bioregions apprehended through many and diverse cultural
lenses. But this one and these many are not at odds. Quite the contrary; they may be regarded as a
single but general and abstract metaphysical and moral philosophy expressible in many conceptual
modes. Each of the many world-views and associated environmental ethics may crystallize the inter-
national ecological environmental ethic in the vernacular of a particular and local cultural tradition.
The environmental ethic based on contemporary international science and those implicit in the many
indigenous and traditional cultures can thus be fused to form a unified but multifaceted global envi-
ronmental ethic. Let us by all means think globally and act locally. But let us also think locally as well
as globally and try to tune our global and local thinking as the several notes of a single, yet common,
chord.
[Excerpted from ‘Towards a Global Environmental Ethic’, In: Tucker, M. and Grim, J. (eds), World-
views and Ecology: Religion, philosophy, and the environment. Orbis, Maryknoll, 1994.]
It took a certain kind of courage in the mid-1980s to do what the World Wide Fund for Nature (then
known as World Wildlife Fund) International did. In an era still dominated by a belief in the power of
statistics to shock people into environmental concern and action, WWF saw another way forward.
Ironically, in an era that saw highly emotive and often misguided use of apocalyptic imagery, Garden
of Eden visions and quasi-religious language being used indiscriminately by environmental organiza-
tions trying to awaken public concern, WWF went directly to the religious worlds and asked for help.
By the mid-1980s it was clear to many in conservation that no matter how well-intentioned the envi-
ronmental movement might be, it was failing to deliver the message to the vast majority of people.
More importantly, it was failing to help or make people change their life-styles in order to help save
the world. As David Bellamy, the high-profile British conservationist said at the time, he had been
fighting environmental issues for twenty years and they had all got worse, not better!
It was in this spirit – a spirit of recognizing the need to involve new partners and to seek new motivations
for change – that WWF International, at the suggestion of its President HRH The Prince Philip,
invited the International Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture (ICOREC) to bring together
five of the world’s major faiths in Assisi, Italy, to see what could be done to draw the faiths into active
ecological work. It was a unique gathering in that the conservation/environment world had never
before sat down with the religions in this way. Indeed, never had so many religions come together at
this level on the topic of the environment. As Prince Philip said:
‘We came to Assisi to find vision and hope. Vision to discover a new and caring relationship with the
rest of our living world, and hope that the destruction of nature can be stopped before all is wasted
and lost. I believe that today, in this famous shrine of the patron saint of ecology, a new and powerful
alliance has been forged between the forces of religion and the forces of conservation. I am convinced
that secular conservation has learnt to see the problems of the natural world from a different perspec-
tive and, I hope and believe, that the spiritual leaders have learnt that the natural world of Creation
cannot be saved without their active involvement. Neither can ever be quite the same again.’ (Assisi
Liturgy 1986)
All the faiths expressed grave reservations about the direction and implicit values of conventional
conservation that gave prominence to economics as the main driving force and rationale for conserva-
tion work. Many faith communities found the mythology of free enterprise capitalism dismissive of
any attempt to work from more altruistic, compassionate or even self-sacrificing models of how to
deal with crises. All too often, faiths were told that what they did on their own lands or within their
own faith communities was fine, but could never work in the ‘real world’. Some faith groups ex-
pressed alarm at the anthropocentric nature of the environmental argument; others at the reliance
upon facts over ethos. The coming together of the faiths presaged an enormous questioning of the
assumptions of conservation.
But in return, the faiths had to face the criticism of the environmental groups, that whilst each faith
had fine teachings, it had done very little about them for centuries. This was one reason why it was so
hard in 1985–1986 to find religious leaders and organizations who could reflect upon their long ne-
glected teachings in the light of real engagement with environmental issues.
The Assisi Declarations reflect this and provide a framework for pragmatic programmes of religiously
led or inspired projects. Within just a couple of years, the Orthodox Church particularly under the
personal and theological guidance of His All-Holiness the Ecumenical Patriarch Dimitrios, had pro-
duced its own environmental statement. The Thai Forest monks, Sri Lankan Buddhist activists, and
the newly emerging Network of Engaged Buddhists all developed their own articulations based upon
experience. By 1995, the United Nations could comment that the Network on Conservation and Reli-
gion had reached untold millions who could not be reached by any other network. It is estimated that
by 1995, some 120,000 religion-based communities had engaged in some way or another with envi-
ronmental issues.
Carter Revard
Graham Dutfield
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION (GRAHAM DUTFIELD) ..................................................................................................... 505
Bioprospecting or biopiracy? .................................................................................................. 506
The Convention on Biological Diversity and Intellectual Property Rights ..................................... 507
The CBD, the World Trade Organization and the FAO International
Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources .................................................................................. 510
Integrating rights for community control ................................................................................... 511
THE TRAGEDY OF ENCLOSURE (GEORGE MONBIOT) .................................................................................. 515
PROPERTY RIGHTS: CLARIFYING THE CONCEPTS (BHASKAR VIRA) .................................................................. 517
Can biodiversity be ‘owned’? .................................................................................................. 520
PROPERTY, AGENCY, TIME, CULTURE, SPIRIT (JOHN WIENER) ....................................................................... 520
Individual and collective agency, and the village as firm ........................................................... 521
Humans in the environment ..................................................................................................... 523
Time, substitution and capital mobility ..................................................................................... 523
Culture and spirituality – cultural, social, political, analytical? ................................................... 524
BIODIVERSITY, CORNUCOPIA OF KNOWLEDGE (ASTRID SCHOLZ AND IGNACIO CHAPELA) .................................... 525
SELLING NATURE TO SAVE IT: BIODIVERSITY AND THE GLOBAL ECONOMIC PARADIGM (KATHY MCAFEE) ................ 526
Diversity as a commodity ........................................................................................................ 527
The economic paradigm and the Convention on Biological Diversity ......................................... 528
Defending biodiversity: on whose terms? ................................................................................. 529
THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND EQUITABLE BENEFIT-SHARING:
AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS (JOSEPH HENRY VOGEL) .................................................................................. 530
THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY TO THE LOITA MAASAI OF KENYA
(DAVID J. STEPHENSON JR.) .................................................................................................................. 531
BEYOND TRIPS: PROTECTING COMMUNITIES’ KNOWLEDGE (CARLOS M. CORREA) ........................................... 533
CULTURAL AND POLITICAL DIMENSIONS OF BIOPROSPECTING (DARSHAN SHANKAR) ....................................... 534
MANAGING ENVIRONMENTS SUSTAINABLY THROUGH UNDERSTANDING AND
ASSIMILATING LOCAL ECOLOGICAL KNOWLEDGE: THE CASE OF THE HONEY BEE
(ANIL K. GUPTA) ............................................................................................................................... 535
TRADITIONAL RIGHTS TO LAND IN INDONESIA: A HIGH POTENTIAL FOR CONFLICTS
(DELPHINE ROCH) .............................................................................................................................. 537
THE CRITICAL IMPORTANCE OF PEOPLE’S PARTICIPATION IN PAPUA NEW GUINEA’S DEVELOPMENT PLANS
(TAHEREH NADARAJAH) ...................................................................................................................... 538
The role of knowledge in facilitating participation .................................................................... 539
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................. 540
503
PERCEPTIONS OF NATURAL RESOURCE USE RIGHTS AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY:
THE CASE OF JUREIA (GEMIMA BORN) ................................................................................................... 540
Considerations and proposals ................................................................................................. 541
MAORI CULTURAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY CLAIM: WAI 262 (MAUI SOLOMON) ...................................... 541
A FULL LAW (CHRISTINE MORRIS) .......................................................................................................... 543
The two laws .......................................................................................................................... 543
The ego and the killing fields .................................................................................................. 544
TEXT BOXES
BOX 12.1: USING IPRS TO PROTECT TRADITIONAL BIODIVERSITY-RELATED KNOWLEDGE: SOME RECENT PROPOSALS
relating to genetic resources use and environmental logical diversity’. Equitable benefit sharing should
management within national laws can enhance bio- be seen as a way of enabling governments to fulfil
diversity conservation. this article, but incentives should not only be in terms
A provision that is frequently overlooked in the of economic gains. It may be that granting greater
context of community resource rights is in Article social justice for traditional communities would be
11 (Incentive Measures), according to which parties the most effective incentive measure. Vogel (this
are expected to, ‘adopt economically and socially chapter) considers means of achieving the fair and
sound measures that act as incentives for the con- equitable sharing of economic benefits. In contrast,
servation and sustainable use of components of bio- McAfee (this chapter) is highly critical of economistic
Any conflict that arises between peoples stems from The two laws
a lack of respect for each other’s law. This lack of
respect emanates from fear of the unknown rather Firstly I will set out what I see as a diverging focus
than one wanting dominance over ‘the other’. Simi- of the two laws, which leads to tension and acts of
larly, in the case of the biodiversity argument in domination.
Australia, at the core of the dispute are differences On the one hand there is Indigenous Law, which
in law. These core differences are best explored I term ‘a full law’, i.e. a law that is applicable to
through the concept of custodianship, for it is custodi- both the seen reality and the unseen reality. The
anship over the maintenance of the world’s biodiver- unseen reality is as valid and impacts on the indig-
sity that is everyone’s concern, whether they wish to enous world-view as much as does the seen. This
nurture it or to exploit it. Before discussing this differ- law, which is always prefaced, ‘The Law’ when used
ence however I will tell you of my place in indigenous by the indigenous, stems from a belief that humans
Australia; indigenous Australians being the custodi- must reciprocate with every aspect of life on earth
ans of the oldest continuous culture in the world. and the spiritual realm. The penalty for a breach of
I am a descendant of the Kombumerri/ this law is called ‘payback’. This colloquial term goes
Munaljahlai clans of the east coast of Australia, who to the heart of the guiding principal of reciprocity,
are among the 200 or more clans on the Australian which in turn shapes the custodial ethic.
Janis Alcorn
547
Maintaining the Mosaic
Darrell Addison Posey
THIS VOLUME COMPRISES A RICH MOSAIC OF DOCUMENTA- identifies as ‘indigenous and traditional technolo-
tion by people and peoples around the world who gies’. International laws that guarantee protection
deplore the loss of cultural and biological diversity. of traditional knowledge and genetic resources are
The wide range of contributors shows that those con- inadequate to non-existent, making most bio-
cerned with globalization of markets and economic prospecting, food and agricultural development,
values, linked to devastation of local communities trade and alternative product initiatives predatory
and the environments upon which they depend, are on local communities, rather than supportive of them.
not just isolated purists, cultural conservatives and Equity has yet to play the dominant role it must
idealistic environmentalists. The volume has pro- play in the orientation of global initiatives to use and
vided depositions from scientists, scholars, political conserve biodiversity. Human rights have yet to be-
and spiritual leaders, indigenous elders, traditional come the guiding factor they must be for equitable
farmers, shamans and curers, poets, artists, song- trade and commercial exchanges. And diversity is
writers, journalists and others. Together they speak still seen as an enemy to be vanquished by globali-
for the vast majority of global citizens who are wor- zation, patents and trade monopolies.
ried about the world we are bequeathing to future This volume has shown that the best way to
generations of Homo sapiens and other life-forms. conserve the diversity of cultures and nature is
Recently a Special Session of the United Na- through the empowerment of the people and peo-
tions General Assembly was convened to evaluate ples whose local knowledges and experiences form
progress five years after the Earth Summit. Most the foundations that conserve much of the earth’s
observers found that the tally for Nation/State ac- remaining biological and ecological diversity. It
tion was poor to mediocre. But some of the parallel would be nice to think that adept anthropologists
processes that have accompanied the global envi- and ethnoecologists (aided by advances in informa-
ronmental movement are finding considerable suc- tion technology) might one day be able to adequately
cesses. Indigenous peoples, for example, have describe TEK systems. But scientists themselves
become significant players in debates on sustainabil- admit that they will never get more than a inkling of
ity, trade, environment and human rights. Traditional the whole, intricate webs of symbols, values, prac-
farmers have become well-organized and their de- tices and information that have evolved in unique
mands increasingly heard through debates in the systems for each society. The only way to employ all
CBD, FAO and elsewhere. Environmental NGOs now the force and sophistication of local communities is
administer considerable funds for, and influence, to allow them to develop and design their own sys-
policies on sustainable development and conserva- tems for change, conservation, land and resource
tion. Professional societies and businesses are in- use. The volume has shown that this can be done
creasingly concerned with ethics and environmental best through communities in equitable relationships
justice. And citizens’ groups have mobilized to im- (true partnerships, if you will) with scientific and
pact significantly on how biosafety and patents-on-life technical advisors – and that it works best when the
issues are viewed by politicians and governments. ‘scientific experts’ are in the role of advisors, not
But there is much to be done. Indigenous peo- commanders.
ples, traditional farmers and local communities are We are faced with some serious multi-disciplinary
further and further marginalized from economic ben- and multi-cultural dilemmas. Some of these are meth-
efits and political power. Traditional Ecological odological, as well as philosophical and political.
Knowledge is still not recognized for its worth, or How can indigenous concepts be used as ‘criteria
taken seriously by the scientific, development and and indicators’ in the development of baseline stud-
political communities. Languages continue to be lost ies of biodiversity? And how can these become cen-
at unprecedented rates – and the knowledge and tral, for example, to environmental impact
resources that are described in those languages are assessments, monitoring activities and national bio-
likewise eroded, only to be replaced by ‘monocultures diversity surveys? How can spiritual and cultural
of the mind’. Resources are limited for investigation values be incorporated into planning and policy de-
of the wider use and application of what the CBD cisions? Can any of this be assigned monetary value?
APPENDIX 1
DECLARATIONS OF THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ ORGANIZATIONS ................................................................ 555
APPENDIX 2
FAITH STATEMENTS ON RELIGION AND ECOLOGY .................................................................................... 603
APPENDIX 3
PARTICIPANTS IN THE PEER REVIEW PROCESS ........................................................................................... 637
APPENDIX 4
THE CONTRIBUTORS ........................................................................................................................... 639
APPENDIX 5
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ........................................................................................................ 649
553
A P P E N D I X 1
IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER:
1.1 DECLARATION OF PRINCIPLES OF THE WORLD COUNCIL OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES .............................. 556
1.2 CHARTER OF THE INDIGENOUS–TRIBAL PEOPLES OF THE TROPICAL FORESTS ....................................... 556
1.3 THE KARI-OCA DECLARATION .................................................................................................. 559
1.4 THE INDIGENOUS PEOPLES’ EARTH CHARTER ............................................................................... 560
1.5 THE MATAATUA DECLARATION ON THE CULTURAL AND INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ....................................................................................................... 564
1.9 STATEMENT FROM THE COICA/UNDP REGIONAL MEETING ON INTELLECTUAL PROPERTY RIGHTS
AND BIODIVERSITY – SANTA CRUZ, BOLIVIA ................................................................................ 571
1.16 THE LETICIA DECLARATION AND PROPOSALS FOR ACTION .............................................................. 581
1.17 INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP ON INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND DEVELOPMENT (OLLANTAYTAMBO) ............ 585
1.18 UN DRAFT DECLARATION ON THE RIGHTS OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ................................................ 586
1.19 PRINCIPLES AND GUIDELINES FOR THE PROTECTION OF THE HERITAGE OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES ............ 591
1.20 INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE FOREST .............................................................. 595
APPENDICES / 555
1.1: Declaration of Principles of the 14. Indigenous Peoples will reassume original
World Council of Indigenous Peoples rights over their material culture, including archaeo-
logical zones, artefacts, designs and other artistic
This declaration was ratified by the IV General expressions.
Assembly of the World Council of Indigenous Peo- 15. All Indigenous Peoples have the rights to
ples. be educated in their own language and to establish
1. All human rights of Indigenous Peoples must their own educational institutions. Indigenous Peo-
be respected. No form of discrimination against In- ples’ languages shall be respected by nation-states
digenous Peoples shall be allowed. in all dealings between them on the basis of equality
2. All Indigenous Peoples have the right to self- and non-discrimination.
determination. By virtue of this right they can freely 16. All treaties reached through agreement be-
determine their political, economic, social, religious tween Indigenous Peoples and representatives of the
and cultural development in agreement with the prin- nation-states will have total validity before national
ciples stated in this declaration. and international law.
3. Every nation-state within which Indigenous 17. Indigenous Peoples have the rights by vir-
Peoples live shall recognize the population, territory tue of their traditions, to freely travel across inter-
and institutions belonging to said peoples. national boundaries, to conduct traditional activities
4. The culture of Indigenous Peoples is part of and maintain family links.
mankind’s cultural patrimony. 18. Indigenous Peoples and their designated
5. The customs and usages of the Indigenous authorities have the right to be consulted and to
Peoples must be respected by the nation-states and authorize the implementation of technological and
recognized as a legitimate source of rights. scientific research conducted within their territories
6. Indigenous Peoples have the right to deter- and the right to be informed about the results of such
mine which person(s) or group(s) is (are) included activities.
in its population. The aforementioned principles constitute the
7. Indigenous Peoples have the right to deter- minimal rights to which Indigenous Peoples are en-
mine the form, structure and jurisdiction of their own titled, and must be complemented by all nation-
institutions. states.
8. The institutions of Indigenous Peoples, like
those of a nation-state, must conform to internation- 1.2: Charter of the Indigenous–Tribal
ally recognized human rights, both individual and Peoples of the Tropical Forests
collective.
9. Indigenous Peoples and their individual mem- Article 1: We, the Indigenous/Tribal Peoples of
bers have the right to participate in the political life the tropical forests, present this charter as a re-
of the nation-state in which they are located. sponse to hundreds of years of continual encroach-
10. Indigenous Peoples have inalienable rights ment and colonization of our territories and the
over their traditional lands and over the use of their undermining of our lives, livelihoods and cultures
natural resources which have been usurped, or taken caused by the destruction of the forests that our sur-
away without the free and knowledgeable consent vival depends on.
of Indian peoples, shall be restored to them. Article 2: We declare that we are the original
11. The rights of the Indigenous Peoples to their peoples, the rightful owners and the cultures that
lands includes: the soil, the sub-soil, coastal territo- defend the tropical forests of the world.
rial waters in the interior, and coastal economic Article 3: Our territories and forests are to us
zones, all within the limits specified by international more than an economic resource. For us, they are
legislation. life itself and have an integral and spiritual value
12. All Indigenous Peoples have the right to for our communities. They are fundamental to our
freely use their natural wealth and resources in or- social, cultural, spiritual, economic and political sur-
der to satisfy their needs and in agreement with prin- vival as distinct peoples.
ciples 10 and 11 above. Article 4: The unity of people and territory is
13. No action or process shall be implemented vital and must be recognized.
which directly and/or indirectly would result in the Article 5: All policies towards the forests must
destruction of land, air, water, glaciers, animal life, be based on a respect for cultural diversity, for a pro-
environment, or natural resources, without the free motion of indigenous models of living, and an under-
and well informed consent of the affected Indigenous standing that our peoples have developed ways of
Peoples. life closely attuned to our environment.
APPENDICES / 557
Article 25: National or international agencies economies and develop mechanisms to establish fair
considering funding development projects which may prices for the products of our forests.
affect us must set up tripartite commissions – in- Article 34: Our policy of development is based,
cluding the funding agency, government representa- first, on guaranteeing our self-sufficiency and mate-
tives and our own communities as represented rial welfare, as well as that of our neighbours; a full
through our representative organizations to carry social and cultural development based on the values
through the planning implementation, monitoring of equity, justice, solidarity and reciprocity, and a
and evaluation of the projects. balance with nature. Thereafter, the generation of a
Article 26: The cancellation of all mining con- surplus for the market must come from a rational
cessions in our territories imposed without the con- and creative use of natural resources, developing our
sent of our representative organizations. Mining own traditional technologies and selecting appropri-
policies must prioritize, and be carried out under our ate new ones.
control, to guarantee rational management and a
balance with the environment. In the case of the Forest policy
extraction of strategic minerals (oil and radioac-
tive minerals) in our territories, we must partici- Article 35: Halt all new logging concessions and
pate in making decisions during planning and suspend existing ones that affect our territories. The
implementation. destruction of forests must be considered a crime
Article 27: An end to imposed development against humanity and a halt must be made to the
schemes and fiscal incentives or subsidies that various antisocial consequences, such as roads
threaten the integrity of our forests. across indigenous cultivations, cemeteries and hunt-
Article 28: A halt to all imposed programmes ing zones; the destruction of areas used for medicinal
aimed at resettling our peoples away from their plants and crafts; the erosion and compression of soil;
homelands. the pollution of our environment; the corruption and
Article 29: A redirection of the development enclave economy generated by the industry; the in-
process away from large-scale projects towards the crease of invasions and settlement in our territories.
promotion of small-scale initiatives controlled by our Article 36: Logging concessions on lands adja-
peoples. The priority for such initiatives is to secure cent to our territories, or which have an impact on
our control over our territories and resources on our environment, must comply with operating con-
which our survival depends. Such projects should ditions – ecological, social, of labour, transport,
be the cornerstone of all future development in the health and others – laid down by the Indigenous
forests. Peoples, who should participate in ensuring that
Article 30: The problems caused in our territo- these are complied with. Commercial timber extrac-
ries by international criminal syndicates trafficking tion should be prohibited in strategic and seriously
in products from plants such as poppy and coca must degraded forests.
be confronted by effective policies which involve our Article 37: The protection of existing natural
peoples in decision-making. forests should take priority over reforestation.
Article 31: Promotion of the health systems of Article 38: Reforestation programmes should
the Indigenous Peoples, including the revalidation be prioritized on degraded lands, giving priority to
of traditional medicine, and the promotion of pro- the regeneration of native forests, including the re-
grammes of modern medicine and primary health covery of all the functions of tropical forests, and
care. Such programmes should allow us to have con- not being restricted only to timber values.
trol over them, providing suitable training to allow Article 39: Reforestation programmes on our
us to manage them ourselves. territories should be developed under the control of
Article 32: Establishment of systems of bilin- our communities. Species should be selected by us
gual and intercultural education. These must revali- in accordance with our needs.
date our beliefs, religious traditions, customs and
knowledge; allowing our control over these pro- Biodiversity and conservation
grammes by the provision of suitable training, in
accordance with our cultures, in order to achieve Article 40: Programmes related to biodiversity
technical and scientific advances for our peoples, in must respect the collective rights of our peoples to
tune with our own cosmo-visions, and as a contribu- cultural and intellectual property, genetic resources,
tion to the world community. gene banks, biotechnology and knowledge of biologi-
Article 33: Promotion of alternative financial cal diversity. This should include our participation
policies that permit us to develop our community in the management of any such project in our terri-
Article 46: The international community, par- The footprints of our ancestors are permanently
ticularly the United Nations, must recognize us In- etched upon the land of our peoples.
digenous Peoples as peoples, as distinct from other
organized social movements, non-governmental or- We the Indigenous Peoples, maintain our inherent
ganizations and independent sectors, and respect our rights to self-determination.
right to participate directly and on the basis of equal-
ity, as Indigenous Peoples, in all fora, mechanisms, We have always had the right to decide our own forms
processes and funding bodies so as to promote and of government, to use our own laws to raise and edu-
safeguard the future of the tropical forests. cate our children, to our own cultural identity with-
out interference.
Education
We continue to maintain our rights as peoples de-
Article 47: The development of programmes to spite centuries of deprivation, assimilation and geno-
educate the general public about our rights as cide.
APPENDICES / 559
We maintain our inalienable rights to our lands and 9. We urge governments to ratify International
territories, to all our resources – above and below – Labour Organization (ILO) Convention 169 to
and to our waters. We assert our ongoing responsi- guarantee an international legal instrument for
bility to pass these on to the future generations. Indigenous Peoples. (Group 2 only.)
10. Indigenous Peoples’ distinct and separate
We cannot be removed from our lands. We, the In- rights within their own territories must be rec-
digenous Peoples, are connected by the circle of life ognized.
to our land and environments. 11. We assert our rights to free passage through
state imposed political boundaries dividing our
We the Indigenous Peoples, walk to the future in traditional territories. Adequate mechanisms
the footprints of our ancestors. must be established to secure this right.
12. The colonial systems have tried to dominate and
Signed at Kari-Oca, Brazil, on the 30th day of May 1992 assimilate our peoples. However, our peoples
remain distinct despite these pressures.
1.4: Indigenous Peoples’ Earth Charter 13. Our indigenous governments and legal systems
must be recognized by the United Nations, State
Human rights and international law governments and International legal instru-
ments.
1. We demand the right to life. 14. Our right to self-determination must be recog-
2. International law must deal with the collective nized.
human rights of Indigenous Peoples. 15. We must be free from population transfer.
3. There are many international instruments 16. We maintain our right to our traditional way of
which deal with the rights of individuals but life.
there are no declarations to recognize collec- 17. We maintain our right to our spiritual way of life.
tive human rights. Therefore, we urge govern- 18. We maintain the right to be free from pressures
ments to support the United Nations Working from multinational (transnational) corporations
Group on Indigenous Peoples’ (UNWGIP) Uni- upon our lives and lands. All multinational (trans-
versal Declaration of Indigenous Rights, which national) corporations which are encroaching
is presently in draft form. upon indigenous lands should be reported to the
4. There exist many examples of genocide against United Nations Transnational Office.
Indigenous Peoples. Therefore, the convention 19. We must be free from racism.
against genocide must be changed to include 20. We maintain the right to decide the direction of
the genocide of Indigenous Peoples. our communities.
5. The United Nations should be able to send In- 21. The United Nations should have a special pro-
digenous Peoples’ representatives, in a peace cedure to deal with issues arising from viola-
keeping capacity, into indigenous territories tions of indigenous treaties.
where conflicts arise. This would be done at 22. Treaties signed between Indigenous Peoples
the request and consent of the Indigenous Peo- and non-Indigenous Peoples must be accepted
ples concerned. as treaties under international law.
6. The concept of Terra Nullius must be eliminated 23. The United Nations must exercise the right to
from international law usage. Many state gov- impose sanctions against governments that vio-
ernments have used internal domestic laws to late the rights of Indigenous Peoples.
deny us ownership of our own lands. These il- 24. We urge the United Nations to include the is-
legal acts should be condemned by the World. sue of Indigenous Peoples in the agenda of the
7. Where small numbers of Indigenous Peoples are World Conference of Human Rights to be held
residing within state boundaries, so-called in 1993. The work done so far by The United
democratic countries have denied Indigenous Nations Inter-American Commission of Human
Peoples the right of consent about their future, Rights and the Inter-American Institute of Hu-
using the notion of majority rule to decide the man Rights should be taken into consideration.
future of Indigenous Peoples. Indigenous Peo- 25. Indigenous Peoples should have the right to
ples’ right of consent to projects in their areas their own knowledge, language, and culturally
must be recognized. appropriate education, including bicultural and
8. We must promote the term ‘Indigenous Peoples’ bilingual education. Through recognizing both
at all fora. The use of the term ‘Indigenous formal and informal ways, the participation of
Peoples’ must be without qualifications. family and community is guaranteed.
APPENDICES / 561
51. Our lands are being used by state governments fects. Failure to do so should be considered a
to obtain funds from the World Bank, the Inter- crime against the Indigenous Peoples. The per-
national Monetary Fund, the Asian Pacific De- son or persons who violate this should be tried
velopment Bank and other institutions which in a world tribunal within the control of Indig-
have led to a loss of our lands and territories. enous Peoples set for such a purpose. This could
52. In many countries our lands are being used for be similar to the trials held after World War II.
military purposes. This is an unacceptable use 62. We have the right to our own development strat-
of the lands. egies based on our cultural practices and with
53. The colonizer governments have changed the a transparent, efficient and viable management
names of our traditional and sacred areas. Our and with economical and ecological viability.
children learn these foreign names and start to 63. Our development and life strategies are ob-
lose their identity. In addition, the changing of structed by the interests of governments and
the name of a place diminishes respect for the big companies and by neoliberal policies. Our
spirits which reside in those areas. strategies have, as a fundamental condition, the
54. Our forests are not being used for their intended existence of International relationships based
purposes. The forests are being used to make on justice, equity and solidarity between human
money. beings and nations.
55. Traditional activities, such as making pottery, 64. Any development strategy should prioritize the
are being destroyed by the importation of indus- elimination of poverty, the climatic guarantee,
trial goods. This impoverishes the local peoples. the sustainable manageability of natural re-
sources, the continuity of democratic societies
Biodiversity and conservation and the respect of cultural differences.
65. The global environmental facility should assign
56. The Vital Circles are in a continuous interrela- at best 20% for Indigenous Peoples’ strategies
tion in such a way that the change of one of its and programs of environmental emergency,
elements affects the whole. improvement of life quality, protection of natu-
57. Climatic changes affect Indigenous Peoples and ral resources and rehabilitation of ecosystems.
all humanity. In addition, ecological systems This proposal in the case of South America and
and their rhythms are affected which contrib- the Caribbean should be concrete in the Indig-
utes to the deterioration of our quality of life enous development fund as a pilot experience
and increases our dependency. in order to be extended to the Indigenous Peo-
58. The forests are being destroyed in the name of ples of other regions and continents.
development and economic gains without con- 66. The concept of development has meant the de-
sidering the destruction of ecological balance. struction of our lands. We reject the current
These activities do not benefit human beings, definition of development as being useful to our
animals, birds and fish. The logging concessions peoples. Our cultures are not static and we keep
and incentives to the timber, cattle and mining our identity through a permanent recreation of
industries affecting the ecosystems and the our life conditions; but all of this is obstructed
natural resources should be cancelled. in the name of so-called developments.
