Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Euromed Migration II (2008-2011)
Euromed Migration II (2008-2011)
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This study is based on the technical work and expertise of Ms. Belarbi,
The Consortium : GIZ, ICMPD, CIVI.POL., FIIAPP, CeSPI, University of Sussex, EPLO
This document was drafted with the aid of the European Union. EuroMed Migration
II has sole responsibility for the content of this document; under no circumstances
can it be considered to reflect the position of the European Union.
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Head of Unit
Directorate General for Development and Cooperation EuropeAid
Europe, Southern Mediterranean, Middle East and neighbourhood policy
Centralised Operations for Europe, the Mediterranean and the Middle East.
This project, EuroMed Migration II (2008-2011), is the successor of the first EuroMed Migration I project, and
benefits from financing of 5 million euros from the European Commission’s Directorate General for Development
and Cooperation EuropeAid. It has reinforced Euro-Mediterranean cooperation in the field of migration to provide an
effective, targeted response to the phenomenon of migration in its various forms.
The EC has always given priority interest to these questions by considering them to be an integral part of Euro-
Mediterranean cooperation. This regional cooperation favours a partnership approach to migration issues in both
their North-South and intra-regional dimensions.
During the three years of this project, a large number of activities have been carried out on the themes of Legal Migration,
Illegal Migration and Migration and Development. The problem of migration is a complex issue that must be handled on
the basis of a global approach; it requires joint management policies that correspond to common interests.
Various mechanisms for cooperation, dialogue and exchanges of experience have been put in place between officials
in the ministries of the Mediterranean partner countries and the EU to discuss the different questions in depth.
This dialogue has enabled the creation of schemes to promote opportunities for legal migration, to support
measures to favour the link between migration and development, and to reinforce activities fighting trafficking of
human beings and illegal immigration.
The study on ‘Women migration between MEDA countries and the European Union’ was drafted as part of this
project. This study looks into the migration of women on the two shores of the Mediterranean, highlighting female
migrant movements, the contribution of migrant women to development and social change.
The percentage of migrant women in Europe has increased in recent years. This phenomenon shows that the growth
of female migration has become a new parameter in the migration issue.
This study considers this phenomenon from various viewpoints:
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European countries.
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The study highlights the multi-dimensional process of female migration. Its diagnosis will contribute to a better
understanding of this complex question and to discussions at national and regional level.
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6
Introduction
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1. Migration:
6hVldbVcbnXdjcign^hi]Zl]daZldgaY# General context ................................................................................ 6
I
4. Migration of women from MEDA countries to Europe:
dYVn!ldbZcXdchi^ijiZVabdhi]Va[d[Vaa a topical issue ..................................................................................13
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&#B^\gVi^dc/<ZcZgVaXdciZmi become clearly apparent, with migration emerging as the only way out of
their many difficulties.
Migrations are nowadays at the heart of policy debates at the national,
Nevertheless, the financial and economic crisis of 2008 hampered the
regional and international level. Their scale and complexity are prompting
economies of countries in both hemispheres, affecting even more the
governments, international institutions and the civil society to address the
integration of migrants in society and the world of work. The Report of the
challenges and opportunities of this social phenomenon and to consider
World Bank (2009-2011) underscores that because of the current financial
appropriate solutions.
crisis remittance flows to developing countries are down:3 “Remittances which
Engendered by the varying needs of countries in the North and in the South, were expected to amount to US$ 320 billion in 2009, dropped by 7.3% from
international migration has become a major phenomenon in contemporary 2008, when they amounted to US$ 328 billion”.4 The reduction of remittances
societies. “Migrate out of choice, rather than necessity,”1 according to the may have negative effects on the beneficiaries and their governments.
first of the ten principles set out in the report of the Global Commission on According to Dilip Ratha, the principal economist of the “Development
International Migration, would be the prime objective. This presupposes a Prospects Group” at the World Bank, a minimal 7% to 10% drop can cause
series of changes: a new form of world governance, in-depth political and difficulties for migrants and their families, in particular for governments with
economic reforms, consistent development of the emigration countries, safe budget deficits.
movement for migrants, organised and supportive reception with respect for
human rights by the host countries. '#B^\gVi^dcVcYb^\gVi^dcd[ldbZc/VbViiZg
The feminisation of migration has become one of the new parameters of d[XdcXZgc[dgi]Z^ciZgcVi^dcVaXdbbjc^inVcY
this phenomenon in recent years. According to the Global Commission on i]ZhdX^VahX^ZcXZh#
International Migration (GCIM), women constitute half of all migrants in
the world, which totalled 200 million in 2004.2 The globalisation process has Migration had never been a major preoccupation of international organisations
certainly changed the world and contributed to the acceleration and expansion nor a priority on their agendas.5 Only the issue of refugees was on the agenda,
of international migration. The opening of markets, the movement of capital, in fact. It was not until the conference on population in 1994 that a full chapter
the development of information technologies and means of communication on the issue was drawn up. That chapter was adopted by the 160 countries
and transport have facilitated and strengthened contacts between individuals, present in Cairo, but was not implemented. Moreover, the 1990 International
groups and nations. The flagrant economic and social inequalities between Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and
countries in the northern and southern hemispheres, as well as the despair Members of their Families was ignored.6 It was disseminated widely only
of certain social groups such as women and young people, have accordingly at the end of the 1990s, and then only thanks to the mobilisation of NGOs
working with migrants, associations and federations of human rights intent
3 Remittance flows to Latin America dropped in large measure because of the slowdown
1 “Women, men and children should be able to realise their potential, meet their needs, in the construction sector in the US. The new forecasts show a 6.9% drop in remittances
exercise their human rights and fulfil their aspirations in their country of origin, and to Latin America and the Caribbean. Remittance flows to Sub-Saharan Africa are also
hence migrate out of choice, rather than necessity. Those women and men who migrate expected to drop by 8.3%. Nevertheless, although down, remittance flows to South-East Asia
and enter the global labour market should be able to do so in a safe and authorised were expected to stay high in 2009. India, China and Mexico are the prime destinations of
manner, and because they and their skills are valued and needed by the states and remittances among developing countries.
societies that receive them.” Report of the Global Commission on International Migration 4 Report of the World Bank (WB) published in conjunction with the International Conference
(2005). Migration in an Interconnected World: Principles for Action. “printed in on Diaspora for Development held on 13 and 14 July 2009.
Switzerland by SRO-Kundig, p. 4.” 5 Katleen Newland (2004), The Governance of International Migration: Mechanisms, Process,
2 Migration in an Interconnected World: Principles for Action. Report of the Global and Institutions. Study conducted at the request of the GCIM.
Commission on International Migration. “October 2005, p. 1.” 6 Katleen Newland (2004). Op cit.