59. We value the efforts of protection of the Bio- 67. Recognizing Indigenous Peoples’ harmonious
diversity but we reject to be included as part of relationship with Nature, indigenous sustain-
an inert diversity which pretend to be main- able development strategies and cultural val-
tained for scientific and folkloric purposes. ues must be respected as distinct and vital
60. The Indigenous Peoples’ strategies should be sources of knowledge.
kept in a reference framework for the formula- 68. Indigenous Peoples have been here since the
tion and application of national policies on en- time before time began. We have come directly
vironment and biodiversity. from the Creator. We have lived and kept the
Earth as it was on the First Day. Peoples who
Development strategies do not belong to the land must go out from the
lands because those things (so called ‘Devel-
61. Indigenous Peoples must consent to all projects opment’ on the land) are against the laws of
in our territories. Prior to consent being ob- the Creator.
tained the peoples must be fully and entirely 69. (a) In order for Indigenous Peoples to assume
involved in any decisions. They must be given control, management and administration of
all the information about the project and its ef- their resources and territories, development
APPENDICES / 563
91. States that have outlawed indigenous lan- 106. In many instances, our songs, dances and cer-
guages and their alphabets should be censored emonies have been viewed as the only aspects
by the United Nations. of our lives. In some instances, we have been
92. We must not allow tourism to be used to dimin- asked to change a ceremony or a song to suit
ish our culture. Tourists come into the commu- the occasion. This is racism.
nities and view the people as if Indigenous 107. At local, national and international levels, gov-
Peoples were part of a zoo. Indigenous Peoples ernments must commit funds to new and exist-
have the right to allow or to disallow tourism ing resources for education and training for
within their areas. Indigenous Peoples, to achieve their sustain-
93. Indigenous Peoples must have the necessary able development, to contribute and to partici-
resources and control over their own education pate in sustainable and equitable development
systems. at all levels. Particular attention should be
94. Elders must be recognized and respected as given to indigenous women, children and youth.
teachers of the young people. 108. All kinds of folkloric discrimination must be
95. Indigenous wisdom must be recognized and stopped and forbidden.
encouraged. 109. The United Nations should promote research
96. The traditional knowledge of herbs and plants into indigenous knowledge and develop a net-
must be protected and passed onto future gen- work of indigenous sciences.
erations.
97. Traditions cannot be separated from land, ter- 1.5: The Mataatua Declaration on the
ritory or science. Cultural and Intellectual Property
98. Traditional knowledge has enabled Indigenous Rights of Indigenous Peoples
Peoples to survive.
99. The usurping of traditional medicines and June 1993
knowledge from Indigenous Peoples should be
considered a crime against peoples. In recognition that 1993 is the United Nations Inter-
100. Material culture is being used by the non-in- national Year for the World’s Indigenous Peoples:
digenous to gain access to our lands and re-
sources, thus destroying our cultures. The Nine Tribes of Mataatua in the Bay of Plenty
101. Most of the media at this conference were only Region of Aotearoa New Zealand convened the First
interested in the pictures which will be sold for International Conference on the Cultural and Intel-
profit. This is another case of exploitation of lectual Property Rights of Indigenous Peoples (12–
Indigenous Peoples. This does not advance the 18 June 1993, Whakatane).
cause of Indigenous Peoples. Over 150 Delegates from fourteen countries at-
102. As creators and carriers of civilizations which tended, including indigenous representatives from Ainu
have given and continue to share knowledge, (Japan), Australia, Cook Islands, Fiji, India, Panama,
experience and values with humanity, we re- Peru, Philippines, Surinam, USA and Aotearoa.
quire that our right to intellectual and cultural The Conference met over six days to consider a
properties be guaranteed and that the mecha- range of significant issues, including; the value of
nism for each implementation be in favour of indigenous knowledge, biodiversity and biotechnol-
our peoples and studied in depth and imple- ogy, customary environmental management, arts,
mented. This respect must include the right music, language and other physical and spiritual
over genetic resources, gene banks, biotechnol- cultural forms. On the final day, the following Decla-
ogy and knowledge of biodiversity programs. ration was passed by the Plenary.
103. We should list the suspect museums and insti-
tutions that have misused our cultural and in- Preamble
tellectual properties.
104. The protection, norms and mechanisms of ar- Recognizing that 1993 is the United Nations Inter-
tistic and artisan creation of our peoples must national Year for the World’s Indigenous Peoples;
be established and implemented in order to Reaffirming the undertaking of United Nations
avoid plunder, plagiarism, undue exposure and Member States to:
use. ‘Adopt or strengthen appropriate policies and/
105. When Indigenous Peoples leave their commu- or legal instruments that will protect indigenous in-
nities, they should make every effort to return tellectual and cultural property and the right to pre-
to the community. serve customary and administrative systems and
APPENDICES / 565
- retroactive coverage of historical as well 3. Recommendations to the United
as contemporary works Nations
- protection against debasement of culturally
significant items In respect for the rights of Indigenous Peoples, the
- co-operative rather than competitive frame- United Nations should:
work 3.1 Ensure the process of participation of Indig-
- first beneficiaries to be the direct descend- enous Peoples in United Nations fora is
ants of the traditional guardians of that strengthened so their views are fairly repre-
knowledge sented.
- multi-generational coverage span 3.2 Incorporate the Mataatua Declaration in its en-
tirety in the United Nations Study on Cultural and
Biodiversity and Customary Environmental Man- Intellectual Property of Indigenous Peoples.
agement 3.3 Monitor and take action against any States
2.6 Indigenous flora and fauna is inextricably bound whose persistent policies and activities dam-
to the territories of indigenous communities and age the cultural and intellectual property rights
any property right claims must recognize their of Indigenous Peoples.
traditional guardianship. 3.4 Ensure that Indigenous Peoples actively con-
2.7 Commercialization of any traditional plants and tribute to the way in which indigenous cultures
medicines of Indigenous Peoples must be man- are incorporated into the 1995 United Nations
aged by the Indigenous Peoples who have in- International Year of Culture.
herited such knowledge. 3.5 Call for an immediate halt to the ongoing Hu-
2.8 A moratorium on any further commercialization man Genome Diversity Project (HUGO) until its
of indigenous medicinal plants and human ge- moral, ethical, socio-economic, physical and
netic materials must be declared until indig- political implications have been thoroughly dis-
enous communities have developed appropriate cussed, understood and approved by Indigenous
protection mechanisms. Peoples.
2.9 Companies, institutions both governmental and
private must not undertake experiments or com- 4. Conclusion
mercialization of any biogenetic resources with-
out the consent of the appropriate Indigenous The United Nations, International and National Agen-
Peoples. cies and States must provide additional funding to
2.10 Prioritize settlement of any outstanding land indigenous communities in order to implement these
and natural resources claims of Indigenous recommendations.
Peoples for the purpose of promoting custom-
ary, agricultural and marine production. 1.6: Recommendations from the
2.11 Ensure current scientific environmental re- conference ‘Voices of the Earth:
search is strengthened by increasing the in- Indigenous Peoples, New Partners
volvement of indigenous communities and of and the Right to Self-determination in
customary environmental knowledge.
Practice’
Cultural objects Amsterdam, Netherlands, 10-11 November 1993
2.12 All human remains and burial objects of Indig-
enous Peoples held by museums and other in- Preamble
stitutions must be returned to their traditional
areas in a culturally appropriate manner. We, the Indigenous Peoples assembled at the Con-
2.13 Museums and other institutions must provide, gress ‘Voices of the Earth: Indigenous Peoples, New
to the country and Indigenous Peoples con- Partners, the Right to Self-determination in Prac-
cerned, an inventory of any indigenous cultural tice’ hereby declare the results of our deliberations
objects still held in their possession. as an important contribution and milestone in our
2.14 Indigenous cultural objects held in museums struggle for promotion, protection and recognition
and other institutions must be offered back to of our inherent rights.
their traditional owners. We, the indigenous participants consider the
outcome of our meeting as a continuation of ALL
indigenous conferences during this important United
Nations Year of the World’s Indigenous Peoples.
APPENDICES / 567
conflicts between Transnational Corpora- (iv) to give financial support to the UN’s dec-
tions and Indigenous Peoples. ade for Indigenous Peoples.
Environment: Demilitarization:
6. Bearing in mind the two major international 8. There should be a demilitarization of indigenous
human rights covenants of December 1966, territories. In this respect it is the special re-
according to which, Part 1, Article 1 in both sponsibility of the Dutch Government to imme-
covenants, no peoples may under any circum- diately stop the low-level flying activities of the
stances be deprived of its own means of sub- Royal Dutch Air Force above the territories of
sistence, the Innu people in Canada. Compulsory mili-
Conscious that the 1992 Rio Summit recognized tary service for indigenous people must be abol-
the valuable role of Indigenous Peoples in main- ished.
taining a sustainable use of natural resources,
and underlined in Principle 22, the pressing Dutch Government’s responsibilities:
need for Indigenous Peoples’ active participa- 9. In addition to observing the above recommen-
tion in environmental management, dations, the Dutch Government is urged to press
Acknowledging the Brundtland Commission re- for an enhanced allocation to Indigenous Peo-
port’s recommendation of 1987 about the em- ples of the resources of the UN agencies and
powerment of vulnerable groups, other multilateral bodies.
Aware that the World Conservation Strategy of
1991, ‘Caring for the Earth’, supports a special Cultural, scientific and intellectual property
role for Indigenous Peoples in global efforts for 1. All relevant agencies and programmes of the
a sound environment, Dutch Government, European Community and
Mindful that the World Conservation Union the United Nations (e.g. World Bank, WIPO,
(IUCN) on its 18th General Assembly unani- UPOV UNCTAD, UNEP, UNDP, Human Rights
mously adopted two resolutions supporting the Center, ILO, GATT etc.) should develop a com-
Indigenous Peoples’ cause, including their right mon policy, based on dialogue with and consent
to use nature’s resources wisely, of Indigenous Peoples, on how protection of and
Conscious of the Biodiversity Convention and compensation for indigenous intellectual, sci-
ILO Convention 169, both of which lend sup- entific, and cultural property can be established
port to Indigenous Peoples and their role in sus- and effected.
tainable development, 2. A Council on Indigenous Intellectual, Cultural
Pointing to the fact that as a general rule, eco- and Scientific Property Rights, composed of
systems that appear as the most sound, are also indigenous people, should be established,
those which are under indigenous control, funded and given special international status
Now, therefore, the ‘Voices of the Earth’ Con- in order to:
gress, assembled in Amsterdam, calls on gov- (a) develop educational materials on intellec-
ernments; tual, cultural and scientific property
(i) to heed the concerns of Indigenous Peo- rights;
ples world-wide, (b) develop mechanisms for protection and com-
(ii) to give effect in their respective national pensation;
policies to the above cited international (c) advise indigenous and traditional communi-
instruments to which they have given their ties on legal and political actions;
assent, (d) monitor unethical activities by individuals,
(iii) to properly protect the market access for In- institutions and governments that
digenous Peoples’ productsderived from a are misusing intellectual, scientific and
sustainable and wise use of nature, and cultural property;
APPENDICES / 569
Inherent in these laws and integral to that re- tions and countries of the world, to this meeting with
lationship is the right of Indigenous Peoples and Mother Nature in our hearts. With the presence and
Nations to reaffirm their right to define for them- permission of the Great Spirit, we open our most
selves their own intellectual property, acknowledg- intimate and beautiful voices so that with the help
ing their own self-determination and the uniqueness of our brother the Wind, this message of brother-
of their own particular heritage. hood and solidarity may be propagated to the four
Within the context of this statement, Indigenous cardinal directions. With the conviction that this will
Peoples and Nations also declare that we are capa- flourish vigorously in every humble and open heart,
ble of managing our intellectual property ourselves, which is building the Path toward a human being
but are willing to share it with all humanity provided interwoven and One with Nature.
that our fundamental rights to define and control Those signatories here below, united around the
this property are recognized by the international ‘First World Gathering of Elders and Wise Persons
community. of Diverse Indigenous Traditions’ taking place in the
Aboriginal Common Law and English/Austral- ‘Amautic Janajpacha Community’ in Cochabamba,
ian Common Law are parallel and equal systems of Bolivia, between the 1st and 11th August 1994, for
law. the purpose of sharing experiences and teachings
Aboriginal intellectual property, within Aborigi- under the inspiration of the wise and divine Mother
nal Common Law, is an inherent inalienable right Nature, which is enshrined in the sacred shamanic
which cannot be terminated, extinguished, or taken. wisdom of the ancient peoples, and under the spir-
Any use of the intellectual property of Aborigi- itual guidance of the Inca-Tiwanakota tradition, with
nal Nations and Peoples may only be done in accord- the aim of analysing the grave problems which con-
ance with Aboriginal Common Law, and any front humanity and the Earth, as well as looking for
unauthorized use is strictly prohibited. solutions based in love, we declare the following:
Just as Aboriginal Common Law has never 1. Evoking the words of the North American In-
sought to unilaterally extinguish English/ Austral- dian Chief Seattle, who said: ‘This we know,
ian Common Law, so we expect English/Australian the Earth does not belong to man; man belongs
Common Law to reciprocate. to the Earth. We are all interwoven like the
We, the delegates assembled at this conference blood that unites a family. All is connected...
urge Indigenous Peoples and Nations to develop proc- everything that happens to the Earth happens
esses and strategies acceptable to them to facilitate to the children of the Earth’, we want to reaf-
the practical application of the above principles and firm that human beings are only the custodians
to ensure the dialogue and negotiation which are of the riches and natural resources which
envisaged by the principles. Mother Nature has nobly and generously pro-
We also call on governments to review legisla- vided for the fulfilment of our basic needs. Un-
tion and non-statutory policies which currently impinge der no circumstances can we have a patent to
upon or do not recognize indigenous intellectual prop- destructive exploitation of nature; this would
erty rights. Where policies, legislation and international be irreverent and suicidal.
conventions currently recognize these rights, we re- 2. For this reason we reject all attempts to priva-
quire that they be implemented. tize for monopolies of scientific, commercial or
industrial use of the riches and primary natu-
1.8: Declaration of the international ral resources that Mother Nature has made
meeting around the First World available for the use of all humankind. We re-
Gathering of Elders and Wise Persons ject in particular, as abhorrent and absolutely
of Diverse Indigenous Traditions at odds with morals and ethics, the patenting
of living organisms to which the industry of
Amautic Janajpacha Community, Cochabamba, Bo- genetic engineering wishes to lead us, with their
livia, 1-11 August 1994 scientific pretensions. Even less can they pre-
tend to monopolize life. Life is a dynamic proc-
Invocation ess which depends upon the divine breath,
unable to be captured, therefore for the preten-
Nourished by the luminous rays of Tata Inti, shel- sions of ownership of a mistaken and irrespon-
tered by the purity of the Pachamama, illuminated sible ego or human greed.
by the wisdom of our beloved elders, inspired by the 3. We emphatically reject the attempts to instil in
joyful enthusiasm of our younger brothers and sis- Indigenous Peoples, values of property rights
ters, we have come from diverse indigenous tradi- or the exclusive use of common goods or knowl-
APPENDICES / 571
riality. Issues relating to access to resources 13. The prevailing intellectual property systems
have to be viewed from this standpoint. must be prevented from robbing us, through
5. Integral indigenous territoriality, its recognition monopoly rights, of resources and knowledge
(or restoration) and its reconstitution are prereq- in order to enrich themselves and build up
uisites for enabling the creative and inventive power opposed to our own.
genius of each Indigenous People to flourish and 14. Work must be conducted on the design of a pro-
for it to be meaningful to speak of protecting such tection and recognition system which is in accord-
peoples. The protection, reconstitution and devel- ance with the defence of our own conception, and
opment of indigenous knowledge systems call for mechanisms must be developed in the short and
additional commitments to the effort to have them medium term which will prevent appropriation
reappraised by the outside world. of our resources and knowledge.
6. Biodiversity and the culture and intellectual 15. A system of protection and recognition of our
property of a people are concepts that mean resources and knowledge must be designed
indigenous territoriality. Issues relating to ac- which is in conformity with our world view and
cess to resources and others have to be viewed contains formulas that, in the short and me-
from this standpoint. dium term, will prevent appropriation of our
7. For members of Indigenous Peoples, knowledge resources by the countries of the North and oth-
and determination of the use of resources are ers.
collective and intergenerational. No indigenous 16. There must be appropriate mechanisms for
population, whether of individuals or commu- maintaining and ensuring rights of Indigenous
nities, nor the Government, can sell or transfer Peoples to deny indiscriminate access to the
ownership of resources which are the property resources of our communities or peoples and
of the people and which each generation has making it possible to contest patents or other
an obligation to safeguard for the next. exclusive rights to what is essentially indig-
8. Prevailing intellectual property systems reflect enous.
a conception and practice that is: 17. There is a need to maintain the possibility of
• colonialist, in that the instruments of the denying access to indigenous resources and
developed countries are imposed in order contesting patents or other exclusive rights to
to appropriate the resources of Indigenous what is essentially indigenous.
Peoples; 18. Discussions regarding intellectual property
• racist, in that it belittles and minimizes the should take place without distracting from pri-
value of our knowledge systems; orities such as the struggle for the right to ter-
• usurpatory, in that it is essentially a prac- ritories and self-determination, bearing in mind
tice of theft. that the indigenous population and the land
9. Adjusting indigenous systems to the prevailing form an indivisible unity.
intellectual property systems (as a world-wide
concept and practice) changes the indigenous II. Short-term recommendations
regulatory systems themselves.
10. Patents and other intellectual property rights 1. Identify, analyse and systematically evaluate
to forms of life are unacceptable to Indigenous from the standpoint of the indigenous world
Peoples. view different components of the formal intel-
11. It is important to prevent conflicts that may lectual property systems, including mecha-
arise between communities from the transfor- nisms, instruments and forums, among which
mation of intellectual property into a means of we have:
dividing indigenous unity. Intellectual property mechanisms
12. There are some formulas that could be used to • Patents
enhance the value of our products (brand • Trademarks
names, appellations of origin), but on the un- • Authors’ rights
derstanding that these are only marketing pos- • Rights of developers of new plant varieties
sibilities, not entailing monopolies of the • Commercial secrets
product or of collective knowledge. There are • Industrial designs
also some proposals for modifying prevailing • Labels of origin
intellectual property systems, such as the use Intellectual property instruments
of certificates of origin to prevent use of our • The Agreement on Trade-Related Intellec-
resources without our prior consent. tual Property Rights (TRIPS) of the Gen-
APPENDICES / 573
3. Establish a standing consultative mechanism concept but it is also very Western. However, it is
to link community workers and indigenous lead- recognized that the threats posed by the intellectual
ers, as well as an information network. property rights systems are as grave as the other
4. Train indigenous leaders in aspects of intellec- problems faced by the Indigenous Peoples at present.
tual property and biodiversity. When, in the past, Indigenous Peoples’ right to land
5. Draw up a Legal Protocol of Indigenous Law has been eroded through the imposition of exploita-
on the use and community knowledge of bio- tive laws imposed by outsiders; with intellectual
logical resources. property rights, alien laws will also be devised to
6. Develop a strategy for dissemination of this exploit the indigenous knowledge and resources of
Legal Protocol at the national and international the Indigenous Peoples.
levels. The prevailing intellectual property rights sys-
tem is seen as a new form of colonization and a tac-
1.10: UNDP Consultation on the tic by the industrialized countries of the North to
Protection and Conservation of confuse and to divert the struggle of Indigenous
Indigenous Knowledge Peoples from their rights to land and resources on,
above and under it.
Sabah, East Malaysia, 24–27 February 1995 The intellectual property rights system and the
(mis)appropriation of indigenous knowledge without
Basic points of agreement on the issues the prior knowledge and consent of Indigenous Peo-
faced by the Indigenous Peoples of Asia ples evoke feelings of anger, of being cheated, and
of helplessness in knowing nothing about intellec-
From the deliberations it is clear that self-determi- tual property rights and indigenous knowledge pi-
nation is most important to the Indigenous People. racy. This is akin to robbing Indigenous Peoples of
The definition of self-determination is different in their resources and knowledge through monopoly
different countries, ranging from land rights, au- rights.
tonomy, self rule without secession, autonomy un- Indigenous Peoples are not benefiting from the
der a federal system, to independence. Indigenous intellectual property rights system. Indigenous
Peoples’ struggle and right to self-determination are knowledge and resources are being eroded, exploited
being threatened by repressive governments (e.g. and/or appropriated by outsiders in the likes of trans-
Burma); development policies and projects such as national corporations (TNCs), institutions, research-
large dams (e.g. North Thailand, Sarawak in East ers and scientists who are after the profits and
Malaysia); unjust land laws (e.g. Hill Tribes of Thai- benefits gained through monopoly control.
land, Malaysia, Vietnam); genocide (e.g. Chittagong The technological method of piracy is too so-
Hill tribes, Bangladesh); religion and the dominant phisticated for Indigenous Peoples to understand,
culture. especially when indigenous communities are una-
Land, in particular native customary or ances- ware of how the system operates and who are be-
tral land, is significant to Indigenous Peoples be- hind it.
cause it is the source of their livelihood and the base For Indigenous Peoples, life is a common prop-
of their indigenous knowledge, spiritual and cultural erty which cannot be owned, commercialized and
traditions. monopolized by individuals. Based on this world view,
The Indigenous Peoples’ struggle for self-de- Indigenous Peoples find it difficult to relate intel-
termination is a very strong counter-force to the in- lectual property rights issues to their daily lives.
tellectual property rights system vis-a-vis indigenous Accordingly, the patenting of any life forms and proc-
knowledge, wisdom and culture. Therefore, the esses is unacceptable to Indigenous Peoples.
struggle for self-determination cannot be separated The intellectual property rights system is in
from the campaign against intellectual property favour of the industrialized countries of the North
rights systems, particularly their applications on life who have the resources to claim patent and copy-
forms and indigenous knowledge. right, resulting in the continuous exploitation and
appropriation of genetic resources, indigenous
Specific points raised on Indigenous knowledge and culture of the Indigenous Peoples
Knowledge and Intellectual Property for commercial purposes. The intellectual property
Rights (IPR) rights system totally ignores the contribution of In-
digenous Peoples and the peoples of the South in
For the Indigenous Peoples of Asia, the intel- the conservation and protection of genetic resources
lectual property rights system is not only a very new through millennia.
APPENDICES / 575
local languages and based on the local context. gestión propia para superarla, por estar privados de
The Southeast Asia Regional Institute for Com- nuestros derechos fundamentales como pueblos que,
munity Education (SEARICE) will also distrib- en otros continentes han sido restituidos, en virtud
ute their monographs on the impact of global de la Declaración de Banjul en 1981.
developments on the Indigenous Peoples, and Teniendo presente, que las Naciones Unidas, a
will assist in information dissemination. través del Grupo de Trabajo sobre Pueblos Indíge-
• Develop capacity of the Asian Indigenous Peo- nas, ha proyectado aprobar la Declaración de la ONU
ples Pact (AIPP), a forum for Indigenous Peo- proclamando los Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas
ples’ movements in Asia. In this respect, del Mundo, en un texto elevado a la Asamblea.
national Indigenous Peoples’ organizations will Considerando que, en particular la situación de
contribute human and material resources, as nuestros pueblos se ha visto afectada por una serie
well as identify members for short to medium- de conflictos recientes, en materia de demarcación
term internship programmes. fronteriza, tráfico de armas, defraudación a fondos
• AIPP to co-ordinate and monitor activities and de los Estados, guerras, tráfico de drogas, terroris-
developments related to the plans formulated mo, desplazamientos forzados, exagerado centralis-
for the region. mo, hacinamiento urbano, mafias electorales; en los
• Build alliances and network with groups within que, indios de nuestros pueblos están siendo objeto
Asia and outside, such as the AIPP, RAFI, de nuevas formas de exterminio y esclavitud.
SEARICE and the Indigenous Peoples’ Biodiver- Consternados porque tales hechos recientes,
sity Network (IPBN). ponen en peligro la unidad nacional y la integridad
• Indigenous Peoples to design their own educa- territorial en los países de Sudamérica. Y estando
tional curriculum that will help promote their nuestros pueblos, actualmente sometidos a sus res-
culture and indigenous knowledge. Such an pectivas jurisdicciones, somos los que mas sufrimos
educational curriculum will instil a deep aware- las consecuencias de tales males, por estar priva-
ness and pride among Indigenous Peoples, es- dos del ejercicio de nuestros derechos fundamenta-
pecially children, on the importance of their les como pueblos, para reaccionar en legítima
indigenous knowledge, culture and resources. defensa.
Convencidos de que ha llegado el momento en
1.11: Declaración de Jujuy que las Repúblicas de Sudamérica, en un acto de
justicia histórica, y reconociendo el aporte de los
Declaración del Consejo Indio de Sudamérica pueblos indios en el proceso de descolonización; per-
Aprobada en su III Sesión del Consejo Directivo CISA mitan que éstos asuman por si mismos la gestión de
ampliada su propio destino, reivindicando el ejercicio de sus
Realizada en San Salvador de Jujuy, Argentina, 27 Derechos fundamentales de que fueron privados hace
de marzo de 1995 quinientos dos años.
APPENDICES / 577
determine when, where and how it is used. At and is continuing in the Pacific.
present the international system does not recog- 4.1 Seek repatriation of Indigenous Peoples’
nize or respect our past, present and potential resources already held in external collec-
contributions, tions, and seek compensation and royalties
Assert our inherent right to define who we are. from commercial developments resulting
We do not approve of any other definition, from these resources.
Condemn attempts to undervalue Indigenous 5. Urge governments who have not signed the Gen-
Peoples traditional science and knowledge, eral Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) to
Condemn those who use our biological diver- refuse to do so, and encourage those govern-
sity for commercial and other purposes without our ments who have already signed to protest
full knowledge and consent, against any provisions which facilitate the ex-
propriation of Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge
Propose and seek support for the following plan and resources and the patenting of life forms.
of action: 5.1 Incorporate the concerns of Indigenous
1. Initiate the establishment of a treaty declaring Peoples to protect their knowledge and re-
the Pacific Region to be a life forms patent-free sources into legislation by including ‘Prior
zone. Informed Consent or No Informed Consent’
1.1 Include in the treaty protocols governing (PICNIC) procedures and exclude the
bioprospecting, human genetic research, in patenting of life forms.
situ conservation by Indigenous Peoples, 6. Encourage the South Pacific Forum to amend
ex situ collections and relevant interna- its rules of procedure to enable accreditation
tional instruments. of Indigenous Peoples and NGOs as observers
1.2 Issue a statement announcing the treaty to future Forum officials meetings.
and seeking endorsement by the South 7. Strengthen indigenous networks. Encourage
Pacific Forum and other appropriate re- the United Nations Development Programme
gional and international fora. (UNDP) and regional donors to continue to sup-
1.3 Urge Pacific governments to sign and im- port discussions on Indigenous Peoples’ knowl-
plement the treaty. edge and intellectual property rights.
1.4 Implement an educational awareness strat- 8. Strengthen the capacities of Indigenous Peo-
egy about the treaty’s objectives. ples to maintain their oral traditions, and en-
2. Call for a moratorium on bioprospecting in the courage initiatives by Indigenous Peoples to
Pacific and urge Indigenous Peoples not to co- record their knowledge in a permanent form ac-
operate in bioprospecting activities until appro- cording to their customary access procedures.
priate protection mechanisms are in place. 9. Urge universities, churches, governments,
2.1 Bioprospecting as a term needs to be non-governmental organizations, and other
clearly defined to exclude Indigenous Peo- institutions to reconsider their roles in the
ples’ customary harvesting practices. expropriation of Indigenous Peoples’ knowl-
2.2 Assert that in situ conservation by Indig- edge and resources and to assist in their re-
enous Peoples is the best method to con- turn to their rightful owners.
serve and protect biological diversity and 10. Call on the governments and corporate bodies
indigenous knowledge, and encourage its responsible for the destruction of Pacific bio-
implementation by indigenous communities diversity to stop their destructive practices and
and all relevant bodies. to compensate the affected communities and re-
2.3 Encourage Indigenous Peoples to maintain habilitate the affected environment.
and expand our knowledge of local biologi- 10.1Call on France to stop definitively its nu-
cal resources. clear testing in the Pacific and repair the
3. Commit ourselves to raising public awareness damaged biodiversity.
of the dangers of expropriation of indigenous
knowledge and resources. 1.13: Charter of ‘Farmers Rights’
3.1 Encourage chiefs, elders and community
leaders to play a leadership role in the pro- Issued at the Convention of Farmers, 30th January
tection of Indigenous Peoples’ knowledge 1997. Bangalore, Karnataka, India.
and resources.