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on getting a sufficient number of states to ratify it, which led to its entry into General declared that “the time had come to take into account the global
force in July 2003. aspect of migration and its relation with development”.8
International migration has become a real cause of concern in the 2000s, For its part, the 1995 Beijing platform contends that migration and mobility
particularly at the UN. The problems faced by people crossing countries and generate changes in family structures and introduce additional burdens for
continents, who use legal and illegal migration channels and live with fear women. It also underscored that women working in formal and informal
and under duress day in and day out, are becoming marketable commodities sectors, migrant women are recognised as being the least protected. It also
in the hands of traffickers, and prompted UN Secretary General Kofi Anan underscored that women and children are more vulnerable as refugees and
to review the place of the migration issue on the international stage, to displaced persons.
reconsider and set it as a priority on the agenda of UN activities. In this vein,
the 55th session of the UN General Assembly (November 2000), proclaimed 18 Adopted by the General Assembly in November 2000, the UN Convention
against Transnational Organised Crime establishes international cooperation
December “International Migrants Day.”
to “prevent, suppress and punish” the trafficking of some three to four million
The creation of the Global Commission on International Migration by the women and children coerced into prostitution and forced labour each year
UN Secretary General in 20037, the discussions and organisation of the High- throughout the world”.9 The additional protocol to this convention (January
Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development in 2006 (which 2004) may be considered as the first international legal tool in the fight against
brought together for the first time heads of state and of government) gave the trafficking of human beings, mostly of women.
impetus to the reflection on and the adoption of appropriate policy measures
for an improved management of international migration. At the Millennium Interest in female migration increased further when in December 2003, the UN
Summit of 2000 and the World Summit of 2005, world leaders recognised that Division for the Advancement of Women (DAW) organised a consultation of
international migration contributed to the achievement of the Millennium experts in Sweden on “migration, mobility and impact on women”. Similarly,
Development Goals (MDG). the UN High-Level Dialogue on International Migration and Development
(September 2006) is a crucial opportunity for putting the migration issue, and
This investment by the international community has prompted the governments in particular the gender aspect thereof, on the international agenda.
of industrialised countries to reconsider their migration policies, to think
about new guidelines such as circular migration, the management of illegal In this respect, the governments, development agencies and international
migration, the links between migration and development, the migration of organisations have endeavoured to chart strategies to manage the migration
skills, and the encouragement of female migration in specific branches of the flows, strengthen the positive impact of migration on the countries of origin
economy, particularly services and agriculture. and the host countries, and gauge the contribution of migrant women towards
the attainment of the Millennium Development Goals.
Already in 1999, in its Resolution A/Res/54/210 on women in development, the
UN General Assembly called on the Secretary General to update the world The UNFPA State of World Population Report 2006, devoted essentially to
survey on the role of women in development, by focusing on the international female migration,10 is the most significant example of the interest shown by
movement of populations, and more particularly of women. Similarly, in his the different UN bodies in the mobility of women. The last UNDP Report 20
report on the reinforcement of the UN system (57th session), the Secretary
8 UN, World survey on the role of women in development 2004/Expert consultation: aide
mémoire. “CM/MMW/2003/INF.1. 14 January 2004.”
9 L’ONU se dote d’un outil juridique contre le trafic d’êtres humains, Fr.news.yahoo.com. 28
7 The GCIM (December 2003) started its works in February 2004. The objectives assigned January 2004.
to this commission were to put migration on the world agenda, analyse existing gaps and 10 UNFPA, State of World Population 2006. A Passage to Hope. Women and International
examine relations between migration and development. Migration. “106 p.”
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(Overcoming Barriers: Human Mobility and Development) broaches this The ‘EuroMed Migration II’ project financed by the European Commission has
international concern, where women are integral parts. Other sectoral studies managed to include a specific study on the migration of women from MEDA
conducted by the World Bank or other centres or institutes on migration in countries to Europe to give greater visibility to female migration between the
countries in the northern and southern hemispheres focus particularly on two sides of the Mediterranean, by focusing on female migration movements,
migrant women. and the contribution of women migrants to development and social change.
Female migration has been the subject of numerous research studies by social The migration demand from the South to the North of the Mediterranean
scientists since the end of the 1980s, as attested by the many monographs, nowadays tends to address a European demographic deficit and the lack
special issues of periodicals or instruction modules devoted to the topic. These of development in the South. In the Europe of 27 states, with a population
works have in particular questioned the neutral approach in the masculine11 of 500 million, some 20 million are migrants from third countries with legal
until then at the core of studies on the migration phenomenon. The studies resident status.15 Eurostat figures show that the population of the European
endeavour to follow migrants in their movements, at the workplace, and Union grew by 2.1 million inhabitants in 2008 to reach an estimated figure of
to discover them in their household and in their relations with institutions. 499.8 million on 1 January 2009. This growth of 2.1 million resulted from a
These works have given migrants a certain visibility in research as well as in natural growth of 0.6 million inhabitants and a migration balance of 1.5 million
public policies. We should nonetheless note that comparative analyses and in the EU 27. In the 16 Eurozone countries, with an estimated population of
fieldwork on women migrants are still limited. 328.7 million on 1 January 2009, natural growth amounted to 0.4 million and
the migration balance to 1.2 million.16
An issue of the International Migration Review (1984) devoted to migrant
women broke new ground compared with previous studies, especially one The percentage of migrant women in Europe increased substantially these five
of its articles which attracted particular attention: ‘Birds of passage are also decades. Whereas the rates remained stable between 1960 and 1980, 48.5%,
women’ (Morokvasic, 1984), presented as a response to the metaphor used by there was an increase between 1990 and 200017, when the rates attained 51.7%
Michael Piore (1979) for immigration, seen only as mobility of men.12 Women and 52.4% respectively. These figures show that women have not remained on
historians and sociologists have examined the issue: the pertinent analysis the margins of this migration process, that they have always been involved,
of Nancy Green 13 or the pioneering works of Janine Ponty 14 have given the particularly in Europe, which ranks first in the world for the reception of
subject greater consistency and legitimacy. migrants.
Needless to say, the neglect or exclusion of women from studies on migration Eurostat figures show that there are more men than women migrants and that
has not expelled them from history, but rather reflects a misogynist strain in the latter are younger than the men. The gender ratio of migrants to the EU
history, because it is often written by men. An effort to deconstruct the social was 114 men against 100 women.18 The prevalence of men was generalised
approaches and representations is still needed to give women their rightful in all EU countries, apart from some exceptions, whereby the gender ratio
place in migration. It is also worth wondering about grey and uncertain areas of European immigrants is higher than that of non European immigrations:
and questions that have hitherto been evaded or scarcely broached. 125 men for 100 women and 108 men for 100 women respectively. France,
Belgium, the Netherlands and Italy received more women than men migrants
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in 2006. This effective presence of migrant women attests to the urgent need )#B^\gVi^dcd[ldbZc[gdbB:96Xdjcig^Zhid
for a gender approach to the various steps of the migration process.