4. Recognize the urgent need to identify the ex- We, the farmers of India, including the landless, the
tent of expropriation that has already occurred rural artisans and the tribals, have gathered in
APPENDICES / 579
sources. Few indigenous communities and processes such as the CSD and Convention on
organizations can afford to participate with- Biological Diversity.
out external financial contributions; 3. The support and implementation of long term
2. dominant sector societies’ lack of understand- sustainable development, based on Indigenous
ing of Indigenous Peoples’ values and our spe- Peoples’ values, knowledge and technologies,
cial relationship with the Earth, and that we to ensure full and intergenerational equity of
have developed traditional technologies and resource allocations.
subsistence systems which are as relevant to- 4. That Indigenous Peoples’ cultural diversity, tra-
day as they have been for thousands of years. ditional values and ways of life be protected
This demonstrates our deep spiritual connec- through Agenda 21 and the institutions and
tion to our ancestral homelands which is es- policies which will and do fulfil its objectives.
sential to sustainability; 5. It must be recognized that the survival and de-
3. the results of globalization and the implemen- velopment of Indigenous Peoples is directly
tation by various countries of liberalized poli- connected to biological diversity and, as such,
cies and programmes which are intended to ensuring the protection of this diversity must
benefit developed countries and further be a priority for the international community.
marginalize Indigenous Peoples; 6. That a new partnership be created between
4. biotechnology projects under the guise of in- Indigenous Peoples and the international
creased food production, leading to greater community based on mutual respect, reciproc-
profits for big business in industrialized coun- ity and a harmonious, accessible and equita-
tries and further endangering indigenous so- ble process.
cieties; 7. Finally, we invite governments and UN agen-
5. the majority policies of state governments, cies to support Indigenous Peoples in imple-
multilateral development banks and TNCs are menting Agenda 21, to recognize and support
not sensitive to the rights, issues and concerns our rights to land, resources and development.
of Indigenous Peoples;
6. the lack of effective consultation of Indigenous 1.15: Declaration of the Consultation
Peoples by relevant UN agencies involved in Meeting ‘Indigenous Peoples, Mother
development projects which affect them. Earth and Spirituality’
Recommendations May 31st 1996, San Jose, Costa Rica
We reiterate the recommendations of the Indigenous We, the original Peoples of Abya Yala (the Ameri-
Peoples’ Preparatory Committee (IPCC) for the CSD, cas), solemnly declare that the Creator placed us
submitted 2 January 1996: here and that we carry the truth of this land in our
Indigenous Peoples recommend the creation of hearts. The knowledge of Mother Earth flows
new policies for environmental and resource man- through our veins. We are children of the Creator
agement. In this regard, the following principles and Mother Earth who were instructed to live in bal-
should be considered. ance and harmony with the sky, Mother Earth, plants,
1. That the international community recognize, trees, rocks, minerals, winged ones, water beings,
protect and support the rights of Indigenous and the four legged.
Peoples, including their cultural, territorial and We reaffirm our commitment to live under the
human rights to own, control and manage their natural laws of the Creator that govern Creation and
lands and resources and also Indigenous Peo- maintain balance between all forms of life. We are
ples’ right to sustainable development. Specifi- thankful to the will of the Creator and to the suste-
cally, the CSD should push for the speedy nance of Mother Earth that we have survived.
adoption of the UN Draft Declaration on the We call upon the world community to legally
Rights of Indigenous Peoples by the General recognize our collective rights to a homeland / terri-
Assembly as a concrete indication of its com- tory; demand that Sacred Sites be respected and pro-
mitment to ensuring the implementation of sus- tected and that unrestricted access be granted to
tainable development for Indigenous Peoples. conduct ceremonies. As equal members of the hu-
2. That Indigenous Peoples must participate fully man family, we exercise the right to worship, accord-
in land, resource and development decision- ing to our cosmo-vision; therefore acknowledging the
making and policy development at international, strength of our spiritual values and cultural tradi-
regional, national and local levels, including UN tions.
Co-sponsored by the Governments of Colombia and That the rights, welfare, viewpoints and interests of
Denmark. Organized by the International Alliance Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent peo-
of Indigenous-Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests, ples should be central to all decision-making about for-
the Co-ordinating Body of Indigenous Organizations ests at local, national, regional and international levels.
in the Amazon Basin (COICA) and the Organization That their rights to their lands, territories, for-
of Indigenous Peoples of the Colombian Amazon-re- ests and other natural resources should be recog-
gion (OPIAC). nised, secured, respected and protected.
All peoples are descendants of the forest. When That they should have full control over the
the forest dies we die. management, use and conservation of these re-
We are given responsibility to maintain balance sources.
within the natural world. That the representative institutions of Indig-
When any part is destroyed, all balance is cast enous Peoples and other forest-dependent peoples
into chaos. When the last tree is gone, and the last should be fully recognized and respected.
APPENDICES / 581
That Indigenous Peoples and other forest-de- propriate national legislation and implementation.
pendent peoples need strong and autonomous organi- National governments are urged to respect in-
zations and support for the consolidation of digenous communities and cultures across national
indigenous systems and cultural institutions. frontiers and not continue with practices that divide
That new mechanisms should be established to Indigenous Peoples.
ensure the equal participation of Indigenous Peo-
ples and other forest-dependent peoples in decision- Proposals for Action
making on forests at all levels. 1. The IPF should acknowledge the importance
That Indigenous Peoples and other forest peo- of indigenous land use and resource rights, as
ples constitute an important cross-cutting theme in well as customary law and indigenous legal sys-
the forest agenda, affecting many other issues. tems, as inherently related to the forest issue.
That United Nations bodies, when dealing with 2. To establish participatory mechanisms for na-
indigenous issues, should not narrowly work on tional forest and land use planning which in-
sectoral themes but continue to engage in dialogue clude the following elements:
to enhance mutually enriching discussions, and to • Equal access and full participation by In-
strengthen co-ordination. digenous Peoples and other forest-depend-
That there should be wholehearted support for ent peoples in national land use planning
the current Draft United Nations Declaration on the and forest programmes, at all stages of
Rights of Indigenous Peoples being discussed by the planning, implementation, monitoring, as-
United Nations Commission on Human Rights, and sessment and evaluation.
its relevance for the goals of sustainable develop- • Initiatives, programmes and projects must
ment and sustainable forest management. take into account customary land use and
That these principles shall be applied in the tenure systems of indigenous and other
management, conservation and sustainable develop- forest-dependent peoples, including rota-
ment of all types of forests. tional farming, hunting, gathering, fishing,
grazing and others.
National Forest and Land Use Programmes • No activities must take place on Indigenous
National Forest and Land Use Programmes should Peoples’ territories without their full and
promote broad participation and be decentralized to informed consent through their representa-
ensure a wide involvement in implementation. tive institutions, including the power of veto.
Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent • No activities for resource utilization or con-
peoples must play an integral part in national forest servation, including the establishment of
and land use planning. protected areas, must be initiated on lands
Rights to and respect for Indigenous Peoples of Indigenous Peoples and other forest-de-
and other forest-dependent peoples’ lands and terri- pendent peoples without security and full
tories and tenure systems must be guaranteed in respect for their territorial rights.
forms appropriate to them. • Indigenous Peoples and other forest-de-
Within the framework of national and regional pendent peoples must be included in the
planning, decisions on land use must be devolved to decision making process at all levels in all
the local level so that Indigenous Peoples and other areas that affect them, including policy
forest-dependent peoples can assert effective cus- decisions of international development
tomary systems of sustainable forest management. agencies, multilateral development banks
Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent and all trans-national corporations.
peoples’ rights to rotational farming, hunting, gath- • Any benefits from territories of Indigenous
ering, fishing, grazing and other land use should be Peoples and other forest-dependent peoples
respected and secured within national land use and must primarily be for their own local use
forest programmes. and in accordance with principles of ben-
All forest and land use planning activities that efit-sharing established by them.
affect Indigenous Peoples and other forest-depend-
ent peoples must fully respect their customary sys- Underlying Causes of Deforestation and Forest
tems of dispute settlement. Degradation:
National land use and forest programmes Deforestation and forest degradation is exacerbated
should uphold international standards on the rights by a lack of understanding of the holistic world views
of Indigenous Peoples, with due consideration for and ways of life of Indigenous Peoples and other for-
the wishes of the peoples concerned, including ap- est-dependent peoples.
APPENDICES / 583
8. To support information exchange programmes own inventory of forest resources, and to de-
between Indigenous Peoples and local commu- fine locally appropriate criteria and indicators
nities on issues of intellectual and cultural for sustainable forest management.
rights, knowledge, innovations and practices.
9. To develop association agreements on sustain- International Instruments and Mechanisms
able forest management between Indigenous All future international instruments and mechanisms
Peoples, other forest-dependent peoples and dealing with forests should involve Indigenous Peo-
groups living in the forest. ples and other forest-dependent peoples in all stages
10. To establish an information centre and dissemi- of decision-making as equal partners.
nation system to enable Indigenous Peoples and The key areas that need to be addressed are
other forest-dependent peoples to access all participation and representation at the international
relevant information. Efforts should be made level, and access to relevant information and fund-
to make this information freely and widely avail- ing. In order to effectively participate in decision-mak-
able in languages and forms accessible to In- ing processes, governments and other institutions must
digenous Peoples. provide necessary support to help strengthen organi-
zations of Indigenous Peoples and other forest-de-
Financial Assistance and Technology Transfer pendent peoples.
Proposals for Action
1. Financial assistance and mechanisms must be Proposals for Action
publicly accountable, transparent and uncondi- 1. Indigenous Peoples and other forest depend-
tional. The IPF must also create possibilities for ent peoples must continue to have improved rep-
Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent resentation at all upcoming UN forums in the
peoples to design their own financial mechanisms. immediate future, including IPF4, CSD 5 and
2. Indigenous Peoples and forest-dependent peo- the Special Session of the UN General Assem-
ples should directly access and receive techni- bly in June 1997. All these meetings should
cal assistance and support upon their own register our participation as ‘Indigenous Peo-
request. When such assistance is proposed ples’, a recognized Major Group in the imple-
by government agencies and other bodies it mentation of Agenda 21.
should only proceed with the approval of the 2. Full support should be given to establishing a
Indigenous Peoples and forest-dependent UN Permanent Forum for Indigenous Peoples
peoples. during the UN Decade for Indigenous Peoples
3. Donor criteria should go beyond project financ- which will draw together human rights, envi-
ing, and also support the capacity- and institu- ronment and development issues.
tion-building of Indigenous Peoples and other 3. Agenda 21 and the Forest Principles should be
forest-dependent peoples. interpreted to harmonize with the UN Draft
4. To set up an independent fund to enable Indig- Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peo-
enous Peoples and other forest-dependent peo- ples, with particular emphasis on the use of the
ples to enjoy full participation in the international term ‘peoples’ in its documentation.
forest policy debate. The funding mechanism
must ensure independent, fair and equitable par- Action commitments
ticipation from all regions and all types of for-
ests. Indigenous Peoples must be part of the The participants committed themselves to undertake
administration of this fund. concrete plans of action including the following.
• Identification of concrete participatory
Criteria and Indicators for Sustainable Forest mechanisms for Indigenous Peoples and other
Management forest-dependent peoples to ensure full and
All criteria and indicators for sustainable forest equal participation in any post IPF forest
management and certification principles must secure processes and also the Convention on Biologi-
the spiritual, cultural, social and material well-be- cal Diversity.
ing of Indigenous Peoples and other forest-depend- • Creation of a global, regional and local network
ent peoples. for the flow of appropriate information and pro-
posals for action.
Proposals for Action • Plan and seek support for a programme of ac-
1. Indigenous Peoples and other forest-dependent tion to facilitate Indigenous Peoples and for-
peoples should be supported to carry out their est-dependent peoples.
Conclusions On values
The meeting requests the IPF to incorporate these 1. Our vision of development is based on indig-
principles and proposals for action in the final IPF enous philosophy and values. Our collective vi-
Report during its fourth session. sion includes a philosophy that reflects each
The meeting also requested that the Leticia unique indigenous culture that incorporates all
Declaration and Proposals for Action also be con- components of life for the enrichment of peo-
sidered by the UN Commission on Sustainable De- ples in their collective realization of life tasks
velopment during the 5th Session, the General that ensures the reciprocity and balance be-
Assembly Special Session, and all other international tween peoples and their environment.
forest policy deliberations. 2. Our philosophy and values on indigenous de-
The meeting requested the broadest dissemi- velopment exist within a paradigm based on our
nation of the Leticia Declaration and Proposals for knowledge of the cosmos. This knowledge be-
Action to all relevant bodies. comes the foundation of our territoriality, our
identity, our cultures and practices, our lan-
1.17: International Workshop on guage, our spirituality, our indigenous systems
Indigenous Peoples and Development and institutions, and our technologies which
enables us to respond to problems and to pro-
Ollantaytambo, Qosqo, Peru, 21–26 April 1997. tect, preserve and continue our survival as peo-
ples and communities of the land.
We, the participants of the International Workshop on 3. Our inherent spirituality is the driving force of
Indigenous Peoples and Development held at our action. Reciprocity -–to give in order to re-
Ollantaytambo, Qosqo, Peru, from 21 to 26 April 1997: ceive – solidarity, the respect for all living forms,
Considering the importance of cultural diversity and the coexistence with Mother Earth, are
and of Indigenous People’s values and philosophies for values that are always among us.
a new paradigm for sustainable development; 4. Our culture is an accumulated experience and
Considering the importance of Indigenous Peo- proven ways of doing things. It is the foundation
ples’ knowledge and practices for the maintenance upon and around which we shall build our devel-
and conservation of biological and cultural diversity opment and other desired changes which also
for future generations; ensures gender justice as well as equality for all.
Considering the International Decade of the 5. As Indigenous Peoples, we have an inherent
World’s Indigenous Peoples, Draft Declaration on the responsibility to utilize our available resources
APPENDICES / 585
in a sustainable manner that will ensure a bal- c) To exchange experience from different peo-
ance and harmony for us and our future gen- ples and regions to find common strategies
erations. Our existence is dependent upon this for development.
holistic practice and approach. d) To develop and defend a common position
6. Indigenous education is the basis in the forma- at international fora.
tion of our own knowledge, the learning of our 14. An interim committee has been created to elabo-
environment and society based on our tradi- rate on practical mechanisms and formalization
tional practices, uses, and our philosophical, of the network. The interim international co-
historical, technological and artistic heritage. ordination of the network will be facilitated by
the Asociacion Andes, Qosqo, Peru. The re-
On methods and technologies gional focal points are: AFRICA: International
Centre for Environmental and Forest Studies
7. Indigenous knowledge, and the methods and (Cameroon); ASIA: Asia Indigenous Peoples
technologies that derive from it, should be con- Pact; CENTRAL AMERICA: Federation Indega
served, protected, promoted and improved for Tawahka (Honduras); NORTH AMERICA:
the benefit of indigenous communities. En’owkin Centre (Canada); PACIFIC: Te Kawau
8. Methods and technologies should strengthen, Maro (Aotearoa); SOUTH AMERICA: Andes
consolidate and rehabilitate indigenous values (Peru)
for the communities who have lost or are los-
ing their indigenous identities. Ollantaytambo, Qosqo, Peru, 26 April 1997.
9. Methods and technologies should be integrated,
encompassing all the indigenous visions and For further information, please contact:
knowledge, taking into consideration: the cul-
tural dynamic of Indigenous Peoples, the total Longgena Ginting
collective well-being, the promotion of equal- PLASMA
ity, and the sustainable management and use Jl. Pertahanan No. 1 - Kompleks Yeschar
of resources for present and future generations. Samarinda 75119 - Kalimantan Timur
10. The adoption and application of methods and Tel/Fax: +62-541-35753
technologies should be based on indigenous E-mail: danum@indo.net.id
people’s social structures and organizations,
guaranteeing the equal participation of both 1.18: UN draft declaration on the
women and men. rights of Indigenous Peoples
11. The adoption and application of methods and
technologies should be the result of a collec- As agreed upon by members of the Working Group
tive decision-making process, taking into ac- on Indigenous Populations at its 11th session, 1993.
count the advice from knowledge keepers and Affirming that Indigenous Peoples are equal in
practitioners according to the needs and inter- dignity and rights to all other peoples, while recog-
est of the local community. nizing the right of all peoples to be different, to con-
12. Training in methods and technologies should in- sider themselves different, and to be respected as
clude strategies that raise awareness and such;
strengthen self-esteem in our indigenous identity Affirming also that all peoples contribute to the
and our cultural and organizational practices. diversity and richness of civilizations and cultures,
which constitute the common heritage of humankind;
On organizational follow-up Affirming further that all doctrines, policies and
practices based on or advocating superiority of peo-
13. We shall create an international network hav- ples or individuals on the basis of national origin,
ing the following objectives: racial, religious, ethnic or cultural differences are
a) To defend the interests of Indigenous Peo- racist, scientifically false, legally invalid, morally
ples at the national, regional and interna- condemnable and socially unjust;
tional levels. Reaffirming also that Indigenous Peoples, in
b) To research, monitor and disseminate in- the exercise of their rights, should be free from dis-
formation among Indigenous Peoples on crimination of any kind;
the use and development of Indigenous Concerned that Indigenous Peoples have been
People’s resources, including intellectual deprived of their human rights and fundamental
property rights. freedoms, resulting, inter alia, in their colonization
APPENDICES / 587
7. Indigenous Peoples have the collective and in- (d) force indigenous individuals to work for
dividual right not to be subjected to ethnocide military purposes under any discriminatory
and cultural genocide, including prevention of purposes.
and redress for:
(a) any action which has the aim or effect of Part III
depriving them of their integrity as 12. Indigenous Peoples have the right to practice
distinct peoples, or of their cultural values and revitalize their cultural traditions and cus-
or ethnic identities; toms. This includes the right to maintain, pro-
(b) any action which has the aim or effect of tect and develop the past, present and future
dispossessing them of their lands, manifestations of their cultures, such as ar-
territories or resources; chaeological and historical sites, artefacts, de-
(c) any form of population transfer which has signs, ceremonies, technologies and visual and
the aim or effect of violating or undermining performing arts and literature, as well as the
any of their rights; right to the restitution of cultural, intellectual,
(d) any form of assimilation or integration by religious and spiritual property taken without
other cultures or ways of life imposed on their free and informed consent or in violation
them by legislative, administrative or other of their laws, traditions and customs.
measures; 13. Indigenous Peoples have the right to manifest,
(e) any form of propaganda directed against practice, develop and teach their spiritual and
them. religious traditions, customs and ceremonies;
8. Indigenous Peoples have the collective and in- the right to maintain, protect, and have access
dividual right to maintain and develop their dis- in privacy to their religious and cultural sites;
tinctive identities and characteristics, including the right to the use and control of ceremonial
the right to identify themselves as indigenous objects; and the right to the repatriation of hu-
and to be recognized as such. man remains.
9. Indigenous Peoples and individuals have the States shall take effective measures, in conjunc-
right to belong to an indigenous community or tion with the Indigenous Peoples concerned, to
nation, in accordance with the traditions and ensure that indigenous sacred places, including
customs of the community or nation concerned. burial sites, be preserved, respected and protected.
No disadvantage of any kind may arise from the 14. Indigenous Peoples have the right to revitalize,
exercise of such a right. use, develop and transmit to future generations
10. Indigenous Peoples shall not be forcibly re- their histories, languages, oral traditions, philoso-
moved from their lands or territories. No relo- phies, writing systems and literatures, and to des-
cation shall take place without the free and ignate and retain their own names for
informed consent of the Indigenous Peoples communities, places and persons.
concerned and after agreement on just and fair States shall take effective measures, whenever
compensation and, where possible, with the any right of Indigenous Peoples may be threat-
option of return. ened, to ensure this right is protected and also
11. Indigenous Peoples have the right to special to ensure that they can understand and be un-
protection and security in periods of armed con- derstood in political, legal and administrative
flict. States shall observe international stand- proceedings, where necessary through the pro-
ards, in particular the Fourth Geneva vision of interpretation or by any other appro-
Convention of 1949, for the protection of civil- priate means.
ian populations in circumstances of emergency
and armed conflict, and shall not: Part IV
(a) recruit indigenous individuals against their 15. Indigenous children have the right to all levels
will into the armed forces and, in particu- and forms of education of the State. All Indigenous
lar, for use against other Indigenous Peo- Peoples also have this right and the right to es-
ples; tablish and control their educational systems and
(b) recruit indigenous children into the armed institutions providing education in their own lan-
forces under any circumstances; guages, in a manner appropriate to their cultural
(c) force indigenous individuals to abandon methods of teaching and learning.
their lands, territories or means of subsist- Indigenous children living outside their commu-
ence, or relocate them in special centres nities have the right to be provided with access to
for military purposes; education in their own culture and language.
APPENDICES / 589
28. Indigenous Peoples have the right to the con- by non-members, as well as ways and means of
servation, restoration and protection of the to- financing these autonomous functions.
tal environment and the productive capacity of 32. Indigenous Peoples have the collective right to
their lands, territories and resources, as well determine their own citizenship in accordance
as to assistance for this purpose from States with their customs and traditions. Indigenous
and through international co-operation. Military citizenship does not impair the right of indig-
activities shall not take place in the lands and enous individuals to obtain citizenship of the
territories of Indigenous Peoples, unless oth- States in which they live.
erwise freely agreed upon by the peoples con- Indigenous Peoples have the right to determine
cerned. the structures and to select the membership of
States shall take effective measures to ensure their institutions in accordance with their own
that no storage of hazardous materials shall procedures.
take place in the lands and territories of Indig- 33. Indigenous Peoples have the right to promote,
enous Peoples. develop and maintain their institutional struc-
States shall also take effective measures to tures and their distinctive juridical customs,
ensure, as needed, that programmes for moni- traditions, procedures and practices, in accord-
toring, maintaining and restoring the health of ance with internationally recognized human
Indigenous Peoples, as developed and imple- rights standards.
mented by the peoples affected by such materi- 34. Indigenous Peoples have the collective right to
als, are duly implemented. determine the responsibilities of individuals to
29. Indigenous Peoples are entitled to the recogni- their communities.
tion of the full ownership, control and protec- 35. Indigenous Peoples, in particular those divided
tion of their cultural and intellectual property. by international borders, have the right to main-
They have the right to special measures to con- tain and develop contacts, relations and co-op-
trol, develop and protect their sciences, tech- eration, including activities for spiritual,
nologies and cultural manifestations, including cultural, political, economic and social pur-
human and other genetic resources, seeds, poses, with other peoples across borders.
medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna States shall take effective measures to ensure
and flora, oral traditions, literatures, designs the exercise and implementation of this right.
and visual and performing arts. 36. Indigenous Peoples have the right to the rec-
30. Indigenous Peoples have the right to determine ognition, observance and enforcement of trea-
and develop priorities and strategies for the ties, agreements and other constructive
development or use of their lands, territories arrangements concluded with States or their
and other resources, including the right to re- successors, according to their original spirit and
quire that States obtain their free and informed intent, and to have States honour and respect
consent prior to the approval of any project af- such treaties, agreements and other construc-
fecting their lands, territories and other re- tive arrangements. Conflicts and disputes which
sources, particularly in connection with the cannot otherwise be settled should be submit-
development, utilization or exploitation of min- ted to competent international bodies agreed
eral, water or other resources. Pursuant to to by all parties concerned.
agreement with the Indigenous Peoples con-
cerned, just and fair compensation shall be pro- Part VIII
vided for any such activities and measures 37. States shall take effective and appropriate
taken to mitigate adverse environmental, eco- measures, in consultation with the Indigenous
nomic, social, cultural or spiritual impact. Peoples concerned, to give full effect to the pro-
visions of this Declaration. The rights recog-
Part VII nized herein shall be adopted and included in
31. Indigenous Peoples, as a specific form of exer- national legislation in such a manner that In-
cising their right to self-determination, have the digenous Peoples can avail themselves of such
right to autonomy or self-government in mat- rights in practice.
ters relating to their internal and local affairs, 38. Indigenous Peoples have the right to have ac-
including culture, religion, education, informa- cess to adequate financial and technical assist-
tion, media, health, housing, employment, so- ance, from States and through international
cial welfare, economic activities, land and co-operation, to pursue freely their political,
resources management, environment and entry economic, social, cultural and spiritual devel-
APPENDICES / 591
from generation to generation, and which is culture, education and the arts, including sup-
regarded as pertaining to a particular people port for systems of electronic information and
or its territory. The heritage of an indigenous mass communication.
people also includes objects, knowledge and 18. Governments, with international co-operation,
literary or artistic works which may be created should provide the necessary financial re-
in the future based upon its heritage. sources and institutional support to ensure that
12. The heritage of Indigenous Peoples includes all every indigenous child has the opportunity to
moveable cultural property as defined by the achieve full fluency and literacy in his/her own
relevant conventions of UNESCO; all kinds of language, as well as an official language.
literary and artistic works such as music, dance,
song, ceremonies, symbols and designs, narra- Recovery and restitution of heritage
tives and poetry; all kinds of scientific, agricul- 19. Governments, with the assistance of competent
tural, technical and ecological knowledge, international organizations, should assist Indig-
including cultigens, medicines and the rational enous Peoples and communities in recovering
use of flora and fauna; human remains; immov- control and possession of their moveable cul-
able cultural property such as sacred sites, sites tural property and other heritage.
of historical significance, and burials; and docu- 20. In co-operation with Indigenous Peoples,
mentation of Indigenous Peoples’ heritage on UNESCO should establish a programme to me-
film, photographs, videotape or audio tape. diate the recovery of moveable cultural prop-
13. Every element of an Indigenous Peoples’ herit- erty from across international borders, at the
age has traditional owners, which may be the request of the traditional owners of the prop-
whole people, a particular family or clan, an erty concerned.
association or society, or individuals who have 21. Human remains and associated funeral objects
been specially taught or initiated to be its cus- must be returned to their descendants and ter-
todians. The traditional owners of heritage must ritories in a culturally appropriate manner, as
be determined in accordance with Indigenous determined by the Indigenous Peoples con-
Peoples’ own customs, laws and practices. cerned. Documentation may be retained, dis-
played or otherwise used only in such form and
Transmission of heritage manner as may be agreed upon with the peo-
14. Indigenous Peoples’ heritage should continue ples concerned.
to be learned by the means customarily em- 22. Moveable cultural property should be returned
ployed by its traditional owners for teaching, wherever possible to its traditional owners,
and each Indigenous Peoples’ rules and prac- particularly if shown to be of significant cul-
tices for the transmission of heritage and shar- tural, religious or historical value to them.
ing of its use should be incorporated in the Moveable cultural property should only be re-
national legal system. tained by universities, museums, private insti-
15. In the event of a dispute over the custody or tutions or individuals in accordance with the
use of any element of an Indigenous Peoples’ terms of a recorded agreement with the tradi-
heritage, judicial and administrative bodies tional owners for the sharing of the custody and
should be guided by the advice of indigenous interpretation of the property.
elders who are recognized by the indigenous 23. Under no circumstances should objects or any
communities or peoples concerned as having other elements of an Indigenous Peoples’ her-
specific knowledge of traditional laws. itage be publicly displayed, except in a manner
16. Governments, international organizations and deemed appropriate by the peoples concerned.
private institutions should support the devel- 24. In the case of objects or other elements of her-
opment of educational, research, and training itage which were removed or recorded in the
centres which are controlled by indigenous com- past, the traditional owners of which can no
munities, and strengthen these communities’ longer be identified precisely, the traditional
capacity to document, protect, teach and apply owners are presumed to be the entire people
all aspects of their heritage. associated with the territory from which these
17. Governments, international organizations and objects were removed or recordings were made.
private institutions should support the devel-
opment of regional and global networks for the National programmes and legislation
exchange of information and experience among 25. National laws should guarantee that Indigenous
Indigenous Peoples in the fields of science, Peoples can obtain prompt, effective and afford-
APPENDICES / 593
are capable of supervising and collaborating in 52. Educators should ensure that school curricula
the research process. and textbooks teach understanding and respect
42. Business and industry should refrain from of- for Indigenous Peoples’ heritage and history
fering incentives to any individuals to claim tra- and recognize the contribution of Indigenous
ditional rights of ownership or leadership within Peoples to creativity and cultural diversity.
an indigenous community, in violation of their
trust within the community and the laws of the International organizations
Indigenous Peoples concerned. 53. The Secretary-General should ensure that the
43. Business and industry should refrain from em- task of co-ordinating international co-operation
ploying scientists or scholars to acquire and record in this field is entrusted to appropriate organs
traditional knowledge or other heritage of Indig- and specialized agencies of the United Nations,
enous Peoples in violation of these guidelines. with adequate means of implementation.
44. Business and industry should contribute finan- 54. In co-operation with Indigenous Peoples, the
cially to the development of educational and United Nations should bring these principles
research institutions controlled by Indigenous and guidelines to the attention of all Member
Peoples and communities. States through, inter alia, international, re-
45. All forms of tourism based on Indigenous Peo- gional and national seminars and publications,
ples’ heritage must be restricted to activities with a view to promoting the strengthening of
which have the approval of the peoples and com- national legislation and international conven-
munities concerned, and which are conducted tions in this field.
under their supervision and control. 55. The United Nations should publish a compre-
hensive annual report, based upon information
Artists, writers and performers from all available sources, including Indigenous
46. Artists, writers and performers should refrain Peoples themselves, on the problems experi-
from incorporating elements derived from in- enced and solutions adopted in the protection
digenous heritage into their works without the of Indigenous Peoples’ heritage in all countries.
informed consent of the traditional owners. 56. Indigenous Peoples and their representative
47. Artists, writers and performers should support organizations should enjoy direct access to all
the full artistic and cultural development of intergovernmental negotiations in the field of
Indigenous Peoples, and encourage public sup- intellectual property rights, to share their views
port for the development of greater recognition on the measures needed to protect their herit-
of indigenous artists, writers and performers. age through international law.
48. Artists, writers and performers should contrib- 57. In collaboration with Indigenous Peoples and
ute, through their individual works and profes- Governments concerned, the United Nations
sional organizations, to the greater public should develop a confidential list of sacred and
understanding and respect for the indigenous ceremonial sites that require special measures
heritage associated with the country in which for their protection and conservation, and pro-
they live. vide financial and technical assistance to In-
digenous Peoples for these purposes.
Public information and education 58. In collaboration with Indigenous Peoples and
49. The mass media in all countries should take Governments concerned, the United Nations
effective measures to promote understanding should establish a trust fund with a mandate to
of and respect for Indigenous Peoples’ herit- act as a global agent for the recovery of compen-
age, in particular through special broadcasts sation for the unconsented or inappropriate use
and public-service programmes prepared in col- of Indigenous Peoples’ heritage, and to assist In-
laboration with Indigenous Peoples. digenous Peoples in developing the institutional
50. Journalists should respect the privacy of Indig- capacity to defend their own heritage.
enous Peoples, in particular concerning tradi- 59. United Nations operational agencies, as well as
tional religious, cultural and ceremonial the international financial institutions and re-
activities, and refrain from exploiting or sensa- gional and bilateral development assistance
tionalizing Indigenous Peoples’ heritage. programmes, should give priority to providing
51. Journalists should actively assist Indigenous financial and technical support to indigenous
Peoples in exposing any activities, public or communities for capacity-building and ex-
private, which destroy or degrade Indigenous changes of experience focused on local control
Peoples’ heritage. of research and education.
APPENDICES / 595
Chapter 26 of Agenda 21 which was drafted at 3. Territories
the Rio Conference in 1992, acknowledges in its first
paragraph that indigenous peoples have ‘developed The concept of territory does not appear in Agenda
over many generations a holistic traditional scien- 21 or the Forest Principles. This is problematic be-
tific knowledge of their lands, natural resources and cause the use of the terms ‘environment’, ‘lands’ and
environment. Indigenous people and their commu- ‘resources’ only cover limited aspects of our rela-
nities shall enjoy the full measure of human rights tionship with the great variety of ecosystems within
and fundamental freedoms without hindrance or dis- which we live. We indigenous peoples conceptualize
crimination’. Agenda 21 and the Forest Principles our worlds holistically, and the most suitable term
recognize indigenous rights to lands, to intellectual which embraces the economic, socio-cultural, legal,
and cultural property, and to current customary prac- spiritual and political aspects of our relationship with
tices. They advocate empowerment of indigenous the environment is the term ‘territory’. Without the
peoples and promote participation. The Convention recognition of our territories, we cannot defend the
on Biological Diversity, also signed at Rio in 1992, holistic approach to forests emphasized in Agenda
also recognizes rights to intellectual and cultural 21 and the Forest Principles.
property. However these documents also contain
several features that give us cause for concern. 4. Objects of study and development
APPENDICES / 597
knowledge is collective and a shared aspect of our Another area of partnership is research on our
cultural identity as distinct peoples; knowledge and territories. We are pleased to collaborate with research-
tradition have to be defined by indigenous peoples ers with whom we have agreed to work; however, this
ourselves; and knowledge in its long-term and ho- does not mean that we become ‘stakeholders’ on our
listic world-view is an important aspect of our fun- territories. To research in a collaborative way does not
damental right to self-determination. mean that we are sharing our lands and resources with
Indigenous knowledge and property rights outside interests. Throughout history, sharing rights
The conclusions and declarations of the regional has been the first step in the colonization our peoples.
meetings between indigenous peoples under the aus- A third area of partnership consists of defining
pices of the United Nations Development Programme the practical use of an area and takes the form of
in Latin America, Asia and the Pacific take indig- zoning. Dividing territories into different areas of use
enous rights as the starting point for looking at in- is something which we indigenous peoples have been
digenous knowledge and property rights. Each of the doing for centuries. However, rather than operate in
documents assert that the protection of indigenous terms of large-scale zoning techniques, we organize
peoples’ knowledge is based on the right to self-de- our territories in a multitude of different ways reflect-
termination and territoriality; it is collective and ing the nature of the lands and resources. Indigenous
pertains to indigenous peoples as peoples. patterns of resource management encountered through-
The International Alliance strongly rejects the out the world can be highly sophisticated. In an in-
patenting of life-forms and are outraged to learn that digenous context it is counter-productive to impose
applications for patents have been made on our me- externally designed patterns of zoning. Indigenous
dicinal plants such as Banisteriopsis. The revision of management and organizational practices must be
plant variety rights could be extended to our knowl- used as the basis for any management partnership.
edge systems, but we strongly oppose the limited We want a form of partnership and participa-
notion of Farmers’ Rights held by the FAO. Under tion that is based on the principles of control over
the FAO’s system, benefits do not accrue to local our own resources and which acknowledges that no
farmers and the whole system has been ineffective. activity takes place in our territories without our free
Indigenous knowledge must be recognized as and informed consent.
being inherent in a collectivity, rather than the prop-
erty of individuals, and consequently information Biodiversity prospecting: the commodification of
cannot be used without the consent of the people knowledge
concerned. Group ownership should therefore be Indigenous knowledge can help biodiversity prospec-
recognized in law and access to indigenous knowl- tors create new goods and services that might be
edge should only take place by agreement between patented and sold. The International Alliance agrees
the parties involved. However, there can be no partner- with the statement made at the Pacific Indigenous
ship until our rights are recognized: our collective rights Peoples’ UNDP consultation which calls for a ‘mora-
as peoples to our territories; our free access and con- torium on bio-prospecting in the Pacific and urges in-
trol over our resources; and our prior and informed digenous peoples not to co-operate in bio-prospecting
consent before entering into any partnership. activities until appropriate mechanisms are in place’.
As the statement says, we indigenous peoples are will-
Participation and partnership ing to share our knowledge with humanity provided
There are three areas where participation and part- we determine when, where and how it is used. At
nership can arise relating to our knowledge. The first present the international system does not recognize or
is management of protected areas. Throughout the respect our past, present and potential contribution.’
world we indigenous peoples find our territories be- We are not interested in the commercial sig-
ing declared protected areas unilaterally. We con- nificance for multinational companies but in the
sider this to be a form of expropriation because welfare of humanity. We have the right to determine
inevitably decisions over these areas are made with- how we should deal with companies and we consider
out our full participation and frequently this involves that our consent is a prerequisite for any access or com-
curtailment of our customary economic practices mercial contract. This consent can only be forthcom-
and, even worse, forcible relocation from our ances- ing if our rights are fully recognized. The forest
tral territories. The creation of protected areas with- resources are a community resource and we are the
out our consent can be as threatening as large-scale peoples who can provide access to the resources on
development activities such as dams, mines or oil pros- our territories. No single individual has the right to grant
pecting. We consider that management in partnership anyone access: it has to be done collectively because
has to recognize our rights to our territories. of our inalienable rights to our ancestral territories.
APPENDICES / 599
companies and prospectors to expropriate our knowl- difficult, it is important that researchers are respon-
edge and resources while opening up the possibility sible enough to treat these requests seriously.
of patenting life forms. Our concern is even greater when researchers
While we are aware that Article 27 (‘Patent- carry out assessments and evaluations of our re-
able Subject Matter’) allows for an ‘effective sui sources. Whereas we have been told that it is in our
generis system’ for plant variety protection, this re- interests to see the value of our territories, we can-
fers to the right of States to define their own sys- not see how our resources can be assessed and evalu-
tems of protection. Whereas in the best cases this ated out of context by outside interests. Our own
might allow for community-based systems of re- values are not based on money and costs, but a price-
source protection for indigenous peoples, this re- less combination of all the facets of forests – eco-
quires the good will of our governments, most of nomic, political, cultural, social and spiritual. The
whom are reluctant to recognize even our basic subsequent misrepresentation of our knowledge aris-
rights. Relating to this question, the Alliance en- ing from external assessments and other research
dorses the conclusion of the Pacific Regional meet- presents a problem because we are rarely in a posi-
ing which urges ‘those Pacific governments who have tion to answer back and defend our integrity.
not signed the General Agreement on Tariffs and The principles behind indigenous sharing of
Trade (GATT) to refuse to do so, and encourage those knowledge should reflect the UNESCO Declaration of
governments who have already signed to protest the Principles of International Cultural Co-operation
against any provisions which facilitate the expropria- (1966) where the free exchange of cultural knowledge
tion of indigenous peoples’ knowledge and resources is linked to ‘respect’ and ‘reciprocity’ among cultures.
and the patenting of life forms’. Furthermore, our right to privacy should be protected,
We consider that we already have indigenous sui as in Article 17 of the International Covenant on Civil
generis systems within our own customary law and in- and Political Rights; and, as in Article 19 of the same
digenous legal systems. We urge strongly that our own Covenant, we also expect protection from representa-
indigenous forms of property protection are recognized tion of indigenous peoples that is injurious to our ‘rights
and respected. This is essentially the basis on which or reputations’. This means transparency and accuracy
our control over our knowledge can be maintained and in sharing our knowledge.
our consent can be obtained for its use. We feel that the primary interest of governments
and international institutions is in what information,
Sharing good ideas insights and knowledge they can get out of us; yet when
This refers to non-commercial information which we ask for what we desperately need – recognition of
could be of widespread benefit if shared. We agree our rights as indigenous peoples – we almost inevita-
that our knowledge could be useful if shared with bly encounter a lack of interest, or even open hostility.
concerned groups and institutions but insist that we Recognition of our basic rights is a part of this whole
should be acknowledged for our contribution to any process; without our rights clearly respected, there will
collaborative initiatives. Our concern is that the shar- be no forests, no indigenous peoples, and nothing for
ing is not between equal parties. Too often, we find science or broader humanity to learn.
ourselves in the invidious position that we are either
treated as ignorant and unable to understand our envi- Obstacles to further progress
ronment, or else our knowledge is recognized and cov- Obstacles to further progress arise from the lack of
eted. Only rarely do we receive the respect due to our implementation of indigenous peoples’ rights, as
information and are able to enter into genuinely col- recognized in the draft Declaration of the Rights of
laborative arrangements with non-indigenous research- Indigenous Peoples, and a lack of co-operation within
ers. Any form of computerization of our knowledge must the United Nations. We would suggest that each UN
be recognized as pertaining to our cultural heritage and body provides the starting point for open negotia-
means must be set aside so that information referring tions with indigenous peoples in the transparent
to us is held in our territories. manner that the UN Working Group on Indigenous
Several indigenous peoples of the Amazon have Populations has done over the last decade.
agreed in their assemblies that all researchers in The rights initiatives from the Commission on
their territories have to receive the prior informed Human Rights should flow through the other bodies
consent of any community they work in and the writ- of the UN. Similarly, conclusions on sustainable de-
ten consent of the local indigenous organization. velopment and insights into Agenda 21 can flow to
Copies of data have to be deposited in the organiza- the CBD and human rights bodies. The CBD can look
tion’s archive and all work has to be completely trans- at questions of access, use and benefit-sharing; how-
parent. Whereas monitoring this in practice is ever, these should not be exclusive but mutually en-
APPENDICES / 601
A P P E N D I X 2
APPENDICES / 603
2.1 General introduction (Joanne Pilgrims, religious leaders, musicians and danc-
O’Brien, Martin Palmer and James ers marched into Assisi alongside scientists and con-
Wilsdon, ICOREC) servationists, their divisions overcome by their
shared commitment to the natural world. As they
In 1985 WWF UK published its first RE (Religion entered the town, the marchers were met by a glori-
and Environment) book dedicated to exploring the ous cacophony of sound and colour as singers and
relationships between religious belief and ecology. performers from many different parts of the world
The book, Worlds of Difference, not only brought en- joined in the celebrations.
vironmental studies into RE in schools, and religious The following day, 800 people gathered in the
studies into ecology, but also launched a world-wide Basilica of St Francis of Assisi to participate in an
programme of work with the major religions. As a inspiring ceremony, at which representatives of five
direct result of Worlds of Difference WWF Interna- great religions, the WWF family, the pilgrims and
tional decided to make its 25th anniversary celebra- many other guests affirmed their commitment to
tions a religious event. Five major faiths were invited safeguarding the integrity of creation.
to meet in Assisi in Italy, and from this sprang the The central message of the ceremony was that
work, which WWF world-wide has sponsored and ecology needs the deep truths which lie within the
assisted, of environmental programmes and projects major faiths of the world if people are to recognize
arising from faith communities. their responsibility for and with nature. As Father
In 1995 the United Nations honoured this Serrini, Minister General of the Franciscans said in
unique work with an award, saying that through the his introduction, ‘We are convinced of the inestima-
religion and ecology project, the environmental mes- ble value of our respective traditions and of what
sage had reached “untold millions who could not have they can offer to re-establish ecological harmony;
been reached by other methods”. but, at the same time, we are humble enough to de-
Today, over 120,000 religiously based environ- sire to learn from each other. The very richness of
mental projects exist around the world. But work our diversity lends strength to our shared concern
with RE and with schools is still a priority for WWF and responsibility for our Planet Earth’.
and for its religious advisers, ICOREC (International The final part of the Assisi celebrations, which
Consultancy on Religion, Education and Culture). In shifted the focus from the present to the future, was
recent years, new developments have taken place. The the issuing of the Declarations. These are the au-
original five religions have grown to nine and the depth thoritative statements on ecology and nature from
of reflection by the world’s faiths has also grown. the five major faiths – Buddhism, Christianity, Hin-
The original Assisi Declarations have since been duism, Islam and Judaism – sections of which are
overtaken by new developments within each religion. reprinted below.
The four faiths who joined after Assisi (Baha’is, The members of each faith then went back and
Sikhs, Jains and Taoists) have also published their reflected on their own teachings and on the events
initial Statements and these are included here. they had witnessed at Assisi. Many sought to put
Section 2.2 of this Appendix starts with the five what they had learned into practice through practi-
momentous Assisi Declarations, and adds the dec- cal conservation projects and programmes of environ-
larations of the Baha’is (1987), Sikhs (1989) and mental education. A vast number of such projects are
Jains (1991). now operating throughout the world, ensuring that the
Section 2.3 brings in the new Statements of the ecological message reaches millions of people.
major religions and adds a new one, Taoism. These Soon after Assisi, three more faiths – Baha’i,
are now considered the most authoritative state- Jainism and Sikhism – produced their own Declara-
ments by each Faith. tions to accompany those of the other religions, and
these are included below. The overall significance of
2.2: The Assisi Declarations what had taken place at Assisi was summed up by
HRH The Duke of Edinburgh when he announced
Introduction during the ceremony that, ‘a new and powerful alli-
ance has been forged between the forces of religion
In the late summer of 1986, an historic event oc- and the forces of conservation’.
curred in the Umbrian hill town of Assisi. For the
first time, representatives of the great faiths of the Buddhism (1986)
world came together in pilgrimage in order to hear
what religion had to offer to conservation and what There is a natural relationship between a cause and
conservation had to share with religion. its resulting consequences in the physical world. In
APPENDICES / 605
‘khalifa’ of God, is only to oversee the trust. The The following three statements, from the Baha’is, Sikhs
‘khalifa’ is answerable for his/her actions, for the and Jains, were issued in the years following Assisi.
way in which he/she uses or abuses the trust of
God. Baha’i (1987)
Allah is Unity; and His Unity is also reflected
in the unity of humanity, and the unity of humanity ‘Nature in its essence is the embodiment of My Name,
and nature. His trustees are responsible for main- the Maker, the Creator. Its manifestations are diver-
taining the unity of His creation, the integrity of the sified by varying causes, and in this diversity there
Earth, its flora and fauna, its wildlife and natural are signs for men of discernment. Nature is God’s
environment. Unity cannot be had by discord, by set- Will and is its expression in and through the contin-
ting one need against another or letting one end pre- gent world. It is a dispensation of Providence or-
dominate over another; it is maintained by balance dained by the Ordainer, the All-Wise.’ (Baha’i
and harmony. writings.)
With those words, Baha’u’llah, Prophet-founder
Judaism (1986) of the Baha’i faith, outlines the essential relation-
ship between humanity and the environment: that
When God created the world, so the Bible tells us, the grandeur and diversity of the natural world are
He made order out of primal chaos. The sun, the purposeful reflections of the majesty and bounty of
moon, and the stars; plants, animals, and ultimately God. For Baha’is, there follows an implicit under-
humanity, were each created with a rightful and nec- standing that nature is to be respected and protected,
essary place in the universe. They were not to en- a divine trust for which we are answerable.
croach on each other. ‘Even the divine teaching, the As the most recent of God’s revelations, how-
Torah, which was revealed from on high, was given ever, the Baha’i teachings have a special relevance
in a set measure’ (Vayikra Rabbah 15:22) and even to present-day circumstances when the whole of na-
these holy words may not extend beyond their as- ture is threatened by man-made perils ranging from
signed limit. the wholesale destruction of the world’s rainforests to
The highest form of obedience to God’s com- the final nightmare of nuclear annihilation.
mandments is to do them not in mere acceptance A century ago, Baha’u’llah proclaimed that
but in the nature of union with Him. In such a joyous humanity has entered a new age. Promised by all
encounter between man and God, the very rightness the religious Messengers of the past, this new ep-
of the world is affirmed. The encounter of God and och will ultimately bring peace and enlightenment
man in nature is thus conceived in Judaism as a seam- for humanity. To reach that point, however, human-
less web with man as the leader and custodian of kind must first recognize its fundamental unity – as
the natural world. well as the unity of God and of religion. Until there
There is a tension at the centre of the Bibli- is a general recognition of this wholeness and inter-
cal tradition, embedded in the very story of crea- dependence, humanity’s problems will only worsen.
tion itself, over the question of power and
stewardship. The world was created because God Sikhism (1989)
willed it, but why did He will it? Judaism has main-
tained, in all of its versions, that this world is the Since the beginning of the Sikh religion in the late
arena that God created for man, half beast and fifteenth century, the faith has been built upon the
half angel, to prove that he could behave as a moral message of the ‘oneness of Creation’. Sikhism be-
being. The Bible did not fail to demand even of lieves the universe was created by an almighty God.
God Himself that He be bound, as much as hu- He himself is the creator and the master of all forms
manity, by the law of morality. Thus Abraham stood in the universe, responsible for all modes of nature
before God, after He announced that He was about and all elements in the world.
to destroy the wicked city of Sodom, and Abraham Sikhism firmly believes God to be the source of
demanded of God Himself that He produce moral the birth, life and death of all beings. God is the
justification for this act: ‘Shall not the judge of omniscient, the basic cause of the creation and the
all the earth do justice?’ Comparably, man was personal God of them all.
given dominion over nature, but he was com- From the Divine command occurs the creation
manded to behave towards the rest of creation with and the dissolution of the universe. (p117 Guru
justice and compassion. Humanity lives, always, Granth Sahib)
in tension between his/her power and the limits As their creator, the natural beauty which ex-
set by conscience. ists and can be found in all livings things whether
APPENDICES / 607
‘That which the Lord hath ordained as the sov- only cause of life of the world and the continu-
ereign remedy and mightiest instrument for the heal- ation of these countless phenomena.’
ing of the world is the union of all its people in one
universal Cause’, Bahá’u’lláh wrote. The very fact that such principles should come
Built around the idea of a world commonwealth with the authority of religion and not merely from
of nations, with an international parliament and ex- human sources is yet another piece of the overall
ecutive to carry out its will, such a new political or- solution to our environmental troubles. The impulse
der must also, according to the Bahá’í teachings, be behind the Assisi declarations on nature is testimony
based on the principle of economic justice, equality to this idea.
between the races, equal rights for women and men, There is perhaps no more powerful impetus for
and universal education. social change than religion. Bahá’u’lláh said, ‘Reli-
All these points bear squarely on any attempt gion is the greatest of all means for the establish-
to protect the world’s environment. The issue of eco- ment of order in the world and for the peaceful
nomic justice is an example. In many regions of the contentment of all that dwell therein.’ In attempt-
world, the assault on rainforests and endangered ing to build a new ecological ethic, the teachings of
species comes as the poor, legitimately seeking a all religious traditions can play a role in helping to
fair share of the world’s wealth, fell trees to create inspire their followers.
fields. They are unaware that, over the long term Bahá’u’lláh, for example, clearly addresses the
and as members of a world community which they need to protect animals. ‘Look not upon the crea-
know little about, they may be irretrievably damag- tures of God except with the eye of kindliness and of
ing rather than improving their children’s chances mercy, for Our loving providence hath pervaded all
for a better life. Any attempt to protect nature must, created things, and Our grace encompassed the earth
therefore, also address the fundamental inequities and the heavens.’
between the world’s rich and poor. ‘He Himself expressed a keen love and appre-
Likewise, the uplifting of women to full equal- ciation for nature, furthering the connection between
ity with men can help the environmental cause by the environment and the spiritual world, in Bahá’í
bringing a new spirit of feminine values into deci- theology. ‘The country is the world of the soul, the
sion-making about natural resources. The scriptures city is the world of bodies’, Bahá’u’lláh said.
of the Bahá’í faith note that, ‘Man has dominated This dichotomy between spirituality and mate-
over woman by reason of his more forceful and ag- rialism is a key to understanding the plight of hu-
gressive qualities both of body and mind. But the mankind today. The major threats to our world
balance is already shifting; force is losing its domi- environment, such as the threat of nuclear annihila-
nance, and mental alertness, intuition and the spir- tion, are manifestations of a world-encompassing
itual qualities of love and service, in which woman sickness of the human spirit, a sickness that is
is strong, are gaining ascendancy. Hence the new marked by an overemphasis on material things and
age will be an age less masculine and more perme- a self-centredness that inhibits our ability to work
ated with feminine ideals’. together as a global community. The Bahá’í faith
Education, especially an education that empha- seeks above all else to revitalize the human spirit
sizes Bahá’í principles of human interdependence, and break down the barriers that limit fruitful and
is another prerequisite to the building of a global harmonious co-operation among men and women,
conservation consciousness. The earth’s theology of whatever their national, racial or religious back-
unity and interdependence relates specifically to ground. For Bahá’í the goal of existence is to carry
environmental issues. Again, to quote Bahá’í sacred forward an ever-advancing civilization. Such a civili-
writings: zation can only be built on an earth that can sustain
itself. The Bahá’í commitment to the environment is
‘By nature is meant those inherent properties fundamental to our faith.
and necessary relations derived from the reali-
ties of things. And these realities of things, Buddhism and the environment
though in the utmost diversity, are yet inti-
mately connected one with the other. Liken the All Buddhist teachings and practice come under the
world of existence to the temple of man. All heading of Dharma which means Truth and the path
the organs of the human body assist one an- to Truth. The word Dharma also means ‘phenomena’
other, therefore life continues. Likewise among and in this way we can consider everything to be
the parts of existence there is a wonderful con- within the sphere of the teachings. All outer and in-
nection and interchange of forces which is the ner phenomena, the mind and its surrounding envi-
In the words of Maha Ghosananda: Buddha taught that respect for life and the natu-
ral world is essential. By living simply one can be in
‘When we respect the environment, then na- harmony with other creatures and learn to appreci-
ture will be good to us. When our hearts are ate the interconnectedness of all that lives. This sim-
good, then the sky will be good to us. The trees plicity of life involves developing openness to our
APPENDICES / 609
environment and relating to the world with aware- Once we treat nature as our friend, to cherish
ness and responsive perception. It enables us to en- it, then we can see the need to change from the atti-
joy without possessing, and mutually benefit each tude of dominating nature to an attitude of working
other without manipulation. with nature. We are an intrinsic part of all existence
However, the Buddha was no romantic ideal- rather than seeing ourselves as in control of it.
ist. He also saw and realized that all phenomena,
including the natural world, was a pit of suffering. Nature as a spiritual force
He saw creatures struggling for survival in a pre- For Shantiveda in eighth-century India, dwelling in
carious world. He saw death and fear, the strong nature was obviously preferable to living in a mon-
preying on the weak, and the devastation of thou- astery or town:
sands of beings as one lonely figure ploughed the
earth to reap the harvest. He also saw imperma- When shall I come to dwell in forests
nence. As Ajahn Chah has written: Amongst the deer, the birds and the trees,
That say nothing unpleasant
‘... take trees for example... first they come into And are delightful to associate with.
being, then they grow and mature, constantly (A Guide to the Bodhisativa’s Way of Life)
changing, until they finally die as every tree
must. In the same way, people and animals are Patrul Rinpoche, one of the greatest Tibetan
born, grow and change during their lifetimes Buddhist teachers of the nineteenth century writes:
until they eventually die. The multitudinous
changes which occur during this transition from Base your mind on the Dharma,
birth to death show the Way of Dharma. That is Base your Dharma on a humble life,
to say, all things are impermanent, having de- Base your humble life on the thought of death,
cay and dissolution as their natural condition.’ Base your death on a lonely cave.
(Buddha-Nature) (The Words of My Perfect Teacher)
Nature is not independent and unchanging and The Buddha taught that the balance of nature
neither are we. Change is the very essence of na- is achieved by the functions of the forest. Survival
ture. In the words of Stephen Batchelor, ‘We each of the forest is vital to the survival of natural har-
believe we are a solid and lasting self rather than a mony, balance, morality and environment.
short-term bundle of thoughts, feelings and im- Buddhist teachers and masters have constantly
pulses.’ (The Sands of the Ganges). reminded us of the importance of living in tune with
We do not exist independently, separate from nature, to respect all life, to make time for medita-
everything else – all things in the universe come into tion practice, to live simply and use nature as a spir-
existence, ‘arise’ as a result of particular conditions. itual force. Buddha stressed the four boundless
It is surely a mistake to see fulfilment in terms of qualities: loving kindness, compassion, sympathetic
external or personal development alone. joy (delight in the well-being of others) and equa-
Buddha taught us to live simply, to cherish tran- nimity (impartiality).
quillity, to appreciate the natural cycle of life. In this Venerable Asabho has spoken of the value of
universe of energies, everything affects everything living in retreat in Hammer Woods, Chithurst. The
else. Nature is an ecosystem in which trees affect forest has its own rhythms and after a few days the
climate, the soil and the animals, just as the climate metabolism and sleeping patterns adjust and the
affects the trees, the soil, the animals and so on. senses begin to sharpen to this new and unfamiliar
The ocean, the sky, the air, are all inter-related, and setting. Ear and nose play a more important role
inter-dependent – water is life and air is life. A re- when not having any comforts of life – gas, electric-
sult of Buddhist practice is that one does not feel ity, artificial light and the like. Living in the fast and
that one’s existence is so much more important than furious pace of the twentieth century, our true na-
anyone else’s. The importance of the individual, and ture is often dulled by the massive sensory impact
emphasis on self is, in the West, a dominant outlook unavoidable in modern urbanized living. Living close
which is moving to the East as ‘development’ and con- to nature is a very healing experience – to have few
sumerism spreads. Instead of looking at things as a activities, few distractions. Learning to trust your-
seamless undivided whole we tend to categorize and self and being more of a friend than a judge one de-
compartmentalize. Instead of seeing nature as our great velops a lightness of being, a light confidence. One
teacher we waste and do not replenish, and we forget realizes the truth of the notion of impermanence –
that Buddha learned ‘Wisdom from Nature’. the sound of animals, the texture of trees, the subtle
APPENDICES / 611
special role has sometimes been interpreted as giv- have a unique place in God’s creation. When we be-
ing free rein to mastership. As the World Council of come sensitive to God’s world around us, we grow
Churches said in the document from the Granvollen, more conscious also of God’s world within us. Be-
Norway, meeting of 1988: ginning to see nature as a work of God, we begin to
see our own place as human beings within nature.
The drive to have ‘mastery’ over creation has The true appreciation of any object is to discover
resulted in the senseless exploitation of natu- the extraordinary in the ordinary.
ral resources, the alienation of the land from The Orthodox Church teaches that it is the
people and the destruction of indigenous cul- destiny of humanity to restore the proper relation-
tures.... Creation came into being by the will ship between God and the world as it was in Eden.
and love of the Triune God, and as such it pos- Through repentance, two landscapes – the one hu-
sesses an inner cohesion and goodness. Though man, the other natural – can become the objects
human eyes may not always discern it, every of a caring and creative effort. But repentance
creature and the whole creation in chorus bear must be accompanied by soundly-focused initia-
witness to the glorious union and harmony with tives which manifest the ethos of Orthodox Chris-
which creation in endowed. And when our hu- tian faith.
man eyes are opened and our tongues unloosed, The World Council of Churches, predominantly
we too learn to praise and participate in the Protestant, but also with full Orthodox participation,
life, love, power and freedom that is God’s con- issued the following when they called their member
tinuing gift and grace.’ churches together in 1990 to consider the issues of
Justice, Peace and the integrity of Creation:
In differing ways, the main churches have
sought to either revise or re-examine their theology Affirmation VII
and as a result their practice in the light of the envi-
ronmental crisis. For example, Pope Paul VI in his ‘We affirm the creation as beloved of God.
Apostolic Letter, Octogesima Adventeins, also com-
ments in a similar manner: We affirm that the world, as God’s handiwork,
has its own inherent integrity; that land, wa-
‘by an ill-considered exploitation of nature, he ters, air, forests, mountains and all creatures,
[humanity] risks destroying it and becoming, including humanity, are ‘good’ in God’s sight.
in his turn, the victim of this degradation,... the The integrity of creation has a social aspect
flight from the land, industrial growth, continual which we recognize as peace with justice, and
demographic expansion and the attraction of an ecological aspect which we recognize in the
urban centres bring about concentrations of self-renewing, sustainable character of natural
population difficult to imagine.’ ecosystems.
In his New Year message, 1990, His Holiness We will resist the claim that anything in crea-
the Pope stated: tion is merely a resource for human exploita-
tion. We will resist species extinction for human
‘Christians, in particular, realize that their re- benefit; consumerism, and harmful mass pro-
sponsibility within creation and their duty to- duction; pollution of land, air and waters; all
wards nature and the Creator are an essential human activities which are now leading to prob-
part of their faith.’ able rapid climate change; and the policies and
plans which contribute to the disintegration of
In Orthodoxy this is brought out even more creation.
strongly, especially in the document produced by the
Ecumenical Patriarchate, Orthodoxy and the Ecologi- Therefore we commit ourselves to be members
cal Crisis (1990). The Orthodox Church teaches that of both the living community of creation in
humanity, both individually and collectively, ought which we are but one species, and members of
to perceive the natural order as a sign and sacra- the covenant community of Christ; to be full co-
ment of God. This is obviously not what happens workers with God, with moral responsibility to
today. Rather humanity perceives the natural order respect the rights of future generations; and to
as an object of exploitation. There is no one who is conserve and work for the integrity of creation
not guilty of disrespecting nature, for to respect na- both for its inherent value to God and in order
ture is to recognize that all creatures and objects that justice may be achieved and sustained.’