:jgdeZ/Vide^XVa^hhjZ
(#6\ZcYZgVeegdVX]idb^\gVi^dc^h “To speak of the mobility of women is not solely a matter of admitting
WZXdb^c\^cZk^iVWaZ the presence and action of women in migration movements, but rather to
consider such movements also from the female angle, i.e. to consider the
The experience of individuals according to their gender is at the heart of the point of view of women, their specific and singular characteristics regarding
migration process. Migration is nowadays structured around the question mobility. Such recognition is a prerequisite to imbuing new dynamism in
of gender. The formulation of the migration project, the identification of paradigms on migration”.20
networks that interfere in migration and the ways of movement determine
who emigrates, the reasons for migration, the chosen destinations and the Migration is closely connected with the history of the Mediterranean. It
return options. Likewise, the attitudes and behaviour adopted by migrants constitutes a key dimension for understanding the Euro-Mediterranean area,
regarding employment, education and health, remittances and the channels its development and progress. It represents a thorny political issue that has
chosen are acquiring a specific orientation depending on gender. It can generated a series of European policies on the matter, the establishment
actually be said that the history of migration is also a history of gender on of legal bases, the gradual introduction of EU regulations, and reinforced
the move. North-South cooperation. A global approach to the scope of migration in the
Mediterranean entails grasping and understanding a broad, interdependent
In his book, Philosophie de la modernité, Georg Simmel19 examines the spectrum that links the countries of the region, as well as understanding and
relations between gender practices and identities and the migration processes. recognising the place that the Mediterranean occupies in the world, and the
He shows that the forms of international migrations to the West (volume women of the region in the migration process.
and composition of flows, chronology of departures, itineraries taken)
are structured around gender. The participation in the migration process The Mediterranean has been historically known as a major crossroads of
consequently affects the distribution of tasks and spaces, the relations of movements and trade. Different peoples have travelled through it, traders
power and gender identities, starting with the privileged setting of the family. developed their business, the major powers and politicians, always on the
Accordingly, gender becomes a structuring element for the entire migration watch to make or break alliances, have invested heavily in it. A sea where the
context. labour migration that started at the beginning of last century has amplified to
become today one of the important elements of security and development,
The gender issue has therefore merged as a main variable in studies on democracy, gender, etc. The fact remains that this entire process was devised
migration, even if it cannot be isolated from its overall context in society. and led by men, while women were at home or moved under the watchful
Against this background, female migration from MEDA countries to Europe supervision of the family.
cannot be studied and analysed outside the international migration process,
as it cannot be dissociated from male migration and the entire history of The strategic position of the Mediterranean is self-evident. Considered
population movements in the Mediterranean region. as an area of political confrontation, it is also recognised as a region that
20 Mariam Cheikh, Michel Peraldi (2009), Les femmes sur les routes. Voyage au féminin entre
19 Georg Simmel, Philosophie de la modernité. “Paris, Payot 2004.” l’Afrique et la Méditerranée. “Editions le Fennec et Centre Jacques Berque, p 8.”
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generates and exports energy,21 a potential market for Europe, a strategic certain political, economic and social order. Institutions have been created in
hinterland for the United States 22 and an affirmed migration area. Relations countries of origin (ministries, commissions, councils) to manage relations
between the northern and southern Mediterranean have throughout history with their expatriate community, get them to contribute to the development
been characterised by domination (colonisation), changed subsequently of the country of origin and to revive their cultural identity.23
into relations of cooperation through independence, which were then
institutionalised through bilateral agreements and have been consolidated in The Mediterranean migration landscape has nowadays undergone a radical
particular through the Barcelona process in its different variations. transformation, as former emigration countries have now become immigration
countries 24 (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria, Egypt), while these same countries
The EU countries have continued to endeavour to harmonise their migration are confronted with a high mobility of highly skilled people, illegal migration
policies ever since the Amsterdam Treaty. Regional dialogues have been and female migration.
initiated on the issue, in particular the 5+5 Dialogue. Euro-Mediterranean
conferences and forums and Euro-African conferences have reserved Various studies have confirmed that female migration in the Mediterranean
a place of choice for the issue of migration around the Mediterranean. In is a phenomenon that has always existed. Nevertheless, the scope it has
essence, migration structures Euro-Mediterranean relations and association acquired nowadays and the type of population it concerns call for an in-
agreements for neighbourhood policy, and comes into play in the financing of depth study. The history of female migration to Europe is multi-faceted,
the MEDA programme, etc. since the largest number of migrants arrived after World War II. Women
from southern Europe were the first to arrive (from Italy, Greece, Spain and
For MEDA countries, emigration has been a way of reducing unemployment Portugal) looking for employment and a better life. In the mid 1970s, it was
and providing sizeable financial resources for national development – a self- mostly women from MEDA (especially Maghreb) countries that emigrated
regulating phenomenon, as was the case for certain southern European for family reunification purposes. Then, in the end of the 1980s, came women
countries. Today, however, MEDA countries are faced with an ever increasing from the former East Bloc countries when the Communist regimes collapsed,
desire for emigration by young people and women to find work and to women from the Balkans when the region disintegrated, and women from
improve their living standard. So these countries are counting on migration North Africa owing to the negative economic and social consequences of the
as a source of revenue, as a means of development and as a guarantee for a structural adjustment plans.
Later, the consequences of the Gulf War in 1990 and the economic crisis after
21 Crude oil arrives from the oil fields of the Near East and North Africa, and the oil ports of the 11 September 2001 on the economies of regions dependent on the tourism
Black Sea to the European centres of consumption. EU imports continue to increase, and
forecasts for 2030 vary between 11.6 billion barrels a day (bbd) and 16.7 bbd, compared with industry accentuated the male and female migration flows, but also flows of
14.6 bbd in 2005. Sohbet Karbuz, Lisa Guarrera. (2008). La Méditerranée, route de transport
de pétrole. Revue AFKAR. N° 18, Summer 2008. Pp. 22-24.
refugees and asylum seekers.
The region is of vital importance for the American economy: The Middle East supplies
half of its needs in hydrocarbons, so oil transport in the Mediterranean still accounts for Migrants to Europe from MEDA countries nowadays come essentially from
nearly one third of the world maritime traffic. Attac France. June 2008, la Méditerranée face
aux assauts de la mondialisation libérale. www.france.attac.org , and Sohbet Karbuz, Lisa states that are poor or have a low standard of living, countries at war or
Guarrera, op. cit. p. 23.
22 The Western (European and American) leaders have engaged in close cooperation with
the southern Mediterranean countries; a cooperation enshrined in the Barcelona process, 23 These initiatives had both economic (to capitalise on the benefits of migrations through
the neighbourhood policy and the Union for the Mediterranean for one, extended on the remittances and the experience of highly skilled migrants) and cultural objectives (to keep
other hand by the multiple bilateral free trade agreements between the USA and certain migrants under the tutelage of the country of origin and to revive an Arab and Muslim
southern Mediterranean countries, and the intervention in the conflict between Israel and identity among second and third generation young people). Holidays in the country of origin,
the Palestinians. The new MEPI programme launched by President Bush in 2002, which and language and religion courses have increased considerably to that end.
was joined by the G8 countries, confirms the presence of the major powers in the region. 24 The poverty, tensions and conflicts that are rife in many Sub-Saharan countries prod many
Nevertheless, Europe still holds a capital place in the Mediterranean, thanks first to its young men and women to leave their country to get to Europe which is closing its borders;
geographic proximity, and the historical links and economic and cultural exchanges. the transit route through North Africa is unavoidable, in spite of the dangers of crossing the
Relations between Europe and the MEDA countries constitute the hard core of the region. desert, and restrictions of entry to those countries by air.