‘Just as the priest at the Eucharist offers the full- Part one: Basic hindu environmental teachings
ness of creation and receives it back as the bless- Sustaining the balance (Swami Vibudhesha Teertha)
ing of Grace in the form of the consecrated bread These days it looks as if human beings have forgot-
and wine, to share with others, so we must be the ten that a particular natural condition on Earth ena-
channel through which God’s grace and deliver- bled life to come into existence and evolve to the
ance is shared with all creation. The human be- human level. Humanity is disturbing this natural
ing is simply yet gloriously the means for the condition on which his existence, along with the ex-
expression of creation in its fullness and the com- istence of all other forms of life, depends. This is
ing of God’s deliverance for all creation.’ (Page 8) like the action of a wood-cutter cutting a tree at the
trunk, on the branch on which he is sitting. Accord-
For Christians, the very act of creation and the ing to Hindu religion, ‘dharanath dharma ucyate’ –
love of God in Christ for all creation, stands as a that which sustains all species of life and helps to
constant reminder that, while we humans are spe- maintain harmonious relationship, among them is
APPENDICES / 613
dharma – and that which disturbs such ecology is Sun, Moon, Earth, Stars and all objects in the uni-
adharma. verse jointly, not individually, create the atmosphere
Hindu religion wants its followers to live a sim- for the creation, sustenance or destruction of every-
ple life. It does not allow people to go on increasing thing in the universe. The Earth is the only daugh-
their material wants. People are meant to learn to ter of the Sun to produce children. The Moon is
enjoy spiritual happiness, so that to derive a sense essential for the creation of the right atmosphere
of satisfaction and fulfilment they need not run after for those children to exist and evolve. This we say
material pleasures and disturb nature’s checks and because of the influence of the Moon in the high and
balances. They have to milk a cow and enjoy; not low tides of our rivers and oceans. This is narrated
cut at the udder of the cow with greed to enjoy what also in the Bhagavad Gita: ‘I become the Moon and
is not available in the natural course. Do not use thereby supply the juice of life to all vegetables’.
anything belonging to nature, such as oil, coal or 15.13)
forest, at a greater rate than you can replenish it. We cannot refute this influence of the Moon on
For example, do not destroy birds, fish, earthworms life. It is proved by the movement of all liquid on
and even bacteria which play vital ecological roles: this globe depending on the movement of the Moon.
once they are annihilated you cannot re-create them. Therefore ecology in totality must be preserved: just
Thus only can you avoid becoming bankrupt and the a part of it would not suffice.
life cycle can continue for a long, long time. Hinduism is a religion which is very near to
‘Conserve ecology or perish’ is the message of nature. It asks its followers to see God in every ob-
the Bhagavad Gita – a dialogue between Sri Krishna ject in the Universe. Worship of God in air, water,
and Arjuna which is a clear and precise Life Science. fire, Sun, Moon, Stars and Earth is especially rec-
It is narrated in the third chapter of this great work ommended. Earth is worshipped as the spouse of
that a life without contribution towards the preser- God. Hence very dear and near to God. All lives on
vation of ecology is a life of sin and a life without Earth are considered as children of God and Earth.
specific purpose or use. The ecological cycle is ex-
plained in verses 3.14-16: Sri Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita says,
‘All living bodies subsist on food grains, which ‘I am pervading the Universe. All objects in the
are produced from rains. Rains are produced Universe rest on me as pearls on the thread of
from performance of yajna (sacrifice), and yajna a garland.’
is born of prescribed duties. Regulated activi-
ties are prescribed in the Vedas, and the Vedas The Upanishads narrate that after creating the
are directly manifested from the Supreme Per- Universe, the creator entered into each and every
sonality of Godhead. Consequently the all-per- object to help them maintain their inter-relationship.
vading Transcendence is eternally situated in The Upanishad says ‘tat sristva ta devanu pravisat’:
acts of sacrifice. My dear Arjuna, one who does after creating the universe He entered into every
not follow in human life the cycle of sacrifice object created. Therefore to contribute towards the
thus established by the Vedas certainly lives a maintenance of this inter-relationship becomes wor-
life full of sin. Living only for the satisfaction ship of God. Hindus believe that there is soul in all
of the senses, such a person lives in vain.’ plants and animals. One has to do penance even for
killing plants and animals for food. This daily pen-
Life is sustained by different kinds of food; rain- ance is called ‘visva deva’. Visva deva is nothing but
fall produces food; timely movement of clouds brings an offering of prepared food to the Creator, asking
rains; to get the clouds moving on time, yajna – reli- His pardon.
gious sacrifice – helps; yajna is performed through The Hindu religion gives great importance to
rituals; those actions which produce rituals belong protecting cattle. At every Hindu house there is a
only to God; God is revealed by the Vedas; the Vedas cow and it is worshipped. The cow is a great friend
are preserved by the human mind; and the human of humans. It nourishes us through its milk and pro-
mind is nourished by food. This is the cycle which vides manure to grow our food. This it does without
helps the existence of all forms of life on this globe. any extra demand – it lives on the fodder got while
One who does not contribute to the maintenance of growing our food. Advanced countries have started
this cycle is considered as a destroyer of all life here. to realize the harmful effects of consuming food
When the Lord desired to create life, He created the grown with chemical manure. When we use chemi-
Sun, Moon and Earth, and through them a congenial cal manure, the top soil loses its fertility. This gen-
atmosphere for life to come into being. Therefore the eration has no right to use up all the fertility of the
APPENDICES / 615
In our cosmic journey, we are involved in countless relationship. The family within which these relation-
cycles of births and deaths. Life progresses into ships are nourished is not limited to its human mem-
higher forms or regresses into lower forms of life bers. Just as the human child has to be nourished by
based upon our good or bad karma. Kinship exists Mother Nature, and the human spirit has to be em-
between all forms of life. Reincarnation warns us braced and loved by beautiful nature, so the human
against treating lower forms of life with cruelty. being who has grown old or sick has to be supported
by caring nature. If humans distress the mother, rape
Cow protection the beauty and beat the caring nurse, what happens?
Man has evolved from lower forms of life. He is, The relationship collapses, and the family is broken.
therefore, related to the whole of creation. The prin- The Sanskrit for family is parivara, and envi-
ciple of cow protection symbolizes human responsi- ronment is paryavarana. If we think of the environ-
bility to the sub-human world. It also indicates ment as our home and all of its members as our family
reverence for all forms of life. The cow serves hu- it is clear that the key to conserving nature is devo-
mans throughout its life, and even after death. The tion, love – giving and serving. Nature, prakiiti, as
milk of the cow runs in our blood. Its contributions the feminine can give and serve. But the role of hu-
to the welfare of the family and the community are manity, purusha, is then to protect. Nowadays
countless. Hindus pray daily for the welfare of cows. purusha, humanity, is interested not in protecting but
When the cows are cared for, the world at all levels in exploiting, so prakriti, nature, has to defend her-
will find happiness and peace. self. This is why we see nature in her furious mani-
festation – in drought, floods or hurricanes. If we
Earth as mother rape the mother’s womb she has convulsions, and
Hindus revere the Earth as mother. She feeds, shel- we blame her for devastating earthquakes. If we
ters and clothes us. Without her we cannot survive. denude her of her lush hair and beautiful skin, she
If we as children do not take care of her we diminish punishes us by withholding food and water.
her ability to take care of us. Unfortunately the Earth As it is through ignorance that we destroy our
herself is now being undermined by our scientific relationships in the family and within the environ-
and industrial achievements. ment, that ignorance becomes the root cause of our
suffering. The best way to get rid of this ignorance
Breaking the family (Shrivatsa Goswami) is to unlearn what is wrong. This unlearning is
shaped not only in the school but in the family and
‘Let there be peace in the heavens, the Earth, community, and it has to begin with the very young.
the atmosphere, the water, the herbs, the veg- Traditional Hindu education covers all facets
etation, among the divine beings and in Brah- of life – economic, political, cultural and above all
man, the absolute reality. Let everything be at religious. Whether we speak of Krishna, of
peace and in peace. Only then will we find Chaitanya, or of Gandhi, we see that they drew no
peace.’ clear division between the economic or political and
the religious or cultural facets of life. The body and
According to Hindu philosophy, the goal of hu- mind are in the service of the heart. In the same way
man life is the realization of the state of peace. politics and economics are rooted in and guided by
Dharma, loosely translated as religion, is the source religion and culture, and ultimately by spiritual ex-
by which peace can be fully realized. This peace is perience.
not the stillness of death; it is a dynamic harmony
among all the diverse facets of life. Humanity, as Part two: The present-day context
part of the natural world, can contribute through Pollution of mind and planet
dharma to this natural harmony. Mental pollutions are the underlying cause of these
The natural harmony which should exist in the physical and environmental ravages. Mental
play of energies between humanity and the natural pollutions come from lust, greed and anger which
world is now disrupted by the weakest player in the lead to the desire for profit, power and aggrandise-
game – humanity. Although it is the totality of this ment. They result in disharmony, conflict, sickness
game that provides our nourishment, through igno- and degradation of nature. Truthfulness, humility,
rance of our own natural limits we destroy this source unity of humanity, reverence for life, and care for
of nourishment. the environment are all expressions of the moral and
This awareness of ecological play or playful spiritual laws of life which form part of the very struc-
ecology is inseparable from awareness of the need ture of the universe. When these give way to mental
for friendship and play as the real basis for human pollutions, negative forces are released.
APPENDICES / 617
basis. In effect this meant that early Man had to learn We must also take note that the ‘unmatched
to conserve at an early age. Being largely depend- material progress’ of this century we are often fond
ent on what was available rather than from what he of talking about has only been possible for the few:
could cultivate, he entered into a partnership with that is the population of the Northern Hemisphere
the environment. To take more than the regenera- and a small minority among the peoples of the South.
tive capacity of the environment could lead to seri- This is usually translated as less than 25 per cent of
ous subsequent exhaustion – quite rightly seen as the world’s population consuming over 75 per cent
harsh retribution from an angry God. The converse of the world’s resources. This rate of consumption
situation of exploitation with moderation led to sus- by a minority of the human species has caused un-
tained yields which were (again, quite rightly) taken paralleled climatic changes, eco-system disintegra-
as having pleased God. tion and species extinction, and as a report by WWF
This relationship between conservation and (World Wide Fund For Nature) observes: ‘loss of bio-
religion is thus not only a natural one but also prob- diversity world-wide, and the combination of global
ably as old as the proverbial hills. But when we warming with other human pressures, will present
quickly open most of the pages of Man’s history on the greatest challenge in conservation for decades
planet Earth and come to the last three hundred years to come’.
or so, we find the advent of the Industrial Revolu- This would lead us to conclude that there is a
tion. The Industrial Revolution made possible the profound and inherent contradiction in the efforts
production of large quantities of goods in a very short made by the ‘North’ to keep ahead of the rest as
time. That meant that raw materials in ever-increas- consumers, and the push by the remaining 75 per
ing quantities had to be found to feed the hungry cent of the world’s population to catch up. Given this
mills ready to convert them into finished or semi- scenario, if just Eastern Europe or Russia or India
finished goods. The consequences of the Industrial or China managed to raise their standards of living
Revolution were many – economic, social and envi- by just a few percentage points, then the conse-
ronmental. The material achievements of the human quences of putting this extra load on the earth’s eco-
race in the past one hundred or so years have over- system, which is already under severe strain, would
shadowed the contributions made by all past civili- be catastrophic.
zations. The Industrial Revolution that took place This is the background against which the fol-
in Europe in the eighteenth and nineteenth centu- lowers of the relatively ancient, environmentally
ries exacted a high social and environmental cost. conscious (indeed environmentally concerned) God
Now these costs are even higher and more univer- have gathered to re-examine and to restate their own
sal, being manifestly so in the great urban centres commitment to environmental integrity from their own
of the world. The paradox of ‘progress’ today is the individual religion’s standpoint. We for our part will
easily perceived correlation between complex con- look at the underpinnings of conservation in Islam.
sumer societies and the degeneration of the human
being. Or as John Seymour puts it: Islam and conservation
‘We see men now wherever we look, so blinded There are several Islamic principles which, when
by arrogance and the worship of man as God that taken individually, seem to have little bearing on
they are doing things no one but the insane would conservation. Together, however, they add up to a
do. Men maddened by the belief that they are both clear concept of the Islamic view on conservation.
omniscient and omnipotent, that they are indeed, We shall now annotate these principles briefly.
God.’
The Industrial Revolution also proclaimed a Tawheed
new revival of another God – Mammon. Mammon The first Islamic principle which relates to conser-
regrettably has no respect for environmental integ- vation is that of the Oneness of Allah, or Tawheed.
rity – nor do his followers. The last 250 years have This principle is absolutely fundamental to Islam.
seen a growing decimation of ever more pristine ar- Every Muslim must believe in this Oneness of Allah.
eas of Nature to feed the insatiable industrial cuckoo It is said by some Ulamaa that some two-thirds of
and its resultant consumerism. Forests – particu- Prophet Muhammad’s (SAW) early preaching – and
larly tropical forests – have been systematically hewn indeed of the Qur’an itself – were and are dedicated
down, the seas ransacked, the lands made totally purely to endorsing this very Oneness of Allah. One
dependent on a host of inorganic fertilizers and pes- indivisible God means to a Muslim that there is no
ticides for food production, wastes galore have filled separate deity for each of the many attributes that
the seas, the rivers and the lakes not to mention the to Muslims belong to the One Universal God who is
land-fills. also God of the Universe.
APPENDICES / 619
030.026. To Him belongs every being that is in 002.032. They said, ‘Glory to Thee of knowl-
the heavens and on earth: all are devoutly obe- edge: we have none save that Thou hast taught
dient to Him. us: in truth it is Thou who art perfect in knowl-
edge and wisdom’.
And again:
002.033. He said, ‘O Adam! tell them their na-
062.001. Whatever is in the heavens and on tures’. When he had told them Allah said, ‘Did
earth doth declare the Praises and Glory of Al- I not tell you that I know the secrets of heaven
lah the Sovereign the Holy One the Exalted in and earth and I know what ye reveal and what
Might the Wise. ye conceal?’
Thus Allah, the One Indivisible God, the Uni- 002.034. And behold We said to the angels,
versal God and the Lord of the Universe, is the Owner ‘Bow down to Adam’; and they bowed down.
also of all that is in the universe, including Man. Not so Iblis: he refused and was haughty: he
After all, we are reminded to say constantly: was of those who rejected Faith’.
002.155. Be sure We shall test you with some- Clearly Allah preferred the unprogrammed free will
thing of fear and hunger some loss in goods or of Man to the pre-programmed goodness of angels!
lives or the fruits (of your toil) but give glad
tidings to those who patiently persevere. And again:
002.156. Who say when afflicted with calam- 006.165. It is He who hath made you (His)
ity, ‘To Allah we belong and to Him is our re- agents inheritors of the earth: He hath raised
turn’. you in ranks some above others: that he may
try you in the gifts He hath given you: for thy
The above set of principles – all taken from Is- Lord is quick in punishment: yet He is indeed
lam’s ultimate authority, the Holy Qu’ran – set the Oft-Forgiving Most Merciful.”
perspectives of the relationship of Man to God and
of God to the environment in its totality. A second The exercise of the vice-regency is defined in
set of principles that the Holy Qur’an enunciates the Qur’an by another set of principles between which
prescribe Man’s relationship to the environment af- Man’s privileges as well as his responsibilities are
ter, of course, Man has accepted the preceding prin- clearly defined. We shall deal with these briefly in
ciples. the following paragraphs.
APPENDICES / 621
cording to the pattern on which He has made Jainism and the environment
mankind: no change (let there be) in the work
(wrought) by Allah: that is the standard Reli- History of Jainism
gion: but most among mankind understand not. Jainism is one of the oldest living religions. The term
jain means ‘the follower of the Jinas’ (spiritual vic-
Thus, Islam teaches that humanity is an inte- tors), human teachers who attained omniscience.
gral part of the environment, it is part of the crea- These teachers are also called Tirthankaras (ford-
tion of Almighty God. We remain deeply locked into makers), those who help others escape the cycle of
the natural domain despite the fact that there is talk birth and death.
of bringing the environment to the people as though The twenty-fourth Tirthankara, called Mahavira,
we are independent of it. was born in 599 BC. At the age of thirty, he left home
The power given to man by God is seen in Islam on a spiritual quest. After twelve years of trials and
to be used ... not only towards God and other men and austerities, he attained omniscience. Eleven men
women, but also towards the rest of creation. became his ganadha or chief disciples. At seventy-
two Mahavira died and attained nirvana, that bliss-
Seyyed Hossein Nasr says: ful state beyond life and death. Mahavira was not
the founder of a new religion. He consolidated the
The Divine Law (al shariah) is explicit in ex- faith by drawing together the teachings of the previ-
tending the religious duties of man to the natu- ous Tirthankarma, particularly those of his immedi-
ral order and the environment.’ (The Need for a ate predecessor, Parsva, who lived about 250 years
Sacred Science) earlier at Varnasi.
Initially, the followers of Jainism lived through-
The conclusion out the Ganges Valley in India. Around 250 BC, most
As we indicated at the beginning, there are a number Jains migrated to the city of Mathura on the Yamuna
of Qur’anic principles which, taken separately, do River. Later, many travelled west to Rajasthan and
not have an obvious connection with conservation. Gujarat and south to Maharashtra and Karnataka
But taken in their totality, they state in clear terms where Jainism rapidly grew in popularity. The Jain
that Allah, the One True God, is the Universal God population throughout the world is less than ten
and the Creator of the Universe and indeed, the million, of which about one hundred thousand have
Owner of the Universe. To Him belong all the ani- settled overseas in North America, United Kingdom,
mate and inanimate objects, all of whom should or Kenya, Belgium, Singapore, Hong Kong and Japan.
do submit themselves to Him. Allah, in His Wisdom,
appointed Man, the creature that He has conferred Jain practices
with the faculty of Reason and with Free will, to be Jains believe that to attain the higher stages of per-
His vice-regent on Earth. And while Allah has in- sonal development, lay people must adhere to the
vited Man to partake of the fruits of the Earth for three jewels (ratna-traya) namely enlightened world
his rightful nourishment and enjoyment, He has also view, true knowledge, and conduct based on enlight-
directed Man not to waste that which Allah has pro- ened world view and true knowledge. They must
vided for him – for He loves not wasters. Further- endeavour to fulfil the anuvratas (small vows). These
more, Allah has also ordered Man to administer his vows are:
responsibilities with justice. Above all, Man should
conserve the balance of Allah’s creation on Earth. Ahimsa (non-violence)
By virtue of his intelligence, Man (when he believes This is the fundamental vow and runs through the
in the One Universal Allah, the Creator of the Uni- Jain tradition like a golden thread. It involves avoid-
verse), is the only creation of Allah to be entrusted ance of violence in any form through word or deed,
with the responsibility of maintaining planet Earth not only to human beings but to all nature. It means
in the overall balanced ecology that Man found. If reverence for life in every form, including plants and
biologists believe that Man is the greatest agent of animals. Jains practice the principle of compassion
ecological change on the surface of the Earth, is it for all living beings (Jiva-daya) at every step in daily
not Man who, drawn from the brink, will – for his life. Jains are vegetarians.
own good – abandon Mammon and listen to the pre-
scriptions of God on the conservation of his environ- Satya (truthfulness)
ment and the environment of all the creatures on Tirthankara Mahavira said, Sachham Bhagwam
Earth? The Islamic answer to this question is deci- (Truth is God).
sively in the affirmative.
APPENDICES / 623
and over every creeping thing that creeps upon One who threw stones into the public domain
the earth”. We learn of the obligation of the individual to pro-
tect the public domain from a story brought in the
And again in Genesis 1:28 Tosefta (Tosefta Baba Kama 2:1 0).
‘And God blessed them [Adam and Eve] “Be It happened that a certain person was remov-
fruitful, and multiply, and fill the earth and sub- ing stones from his ground onto public ground
due it; and have dominion over the fish of the when a pious man found him and said, ‘Fool,
sea, and over the fowl of the air, and over every why do you remove stones from ground which
living thing that creeps upon the earth”. is not yours to ground which is yours?’. The
man laughed at him. Sometime later he was
Rav Kook (R. Avraham Yitzhak hakohen Kook, compelled to sell his field, and when he was
1865–1935, first chief rabbi of Palestine) has an in- walking on that public ground, he stumbled over
sightful understanding of the idea (Kook 1961): the stones he had thrown there. He then said,
‘How well did that pious man say to me, “Why
‘There can be no doubt to any enlightened or do you remove stones from ground which is not
thoughtful person, that the ‘dominion’ men- yours to ground which is yours?”’
tioned in the Bible in the phrase, ‘and have do-
minion over the fish of the sea, and over the In other words, the terms ‘public domain’ and
fowl of the air, and over every living thing that ‘private domain’ are not necessarily identical to the
creeps upon the earth’, is not the dominion of a concepts ‘mine’ and ‘not mine’. What was once my
tyrant who deals harshly with his people and private domain might one day not be mine, while the
servants in order to achieve his own personal public domain will always remain my domain.
desires and whims. It would be unthinkable to
legislate so repugnant a subjugation and have Protection of the environment and the love of man
it forever engraved upon the world of God, who In addition to the rules governing man’s relations
is good to all and whose mercy extends to all. with his fellow man, which are based upon the bibli-
He has created, as is written, “the earth is cal imperative, ‘Love your neighbour as yourself’
founded upon mercy” (Ps. 89.3). (Lev.19:18), norms were established for man’s treat-
ment of plants, animals and even the inanimate ele-
Three things which grant man tranquillity ments of nature.
The Sages of the Talmud gave expression to the en- When approaching the subject of environmen-
vironment’s effect on man’s spirit in their statement tal protection, we must be careful to maintain the
(Berakhot 57b). proper balance between protection of the environ-
ment and protection of man. The proper balance in
‘Three things restore a man’s consciousness: this context is certainly not one of equality between
[beautiful] sounds, sights, and smells. Three man and nature. The relationship between man and
things enlarge a man’s spirit: a beautiful dwell- nature is one of ownership – albeit limited. In our
ing, a beautiful wife, and beautiful clothes.’ enthusiasm for protecting the environment, we must
not forget man’s interests or his role in the scheme
Life in the city of creation. Love of nature may not take precedence
The Sages of the Talmud also noted that the envi- over love of man. We must avoid at all costs the er-
ronment undergoes more damage in large cities than ror of those who were known as lovers of animals
in small towns. In explaining a law of the Mishnahi yet perpetrated the worst crimes imaginable against
that a spouse may not compel his mate to move from their fellow men.
a village to a large city, the Talmud cites the reason- The proper balance must also be maintained
ing of R Yosi Ben Hanina (Ketubot 110b). ‘Life is more between individual interests and the interest of the
difficult in the city’, Rashi (Rashi, ad IGC., s.v. public. Sometimes an individual’s act may harm the
Yeshivat) explains, community, as when a person builds a factory that
pollutes the environment with industrial waste.
‘... because so many live there, and they crowd Sometimes, however, it is the community that is in-
their houses together, and there is no air, terested in a factory although it constitutes a seri-
whereas in villages there are gardens and or- ous infringement upon an individual’s ability to enjoy
chards close to the homes, and the air is good.’ his own home and surroundings.
When discussing the quality of the environment,
Protecting nature And the Lord spoke unto Moses on Mount Si-
Man and his environment nai, saying, ‘Speak unto the children of Is-
rael, and say unto them: When you come into
‘I recall the early days, from 1905 onward, when the land which I give you, then shall the land
it was granted me by the grace of the blessed keep a Sabbath unto the Lord. Six years shall
Lord to go up to the Holy Land, and I came to you sow your field, and six years shall you
Jaffa. There I first went to visit our great mas- prune your vineyard, and gather in the pro-
ter R Abraham Isaac Kook (of blessed memory), duce thereof. But in the seventh year shall
who received me with good cheer, as it was his be a Sabbath of solemn rest for the Land, a
hallowed custom to receive everyone. We chat- Sabbath unto the Lord; you shall neither sow
ted together on themes of Torah study. After your field nor prune your vineyard. That
the afternoon service, he went out, as was his which grows of itself of your harvest you shall
custom, to stroll a bit in the fields and gather not reap, and the grapes of your undressed
his thoughts; and I went along. On the way, I vine you shall not gather; it shall be a year of
plucked some branch or flower. Our great mas- solemn rest for the land.’ (See also Lev. 25:6.7
ter was taken aback; and then he told me gen- and Exod. 23:10-11.)
tly, “Believe me. In all my days I have taken
care never to pluck a blade of grass or flower R. Moshe ben Maimon Maimonides (1135-1204:
needlessly, when it had the ability to grow or the most distinguished Jewish authority of the Mid-
blossom. You know the teaching of the Sages dle Ages), in his Guide for the Perplexed suggests a
that there is not a single blade of grass below, reason for the sabbatical year:
here on earth, which does not have a heavenly
force telling it ‘Grow’. Every sprout and leaf of With regard to all the commandments that we
grass says something, conveys some meaning. have enumerated in Laws concerning the Sab-
Every stone whispers some inner, hidden mes- batical year and the jubilee, some of them are
sage in the silence. Every creation utters its song meant to lead to pity and help for all men – as
(in praise of the Creator).” Those words, spoken the text has it: ‘That the poor of the people may
from a pure and holy heart, engraved themselves eat; and what they leave, the beasts of the field
deeply on my heart. From that time on, I began to shall eat...’ (Exod. 23.-11) – and are meant to
feel a strong sense of compassion for everything.’ make the earth more fertile and stronger
(R Aryeh Levine, in Simcha Raz 1976) through letting it fallow.
APPENDICES / 625
In other words, one of the goals of ceasing all serving the natural balance of creation. This is the
agricultural activity is to improve and strengthen the approach taken by R Avraham ibn Ezra (c. 1089–
land. 1164: biblical commentator, poet, philosopher and
Another reason for the sabbatical year which physician who lived in Spain) in his explanation of
emphasizes man’s relationship with his environment the biblical prohibition against mixing species. In
is suggested by the author of Sefer haHinnukh in his Leviticus (19:19) we find:
explanation of the obligation to declare all produce
ownerless, such that anyone may enter any field and ‘You shall keep my statutes. You shall not let
take from its produce during the sabbatical year. your cattle gender with a diverse kind; you shall
(Sefer haHinnukh commandment 84 (ed. Chavel, com- not sow your field with two kinds of seed; nei-
mandment 69). Cf. Sefer haHinnukh on the Jubilee ther shall there come upon you a garment of
Year, commandment 330 (ed. Chavel, commandment two kinds of stuff mingled together.’
326): ‘God wished to teach His people that all be-
longs to Him, that ultimately all things are turned One aspect of preventing changes in the crea-
to the one to whom God wished to give them at the tion finds expression in the effort to avoid causing
outset. For the world is His, as is written (Ex. 19:5), the extinction of any animal. The presumption that
“... for all the earth is Mine”’.) everything that was created was created for some
To the reasons for the Sabbatical Year, Rav Kook purpose denies us the possibility of eliminating from
adds restoration of the proper balance among man, the world any species. So writes Nahmanides con-
God, and nature. In the Sabbatical year, according cerning the prohibition of mixing species (Lev.
to Rav Kook, 19:19):
‘... man returns to the freshness of his nature, to ‘The reason for the prohibition against mixing
the point where there is no need to heal his ill- species is that God created all the species of
nesses, most of which result from destruction of the earth and gave them the power to repro-
the balance of life as it departs ever further from duce so that their species could exist forever,
the purity of spiritual and material nature” (In- for as long as He wishes the world to exist, and
troduction to Shabbat haAretz, pp. 8-9). He created for each one the capacity to repro-
duce its own species and not change it, forever.
To establish in our hearts and make a strong And this is the reason for sexual reproduction
impression on our thoughts that the world was cre- among animals, to maintain the species; so too
ated as a new entity out of nothing, ‘that in six days among humans, it is for the purpose of being
God made the heaven and the earth’ (Exod. 20:11); fruitful and multiplying.’
It is known that this commandment is meant c) For man is a tree of the field
to teach us to love the good and the useful and The relationship of God, man, and nature is depicted
cling to them, and in this way goodness will in the biblical expression, ‘For man is a tree of the
cling to us, and we will avoid all that is bad and field’. Various interpretations have been given to this
decadent. And this is the way of the pious: they relationship: even plants are subject to divine Provi-
love peace and rejoice in the good fortune of dence; both man and the tree are God’s creatures.
others, and bring everyone near to the Torah, Sifrei asserts, ‘This shows that man’s living comes
and do not waste even a mustard seed, and they from trees’.
are pained by all destruction and waste that The Sages also compared the death of the tree
they see. And they save anything they can from to the departure of man’s soul from his body:
destruction with all their might. But the wicked
are different. They are the allies of those who ‘There are five sounds that go from one end of
destroy, they rejoice in destruction of the world the world to the other, though they are inaudi-
and they destroy themselves: ‘with the kind of ble. When people cut down the wood of a tree
measure a man measures, so shall he be meas- that yields fruit, its cry goes from one end of
ured’. (Mishnah Sotah 1:7). the world to the other, and the sound is inaudi-
ble. When the soul departs from the body, the
The source of the prohibition of wasteful de- cry goes forth from one end of the world to the
struction is the biblical prohibition of cutting down other, and the sound is inaudible.’
fruit-bearing trees, which will be discussed below.
The prohibition of wasteful destruction, however, is On the basis of this passage, R Menahem
more comprehensive than the prohibition of destroy- Recanad (an early kabbalist active in Italy at the
ing fruit-bearing trees, and it extends to anything end of the thirteenth century and the beginning of
that has use. In other words, the prohibition includes the fourteenth century) comments that, ‘when man
the destruction of man-made objects, and is not re- wreaks destruction in the material world, destruc-
stricted to the preservation of nature. tion is wreaked in the metaphysical world as well,
b) Cutting down fruit-bearing trees and that this is what was meant by “For man is a
In the book of Deuteronomy (20:19), among the laws tree of the field”’.
concerning the waging of war, we find:
Polluting the environment
‘When you shall besiege a city a long time, in Smoking
making war against it to take it, you shall not Smoking constitutes a serious environmental pollut-
destroy the trees thereof by wielding an axe ant and danger to health. Public awareness of this
against them; for you may eat of them, but you problem has led to legislation against smoking in
shall not cut them down; for is the tree of the public places. (In 1983, the Israeli Knesset enacted
field man, that it should be besieged by you?’ the Restriction in Public Places Law, which was sup-
plemented in 1994 by an executive order signed by
The Bible thus warns that even in time of war, the minister of health (Kovetz Takkanot, 21 July 1994,
it is forbidden to destroy fruit-bearing trees. pp. 1197-98). The executive order confines smoking
The author of haKetav vehaKabbalah explains the in the work place to specially designated areas where
prohibition (Deut. 20:I9) there are no non-smokers, where there is adequate
ventilation, and where smoking does not cause a
‘It is not proper to use some created thing for a nuisance to other parts of the work place.)
purpose diametrically opposed to the purpose Jewish legal authorities have considered
for which it was created, as has been stated whether it is prohibited to smoke in places where
APPENDICES / 627
the smoke might bother others. One authority who however, that humans have drifted away from that
absolutely prohibited smoking in public places was ideal. For the earth is today saturated with prob-
R Moshe Feinstein (1895-1986: considered the lems. It is agonizing over the fate of its inhabitants
spiritual leader of American Orthodoxy and Ameri- and their future! It is in peril as never before. Its
can Jewry’s leading authority on Jewish law in re- lakes and rivers are being choked, killing its marine
cent years). It was his opinion that even if smoking life. Its forests are being denuded. A smoky haze
was irritating only to those who are hypersensi- envelops the cities of the world. Human beings are
tive, it would nevertheless be prohibited in public exploiting human beings.
places. The precedent for this is the talmudic case There is a sense of crisis in all parts of the
of R Yosef, who was hypersensitive to noise. If it world, in various countries and amongst various peo-
is possible to restrain particular actions on the ples. The demands of national economic growth and
basis of hypersensitivity, R Feinstein reasons, cer- individual needs and desires are depleting the natu-
tainly it is possible to do so where there is pain or ral resources of the earth. There is serious concern
injury. Thus, where smoking is harmful to others, that the earth may no longer be a sustainable bio-
it is certainly prohibited. system. The major crises facing the earth – the so-
cial justice crisis and the environmental crisis –
Beauty together are heading the earth towards a disastrous
On seeing creatures that are beautiful or exception- situation. The social injustice crisis is that of hu-
ally well formed or goodly trees, one says, ‘Blessed manity’s confrontation with itself and the environ-
are You, 0 Lord our God, King of the universe, who has mental crisis is caused by humanity’s confrontation
such as these in His world’. If one goes out into the with nature. The social justice crisis is that poverty,
fields or gardens during the month of Nisan (i.e. the hunger, disease, exploitation and injustice are wide-
Spring) and sees the trees budding and the flowers in spread. There are economic wars over resources and
bloom, one says, ‘Blessed are You, 0 Lord our God, markets. The rights of the poor and the marginal are
king of the universe, who has made Your world lacking violated. Women constituting half the world’s popula-
in nought and created therein beautiful creatures and tion have their rights abused. The environmental cri-
goodly trees for the benefit of mankind’(Maimonides, sis caused by humanity’s exploitation of nature is
M.T., Berakhol 10:13). leading to the depletion of renewable resources, de-
Aesthetic beauty appears in Jewish sources not struction of forests, over-use of land for agriculture and
only as a value worthy of fostering in the life of the habitation. Today pollution is contaminating air, land
individual and the community, but also as the basis and water. Smoke from industries, homes and vehicles
for a variety of legal obligations. The obligations is in the air. Industrial waste and consumer trash is
derive from biblical regulations and from rabbinical affecting streams and rivers, ponds and lakes. Much of
legislation. the waste is a product of modern technology; it is not
In the Pentateuch (Num. 35:2-5), we find instruc- biodegradable, not re-usable and its long term conse-
tions regarding city planning, which required desig- quences are unknown. The viability of many animal
nation of open spaces free of all obstruction. Rashi and plant species, and possibly that of the human spe-
describes the purpose of the open strip as being ‘for cies itself, is at stake.
the beautification of the city, that it have air’ (Rashi, This crisis cries out for an immediate and ur-
Sotah 27b, s.v. Migrash. Cf. Rashi’s comments on gent solution. The crisis requires a going back to
Num. 35:2). the basic question of the purpose of human beings
Later rabbinical legislation expanded the ap- in this universe and an understanding of ourselves
plicability of this rule to include cities other than and God’s creation. We are called to the vision of
those mentioned in the Bible (Maimonides, M.T., Guru Nanak which is a World Society comprising
Shemitah veYovel 13:1-2,4-5). God-conscious human beings who have realized God.
To these spiritual beings the earth and the universe
Sikhism and the environment are sacred; all life is unity, and their mission is the
spiritualization of all.
‘Creating the world, God has made it a place to Guru Nanak laid the foundation of Sikhism in
practice spirituality.’ (Guru Granth Sahib, page the late fifteenth century. His writings, those of other
1035.) human Gurus who succeeded him, and other spir-
itual leaders, are included in the scripture – Guru
The Sikh scripture declares that the purpose of hu- Granth Sahib. Guru Granth has been the Guru and
man beings is to achieve a blissful state and be in Divine Master of the Sikhs since 1708, when Guru
harmony with the earth and all creation. It seems, Gobind Singh declared that there would be no more
APPENDICES / 629
The Creator created himself. one can first recognize the Divine spark within one-
And created all creation in which he is mani- self, see it in others, cherish it, nurture and fulfil it.
fest.
You Yourself the bumblebee, flower, fruit and This little shrine of the human body
the tree. This great opportunity of life!
You Yourself the water, desert, ocean and the The object is to meet the Beloved, thy Master
pond. (Guru Granth Sahib)
You Yourself are the big fish, tortoise and the
Cause of causes. Spiritual discipline
Your form can not be known. Humans have the capability to further their spiritual
(Guru Granth Sahib, page 10 1 6) progression through conscious choice and it is im-
portant to identify the method by which they might
In the world God has created he has also pro- do so. The method suggested by Guru Nanak is one
vided each species and humans with means of sup- of spiritual discipline, meditation and prayer, and
port and nurturing. sharing. Sikhism emphasizes mastering five nega-
In Sikh beliefs, a concern for the environment tive forces: lust, anger, worldly or materiaIistic at-
is part of an integrated approach to life and nature. tachment, conceit and greed. These together
As all creation has the same origin and end, humans constitute what Sikhs term Haumai -’l am-ness’. Mas-
must have consciousness of their need to guide them- tering haumai is achieved by developing five positive
selves through life with love, compassion and jus- forces: compassion, humility, contemplation, content-
tice. Becoming one and being in harmony with God ment and service, without expecting any material or
implies that humans endeavour to live in harmony spiritual reward. The guiding principles are love and
with all of God’s creation. forgiveness. Every decision in life has to be based
The second postulate is that humans, practis- on rationality and a personal code of ethics. Guru
ing a highly disciplined life, while remaining active Nanak’s philosophy of values inspires the individual
in the world, are capable of further spiritual progres- to transcend his/her existence through this spir-
sion. It is important that Sikhs retain the primacy of itual discipline. Sikh religion preaches strong fam-
spirit over matter, while it is desirable that they do ily involvement. A person pursuing this spiritual
not deny matter or material existence. It is not re- discipline must also work to create an atmosphere
quired that humans renounce the world. They must for other members of the family to progress spir-
maintain their life in the world and uphold all re- itually.
sponsibilities in the world. Humans should be re-
nouncers of plenty and maintain a simple life. Further The ideal Sikh – someone who has an intense
spiritual progress fundamentally starts with an in- desire to do good
dividual conquering himself/herself with the guid- The third postulate is that the true end of human
ance of the Guru. The emphasis is on mastery over beings is in their emergence as God-conscious be-
the self and the discovery of the self; not mastery ings, who remain aware of the earth and operate in
over nature, external forms and beings. Sikhism the mundane material world, with the object of trans-
teaches against a life of conspicuous, wasteful con- forming and spiritualizing it into a higher plane of
sumption. The Guru recommends a judicious utili- existence. In this spiritual state, individuals are
zation of material and cultural resources available motivated by an intense desire to do good, trans-
to humans. forming their surroundings.
Through a life based on the method prescribed
Then why get attached to what you will leave by the Gurus, humans may achieve a higher spir-
behind. itual state. Such truly emancipated, vibrant and en-
Having wealth, you indulge in pleasures bout, lightened spirits (aivan-mukta, brahma-gyani) become
From that, tell me, who will bail you out? the true benefactors of humanity and the world
All your houses, horses, elephants and luxuri- around them. Such an individual would not exploit
ous cars, another human or sentient being, as each is a mani-
They are just pomp and show, all totally false. festation of the eternal and the supreme. In this God-
(Guru Granth Sahib) conscious state they see God in all and everything.
The Gurus taught humans to be aware of and I perceive Thy form in all life and light;
respect the dignity in all life, whether human or not. I perceive Thy power in all spheres and sight.
Such a respect for life can only be fostered where (Guru Granth Sahib, page 464)
APPENDICES / 631
Hindu inhabitants of Kashmir who were being forced pointed and ordained a large number of women
to accept Islam by the rulers. preachers, and at least one bishop – Mathura Devi –
Sikh Gurus also moulded traditional life-styles four hundred years ago. The Sikh Gurus also raised
to exemplify a more equitable society. They created their voices against the purdah or veil. Guru Amardas
many institutions that form the basis of Sikh society did not even allow the Queen of Haripur to come into
and are based on the equality of all. The Sikh Gurus the religious assembly wearing a veil.
invited people of all castes and creeds to meditate The immediate effect of these reforms was that
together. That would be called Sangat. Either before women gained an equal status with men. Those who
or after the meditation, people were asked to sit and lived as grovelling slaves of society became fired with
eat together irrespective of their social background a new hope and courage to lift themselves with the
to create a sense of equality. That process would be belief that they were not helpless creatures but re-
called Parigat. Sikh Gurus started a tradition of free sponsible beings endowed with a will of their own
distribution of food to the rich or poor through the with which they could do much to mould the destiny
Sikh meeting areas. That would be called Langar. of society.
These three ideas were in contrast to the Indian so- Women came forward as the defenders of their
ciety which had separate temples or water wells for honour and dignity. They also became the rocks that
social outcasts. These changes by the Sikh Gurus stood against tyrants. Without the burden of unnec-
created a lot of opposition from the religious estab- essary and unreasonable customs, Sikh women be-
lishment. These changes are still much alive in Sikh came the temporal and spiritual supporters of men,
practices today. Through the creation of the Khalsa, often acting as the ‘conscience of men’. Sikh women
the Gurus established a system that would protect proved themselves the equals of men in service, de-
and maintain a free and just order. votion, sacrifice and bravery.
Since the late nineteenth century, Sikh commu-
Equality of women nity organizations have made efforts at expanding
Women and their rights have been ignored for too educational opportunities for all. Individual Sikhs,
long. Any approach to solve problems of social jus- men and women, in various cities and towns, took
tice and the environment must be sensitive to wom- the initiative to start and operate women’s colleges
en’s concerns, and must include women as equals. and schools. Women’s education was part of the drive
Often piece-meal solutions to environmental to improve education among the Sikhs, initiated by
problems focus on limiting population growth and Sikh organizations in the 1920s. In towns and vil-
family planning programmes. Most family planning lages in the Punjab, and in cities with significant
measures end up abusing women’s rights and should Sikh populations, there exist schools and colleges
be rejected on those grounds alone. Meanwhile they operated by Sikh organizations.
spread mistrust of family planning among women.
Guru Nan took steps to implement these prin- Community-based sharing of resources
ciples. Guru Nanak denounced the idea that spiritu- Traditional modes of farming, and traditional modes
ality was only for men, and not for women. The first of life in Northern India, have been dependent upon
Sikh Guru in his preaching and writings made direct limited resources. As there exist circumstances
statements emphasizing that women were no less where there are large numbers of people dependent
than men: upon relatively unexploited resources, the traditional
life-style ensures use of the least resources, consid-
After the death of one’s wife, one seeks another, erable re-use, and recycling of resources. In a cul-
and through her social bonds are cemented. ture based on organic resources and materials,
Why should we condemn women who give birth recycling is an intrinsic and natural part of the re-
to leaders and rulers? source cycle. There are strong traditions of sharing
Everyone is born of a woman and a woman alone. resources.
Nobody is born otherwise. There have been traditional practices that main-
God alone is an exception to this rule. tained lands and forests as community property
(Guru Granth Sahib, page 473) within proximity of human habitation. For instance,
in traditional rural India and Punjab, two of the most
Guru Amardas strongly opposed the custom of important centres of human activity have been the
Sati in the sixteenth century and also advocated Sikh gurudwara, and a source of water – pond, tank,
widow marriages. Sati was the Indian practice pool or running water. Both of these sites were sur-
whereby widows burned themselves with their hus- rounded by community land, not owned by anyone
band’s corpse at cremation. Guru Amar Das ap- and not used for agriculture. This was where there
APPENDICES / 633
in every Chinese person’s consciousness and sub- by Heaven, but by human beings themselves. Peo-
consciousness, the factors of Taoism exist to a ple can prolong life through meditation and exercise.
greater or lesser degree. The exercises include both the moral and the physi-
Because of its deep cultural roots and its great cal sides. People should train their will, discard self-
social impact, Taoism is now one of the five recog- ishness and the pursuit of fame, do good deeds, and
nized religions in China; namely Buddhism, Christi- seek to become a model of virtue (te).
anity, Catholicism, Islam and Taoism. Even more, Taoism considers that the enhancement of vir-
the influence of Taoism has already transcended the tue is the precondition and the first aim of practis-
Chinese-speaking world, and has attracted interna- ing the Tao. The achievement of immortality is a
tional attention. reward from the gods for practising worthy acts. With
According to our statistics, more than 1,000 Tao- a high moral sense and with systematic exercise in
ist temples have now opened to the public (this number accordance with the Taoist method and philosophy
does not include those in Taiwan, Hong Kong and of life, people can keep sufficient life essence and
Macao) and about 10,000 Taoists live in such commu- energy in their bodies all their lives. The Taoist ex-
nities. There are about 100 Taoist associations all over ercise of achieving immortality has proved very ef-
China, affiliated to the China Taoist Association. Sev- fective in practice. It can keep people younger and
eral colleges have also been established to train Tao- in good health. But there is one point which cannot
ists, and many books and periodicals on the study and be neglected: a peaceful and harmonious natural
teaching of Taoism have been published. All Taoists environment is a very important external condition.
work hard in order that Taoism should develop and
flourish. They take an active part in mobilizing the Part two: Taoist ideas about nature
masses, carrying forward the best in Taoist tradition With the deepening world environmental crisis, more
and working for the benefit of human society. and more people have come to realize that the prob-
Like every major world religion, Taoism has its lem of the environment is not only brought about by
own outlook on the universe, human life, ideals of modern industry and technology, but it also has a
virtue and ultimate purpose. Due to its distinctive deep connection with people’s world outlook, with
cultural and historical background, it has its own their sense of value, and with the way they struc-
striking characteristics. It can be briefly summarised ture knowledge. Some people’s ways of thinking
in the following two precepts. have, in certain ways, unbalanced the harmonious
relationship between human beings and nature, and
Give respect to the Tao above everything else over-stressed the power and influence of the human
Tao simply means ‘the way’. Taoism considers that will. People think that nature can be rapaciously
Tao is the origin of everything, and Tao is the ulti- exploited.
mate aim of all Taoists. This is the most fundamen- This philosophy is the ideological root of the
tal tenet of Taoism. Tao is the way of Heaven, Earth current serious environmental and ecological crisis.
and Humanity. The Tao took form in the being of the On the one hand, it brings about high productivity;
Grandmother Goddess. She came to Earth to en- on the other hand, it brings about an exaggerated
lighten humanity. She taught the people to let eve- sense of one’s own importance. Confronted with the
rything grow according to its own course without destruction of the earth, we have to conduct a thor-
any interference. This is called the way of no-action, ough self-examination on this way of thinking.
no-selfishness (wu-wei), and this principle is an im- We believe that Taoism has teachings which can
portant rule for Taoists. It teaches them to be very be used to counteract the shortcomings of currently
plain and modest, and not to struggle with others prevailing values. Taoism looks upon humanity as
for personal gain in their maternal life. This kind of the most intelligent and creative entity in the uni-
virtue is the ideal spiritual kingdom for which the verse (which is seen as encompassing humanity,
followers of Taoism long. Heaven, Earth within the Tao).
There are four main principles which should
Give great value to life guide the relationship between humanity and nature.
Taoism pursues immortality. It regards life as the 1. In the Tao te Ching, the basic classic of Tao-
most valuable thing. Master Chang Daoling (c 2nd ism, there is this verse: ‘Humanity follows the Earth,
century AD) said that life is another expression of the Earth follows Heaven, Heaven follows the Tao,
Tao, and the study of Tao includes the study of how and the Tao follows what is natural’. This means
to extend one’s life. With this principle in mind, many that the whole of humanity should attach great im-
Taoists have undertaken considerable exploration in portance to the earth and should obey its rule of
this regard. They believe that life is not controlled movement. The earth has to respect the changes of
APPENDICES / 635
A P P E N D I X 3
APPENDICES / 637
MUGABE, John SLIKKERVEER, L Jan
Executive Director Professor
African Centre for Technology Studies Leiden Ethnosystems and Development
(ACTS) Programme (LEAD)
P. O. Box 45917 Institute of Cultural and Social Studies
Nairobi Leiden University
Kenya P. O. Box 9555
Nationality: Kenyan 2300 RB Leiden
Tel: +254 2 522 984 / 521 450 Netherlands
Fax: +254 2 522 987 / 521 001 Nationality: Dutch
Email: acts@cgiar.org Tel: +31 71 527 3469 / 3472
Fax: +31 71 527 3619
MWANUNDU, Sheila Email:
Senior Environmentalist slikkerveer@rulfsw.fsw.LeidenUniv.nl
Environment & Sustainable Develop-
ment Unit TAVERA, Carmen
01 BP 1387 Programme Officer
Abidjan Biodiversity Unit
Côte d’Ivoire UNEP
Nationality: Kenyan P. O. Box 30552
Tel: +225 20 44 40 Nairobi
Fax: +225 20 50 33 Kenya
Email: oesuadb@africaonline.co.ci Nationality: Colombian
Tel: +254 2 624 182
PADOCH, Christine Fax: +254 2 624 268
Curator Email: carmen.tavera@unep.org
New York Botanical Garden
Bronx VAN DER HAMMEN, Maria Clara
New York 10458 Tropenbos-Colombia
New York Avenida 22#39-28 (Piso 2)
USA Santafe de Bogota, DC
Nationality: American Colombia
Tel: +1 718 817 8975 Nationality: Colombian
Fax: +1 718 220 1029 Fax: +571 288 0128
Email: cpadoch@nybg.org Email: ftropenb@colomsat.net.co
PERRINGS, Charles
Professor and Head of Department
Department of Environmental Econom-
ics
and Environmental Management
Heslington
York YO1 5DD
UK
Nationality: British
Tel: +44 1904 432 997
Fax: +44 1904 432 998
Email: cap8@york.ac.uk
POSEY, Darrell A.
Professor, Oxford Centre for the
Environment, Ethics and Society
Mansfield College
Oxford OX1 3TF
UK
Nationality: American
Tel: +44 1865 284 665
Fax: +44 1865 284 665
Email: posey@mansfield.ox.ac.uk
SENANAYAKE, Ranil
41 1/1 Gregorys Road
Colombo 7
Sri Lanka
Nationality: Sri Lankan
Tel: +941 693 613
Email:
100232.3435@compuserve.com
THE CONTRIBUTORS
APPENDICES / 639
REICHEL D., Dr Elizabeth MOLES, Jerry BROOKFIELD, Harold
Corporación Propuesta Ambiental - Por Co-Director Department of Anthropology
Una Cultura Nueva Neosynthesis Research Center Division of Society and Environment
Santafé de Bogotá 20093 Eney Drive The Australian National University
Colombia Topanga Canberra, ACT 0200
Email: ereichel@openway.com.co CA 90290 Australia
USA Fax: +61 2 6249 4896
RODRIGUEZ-MANASSE, Jaime Tel: +1 310 455 9377 Email: hbrook@coombs.anu.edu.au
Avenida 33, #14-22 (Teusaquillo) Fax: +1 310 455 7098
Santafé de Bogotá Email: jmoles@igc.apc.org CHAMBI, Nestor
Colombia Asociación Chuyma de Apoyo Rural
SENANAYAKE, Ranil “Chuyma Aru”
SHEPARD Jr., Glenn 41 1/1 Gregorys Road Puno
Department of Anthropology Colombo 7 Peru
University of California at Berkeley Sri Lanka
USA Tel: +941 693 613 CLARK, John F. M.
Email: GShepardJr@aol.com Email: School of History
100232.3435@compuserve.com Rutherford College
SUZUKI, David University of Kent at Canterbury
Suzuki Foundation TAVERA, Carmen Canterbury, Kent CT2 7NX
2477 Point Gray Road Programme Officer UK
Vancouver, BC Biodiversity Unit Tel: +44 122 776 4000
Canada V6K 1A1 UNEP Email: j.f.m.clark@ukc.ac.uk
P.O. Box 30552
URIBE MARIN, Mónica del Pilar Nairobi DAVIS, Dr Stephen D.
Apartado Aéreo 4662 Kenya Centre for Economic Botany
Santafé de Bogotá Tel: +254 2 624 182 Royal Botanic Gardens
Colombia Fax: +254 2 624 268 Kew, Richmond
Tel/Fax: +57 1 251 1751 Email: carmen.tavera@unep.org Surrey TW9 3AE
Email: uribemar@colnodo.apc.org UK
Email: s.davis@rbgkew.org.uk
WALKER, Dr Marilyn Chapter 5
Department of Anthropology ELLEN, Dr R.F.
Mount Allison University ADIMIHARDJA, Kusnaka Department of Anthropology
Sackville, New Brunswick Professor Eliot College
Canada E4L 1A7 Padjadjaran University University of Kent at Canterbury
Tel: +1 506 364 2287 JI, Cigadung Raya Tengah 3A Canterbury
Fax: +1 506 364 2625 Bandung 4019 Kent CT2 7NS
Email: mwalker@mta.ca Indonesia UK
Tel: +62 22 251 0018 Tel: +44 1227 764000 extn 3421
WHITT, Dr Laurie Anne Fax: +62 22 250 8592 Fax: +44 1227 827289
Michigan Technology University Email: R.F.Ellen@ukc.ac.uk
1400 Townsend Drive AGRAWAL, Arun
Houton, MI 49931-1295 Department of Political Science FAIRHEAD, Dr James
USA Yale University Department of Anthropology and
Email: lawhitt@mtu.edu 124 Prospect Street Sociology
P.O. Box 208301 School of Oriental and African Studies
WINTHROP, Dr Robert H. New Haven CT 06520 University of London
Cultural Solutions USA Thornhaugh Street
PO Box 401, Ashland, OR 97520 Tel: +1 203 432 5011 Russell Square
USA Fax: +1 2-3 432 6196 London WC1H 0XG
Tel: +1 541 482 8004 Email: arun.agrawal@yale.edu UK
Fax: +1 541 552 0825 Tel: +44 171 323 6328
Email: rhwinth@mind.net ALCORN, Dr Janis B. Fax: +44 171 436 3844
Biodiversity Support Program, WWF Email: jf18@soas.ac.uk
24th Street NW
Chapter 4 Washington, DC 20037 FOLLER, Dr Maj-Lis
USA Grundtvig Institutet
MASINDE, Isabella Tel: +1 202 293 4800 Vasaparken
Programme Officer Fax: +1 202 293 9211 Box 100
Biodiversity Unit Email: janis.alcorn@wwfus.org SE-405 30 Göteborg
UNEP Tel: +46 31 773 1310
P. O. Box 30552 BALASUBRAMANYAN, Dr A. V. Email: grundtvig@adm.gu.se
Nairobi Director, CIKS
Kenya No. 2, 25th East Street GARI, Josep-Antoni
Tel: +254 2 623 264 Tiruvanmiyur School of Geography
Fax: +254 2 623 926 Madras-600 041 University of Oxford
Email: isabella.masinde@unep.org India Mansfield Road
Tel: +91 44 401 5909 Oxford OX1 3TB
Fax: +91 44 491 6316 UK
Email: josep.gari@geography.ac.uk
APPENDICES / 641
BERLIN, Dr Elois Ann SHANKAR, Mr Darshan HOND, Kuli
University of Georgia Foundation for the Revitalisation of Halalinga Village
Department of Anthropology Local Health Traditions c/o Tiliba Mission
Baldwin Hall 50 MSH Layout, 2nd Stage, 3rd Main P.O. Box 221
Athens Anandnagar Mendi
Georgia 30602-1619 Bangalore 560024 Southern Highlands Province
USA India Papua New Guinea
Email: eaberlin@uga.cc.uga.edu Tel: +91 80 336909
Fax: +91 80 334167 KABUYE, Dr Christine H. S.
BODEKER, Dr Gerard Email: darshan@frlht.ernet.in National Museums of Kenya
GIFTS of Health P.O. Box 40658
Health Services Research Unit SHROPSHIRE, Gregory Nairobi
Institute of Health Sciences Ix Chel Tropical Research Foundation Kenya
University of Oxford San Ignacio Cayo Tel: +254 2 742 161/4 or 742 131/
Oxford Belize 4
England, UK Central America Fax: +254 2 741 424
Tel: +44 1865 226 880
Fax: +44 1865 226 711 THOMAS, Jacqueline M. C. KLINE, Elsie
Email: gerry.bodeker@green.ox.ac.uk Associate Professor 8940 County Road 235
Department of Geography Fredericksburg, OH 44627
GOODWILL, Jean McGill University USA
Fort Qu’Appelle 805 Sherbrooke W
Saskatchewan Montreal, PQ LAWRENCE, Kathy
Canada SOG 1SO Canada H3A 2K6 c/o Just Food
Tel: +1 306 332 6261 Tel: +1 514 398 4219 625 Broadway, Suite 9C
Fax: +1 306 332 5985 Fax: +1 514 398 7437 New York, New York 10012
Email: k.goodwill@sk.sympatico.ca Email: USA
meredith@felix.geog.McGill.ca
HARRISON, Kathleen MANN, Peter
PO Box 807 c/o World Hunger Year
Occidental CA 95465 505 Eighth Avenue, 21st Floor
USA Chapter 7 New York, New York 10018-6582
Tel: +1 707 874 1531 USA
Email: kat@wco.com ALTIERI, Miguel A. Email: pmann@isc.org
Associate Professor
HUGH-JONES, Dr Stephen Department of Environmental Science, MOONEY, Mr Pat
Department of Social Anthropology Policy and Management Rural Advancement Foundation
Free School Lane University of California at Berkeley International (RAFI)
Cambridge, CB2 3RF California 94720 110 Osborne Street, Suite 202
UK USA Winnipeg
Tel: +44 1223 334599 Tel: +1 510 642 9802 Manitoba R3L 1Y5
Fax: +44 1223 335993 Fax: +1 510 642 7428 Canada
Email: sh116@cam.ac.uk Email: Tel: +1 204 453 5259
agroeco3@nature.berkeley.edu Fax: +1 204 452 7456
IWU, Dr Maurice Email: rafican@web.net
Director BROKENSHA, David
Bioresources Development and Tanrhocal House MOORE, Richard H.
Conservation Programme 86 Newland Department of Anthropology
11303 Amherst Avenue, Suite 2 Sherborne The Ohio State University
Silver Spring, Maryland 20902 Dorset DT9 3DT 124 W. 17th Ave.