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under authoritarian regimes, and stifling patriarchal societies. The political, various stakes (demographic, economic, cultural, social and symbolic) in the
economic and social changes that MEDA countries have gone through region. This study on “female migration between MEDA countries and the
to varying degrees have contributed to the change of rules, standards and EU,” financed by the European Commission under the EuroMed Migration
traditions that enable women to travel, live alone, embark on occupational project, is intended to help migrant women come out of the shadow and to
mobility, get married, including through mixed marriages in the absence or give them their rightful place in the history of migration.
without the consent of the family.
More precisely, this study pursues several objectives, namely to:
Major advancements can thus be noted in female migration from southern
Mediterranean counties to Europe, in spite of socio-cultural standards that t Present the state of research on the subject and to contribute to a greater
tend to limit the movement of women or to restrict it in a controllable space. understanding of this complex issue;
The share of women migrants from MEDA countries ranges between 25% and t Apply a gender perspective to all the migration situations in the region,
45% depending on the country of origin and the host country.25 while remaining attentive to the aspirations and concerns of women in
their country of origin, transit or reception;
The importance of female migration is self-evident: it contributes to the
emancipation of women who become self-sufficient once their husband has t Give visibility to the contribution of migrant women to development, in
gone abroad, when they emigrate alone or when they become economically scientific research and political discussions;
independent. Thus, women who were previously subordinate to the authority t Help initiate discussions on the issue at national and regional level.
of their husband in their country of origin, take their life into their own
hands, thereby gaining new self-awareness and raising their self-esteem. +#BZi]dYdad\n
Nevertheless, certain paradoxes are emerging by maintaining non-egalitarian
traditions from the country of origin or an attachment to a backward-looking Reconsidering migration in the Mediterranean region from the women’s
Islam in the host country. perspective is a real challenge, given the lack of data available and the
limitations of the theoretical framework. The way in which women shape and
The most vulnerable category consists of illegal migrant women. They are
transform migration and the societies concerned can be outlined by exploring
exploited economically and even sexually. Treated as objects, their identities
the personal and collective history of women, analysing documents and
are denied, their passports taken away, and they are exploited and abused
research studies on female migration patterns, and examining the policies
by traffickers and unscrupulous employers. The UN conventions on crime,
adopted concerning them in the country of origin or the host country.
the additional protocol, the various communications of the European
Commission and the declarations of the European Parliament are intended This study concerns 18 Euro-Mediterranean countries (nine in the South
to draw attention to this phenomenon so as to fight against this curse. and nine in the North) and relies essentially on an analysis of the available
documentation, including official sources: statistics, legislation, official
*#DW_ZXi^kZhd[i]ZhijYn reports, and field surveys conducted by European and southern Mediterranean
research centres and institutes, etc. The analysis is supplemented by a non-
The analysis of female migration between MEDA countries and Europe shows participating observation of the daily life of migrants and our personal and
a new dimension in the region’s political and social history. The multiple professional experience.
facets of the migration phenomenon around the Mediterranean reflect the
16 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 17
,#EaVc on their expertise and their mobilisation in development associations will
also be studied.
This study comprises six parts.
Part VI “Women from MEDA countries and irregular migration”
Part I “Theoretical framework and methodological approach” broaches the dearth of data on this type of migration which makes it difficult
examines certain theories relating to migration in general and in particular to estimate the number of women migrants in European countries. Taking the
the place given to the mobility of women. It also presents the methodological risk to emigrate legally or illegally and then go underground is a new route
framework, clarifies the concepts, and identifies the indicators of female of female migration from MEDA countries. Irregular female migration from
migration. the South is a major concern for governments, international organisations
and the civil society. Women are the most exposed to human trafficking,
Part II “Main determinants of female migration” puts the mobility economic exploitation, prostitution rings and the mafia, which are booming
of women from MEDA countries to Europe in perspective against the because they are most often in vulnerable situations.
background of international migration and globalisation. It examines the
incentives and push factors of migration, while identifying the economic and Given the scope of this study, its topicality and above all the novelty of the issue,
socio-cultural differences on the opposing sides of the Mediterranean which a personalised bibliographic document has been prepared: “Bibliographic
are considered as the essential causes of migration to Europe, particularly study on female migration in the Mediterranean.” It contains works on
female migration. female migration with a detailed introduction that outlines the major trends
in female migration in the region. It is a reference work placed at the disposal
Part III “Migration: regulatory framework” deals with the legal dimension of researchers and students who will make other contributions and new
of migration and the international, Euro-Mediterranean and bilateral level. It analyses to expand knowledge on the subject.
is particularly important because the law is the framework that organises the
departure, establishment and integration of migrants in the host countries. This large-scale study on female migration from MEDA countries to Europe is
There is a legal arsenal in most northern and southern Mediterranean in no way intended to be exhaustive. In spite of the high number of countries
countries concerning the protection of male and female migrants, scattered studied, the dearth of data, the diversity of the migration processes and
in several legal and regulatory texts, and applied by various institutions. policies, and the variation of female populations on the move, this study
has tried to summarise the major trends in the migration of women in the
Part IV: “Legal female migration or labour migration,” identifies the Mediterranean and to analyse the multiple dimensions of that phenomenon.
main characteristics of legal female migrants and analyses some sequences Finally, this report makes a certain number of recommendations for the
of their daily lives. This part also broaches the place of female migrants on development of medium- and long-term studies which, thanks to an in-depth
the labour market, the impact of gainful employment on domestic roles, and knowledge of female migration, could enlighten future migration policies on
the power of women in the family. This part explores the lifestyles of migrant both sides of the Mediterranean.
women in the host country, their capacity to integrate through access to
education, health services, culture and politics.
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I. Towards a paradigm of the migration process ............................. 25
22 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 23
I dYZhXg^WZ^hVagZVYnidYd!idXdcig^WjiZidlVgYh
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8=6EI:G>#IDL6G9H6E6G69><BD;I=:
B><G6I>DCEGD8:HH
d[[VhX^cVi^dcl^i]i]ZegZhZciVcY[ZVgd[VcdWhXjgZ Academic interest in migration has been growing in recent years in the MEDA
[jijgZ!idh]ZYbdgZa^\]idci]Zh]VYdlnVgZVhl]ZgZ countries, tending to fill the gap between several disciplines and to tackle the
\adWVa^h^c\bdYZgc^inXVhihi]dhZ^icZ\aZXihl]^aZ theoretical deficit on female migration. Research on migration is included in
Yg^k^c\i]ZgZhiVlVn[gdbl]Vi^i]VhjcYdcZ# analyses of globalisation.
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Current theories on migration tend to be rather partial or overly general.
Often falling under disciplines, they are driven by an inner logic and are often
characterised by an antithetical view of push and pull between the societies
that send and those that receive migrants. Few integrated theories have been
developed on the issue.
24 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 25
eegV^hVad[b^\gVi^dci]Zdg^Zh places international migration within the framework of market supply and
demand and establishes a correlation between the development of labour
The aim is not to conduct an exhaustive analysis of theories on migration, nor migration and economic development. Difference in pay prompts migrants to
to comment on their validity. We shall focus on four main theories that will move from low-pay areas to high-pay areas so as to maximise their revenues.
be examined briefly to assess their explanatory value, more particularly when Countries that do not have enough workers and thus have a high demand
applied to female migration in the Mediterranean region. are supposed to offer high wages that attract immigrants from countries that
have a surplus of workers (Massey 1993).5
&#&#EgZYdb^cVcXZd[ZXdcdb^XcdiidhVn
Other theories draw a distinction between a traditional and a modern sector,
ZXdcdb^hi^Xi]Zdg^Zh
adopting the same division between industrialised and underdeveloped
Economic theories on international migration abound and tend to explain nations. The traditional sector, which has a surplus of labour, therefore has a
immigration through factors related to employment and remuneration. These substantial supply of labour, while the modern sector absorbs this surplus by
models are at times inserted in a broader framework relating to unequal attracting that labour by offering wages higher than those in the traditional
production or development between nations. sector. This theory consequently foresees that immigration has a positive
impact on the traditional sector, because it helps reduce the prevailing
Considered as the first migration theorist, Ernest Ravenstein2 (1885), unemployment, and fills the pay gap between the rural traditional sector and
an English geographer, presented certain ‘laws’ based on the analysis of the urbanised modern sector. It postulates that the migration flows are going
population census data. He concluded that migration is governed by push to last for as long as this difference between sectors has not been reduced.
and pull factors. Unfavourable economic conditions and poverty push people
to leave their country of origin for more attractive regions. He added that The dualist theory (Piore 1979)6 confirmed that the migration of the labour
migration increases as technology develops. force is a factor of economic cooperation between countries. It underscores
that the structures of the economies in developed countries necessarily turn
This scholar places migration in a more general environment by considering to foreign manual labour, since they have two markets; the primary market,
the progress of the migration act as a movement from the periphery to the which is developed and well paying, and the secondary market, which is
centre and the distance covered by the migrants. He underscored that women precarious, with low wages. Migrants are generally recruited to do jobs that
were more inclined to embark on short-term flows. are necessary for the development of the economy, but which natives are
unwilling to do.
Several theorists have followed the footsteps of Ravenstein with only a
few variations. Everett Lee (1966) recast the latter’s theory to concentrate The world system theory developed by Saskia Sassen (1988)7 asserts
essentially on the push factors.3 The neoclassical theory (Torado 1969)4 that international migration is a product of the capitalist system and that
migration models tend to confirm the division of the world into a centre
2 Ravenstein E.G. (1885), The Laws of Migration, Journal of the Statistical Society, (rich nations) and a periphery (poor nations). Industrial development
“London, 48(2), 167-227.”
3 ES Lee - Demography, 1966 - popline.org. Title: A Theory of Migration. “Popline Document in the former causes structural problems in the economies of the latter.
Number: 018411. Author(s): Lee ES. Source citation: Demography, 1966; 3(1):47-57.” Lee
underscored that there were four main factors that determine international migration.
The first two factors are related to the situation in the countries of origin and countries
of destination. He attached great importance to cyclical factors such as distance, political 5 Massey D, Arango J, Kouaouci A, Pellegrino A, and Taylor Y (1993), Theories of International
barriers, the existence of a network, and to personal factors related to the migrant’s Migration: A Review and Appraisal. Population and Development Review. “19/3, p. 431-465.”
education, knowledge of the destination environment, and family ties in the country of origin 6 Piore. M. J. (1979), Birds of passage: migrant labor in industrial society.
and in the host country, which may facilitate or hinder migration. “New York, Cambridge University Press.”
4 Todaro, Michael P. A, Model of Labor Migration and Urban Unemployment in Less 7 Sassen. S. (1988), The Mobility of Labour and Capital. A Study on International Investment
Developed Countries. “American Economic Review, 59(1), 1969, p. 138-148” and Labour Flow. “Cambridge, UK. Cambridge University Press.”
26 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 27
This in turn prods migration. Against this background, migration results not There is a perceptible switch from individualistic approaches to migration to
only from high production and demand for labour in industrialised countries, a collective strategy initiated and organised by the domestic unit. It is a form
but more generally from the structures of the world market. of contract between the migrant and his family who support him to emigrate,
subject to obligations and commitments to all those who contribute towards
This theory analyses migration from a global perspective, underlining the his departure and establishment abroad.
importance of the market economy. It underscores that exchanges between
weak economies, and strong and efficient economies inevitably lead to The migrant provides insurance against poverty, against a bad harvest
stagnation in the former, upsetting the economic channels and social and or illness. Accordingly, “the new migration economy does not take into
cultural settings. “These unequal relations encourage migration more than consideration only the labour market, but widens the process to the entire
the differences of pay and employment”.8 domestic group. Households try not only to maximise their interests, but also
to minimise risks by diversifying their resources.” In this regard “for developing
For supporters of this theory, the effects of globalisation have left the countries, migration would be the equivalent of social security in developed
economies of the third world dependent on agriculture and exports of raw countries”.10
materials, accumulating industrial lag, and sinking into underdevelopment.
This explains the one-way migration flows from the periphery to the centre. The domestic group is consequently emerging as the central decision-
making unit. The migrant’s income tends to alleviate the hazards of internal
The major migration flows can obviously not be dissociated from the economic
unemployment, and transfers play an important role, not only for the
disparities, and are studied jointly with development and underdevelopment
economy of the household but for the economy of the entire country. In this
issues. Classical economic analyses of labour migrations have consequently
case, for some countries labour migration has become particularly an export
shown their limitations, as they tend to focus more on the individual aspect
economy, which drives the States to facilitate migration so as to capitalise on
of migration and the mandatory higher or supplementary earnings that justify
the benefits.
migration. These two aspects have been challenged by works that henceforth
constitute the new economy of labour migration. This strand of analysis sees &#(#CZildg`i]Zdgndgi]ZeZgeZijVi^dcd[i]Z
migration as a process based on a collective choice and takes the domestic
b^\gVi^dce]ZcdbZcdc
unit as the analysis framework.
The migration network approach is very important because it explains the
&#'#CZlb^\gVi^dcZXdcdbn persistence of the migration phenomenon through social links between
migrants and non-migrants, which link countries of origin and of destination
Stark (1991),9 the founder and main representative of the new migration
further. Each migrant actually creates opportunities for people in his
economy, proposes a new framework for the economic analysis of labour
entourage (a member of the family, neighbourhood or tribe) to promote
migration by referring to the family of farmers with regard to risk (climate
them and help them to emigrate. In this context, the decision to leave is not
vagaries, variations in the price of agricultural products) which can lead its
based essentially on a purely rational economic calculation as suggested by
members to migrate. In this sense, migration of one member of the household
the neo-classical theoretical approach, but on information concerning people
increases the sources of the family’s revenues and guarantees a secure income
prepared to provide financial and psychological support to migrants at every
through remittances.
step of their migration. Accordingly, “by reducing the risks and costs of future
28 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 29
migrants (men and women), migration networks secure the self-perpetuation men of the family. A few exceptions aside, women who decide to emigrate,
of the migration process”.11 whether educated, rich, or resourceful, must negotiate their departure and
seek the approval and blessing of the men.