USA Email: Columbus, OH 43210
Tel: +1 301 962 6201 101655.3717@compuserve.com USA
Fax: +1301 962 6205 Tel: +1 614 292 0230
Email: iwum@igc.org CHRISTIE, Ms Jean Email: moore.11@osu.edu
Rural Advancement Foundation
NATARAJAN, Bhanumathi International (RAFI) PELIA, Jim
School of Pharmacy 110 Osborne Street, Suite 202 See entry for HOND this Chapter
University of Oslo Winnipeg
Divn C Manitoba R3L 1Y5 PLENDERLEITH, Kristina
Post Box 1068 Canada Working Group on Traditional Resource
0316 Blindern Tel: +1 204 453 5259 Rights
Oslo Fax: +1 204 452 7456 Oxford Centre for the Environment,
Norway Email: rafican@web.net Ethics and Society
Fax: +47 22 854402 Mansfield College
Email: ENRIS, Ideng University of Oxford
bhanumathi.natarajan@farmasi.uio.no PAN Indonesia Oxford OX1 3TF
Jl. Persada Raya No.1 UK
Menteng Dalam Tel: +44 1865 284665
Jakarta 12870 Fax: +44 1865 284665
Indonesia Email:
106550.2460@compuserve.com
APPENDICES / 643
FALCONER, Julia SHENGJI, Dr Pei CHAMBERS, Dr Paul
World Bank Head, Mountain Natural Resources Department of the Environment,
South Asia Rural Development Division Transport and the Regions
Department ICIMOD Eland House
1818 H Street, NW GPO Box 3226 Stag Place
Washington, D.C. Kathmandu London SW1E 5DU
USA Nepal UK
Tel: +1 202 458 1300 Fax: +977 1 52 4509 Tel: +44 171 890 3000
Email: jfalconer@worldbank.org Email: icimod@mos.com.np Fax: +44 171 890 6290
and Email: paulc@matahari.u-net.com
Collaborative Forest Management Unit SMITH, Wynet
Planning Branch Lands Manager CHERNELA, Dr Janet M.
P. O. Box 1457 Kitikmeot Inuit Association Associate Professor
Forestry Department Box 315 Dept. of Sociology and Anthropology
Kumasi Kugluktuk, NT Florida International University
Ghana XOE OEO North Miami, FL 33181-3600
Canada USA
KABUYE, Dr Christine H. S. Tel: +1 867 982 3310 Tel: +1 305 919 5861
See Chapter 7 entry Fax: +1 867 982 3311 Fax: +1 305 919 5964
Email: wynetsm@polarnet.ca Email: chernela@fiu.edu
LAIRD, Sarah A.
P.O. Box 4004 SUNDAR, Nandini EINARSSON, Niels
Westport, MA 02790 USA Institute of Economic Growth Director
Tel: +1 508 636 8017 University Enclave Stefansson Arctic Institute
Fax: +1 508 636 8017 Delhi - 110007 Sólborg
Email: sarahlaird@aol.com India 600 Akureyri
Fax: 91 11 7257410 Iceland
MEREDITH, T. C. Email: Tel: +354 463 0581
Department of Geography Nandini.Sundar@jfm.Sprintrpg.ems.vsnl.net.in Fax: +354 463 0589
McGill University Email: nsundar@ieg.ernet.in Email: ne@unak.is
805 Sherbrook W
Montreal, P.Q. TONT, Sargun A. KALLAND, Dr Arne
Canada H3A 2K6 Department of Biology Department and Museum of Anthropol-
Email: Middle East Technical University ogy
meredith@felix.Geog.McGill.CA 06531, Ankara PO Box 1091 Blindern
Turkey N-0317 Oslo
PARAJULI, Dr Pramod Tel: +90 312 2105165 Norway
117 Euclid Terrace Fax: +90 312 210 1289 Fax: +47 22 85 45 02
Syracuse Email: tont@rorqual.cc.metu.edu.tr Tel: +47 22 85 52 29
New York 13210 Email: arne.kalland@sum.uio.no
New York YOUNG, Kenny
USA Lazy Moon Farm NAKASHIMA, Douglas
Tel: +1 315 426 8858 Upper Brailes, Oxon Programme Specialist
Email: pparajul@maxwell.syr.edu] UK Environment and Development in
Email: kennyyoung@compuserve.com Coastal Regions and in Small Islands
POSEY, Dr Darrell A. (CSI)
See Chapter 1 entry ZOUNDJIHEKPON, Jeane UNESCO
WWF - 08 BP 1776 1, rue Miollis,
PULLIN, Roger Abidjan 08 75732 Paris Cedex 15
Email: r.pullin@cgiar.org Côte d’Ivoire France
Tel: +225 44 87 86 Tel: +33 1 4568 3993
RICHARDS, Dr Paul Fax: +225 44 87 74 Fax: +33 1 4568 5808
See Chapter 7 entry Email: wwfwarpo@AfricaOnline.Co.Ci Email: d.nakashima@unesco.org
APPENDICES / 645
Chapter 12 MCAFEE, Kathy STEPHENSON, Jr., Dr David J.
Department of Geography Senior Associate
ALCORN, Dr Janis B. University of California at Berkeley Wagenlander and Associates
Biodiversity Support Programme, WWF 501 McCone Hall Denver, Colorado
24th Street NW, Berkeley CA 94707 USA
Washington, DC 20037 USA Tel: +1 303 329 6090
USA Email: kmcafee@uclink.berkeley.edu Email: DavidS23@aol.com
Tel: +1 202 293 4800
Fax: +1 202 293 9211 MONBIOT, Mr George VIRA, Dr Bhaskar
Email: janis.alcorn@wwfus.org 82 Percy Street Department of Geography
Oxford OX4 3AD University of Cambridge
BORN, Gemima C. Cabral UK Cambridge
Vitae Civilis - Institute for Develop- Tel: +44 1865 724 360 UK
ment, Environment and Peace Email: g.monbiot@zetnet.co.uk Email: bv101@cam.ac.uk
Caixa Postal 11.260 - CEP 05422-970
So Paulo, SP MORRIS, Ms Christine VOGEL, Dr Joseph H.
Brazil Research Fellow Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias
Tel: +55 11 8696528 Australian Key Centre for Culture and Sociales (FLACSO-Ecuador)
Fax: +55 11 8692941 Media Policy Eloy Alfaro 266 y Berlin, 102
Email: vcivilis@ax.apc.org Faculty of Humanities, Quito
Griffith University Ecuador
CHAPELA, Ignacio Australia Email: henvogel@uio.satnet.net
Department of Environmental Science, Email:
Policy and Management christine.morris@hum.gu.edu.au WIENER, Dr John D.
University of California at Berkeley Program on Environment and Behavior
334 Hilgard Hall NADARAJAH-DJAFARI, Ms Tahereh Institute of Behavioral Science
Berkeley CA 94720 Ulaanbaatar International College University of Colorado
USA Ulaanbaatar Boulder, CO 80309-0468
Email: ichapela@nature.berkeley.edu Mongolia USA
Email: nadarajah@magicnet.mn Tel: +1 303 492 6746
CORREA, Carlos Fax: +1 303 492 1231
Professor of the Economics of Science ROCH, Delphine Email: wienerj@spot.Colorado.edu
and Technology Project Consultant,
Universidad de Buenos Aires UNESCO Office Jakarta
Buenos Aires Indonesia Appendices
Argentina Tel: +62 21 3141308 ext. 805
Email: quies@wamani.apc.org Fax: +62 21 3150382 RAO, Dr P. K.
Email: uhst1@unesco.org Center for Development Research
DUTFIELD, Mr Graham 302 Nassau Street #5
Working Group on Traditional Resource SCHOLZ, Astrid Princeton
Rights Energy and Resources Group NJ 09542
Oxford Centre for the Environment, 310 Barrows Hall USA
Ethics and Society University of California at Berkeley Tel/Fax: +1 609 252 0795
Mansfield College Berkeley CA 94720 Email: pinninti@aol.com
Oxford University USA
Oxford OX1 3TF tel: +1 510 642 6886
UK Fax: +1 510 642 1085 Editorial Consultant
Tel: +44 1865 282904 Email: ajscholz@socrates.berkeley.edu
Fax: +44 1865 282904 HEYWOOD, Prof. Vernon H.
Email: SHANKAR, Mr Darshan President, IUBS / ICMAP
wgtrr.ocees@mansfield.ox.ac.uk Director School of Plant Sciences
Foundation for Revitalisation of Local University of Reading
GUPTA, Professor Anil K. Health Traditions Whiteknights
Society for Research & Initiatives for No.50, MSH Layout, P. O. Box 221
Sustainable Technologies and Bangalore Reading RG6 6AS
Institutions (SRISTI) India UK
Indian Institute of Management Tel: +91 80 336909 Tel: +44 118 931 6640
Ahmedabad, 380 015 Fax: +91 80 334167 Fax: +44 118 931 6640
India Email: darshan@frlht.ernet.in Email: v.h.heywood@reading.ac.uk
Tel: +91 272 407241
Fax: +91 272 427896 SOLOMON, Mr Maui
Email: anilg@iimahd.ernet.in Molesworth Chambers Production Editor
34 Molesworth Street
LYNGE, Finn P.O. Box 3458 BRAMWELL, Martyn J.
Consultant in Greenland Affairs Wellington Anagram Editorial Service
Asiatisk Plads 2 Aotearoa New Zealand 26 Wherwell Road
DK-1448 Copenhagen K Tel: +64 4 472 6744 Guildford
Denmark Fax: +64 4 499 6172 Surrey GU2 5JR
Tel: +45 3392 0441 Email: moriori@nzonline.ac.nz UK
Fax: +45 3392 1585 Tel: +44 1483 533497
Fax: +44 1483 306848
Email: mjb@anagram.u-net.com
GONZALES, Tirso
See Chapter 5 entry
McLEAN, Margot
See Chapter 11 entry
MOORE, Richard
See Chapter 7 entry
NAKASHIMA, Douglas
See Chapter 10 entry
NATARANJAN, Bhanumathi
See Chapter 6 entry
NEWING, Helen
DICE, Dept. of Anthropology,
University of Kent at Canterbury
Canterbury Kent CT2 7NZ
UK
Tel: +44 122 776 4000
PRENDERGAST, Hew
See Chapter 5 entry
RODRÍGUEZ-MANASSE, Jaime
See Chapter 3 entry
TOAQUIZA, Alfredo
TOAQUIZA, Gustavo
TOAQUIZA, Julio
c/o Jean G. Colvin
(Representative of the Tigua Artist Cooperative)
Director
University Research Expeditions Programme (UREP)
University of California
Davis, CA 95616
USA
Tel: +1 530 752 0692
Fax: +1 530 752 0681
Email: jgcolvin@ucdavis.edu
TOFFOLI, Daniel
See Chapter 7 entry
APPENDICES / 647
A P P E N D I X 5
APPENDICES / 649
GIFTS Global Initiative for Traditional Systems
GIS Geographic Information Systems
GP General Practice
GPA Global Plan of Action
HP Historical Perspective
HYVs High Yielding Varieties
HGDP Human Genome Diversity Project
APPENDICES / 651
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Please note: index entries referring to figures and tables are indicated by italic page
numbers; entries referring to text boxes are indicated by bold page numbers.
709
ants B
in creation myth 240
parasitic 237, 303–4 Babel, curse 37, 40
symbiosis with Cordia 93 Babylonian creation myth 457
and termites in farming 237 badgers, cooperation with coyotes 196
Aoua people (Côte d’Ivoire) 371 Badrinath (Indian Himalayas) 328, 331, 336–7
Apache people (USA) 330, 340–1 Badrivan sacred forest (India) 337
Apache Survival Coalition 340 Bahá’í
apêtê (forest island) 7–8, 237, 347, 363, 364 Assisi Declaration 606
apocalypticism 458 statement on environment 607–8
aquatic biodiversity 399–432 Baird’s beaked whale 427, 428
Arakmbut people (Peru) 62 Bakalaharil people (Botswana) 129–30
assertion of rights 65 Bakun Dam (Sarawak) 67
curing ritual 63 Ball, William Platt, on bees 245
Arapaço Tukanoan people (Brazilian Amazon) 423, 424–5 banana 314, 317
Arctic, pollution 67, 442 introduction to Africa 312
Ariaal people (Kenya) 234 Bangkok (Thailand) 254
Arikawa (Japan) 428, 429 Barasana Indians (Colombia) 278–80
Aristolian thinking 194 bards/poets, Celtic 480
Arizona–Idaho Conservation Act (AICA) 340 Barí people (Colombia/Venezuela) 90
art, and environment 439 crop rings around house 92
artefacts of knowledge 84 myth about biodiversity 90–2
Aru islands (Indonesia) 416–17 territory 91
Arusha Declaration 266, 267 bark cloth 10, 347, 371–2
Ashanti people (Ghana) 369 barley 317
Ashéninka people (Peru) 62 Barolwa people (Botswana) 130
Assisi Conference 6, 14, 604 baroque music, as metaphor for creation 380
Assisi Declarations 446, 493, 494, 604–7 basketry 9, 86–8
Bahá’í 606 materials used 80, 87
Buddhism 604–5 baskets, uses 86–7
Christianity 605 Bastar (India) 388, 454
Hinduism 605 Batemi people (Tanzania) 356, 372–3
Islam 605–6 bauxite mining 453
Jainism 607 beans (food crop) 293, 298, 303, 313
Judaism 606 biodiversity reduction 319
Sikhism 606–7 origins of crop plants 317
see also religion(s) bear cub, song/lament for 117–18
Athos, Mount (Greece) 328, 329 beavers 451
Atlantic forest ecosystem, in Brazil 302 Beej Bachao Andolan (‘Save the Seed Movement’) 192
augury bees, as social insects 242–5
development implications 379–80 Belém (Brazil), market research on non-timber forest
in swidden cultivation of Borneo forest 377–9 resources 365
Australia Belém Declaration 3, 95
basis for Common Law 544 belief systems
biodiversity 26, 102, 227 in Indian subcontinent 176, 187, 217–19
linguistic diversity 24, 26, 102 resource use influenced by 187–8
threatened 25 see also religions
sandalwood oil collection 234 Belize, ethnopharmacological studies 275–7
size 102 Bellamy, David 493
Australian Aboriginal peoples 5, 43, 102–5 Benin
ancestral beings 103, 544 conservation practices 348, 370
attachment to land 103–4, 125, 454, 544 termite ecology 236
collaborative research 227–32 Berawan people (Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo) 378
detection of ground vibrations 247 Berlin (Germany), plant species 252
joint management programmes 126, 177, 227–8 berries, harvesting of 80, 307, 410
multilingualism 25 beverages 314
poems and songs 284 see also alcoholic drinks; coffee
statement(s) on biodiversity 125–8 Bharat Aluminium Company (BALCO) 453
autopoiesis 445, 490 Bhutan, wood collecting 536
Awa Ethnic Forest Reserve (Ecuador) 210 bilingual/bicultural programmes 43–4
Axis Mundi 353, 358, 498 Binsar Sanctuary (Almora, India) 332
see also Cosmic Tree; Tree of Life biocentrism 442
aye-aye (lemur species in Madagascar) 37, 39 compared with life-centredness 97
Ayers Rock (Australia) 232 bio-cultural diversity concept 174, 176–7
see also Uluru biodiversity
Aymara people (Peru) 212–17 Barí myth 88–92
Ayukawa (Japan) 428, 429 commodification of 520, 527–8
Ayurvedic medical system 191, 263, 264, 265, 267, 617 conservation
by indigenous peoples 75, 76, 79, 82, 83, 94, 116,
270, 306–8
for whom? 411
on whose terms? 529–30
INDEX / 711
shamanic role of bards 480 coffee 293, 314, 317
Central African perspectives crop failures due to genetic uniformity 319
on human–environment relations 97–8 origins of crop plants 314, 317
on individual–community relations 95–6 shade trees for 293, 371, 391
Central African Republic, pygmies 280–2 cognitive anthropology 170
Centre for Indian Knowledge Systems (CIKS) 221 cognitive biogeography 28–9
Centres of Bio-Cultural Diversity 177 cognitive ethnobiology 27–8
certificates of origin 509 COICA/UNDP Regional Meeting on Intellectual Property
Chachi people (Ecuador) 141 Rights and Biodiversity 571–4
chacras (plots of land in Andes) 70, 212, 214–15 cold virtue therapy 275
Changbaishan Biosphere Reserve (China) 342 collaborative research 170, 227–32
chaos theory 379 protection of communally held intellectual property
charr fish (Salvelinus malma) 412–13 rights 229
Cherokee people (USA), view of knowledge 5, 69 publication of research findings 230
Chiang Mai Declaration 265, 266 collective rights 533
chickpeas 317 collective suicide threat, by U’wa people (Colombia) 89
China Colombia
biodiversity 26 biodiversity 26
Holy Hills 328, 331, 351, 352, 381–2 Indigenous Protected Lands 90
linguistic diversity 24, 26 linguistic diversity 24, 26
medicinal plants exports 265 oil exploration 88–90
sacred mountains 329, 337–8 Colombian Amazon, gender-based knowledge systems 82–6
Sacred Mountains Project 338 colonization, effects 75, 81, 90, 95, 146, 206, 217, 271,
China Taoist Association (CTA) 338 417, 454, 543
chinampas (raised beds) 10 Columbia Plateau (North America)
Chinese Communist Party 337, 338 placenames 28
Chinese shopkeepers, in Aru islands (Indonesia) 416, 417 resource stewardship 79–82
Chinese traditional medicine 264 Columbia River (North America) 79
Chinook people (USA), blessing prayer 323 effect of management schemes 81
Chipko Movement (India) 192, 391 Inter-Tribal Fish Commission 82
Chisasibi Cree people (Canada) 399, 401, 403, 406–12 Columbus, Christopher 450, 451
Coasters and Inlanders 408, 410 Comanche people (USA) 198
Chlorophora (Milicia) excelsa (iroko) tree 348 Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture
Cholanaikan people (India) 189 (CGRFA) 290, 511
Christianity 149, 283, 438, 458 Intergovernmental Forum/Panel on Forests 355
Assisi Declaration 605 Commission on Plant Genetic Resources (CPGR) 511
festivals and rituals 496 Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD),
key concepts of religion 495–6 participation of indigenous peoples 68, 121, 579–
statement on environment 611–13 80
superimposed on indigenous beliefs 139–40, 163, 219, commodification
288 of biodiversity 520, 527–8
view of nature 451–2, 480 of humans 520
Christmas beetle story 17–18 of knowledge 63, 70, 71, 74, 598–600
cities of labour 71, 206, 452
biodiversity in of nature 113, 206, 412, 448, 451–2, 520, 528
factors affecting 252–3 communal fisheries management systems 400
species affected 251–2 communal houses 106–7, 279
climate changes due to 250–1 communal labour 96, 188, 204, 300, 301, 302, 308
communications strategies 258 communal land/property 104, 148, 188, 204, 310–11, 320
energy supplies for 256 arguments against 206, 310–11, 516
food supplies for 256, 257 customary law and practice 514, 515, 516
growth in developing countries 250 meaning in economics 522
meaning of environment 489 communalism, in Africa 95–6
see also urban... communally held intellectual property rights, protection of
citrus fruits, crop failures due to genetic uniformity 319 76, 193, 229, 229–30, 231, 321, 506–7, 508,
city-dwellers, separation from nature 72, 257 509, 518
classification of plants and animals 27–9, 31–4, 264, 268 communally held intellectual rights 193, 229–30, 231,
clearing of forests see forests, clearing of 321, 506–7, 508
climate changes communications revolution, effects 440, 452
effects 133, 140 communications systems, in cities 258
urbanization-caused 250–1 communism, failure 438
Clusius (Charles d’Ecluse) 181 community-based conservation 207–8
coal mining, effects 401, 405–6 factors for success 208–11
Cobaría, Roberto Afanador 88 Community Biodiversity Registers (CBRs) 170, 192
coca 84, 264 community control of resources, integrating rights for 511–15
gathering and processing 279 Community-Controlled Research (CCR) 170
inheritance of plants 84, 280 see also collaborative research
physiological effects 279 Community Intellectual Rights 518
use with tobacco 278, 279, 280 community strategic planning process 231
coconut 317 compassionate dialogue 477
co-evolution 198, 208, 491, 525 complementary medicine 11
co-evolutionary language 29
INDEX / 713
development projects, effects 454, 455 ecotheology 442, 480
development rights 513–14 Ecuador
diabetes, effect of diet 127 biodiversity 26, 122
dialectical relationships 95469 flower-growing enterprises 139, 141
see also both/and relations Forest Reserves 210
diamond mining 67 oil exploration 138
Dineh (Navajo) Indians (USA) 8, 328, 330, 333–4 statement(s) on biodiversity 136–46
discovery, meaning of term 151 method of collection 124, 137
disease, conceptualization of 484–5 tree-cutting activities 138, 141–2
displacement of indigenous peoples 81, 122, 131–2, 166, education programmes
203, 411, 453, 454, 480, 481 cultural revitalization 133, 229, 330
diversity of ecosystems 492 and linguistic rights 49–50
Divine Command Ethics 497 traditional knowledge not taught 130
Dodonaea viscosa 233 education rights of minorities, Hague Recommendations
Dogon mythology (West Africa) 239–40 52, 53
Dorobo people (Kenya) 456 educational programmes, language learning 42–4
Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples Eigg, Isle of (Scotland) 480, 482
(DDRIP) 12, 65–6, 68, 513, 515, 586–91 elephants
principal rights 13, 51, 66 role in biodiversity 316
Draft Universal Declaration of Linguistic Rights 50–1 trade in ivory 441
Dreaming (Australian aboriginal peoples) 103 empowerment 177, 180
Dreaming-places 5, 104 enclosed garden 487–8
dreams, meaning of 139 enclosure of land, effects 127, 445, 506, 515–17
dried out, meaning of term in Nepal 101 Endangered Language Fund 44, 55
drug design process, role of biodiversity 526 endangered languages
drugs electronic resources covering 56
use in Amazonia 84, 93, 278–80 grants for research and study 55
see also psychoactive substances international support organizations 44, 55
drums, purposes 107 number 24
dryland animals 234 Red Books (UNESCO) 44, 56
dryland plants 233–5 endangered species
dryland (rainfed) agriculture 217, 315 reasons for protecting 465
dualism principle 264, 418 Red Books (IUCN) 460
Dubos, Rene 446 Endangered Species Act 464
endemic languages 23, 24
and level of biodiversity 26
energy-efficient technology 257, 491
E energy policy, effects 491
English Nature, on nature reserves 255
eagle song 109 entrepreneurial capitalism 437
Earth Charter 447, 560–4 see also capitalism
Earth First movement 13 environment, meaning of term 443, 475, 486–9
Earth Summit see United Nations Conference on Environment Liason Centre International (ELCI) 124
Environment and Development (UNCED) environmental art 439
EarthKind-Brazil organization 124 environmental citizenship 14
earthquakes, causes 406 environmental crisis 200
East Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo) causes 517
clearance of settlers from national parks 538 environmental degradation, traditional language and
clearing of ancestral forest 352 culture affected by 31
rice cultivation 10, 289, 300–2 environmental ethics 97, 194, 440, 445
ecocentrism 442, 489 environmental philosophy 440
ecocide 31, 454, 480 environmental protection
ecofeminism 14, 443, 457–60 spreading of costs 475
ecojustice 448, 474 US policy 81
ecological citizenship 445 environmental values
ecological crisis 200 deep-ecology approach 468–9
ecological footprint (of cities) economism approach 468–9
London (England) 256 itemizing approach 460–1
reduction of 258 Kantian deontological approach 463–4, 465
ecological history, as subdiscipline 470 utilitarian approach 463, 464–5, 465
ecological indicators, of seasonality 239, 241–2, 306, 408 value-as-verb approach 469–70
ecological knowledge, effect of loss of linguistic tools 30 environmentalism
ecological literacy 490–2 divisive/combative approach 475–6
ecological theory of language 25 effect on others 476, 477
ecology epidemics
meaning of term 446, 476 traditional protection against 220
Native Americans’ views 194–6 in Western culture 486
economic pressures, effect on traditional agriculture 296 equitable sharing of benefits of knowledge 15, 210, 507,
economic resource, biodiversity as 259, 275 511, 530–1
economic values 130–1, 141, 460 ergot alkaloids 94
and moral values 64–5 Errol (Perthshire, Scotland), oak tree 354, 394–5
economism 468–9
INDEX / 715
forests continued Ghana
local peoples’ input to resource use planning 10, 68, agriculture systems 347
354–8 beliefs about forests 351
in Nepal 248, 249 land tenure system 289
oil exploration in 65 sacred groves 8, 342, 353, 366, 368, 369, 370
rate of loss 321 giant freshwater turtle (Pelochelys bibronii) 251
regeneration/replanting of 192, 328, 336–7 gibbon songs 108, 111
resources from 123, 131, 136, 137, 145, 147, 161–2, gift-giving 64–5, 71, 75, 429
287, 382, 540 when gathering plants 70, 84, 88
actions taken before gathering plants 84, 123–4 Giriama people (Kenya) 248
see also non-timber forest products (NTFPs) Global Biodiversity Assessment (GBA) 520, 525
sacred 206, 224, 249, 335 Global Environment Facility (GEF) 175, 601
thoughts on 395 projects 175–6
threats to 75, 87, 95, 106, 146–7, 348 global environmental ethic 438, 446–8, 447
see also sacred groves; trees; woods global environmental strategies, rejected as unworkable
Foundation for Endangered Languages 44, 55 445
Foundation for Inter-Ethnic Relations for...Europe, Global Initiative For Traditional Systems (GIFTS) 263, 271
educational guidelines 52 globalization of trade
founding myths 403, 424–5 by sharing of diversity 534–5
Four Directions Council 4, 508 and cities 250
Fox Chase Research Center 534 effects 12, 68, 113, 202, 203, 322, 448, 452, 474
foxes, urban 252 gnosticism 458
francophonie 36 Gola Forest Reserve (Sierra Leone) 348, 366
frankincense (Boswellia sacra) 234 gold extraction activities 67, 166
freedom of thought 477 Gore, Al(bert) 322
freshwater turtle (Trionyx nigricans) 187 government policies, effect on traditional practices 77, 79,
fruit trees 301, 314 128–9, 309–10, 354
fuelwood, restrictions on collection 348, 366, 384 Graham, Mount (USA) 330, 339–40
Fulani people (West Africa) 8 grain crops 313
Fulbe people (Benin) 236 grassroots participation 158, 159, 171
funeral rites 283, 361, 362 graveyard forests 358, 370
Fungaji people (Australia) 126 see also burial grounds
Great Reef Park (Australia) 127
‘Great’ Tradition (of India) 176, 186, 217
Greek philosophical myths 458
G ‘green islands’ 331, 352, 382
green movement, view of ecology 202
Gaddi people (India) 191 Green Revolution
gaharu (non-timber forest product) 112 effects 192, 193, 217, 221, 287, 290, 309, 445
Gaia theory 445, 449, 487, 490 failure 287, 290, 297
Galarrwuy Yunupingu, James 5, 104 green spaces in cities 250
Gandmardhan forests (India) 453 advantages 255
Ganges river, myth about origin 336 greenhouse effect, causes 253
gathered foods 10, 76, 80 Greenland, rights of indigenous people 512
G. B. Pant Institute of Himalayan Environment and groundnut 313
Development (GBPIHED) 332, 336, 337 Guajajara people (Brazil) 70
gender-based knowledge systems (GBKS) 14, 82–6 Guam River (Papua New Guinea) 156
see also female knowledge; male knowledge Guatemala, forest litter used in agriculture 292
gene technology, risks 113, 316, 507, 529, 542 Guayaki people (Paraguay) 199
genealogies 112, 113, 162, 542 gum arabic 235
General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) 506 Gupta, Anil 509
on protection of plants 11 Gwich’in Environmental Knowledge Project (GEKP) 412
TRIPs agreement 11, 321, 506, 599, 601 Gwich’in people (North America) 412–14
generalization of knowledge 179
generosity, compared with private property concept 320,
321, 452
genetic diversity 197, 292 H
areas of high diversity 317
flow of genetic material 315, 331, 352, 382 Habitat Agenda 256
management by traditional farmers 315–16, 317–18 habitat fragmentation, effects 254
genetic engineering 507, 528, 529, 542 Hague Recommendations on Education Rights of National
genetic uniformity Minorities 52, 53
disease vulnerability affected by 319, 507 hallucinogens
in various crops 318 effects 93, 277
Geneva Human Rights Centre 12 see also psychoactive substances
genocide 199, 202, 440 harmony between man and nature 4–5
cultural 480 Harris, Isle of (Scotland) 482
euphemism for 454 harvest thanksgiving celebrations 288
geopoetics 482 harvesting practices, conservation affected by 71, 87, 268
German Society for Endangered Languages 44, 55 Haudenosaunee (Six Nations Iroquois Confederacy) 5, 450
gestalt view of environment 487 Hausa people (Nigeria) 264
Gezira Scheme (Sudan) 289
INDEX / 717
indigenous knowledge continued insurance industry 452
see also local knowledge; Traditional Ecological Integrated Conservation and Development Projects
Knowledge (TEK) (ICDPs), in Madagascar 36
Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) 203 integrated management of resources 40, 41, 146
see also Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) integrated rights approach to community control 511–12
indigenous peoples intellectual property, and traditional knowledge 71, 75,
attachment to land 69, 103–4, 125, 453–4 229, 508
definitions 3–4, 61, 388, 389, 450 intellectual property law 70, 71, 74
displacement of 81, 122, 131–2, 166, 203, 411, 453, see also copyright law; patent systems
454, 480, 481 intellectual property rights (IPRs) 11, 320
human rights 11–13, 81, 104–5, 170, 199, 441–2 and communally held intellectual rights 193, 229–30,
number of people 3, 61, 67 231, 321, 506–7, 509
participation in government policies 68, 121, 126, 174, declarations on indigenous peoples’ rights 4, 12–13,
356, 372 507, 564–6, 577–8
sovereignty rights 512 inadequacies of system 12, 508, 518, 542–3, 599–600
statements by 125–66 negotiations to standardize 506
methods of collecting 124–5 protection of indigenous peoples’ rights 76, 193, 229,
Indigenous Peoples Biodiversity Network 508 229–30, 231, 321, 506–7, 508, 509, 518
Indigenous Peoples’ Cultural and Intellectual Property ‘intellectual terra nullius’ concept 12
Rights, Declaration on 12–13, 507, 564–6 Inter-Agency Task Force on Forests (ITFF) 355
Indigenous Peoples’ Earth Charter 560–4 Inter-American Commission on Human Rights 88
Indigenous Peoples’ Heritage, Principles and Guidelines for Inter-American Development Bank-supported project 509
Protection of 591–5 interbeing, meaning of term 476
Indigenous Peoples’ Knowledge and Intellectual Property Interbeing, Order of 475
Rights, Final Statement of Consultation on 4, 13, Precepts 476–9
507, 577–8 interconnectedness see connectedness
indigenous peoples’ rights see rights of indigenous peoples intercropping systems 190, 224–5, 293, 303
Indigenous Resource Management Systems (IRMSs) 203– advantages 291, 293, 303, 310
6 see also mixed cropping
in agro-ecosystems 203–4 interdependence of ecological communities 490–1
institutions and tenure systems 204–5 Intergovernmental Forum on Forests (IFF) 355
management rules 205–6 Intergovernmental Panel on Forests (IPF) 355
meaning of term 203 contributions to 581, 595–601
socio-cultural aspects 206 International Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), rice
see also Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) cultivars documented 190
Indigenous–Tribal Peoples of the Tropical Forests, Charter International Alliance of Indigenous and Tribal Peoples of
556–9 the Tropical Forests 15–16, 66
Individual Community Life Forum 156 contribution to IPF 595–601
Indonesia goal 67
biodiversity 26 International Clearinghouse for Endangered Languages
clearance of settlers from national parks 538 (ICHEL) 44, 55
clearing of ancestral forest 352 International Consultancy on Religion, Education and
land rights 537–8 Culture (ICOREC) 493, 604
linguistic diversity 24, 26 International Convenant on Civil and Political Rights
Pesticides Action Network 288 (ICCPR) 49, 51–2, 52, 507–8, 512, 513, 515,
Regreening Programme 226, 227 600
rice varieties 292 International Convenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
sorcerers 483, 484 Rights (ICESCR) 507, 512, 513
statement(s) on biodiversity 146–7 International Labour Organization (ILO)
transmigration policies 289–90 Convention 169 11, 12, 65, 513, 514
see also Borneo; Kalimantan; Mentawai archipelago; definition of indigenous people(s) 3–4, 61
Siberut island on indigenous rights 12, 65
industrial habitats, and biodiversity 251 international language support organizations 44, 45, 55–6
Industrial Revolution, effect on folk botanical terminology international law, rights supported by 512, 538
34 International Panel of Experts on Desertification (IPED)
industrialization of agriculture, effects 10, 165, 192, 311, 234
318 International Society for Ethnobiology, principles for
industrialized society 185 equitable partnerships 13, 14–15
reversal of ecological damage 15–16 International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources
and urban growth 250 (IUPGR) 11, 290, 511
inflammable rivers 402 International Whaling Commission (IWC) 426, 427, 432
initiation forests 370 International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA)
innovation 199
database of grassroots innovations 509, 535 International World Heritage Tropical Forests Conference
indigenous peoples’ approach 71–2, 74 227, 230
meaning of term 71 intranets, urban 258
network of indigenous innovators 535 Inuit people (Canada) 67, 134, 441, 512
by shamans 94 see also Eskimo people (Alaska)
innovation registers 509 invisible connections of environment 488
institution-building (IB) process 537 Irenaeus (Christian theologian) 458
instrinsic values 443 ironwood (Olneyaa tesota) 233–4
instrumental values 443 Irula people (India) 189
INDEX / 719
L lentil 317
Leopold, Aldo 470
La Verendrye Wildlife Reserve (Canada) 451 Leopold Committee 462–3
labour Leticia Declaration 68, 69, 354, 581–5
commodification of 71, 206 lettuce (Lactuca sativa) 303, 319
shared communal labour groups 96 lichens, as air pollution indicators 253
Lake Kariba (Zimbabwe) 122, 166 life-centredness 97–8
Lakota people (USA) 196, 197, 198, 402, 450 compared with biocentrism 97
Lama Sanga Dorje 249, 335 Liganji people (Australia) 126
lama’s forests 249, 335 lignum vitae 141
land liminal marker 366
culture linked to 5, 89, 103–4, 115–16, 121–2, 129, lingua franca 25
130, 148, 154–5, 166, 214, 320 linguicide (killing a language) 47
economic value 141 linguicism 46, 47–8
and knowledge 65, 69, 75, 116 linguistic... see also language...