The migration networks connect people belonging to the same family, ethnic,
linguistic or religious community. They operate in the form of loans or services 3. The family has its economic and social network, as the kinship vice tightens
that alleviate the cost of migration. The awareness of migrants dispersed in a very vast geographic space. People move where they have family that
through several cities and countries is one of the important elements in the can help them, support them financially in case of difficulties, find a job
decision to emigrate. The more developed the network, the lower the costs, for them and for relatives and provide psychological support in case of
and the more that migration will develop. The migrant’s social capital thus dire need or culture shock. Ties between members of the extended family
plays a more important role than the monetary capital. are consolidated to make room for transnational solidarity that turns the
migrant into an effective player for the development of his or her country
In the network theory, the family institution remains crucial for the of origin.
motivation to migrate and to develop one’s skills. Sarah Harbison has shown
the complexity of family structures that characterise the migration process, &#)#B^\gVi^dcVcYYZkZadebZci
given that the family is the mediator between the individual and society.
An old theory has been re-emerging for twenty years with a focus on the
Harbison (1981)12 and Boyd (1989)13 stress three essential factors that give close links between international migration and development. It shows that
the family unit significant importance in the migration process. international migration from countries in the South to countries in the North is
due to underdevelopment and the development of migration. It also contends
1. The family provides the essential support for the migrant; it has resources
that international migration contributes to the development of the host
for the transport, establishment, etc. in the host country, particularly in
country and it continues to have a greater impact on growth, development
the case of a young migrant population with sufficient financial resources.
and the reduction of poverty in the country of origin.
Similarly, the gender-based division of labour in the family may encourage
or hinder the mobility of women. When women do not work, they continue Migrants make an important triple economic contribution - and by extension
to perform domestic chores, and their mobility is structurally limited or at – also political, social and cultural contribution to their countries of origin.
least determined by men. To that end, remittances play a tangible role in reducing poverty, alleviating
problems of unemployment and underemployment, and in particular, skills.
2. The family, as a place for socialising, conditions and guides individuals.
Similarly, the financial investments by associations of the diaspora in projects
The roles and statuses of men and women are inculcated and integrated
of different scope provide substantial aid for the development of the countries
in its midst. The privilege accorded to male children in the family, as those
of origin.14 Furthermore, it considers that highly skilled migrants and the
who perpetuate the family name and are to look after their parents in
temporary or definitive return constitute a pool of skills, expertise and an
their old age, is predominant in southern Mediterranean societies. The
efficient network in the service of the countries of origin.
woman is perceived as a minor who is delicate and in need of protection.
Her departure for another country must consequently be approved by the UN bodies have shown interest in this approach since the beginning of the
new millennium, when they introduced the principle of “better management
11 Monsutti. A, op cit p 45.
12 Harbison. S .F. (1981), Family Structure and Family Decision In Migration Decision
Making: Multidisciplinary Approaches to Micro Level Studies in Developed and Developing 14 Publications of the World Bank such as the Report of the GCIM point out that “Remittances
Countries, “C.F. Delong and R.W. Gardener, eds., New York. Pergamum Press.” from migrants in 2004 amounted to nearly three times the public aid for development, and
13 Boyd Monica. (1989), Family and Personal Networks in International Migration. constitute the second source of external funding for developing countries after direct foreign
International Migration Review, “23/2. pp. 638.670.” investment.”
30 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 31
of migration for sustainable development,” which the Global Commission for The ‘migration and development’ approach tends to reconcile the interests of
International Migration turned into one of its six fundamental principles. the North and the South in a win-win situation.
For its part, in 2005 the European Union decided to address the “policy The different theories presented therein broach migration only partially
coherence for development”.15 Summarising this approach, the GCIM because they do so essentially from an economic angle and as a male process.
stated that “Today’s challenge is to formulate policies that maximise the They are not sufficient to explain the migration of women.
positive impact of migration on countries of origin while limiting its negative
consequences. To achieve this objective, migration must form part of national, '#LdbZcVcYb^\gVi^dc/idlVgYhVcZl
regional and global development strategies”.16
i]ZdgZi^XVaVeegdVX]
It is worth noting that these approaches show also the dichotomies of tradition
and modernity, agriculture and industry, developed and underdeveloped There has been very little effort to include the gender dimension in migration
countries, and are constantly in search of a balance. The modernisation theories, as “migration theory has traditionally tended to concentrate on the
theory that dominated the discussions in the 1970s sees migrants essentially causes of migration rather than on the migrants themselves” (Monica Boyd
as economic agents that help to develop and modernise their country. 2003).19 This has stood in the way of understanding the circumstances that
“Considered as real catalysts of social change, migration flows were supposed encourage women to become transnational labour migrants, to apply for
to pave the way to modernity for traditional societies”.17 asylum or to become caught up in trafficking networks.
The fact remains, however, that modernisation did not achieve the expected Economic considerations promote many women to migrate, but they cannot
results in the countries of the South. Kearney (1986)18 underscores the limits be considered as the only reasons. Other reasons come into play for their
of this theory, given its general nature, its oversight of cultural factors, the geographic mobility: the desire for a better life, the need to escape family
exaggeration of economic issues to the detriment of political relations, and constraints and social control, or the hope of a personal experience that
above all, its omission of strategies of resistance and re-appropriation of the enables women to assume full responsibility for their own lives.
periphery and its conception of a single centre as opposed to the multi-centric
The neo-classical theory cannot explain the migration of women either,
nature of the world.
as most of the women who migrated in the 1970s and 1980s were not looking
for work nor to earn an income. They arrived in the host country for family
reasons. In the case of Southern Mediterranean countries, most of the women
15 Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European Parliament and who accompanied their husbands were housewives, mothers of large families
the European Economic and Social Committee of 12 April 2005 – Policy Coherence for
Development – Accelerating progress towards attaining the Millennium Development Goals: or relatives dependent on the migrant who had almost never been gainfully
“Migration policy is one of eleven policies examined. The document recommended a set
of measures concerning remittances to the country of origin, the role of the diaspora in employed.
the Member States, the reinforcement of circular migration, the facilitation of return and
the mitigation of the adverse effects of brain drain. Convinced of the topical nature and In the economic models of the period, migration was seen as a matter of
importance of this approach, the High-Level Dialogue in September 2006, as well as the Euro-
African conferences in 2006 and 2008 focused their attention on means and resources for personal decision for men; the private-public, interior-exterior distinction
the deployment of this new model which meets the needs of both the host country and the
country of origin and eases, as it were, certain categories of migrants.” tallied well with this theory. The statuses and roles of men and women in
16 Report of the Global Commission on International Migration, 2005. “Printed in Switzerland countries of the South explained why women were only rarely involved in the
by SPO-Kunding 98 p. p27.”
17 Bocco R and Djalili. M.R (eds). (1994), Moyen Orient, migrations démocratisation médiations. decision to migrate and participate in the labour market in the host country.
“Paris PUF de France and Geneva IUHEL. 405 p. p15/16.”
18 Kearney M. (1986), From the Invisible Hand to Visible Feet. Anthropological Studies on
Migration and Development. Annual Review of Anthropology. “October 1986, Vol. 15, pp. 19 Monica Boyd and Elizabeth Grieco. (2003), Women and Migration: Incorporating Gender
331/361 (p. 338).” into International Migration Theory. “In Migration Information Source. 2003.”
32 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 33
It is also worth underscoring that the mobility of women was not necessarily The migration of women has not completely escaped the notice of feminist
conditioned by poverty. Many poor women were not able to leave their country theorists, of course, as some studies have touched on the problem without
in order to meet their needs and to work elsewhere. In the case of our study, analysing it in depth. Feminist theories tend to apply the same paradigm of
countries like Egypt and Morocco which have almost the same GDP ($3,950 ‘modernisation through migration’ which perpetuates the ethnocentric theory
and $4,004 respectively in 2003) have very different female migration rates: in regard to the third world. Nevertheless, in the last two decades, feminist
The migration rate of Egyptian women to Europe20 varies between 8% and research on migration has concentrated on patriarchy and on relations of
35% 21 while that of Moroccan women is between 33% and 48%. domination transposed in the host countries. Patriarchy is considered as
a factor that affects the mobility of women, hinders their opportunities to
Stemming from rural areas in most cases, women migrants in the 1970s move, and establishes strong inequalities in their regard.
were not able to make the transition through an urban environment before
reaching the city of destination. Once there, these women remained very
isolated, living in informal accommodation, had little contact with the host
(#IdlVgYhVcZleVgVY^\bdcb^\gVi^dc
population, and lived almost on the margins of society.22
Whereas the economic factor seems fundamental, it is nonetheless still
The dualist theory can be used in part to analyse female migration, given the considered as the decisive element of migration. A reappraisal should be
attraction that industrialised economies hold for men and women migrants attempted. Starting with our personal experience and the literature on the
– especially when certain branches recruit young women, single or married, subject, we can say that only a global and integrated approach can be used to
preferably from rural areas. The seasonal migration of Moroccan women to analyse migration in general, and the migration of women in particular.
Spain is a case in point.
Considering the limits of the theories presented, a tentative summary has
The new economic theory of migration considers the decisive impact of the been made to ‘develop a paradigm’ from an integrated approach. This
decision to migrate on the family. The criticism levelled at it is that it replaces paradigm is based on three main elements: the actor, the institutions and
the individual with the domestic unit, whereas the family is characterised the societal structures.
by domination-subordination relations, i.e. the inequality between men
1. The social actor, in this case the (male or female) migrant
and women. The family is at the centre of the conflict of interests, whether
(characteristics, behaviour, practices, discourse, skills);
manifest or latent, so that the motivation of women often does not coincide
with that of men. This affects the decision whether to migrate, where and for 2. The institutions (family, school, company, ethnic group, religion);
how long.
3. The structural context (the economic, social, legal
The migration network theory has a high explanatory value for the and political structures).
transnational migration of women to Europe. The literature shows the role of
members of the family and friends in providing support for migrants to move,
get established and find work. The extension of the network and the tasks
performed by its members in the host family can explain why the migration of
women has assumed such proportions in one region rather than in another.
20 Europe refers to the 9 countries of our sample. CARIM Statistics, Report 2006-2007.
21 Only the UK receives a high percentage of women migrants: 46%.
22 The exhibition in the Paris Museum of Immigration shows this situation quite clearly.
34 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 35
These elements, which cover the entire migration, come in three stages: The Egyptian government has imposed restrictions on female labour
pre-migration, migration and post-migration. The three elements organise migration, whereas the legislation of the Gulf countries, which are host
and shape the three separate stages 23 of migration, the whole being based to many Egyptians, do not allow married women to join their husbands
on gender. in the host country.
1. The pre-migration stage, during which several factors come into 3. In the post-migration stage, women in the host country
play to guide, facilitate or hinder the decision of women to migrate. face several challenges relating to their social position, their
They are personal (age, marital status, level of education), institutional employability and their integration. These in turn have an impact
(socialisation, professional or political institutions), or societal (political on the family, on the jobs they do and on their place in society.
regime, level of economic development, socio-cultural structures).
Images of migrant women tend to be stereotypical, whereby they are
The gender relations and hierarchical structures inside the family considered as dependents, which tends to influence the policies of the
naturally affect the migration of women who are generally placed under host countries who consider them more as housewives rather than lawful
the authority of the men. The control of women, the assignment of members of the workforce. And yet when they do manage to join the labour
predominantly domestic roles, their education and the level of employment market, they usually perform service tasks, frequently in the informal sector.
in their country of origin determine the motives for migrating. Similarly,
the control of resources and of information by men can discourage or This paradigm is our contribution to research on female migration in the
hinder the migration of women. Mediterranean region. It can help us explain the migration practices and
modes of men and women at different stages of the process, and above all
2. The transition stage of women, i.e. moving from the country of show the decisive importance of gender in the analysis of the migration
origin to the host country, reflects the capacities of women to travel process. This paradigm is based on a series of concepts that we shall
and their degree of freedom to travel alone, choose the itinerary proceed to analyse.
and the means of transport to reach the country of destination of
their choice. The family intervenes to a considerable degree, placing
its networks at the disposal of women migrants who at times even
have their own networks, getting the other siblings, members of the
family or ethnic group abroad to facilitate the migration of women.
23 Monica Boyd (2003), op cit She distinguishes 3 separate stages during which gender relations
as well as roles and hierarchical structures influence the migration process: 1) the pre-
migration period; 2) the transition across state boundaries; 3) the experiences of migrants in
the receiving country.
36 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 37
6cVanh^heVgVY^\b
Analysis paradigm 8=6EI:G>>#8DC8:EIJ6A;G6B:LDG@/
8DC8:EIHDCI=:BDK:
Structures
The complexity of the migration phenomenon requires new conceptual
Political, legal and economic: socio-cultural structures
tools nowadays to gauge the scope and diversity of international mobility.
The terms migration, migration flows or migrant populations do not give a
Institutions
sufficient account of the space, culture and above all the relations established
Family / occupational / cultural structures
between the migrant, the spaces, and subcultures adopted in what are often
complex migration processes. Our aim is to clarify the recurrent concepts
Actors that we shall use in this study, without any claim to an exhaustive treatment.
Men and
women migrants Migration defined as the relocation of an individual from one territory
to another with the intent to reside there temporarily or permanently, is
multidimensional in scope, taking account concurrently of the human
dimension (the state of people on the move and the diaspora), the spatial
dimension (the scope, direction and networks of migration), the temporal
dimension (the more or less definitive nature of establishment), the
organisational dimension (the management of migration spelling out the
types of migration: legal, illegal and migration relating to development,
integration, and transnationality), and the cultural dimension
(multiculturalism and interculturality).
&#=jbVcY^bZch^dcd[b^\gVi^dc/b^\gVcih
VcYigVchb^\gVcih
This dimension covers the broadened definitions concerning the main actor
of migration, i.e. the migrant, and the diaspora.