sanctity 104, 453 linguistic diversity 22–5
State control of 77, 98 and biodiversity 26–7
land ethic 14, 445 and cultural diversity 21, 24, 25, 121
land management rights, in Australia 104–5, 126–7 and ‘curse of Babel’ 37, 40
land ownership, effect of changes 515–17 definitions 22
land reform 104–5, 228, 482 and language rights 46–54
land rights 513 reasons for loss 24, 25
land tenure systems linguistic documentation 40
in Africa 96, 289 linguistic ecologies 25–6
Amish people (USA) 305–6 linguistic genocide 47
in Hawai’i 114, 116 linguistic rights 46–54
in India 188 arguments against granting 48
in Papua New Guinea 154–5, 538 Draft Universal Declaration 50–1
in Sabah (Borneo Island) 148 and education 49
in Wabigoon River area (Canada) 77 Linguistic Society of America, Committee on Endangered
land use, impact of inappropriate practices 122 Languages and their Preservation 44, 55
landmarks, analogies with human body 28–9 linguistic/environmental/cultural conservation, integrated
landscape management techniques in cities 255 approach 40
landscapes Linnaeus (Carl von Linné) 182
cultural 8, 208, 230, 363 listening
sensory emplacement of 246–9 need for 15–16, 441–2
see also anthropogenic landscapes to the earth 380
language... see also linguistic... ‘Little’ Tradition (of India) 176, 186, 217
language acquisition 41 livelihood equity and reciprocity 77
language communities, rights 50, 51 Local Community Systems (LCSs)
language death 47 advantages 185–6
language decay 30 factors affecting erosion of 191–2
language groups, rights 50, 51 implications for biodiversity
language revitalization 40–1 agriculture 190
language shelter/maintenance programmes 42, 44 animal husbandry 190
language shift 24, 29 ethnomedicine 190–1
language support organizations/resources 44, 45, 55–6 fisheries 191, 400–1
language support programmes 40, 41–4 forestry 189–90
language theory 170 resource use in context of
languages belief systems 186–8
catalogue(s) of languages 22, 44, 56 knowledge systems 189
classification by number of speakers 22 socio-political economic systems 188–9, 209
erosion of 29–35 revitalization of 192
number spoken in world 3, 22–3, 212 principles and elements 193
power over cultural rights affected by 46 weaknesses 186
spoken by indigenous people(s) 3, 22, 22, 23, 212 see also Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK)
threat of extinction 3, 24 local knowledge
top ten most-spoken 23 in agriculture 9–10, 34, 308, 315, 316, 507
leaders, environment/human rights movement 15–16 commodification of 63, 70, 71, 179, 182, 202
leafy vegetables 298, 303, 314, 319 and conventional science 5
leatherback turtle 162–3 encoding in language 21, 26, 29
legal rights 11–13 globalization of 202
legal status inability to express in majority language 30
of indigenous communities 75 information covered by 5, 62, 201, 389, 399–400
of traditional lands 65, 77, 81, 511 legal/moral aspects 74
legal systems marginalization of 67, 182–3, 202
incorporation of customary law into national systems in medicines and health systems 10–11, 31, 34, 202,
511, 544 507
traditional systems 124, 147, 148–9, 150, 538, 543 misuse of 74
legume crops 293, 303, 313 responsibilities 74
Leiden approach 173 sharing of 74
lemurs, vernacular names in Madagascar 36–7, 38–9 social aspects 73, 74
INDEX / 721
megadiversity countries/areas 26, 102, 227, 317 Mount Graham (USA) 330, 339
Mende-speaking people (Sierra Leone) 10, 290, 315–16, International Observatory controversy 339–40
366 red squirrel 330, 340
Mendes, Chico 386 Mount Kailas (Tibet) 328, 329
mental economy 347, 349 Mount Sinai (Egypt) 329
Mentawai archipelago (Indonesia) 105 Mount Tai (China) 329, 338
Mentawai people (Indonesia) 106–12 Mount Tongariro (New Zealand) 8, 328, 330–1
communal houses 106–7 mountain shrines 329
dances 107 mountains 325–43
musical instruments 107 accessibility 327
religion 106 conservation of biodiversity 328
social organization 106 evocative nature of 327
songs 107–8 hermits and holy men living in 331, 332–3
examples of texts 108–11 man-made structures as substitutes 249
mercury poisoning 411 medicinal plants in 265, 328, 329
Mesopotamia, Tree of Life 353, 360 multiplicity of microclimates/habitats 327–8
metaphors, economic 467 sacred 248, 328, 329
Mexico as vantage points 247–8
biodiversity 26 see also Andes; Himalaya region
linguistic diversity 24, 26 Mowanjum community (Australia) 105
Mexico City 254 Mparntwe Arrernte Aboriginal people (Australia) 29
microclimate 146 Muir, John 329
Milarepa (Tibetan yogi) 328, 331, 332–3 Mukalahari people (Botswana) 131–2
milk trees (in India) 362 Mulshi Taluka people (India) 382–4
milking, Nepalese use of term 100 multicropping systems 190, 224–5, 291, 303, 317
millet 313, 317 see also inter-cropping
mind-altering substances 84, 93, 136 multilingualism 25, 37
mind–body balance 10, 263 multiple uses
mind–spirit inseparability 87 medicinal plants 265
Minimata disease 411 plants/trees 349
mining activities, effects 67, 132, 150, 405, 453 multiplicity of languages
minke whale communications affected by 37
attack on boat by 431 see also linguistic diversity
fish predation by 431 Munaljahlai people (Australia) 543
in food cuisine 428 Musanga cecropioides (corkwood or umbrella tree) 348, 366
numbers 427, 431 mushrooms 314
mistletoe 354, 394–5 musical instruments 107
mixed cropping 155, 217, 224–5, 287 Muskogee people (USA) 402
see also inter-cropping systems mutual aid groups 96
Mkomazi Game Reserve (Tanzania) 463 mycorrhiza (root–fungi association) 304, 318
Mobil oil company 65 mystical ecology 443
monastery groves, in Nepal 249, 335 mythology
money economy see capitalist approach and agriculture 61, 78
monocrop cultivation 133, 173 creation myths 33–4, 81, 103, 112, 122, 144–5, 151,
compared with mixed cropping 155 239, 240, 330
poem about 395 healing 92
vulnerability of 25–6, 163, 318 medicinal plants 268–9, 276
monoculture of the mind 202, 203, 395 origin of Ganges river 336
monolingual reductionism 48 see also Adam-and-Eve type myths; creation myths;
monolingualism, effects 40 founding myths
moral pluralism 548
moral status of non-human species 471–2
moral values
and economic values 64–5 N
poem about 433
moratorium Naess, Arne 489, 490
on bioprospecting 12, 13, 507, 510 Nagarhole National Park (India) 463
on whaling 401, 402, 427, 431, 432 Namibia, basket making 234
Moscow Statement (on Preserving and Cherishing the naming of animals/birds/places/plants 151
Earth) 73 Nandiwalla people (India) 188
Mother Earth Nanhini (Ghana) 368, 369
in Andean world-view 214 Napoleon, on ants 242
Declaration of Consultation Meeting of the Americas National Alliance for Tribal Self-Rule (India) 388
580–1 National Environmental Policy Act (USA) 81
in Indian world-view 218, 221, 453, 616 National Historic Preservation Act (USA) 81
in Maori world-view 112, 122, 151, 542 national parks
in Native American world-view 450, 452 exclusion of indigenous peoples 67, 90, 131, 207, 223,
mound cultivation system 298–300 342, 463
see also waru waru farming system joint management of 232
Mount Athos (Greece) 328, 329 marine 399
Mount Everest (Nepal/Tibet) 329, 334, 492, 498 in mountain areas 330, 331, 334, 341
wilderness model for 462–3
INDEX / 723
particularization of knowledge 178–9 political importance of indigenous knowledge 172
Pasir Adang people (East Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo) politics
289, 300–2 biological analogies 99–100
pastoralists and religious communities 478
conflicts with government policies 128–9, 289 urban vs rural 250
overgrazing by 190, 516 pollution 67, 136, 253, 402, 442
rights 204 polyculture see inter-cropping; mixed cropping;
water resources used by 8 multicropping systems
patent law 70, 320 Polynesia 417
patent systems 505 ponds, importance of history 462
low-cost 509 potato 145, 292, 294
patriarchal dominance 440, 457 genetic uniformity 318
shift from 459 crop failures due to 319
payback (in Australian Indigenous Law) 543 origins of crop plants 317
Peabody Coal Company 405, 406 power-sharing concept 177, 180
peanut 317 precautionary approach 74
see also groundnut Precepts of the Order of Interbeing 476–9
pearl oysters 416, 417 predators
Pearson, Noel 104, 228 humans as 194
Pele (Hawaiian goddess) 114, 328 moralistic attitudes to 195, 473
People, Land Management and Environmental Change native peoples’ attitudes to 195–6
(PLEC) programme 174, 175–6 preference-satisfaction 466
demonstration sites 175 primeval kinship 31
methods used 175–6 prior informed consent 15, 170
Permanent International Committee of Linguists (CIPL) pristine landscape
44, 55 myth 470
Persian Gulf war (1991) 491 see also wilderness
persistent organic pollutants (POPs) 67, 442 private property concept 320, 321, 452
Peru privatization 516, 530
agricultural practices 212–17 processes of knowing 71
biodiversity 26 profit seeking see capitalist approach
linguistic diversity 24, 26 property rights
oil exploration 65 clarification of concept 517–20
shamanism 277–8 meaning of term 517
statement(s) on biodiversity 158–61 see also intellectual property rights
method of collection 124, 158 proprietary rights licensing, effects 79
Peruvian Society for Environmental Law 509 protected areas
pesticides control by indigenous peoples 131, 187, 209, 387
adverse effects 318 exclusion of indigenous peoples 67, 208, 302, 341, 342,
effects 318 383, 388
Pesticides Action Network 288 Protection of the Heritage of Indigenous Peoples, Principles
petroleum and Guidelines for 591–5
myths of origin 89, 144 Protestant work ethic 437, 524
see also oil exploration psychoactive substances 84, 93
petty patents 509, 534 effects 93, 136, 277, 279
pharmacopoeias 180, 181, 182 psychotherapy
Phasephardi people (India) 188 cultural 482–3
Philip, HRH The Prince (Duke of Edinburgh) 493, 494 sleight-of-hand magic used in 483
Philippines Pucallpa healer 5, 278
land ownership 289 Pueblo cultures (USA) 470
mining activities 67 see also Hopi people; Zuni people
statement(s) on biodiversity 161–2 pulse fishing 425
Philocarpus jaborandi (plant) 70 P’urhépecha Indians (Mexico) 292, 400
phosphate mining, effects 150 pygmy groups, Central Africa 201, 264, 280–2
Phyllanthus niruri 534 pyramids, as man-made mountains 249
Piaroa Indians (Venezuela) 31–4, 288 pythons, relationship with termites 241
pigdin languages 25
pilgrimage routes 497
pilot whale 427, 428
pineapples, importance in South America 84, 91 Q
place names, ethnoecological knowledge in 28, 116, 151
place-based valuation of biodiversity 470–1 Quechua people (Peru) 212–16, 288
plant breeders’ rights 320 Quichua people (Ecuador) 136–7, 139
plant gathering
gift in return 70, 84, 88
traditional ways 70, 71, 87, 88
plants, communicating with 5, 88, 278 R
Platonic views 458, 488
poems 117–18, 284, 393, 395–6, 433, 500–3, 545–6 racism 46
Polidingi people (Australia) 125–6 rainbow-snake mythology (West Africa) 240–1
political ecology 259, 524 rainy season, bird/animal indicators 234
political economy view on biodiversity 259 raised bed systems 10, 287, 293, 294, 298–300
INDEX / 725
salmon 80–1 curing ritual (Peru) 63
‘threatened’ status 81 jaguar-seers (Colombia) 83, 85–6
Saluman Indians (Brazil) 133 responsibilities 85, 93, 137, 484
Samoa Islands see Western Samoa travelling of 85, 93
San Carlos Apache Indians (USA) 340–1 women as 136
San Jose Declaration 580–1 Sharanahua Indians (Peru) 201
Sanchez, Pedro 425 sharing 15, 64, 210, 410, 414, 429
sanctuaries 342, 370, 387 compared with private property concept 320, 321, 452
sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) 234 see also communal...; reciprocity
Sangariite spirits (Peru) 93 sharks’ fins 417
relationship with shamans 93, 94 shea butter tree 313
see also ant–Cordia symbiosis sheep ranching, clearance of people for 480, 481
Santa Cruz Statement 571–4 Sherpa people (Nepal) 248–9, 334–6
Sarawak (Malaysian Borneo) 67, 378 shifting cultivation
Saskatchewan Indian Federated College (Canada) 271 in India 190
Indian Health Studies course 271 in Papua New Guinea 158, 297–300
scientific expertise/knowledge Shintō 429, 430
advantages and disadvantages 222 Shiva’s hair, and trees in Himalayas 249, 336
compared with indigenous/folk/local/traditional Shuar language/people (Ecuador) 43, 138
knowledge 71, 73, 87, 169, 177–8, 181, 184, 222 Siberut island (Indonesia) 105
integrated with indigenous/traditional knowledge 82, Sibö myth (Costa Rica) 135
126, 134, 176, 193, 222 Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund (USA) 340
see also Western science Sierra Leone, termite ecology 236–7
scientization of indigenous knowledge 179–80, 180–1 Sikhism 187
Scotland, feudal system 480 Assisi Declaration 606–7
Scottish Gaelic 30–1 statement on environment 628–33
sea cucumbers 417 Sikkim (India) 327
sea gull song 108 silver oak 391
sea hawk 125 Singapore city-state 254
sea rights 127 singing of animals 108
sea turtle 126 single-sightedness of science 379
seal-skin campaign, effects 441 Sio River (Kenya), flooding of 415–16
seasonal floods 414, 424 Sioux nation (North America) 338
seasonal foods sky islands 339
in traditional cycle 80, 134 see also mountains
year-round availability 113 slash-and-burn cultivation systems 89, 106, 149, 161, 163,
seasonal wetlands 414–15 188, 300–1, 303, 377
seasonality regrowth vegetation 304
agricultural 139, 140, 307 see also swidden...
animal/insect/plant indicators 239, 241–2, 306, 408 sleight-of-hand magic 483
gathering of medicinal plants 70, 268 smells 247
Seattle, Chief 450, 489 Smith, Octavius 481
secret languages 31 smoking, views of religions 627–8, 633
sedge varieties, uses 94 Snow, Chief John 331, 338–9
seed, nurturing of in Andean agriculture 214–17 social ecology 443
seed germination test 219 social injustice 67
seed supply systems 222 social insects
seed trials 215, 216 historical reflections 242–6
self-determination, right to 14, 66, 512 see also ants; bees; termites
self-identification by indigenous peoples 4, 61 societies
self-orgaizing systems 490 insect models 238, 242, 244
sensory perception types 185
of landscapes 246–7 Society for Research and Initiatives for Sustainable
of medicinal plants 264, 274–5 Technologies and Institutions (SRISTI) 509, 535
of nature 485–6 socio-political economic systems, effect on resource use
sentimental anthropomorphization of mammals 432 188–9
Sequoyah, Ammoneta 69 soil classification systems 288, 292–3
Serengeti National Park (Tanzania) 372, 441 soil fertility 304
serviceberry (Amelanchier spp) 80, 306 soil management 287, 299
sesame (simsim) 313 solar energy 491
sewage, pollution by 253, 257 Solomon Islands, statement(s) on biodiversity 162–4
shade trees 287, 293, 371, 391 Somalia, land nationalization 516–17
shallow ecology, compared with deep ecology 489 songs
shamanism knowledge passed on by 9, 31, 89
in Celtic culture 480 Mentawaian 107–12
in Colombian Amazonia 85–6 Sonoran Desert (USA/Mexico) 30, 31, 208, 233, 339
in Peruvian Amazonia 63, 277–8 see also Mount Graham
Western exploitation of 437, 486 soothsayers 370
shamans sorghum 317
abilities 63, 85, 484, 485 sounds 247
communication with plants and animals 5, 278 South Africa, national parks 462
control of knowledge exchange by 85, 277
INDEX / 727
Tolowa language 40–1 spiritual aspects 138
tomato 317 economic value 141
Tonga, statement(s) on biodiversity 165 in Himalaya region 6, 8, 248, 249, 328, 335, 336–7
Tongariro National Park (New Zealand) 8 planting of 149, 328, 332, 336–7, 353, 393, 496
see also Mount Tongariro purposes/uses of various species 124, 128, 130, 140,
top-down approaches 171, 182–3, 206, 207, 310, 316 146, 161–2, 293, 304, 313, 314
Torris people (Benin) 348 religious significance 6, 187, 218, 335, 336, 348, 353–
totemic beliefs 195, 456 4, 360, 392
tourism industry 127, 232 species ranked in conservation priority 375
Trade Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights as symbols of life and regeneration 353, 362
(TRIPs) agreement 11, 321, 506, 510, 511, 530, and termite mounds 237–8
533–4, 599, 601 Turkish poems 393
trade secrets, transforming traditional knowledge into 509 see also forests
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) 9, 170–1, 203 tribally based scientific expertise 82
definition 170 TRIPs agreement 11, 321, 506, 510, 511, 530, 533–4, 599,
economic value 349 601
examples 9 Trust Lands Act (Kenya – 1939) 532
other terms used 9, 170 Tukanoan-speaking peoples (Amazon region) 205, 278,
transmission of 9 279, 399, 423–6
see also indigenous knowledge; local knowledge; agricultural activities 425–6
traditional knowledge fishing activities 424–5
traditional farming systems 287–9 Tulasi (Ocimum sanctum) 268
in Africa 309–15 medicinal properties 269–70
agroecological dimensions of biodiversity 291–7 in myths and legends 268–9
Amish 305–9 uses 269, 536
in Andes 70, 71–2, 211–17, 293–4, 295 worshipping 269, 270
Caiçara agroforestry 302–5 see also medicinal plants
integration with agroecological approach 296 Turkana people (Kenya) 234, 515–16
loss of knowledge 291 Turkey, attitudes to nature 392–3
misunderstood by Western/European scientists 290, turmeric, patenting of medical use 507
310 turtles
mound cultivation system in Papua New Guinea 297– hunting of 126, 162–3
300 in sacred pond 187
policies/schemes affecting 289–90 Tzeltal people (Mexico) 274
rice cultivation by Dayak Pasir people 300–2 Tzotzil people (Mexico) 274
traditional forest management 347, 348
traditional health systems 10–11, 263–84
in Africa 264–5, 280–4
in Canada 270–3 U
in India 265, 267–70
integration with Western systems 265, 271 Uafato Conservation Project 165
traditional knowledge Uaupés River (Colombia/Brazil) 423–4
compared with Western science 71, 73, 87, 169, 177–8, Uganda
222, 270 food plants 313
decontextualizing of 63, 70, 71, 179, 182, 202 see also Buganda
and definition of ‘intellectual property’ 71, 75 Uluru–Kata Tjuta National Park (Australia) 232–3
development projects facilitated using 539–40 Aboriginal interpretations 232–3
and protection of intellectual property rights 76, 193, infrastructure development 233
229–30, 231, 321, 506–7, 508, 509, 518, 541 land management 233
revision of 74 scientific research 233
see also indigenous knowledge; local knowledge; Umatilla Reservation (USA), Confederated Tribes 79
Traditional Ecological Knowledge (TEK) umbrella tree see Musanga cecropioides
traditional medicine United Kingdom (UK)
collective rights registered for 533 built-up area 254
need for revitalization 133–4 see also London
Traditional Resource Rights (TTRs) 512, 518 United Nations 446
traditionality, meaning of term 4 United Nations agencies
‘tragedy of the commons’ 310, 400 on indigenous rights 11–12, 65–6
Transfer-of-Technology (TOT) model of conservation 171, participation of indigenous peoples 68, 69
207 United Nations Charter 512
transitional programmes (language/culture) 42, 43, 44 United Nations City Summit 256
‘Travelling in Thought’ (male knowledge in Colombian United Nations Commission on Human Rights 48, 65
Amazon Indians) 83, 84, 85 participation of indigenous peoples 68, 69
treaty rights, fisheries on Columbia River 81–2 see also United Nations Human Rights Committee
Tree of Life 353, 358, 360 United Nations Commission on Trade and Development
trees (UNCTAD) 12
in agricultural systems 124, 128, 130, 225, 287, 293, 364 United Nations Conference on Environment and
cutting of Development (UNCED – 1992)
actions to be taken 123, 124, 161 Convention on Biological Diversity resulting 251, 446, 531
in Ecuador 141–2 debates on biodiversity loss 174, 200
effects of commercial operations 75, 87, 95, 106, Maori Congress’s report 114
146–7 United Nations Decade of Indigenous Peoples 69
INDEX / 729
water resources, conservation of 7, 8 willow bark fish nets 412, 413
Watson, Paul 432 windbreaks 146, 187
web of life 14, 449, 450, 489 witches 459, 484
reconnecting with 489–92 Witotoan-speaking peoples (Amazon region) 278
replacement by electronic images 440 Wola-speaking people (Papua New Guinea) 9, 287, 298
unravelling of 438 wolves
welfare, maximization of 464 “dancing with” 7, 193
Wells, H.G. 245 indigenous knowledge on 196, 199
wellsprings 8 killing of last in Scotland 480
West Java, Sundanese people 223–7 relationships with other animals 196
West Kalimantan (Indonesia), forest augury 357, 376–80 Western view (as predators) 195, 196, 199
Western science and technology see also coyotes
anthropocentrist viewpoint 486 women
Asian folk knowledge contributions 181–2 Calvinistic view 459
attitude to biodiversity and conservation 5, 121, 157 knowledge system among Colombian Amazon Indians
basis and origins 181–2, 459 83, 84
compared with indigenous/traditional knowledge 71, priests/shamans 136, 148
73, 87, 169, 177–8, 222, 270, 292 role in biodiversity conservation and sustainable
European folk knowledge contributions 180–1 development 163–4, 270
indigenous knowledge marginalized by 182–3, 202, Sikh view 632
290, 310 sterilization of 440
integrated with traditional knowledge 82, 126, 134, Victorian viewpoint 245
169, 180–2, 222 wood-ash cultivation systems 383, 386
single-sightedness 379 woodlands
see also scientific expertise/knowledge ancient 357, 462
Western Samoa, views on biodiversity and conservation use by Amish people 306
165, 399, 400–1, 421–2 see also forests; trees
Wet Tropics Management Authority (Australia), co- Working Group on Indigenous Populations (WGIP) 4, 12,
operative project 229 65, 69, 586, 595
Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Area (WTWHA) World Bank projects 454
227–32 World Commission on Environment and Development
wetlands (WCED), Brundtland Report 72, 452
degradation of 253, 254 World Council of (Christian) Churches 612, 613
seasonal 414–15 World Council of Indigenous Peoples, Declaration of
whale oil 428 Principles 556
whale watching 431 World Federation of the Deaf 55
whalers, local knowledge of 400, 430 World Health Organization (WHO)
whales Alma Ata Conference 171
attitudes to on traditional medicine 263
by conservationists 432 World Heritage Convention 8
by Icelanders 431, 432 World Heritage sites 8, 227, 334, 338, 342
by Japanese 430 World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) 11, 533
distribution of whale products 428–9 World Network of Biosphere Reserves 342
fish predation by 431 World Parliament of Religions 446
religious aspects in Japan 430 World Trade Organization (WTO) 11, 320, 321, 506, 510–
see also Baird’s beaked whale; minke whale; pilot whale; 11, 534
sperm whale see also TRIPs agreement
whaling World Tree 353, 358
cultural significance 427–30 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF – formerly World Wildlfe
Icelandic 402, 431–2 Fund)
Japanese 399, 426–31 Assisi Conference 446, 493, 494, 604
moratorium on 401, 402, 427, 432 forest conservation survey 207
wheat Worlds of Difference book 604
genetic uniformity, crop failures due to 319 Wuayuu people (Colombia) 263
origins of crop plants 317 Würzburg (Germany), plant species 252
white people, attitude to indigenous peoples 104, 126, 133
whitefish (Coregonus spp) 408, 413–14
‘wild’ crops 8, 10, 62, 76–7, 312
‘wild’ rice X
in anthropogenic landscapes 76–7
commercial cultivation of 77, 316 Xishuangbanna region (China) 381–2
licensing to individuals 79
wilderness
model for national parks 462–3
myth 208, 470 Y
objections to terminology 8, 12, 194
see also anthropogenic landscapes; cultural landscapes yagé (hallucinogenic drink) 278, 279, 280
Wildlife Conservation Society 463 Yakama people (USA) 79
wildlife ‘management’ 207 Yaksha people (Sri Lanka) 164
wildwoods, in Britain 357 yams (Dioscorea spp.) 303, 314, 317
willingness to pay (WTP) 464 Yanomami people (Brazil/Venezuela) 199, 264
see also welfare Yaqui/Yoeme Indians (southern USA) 31
Z
Zaïre
biodiversity 26
linguistic diversity 24, 26
Zande people (Congo/Zaïre) 310
Zimbabwe
displacement of people 122, 165–6
statement(s) on biodiversity 165–6
Zuni people (USA) 331
INDEX / 731