Stage: Pre-migration Stage: Transition Stage: Post-migration
Preparation for migration Travel Establishment in the host country Whereas a migrant is a person on the move between a territory of origin and
a territory of destination, the term acquires its full meaning when it refers to
persons of both sexes in search of opportunities of employment and a better
life, to students studying abroad or to women and children accompanying
their migrant husbands or fathers.
38 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 39
efforts to organise a new life adapted to the economic and social structures The notion of migration chain, like the notion of ‘echelon’ migration refers
of the host countries: “a migrant is a person who has left his activities in one to migration by stages, consisting of successive movements from a peripheral
territory behind to reorganise his life in another territory.” (Weeks 1999).24 area to a central area, whereby the migrant goes through different echelons
conducive to acquiring new types of behaviour.
A migrant is therefore different from a refugee or an asylum seeker who
crosses international boundaries to escape political or religious persecution, As to the migration networks, Douglas Massey defines the migration network
or who is forced to move or constrained from moving because of war, conflicts as “sets of interpersonal ties that connect migrants, former migrants, and non-
or a natural disaster. A distinction must consequently be drawn between migrants in origin and destination areas through ties of kinship, friendship
forced and voluntary migration. The former refers to the people driven to and shared community origin.” The purpose of migration networks is to offer
migrate because of coercion, threats and lack of means of subsistence, while opportunities and means for migrants to adapt. The most popular approach for
the latter refers to people who decide freely that they want to migrate. some years now consists of linking migration networks with the development
of ethnic entrepreneurship (Ma Mung, 1994 26; Hassan Boubakri, 1985).27
A transmigrant is a person who leaves his country, whether voluntarily
or forced to do so, to go to live in another country of his choice without
having been invited to do so, and transits through different other countries.
(#IZbedgVaY^bZch^dc/iZbedgVgn
“Transmigration takes place under conditions far removed from regular dgYZÒc^i^kZb^\gVi^dc
migration, even if such conditions are inter-merged and inter-mixed”.25
According to the recommendations of the United Nations on international
migration statistics 1998, long-term international immigration is recorded
'#HeVi^VaY^bZch^dc/B^\gVi^dcÒZaYh!VgZVh!
one year or more after the migrant has entered the country where he is to
cZildg`hVcYÓdlh take up residence. For short-term immigration, on the other hand, the period
of residence is limited between three months and one year.
The concepts of migration field and migration area, used by
demographers and geographers, appeared in the 1970s. They were then taken Migration flows consequently cover widely different situations depending on
up by other disciplines (sociology, law, anthropology, political science) and whether migration is considered to be temporary or definitive. The former
have gradually entered the vocabulary of institutional actors. A migration is short-term, seasonal labour migration, chiefly in agriculture, services or
field or migration area consists of several migration spaces. It refers to ad hoc tasks. It also concerns students who are considered as such during
the areas covered (country of origin, country of destination and of transit) their university studies. It is worth noting that temporary migration that is
and structured by all the flows of migration, irrespective of their origin. extended can turn into economic migration or into illegal migration. Definitive
This concept makes it possible to discern more accurately the specific nature migration is permanent migration under family formation or reunification.
of the space of each individual or group, from the local village, the extended It concerns also the descendants of migrants who have become citizens of
family, the regional, national and suchlike ethnic group, etc. to transit areas the host countries.
and finally the place of establishment where the main migrant reception and
support networks are established. The concept of migration field has given
rise to a new concept, that of transmigrant.
40 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 41
)#BVcV\ZbZciY^bZch^dc/aZ\Vab^\gVi^dc! nature of the production system and the development process (IOM, point of
view 2006).
^aaZ\Vab^\gVi^dc!igVchcVi^dcVab^\gVi^dcVcY
YZkZadebZcib^\gVi^dc# Migration and development constitute a generally confirmed principle
according to which international migration makes an essential contribution to
The management of migration concerns questions relating to the regulation the development of the countries of origin and of destination. Two inseparable
of labour migration (legal migration), the creation of barriers putting an and interdependent processes are carried out in a globalised context.
end to all vague desires for illegal entry in another territory, as well as the According to this definition, economic development cannot be reconsidered
repatriation of illegal residents (illegal migration). It concerns also the without reassessing the relation of migration to the development of both the
establishment and integration of migrants in the host country and their country of origin and of destination.
contribution to the development of their country of origin (transnational
Transnational migration refers to a new trend entailing belonging to two
migration, and migration and development).
or more societies or cultures concurrently. It occurs through exchanges of
Legal migration is carried out according to a procedure of applying for a information, resources, unifications and visits that take place between the
permit authorising nationals of third countries to reside and work legally members of the diaspora or with the population of origin. “It entails continued
on the territory of another State. It is regulated by bilateral arrangements participation by the migrant in the economy, politics and social organisation
or agreements between two States and is based on a common framework of his country of origin, concurrently with integration in the structures of the
of laws to protect and guarantee the rights of workers from third countries. host country”.30 The transnational term refers to the cross-border relational
Some forms of labour migration, such as students and highly skilled people, dimension within a migration field. Migrants establish lasting ties between the
and migration for family reunification28 fall under this type of migration. country of residence and the country of origin. As a result, far from entailing
a break or dislocation of ties with the society of origin, the establishment of
Illegal or irregular migration refers to “a variety of different phenomena migrants in the host country in many cases reinforces and where, necessary,
involving people who enter or remain in a country of which they are not improves such relations. This concept goes contrary to the linear model
a citizen in breach of national laws. These include migrants who enter or which sees migration as a one-way movement in a bi-polar space, involving
remain in a country without authorisation, those who are smuggled or dichotomies of departure and arrival, establishment and return, temporary
trafficked across an international border, unsuccessful asylum seekers who and permanent migration, etc.
fail to observe a deportation order and people who circumvent immigration
controls through the arrangement of bogus marriages”.29
28 Family reunification entails the migration of a family member of a migrant where ties
existed before that migrant left. The European Social Charter of 8 October 1961 requires
States to facilitate as much as possible the family reunification of the migrant worker who is
authorised to reside in the territory of the respective State (Article 19) – not to be confused
with family formation, i.e. migration for marriage or co-habitation with a former migrant or 30 Dorais, Louis Jacques.(2004), Routes et réseaux migratoires: A-propos des migrations
one of his children. transnationales, l’exemple des canadiens d’origine vietnamienne. Revue Européennes des
29 Report of the Global Commission on International Migration, “op. cit., p. 35.” Migrations Internationales. “Vol. 20 N° 3, pp. 49-73.”
42 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 43
*#8jaijgVaY^bZch^dc/ as the UN, the HCR, and the IOM. At the European level, Eurostat plays an
important role, as does the Euro-Mediterranean Consortium for Applied
Bjai^XjaijgVa^hbVcY^ciZgXjaijgVa^in Research on International Migration (known by the French acronym CARIM).
Culture holds a central place in the migration process. The problem of On the national scale, several administrative authorities provide statistics
the domination of Western culture in the world entails a real risk for the on immigration. The ministries of the interior play a key role in the overall
disintegration and marginalisation of the cultures of minorities. The relations dissemination of statistics on the number of migrants and residence permits;
of cultural domination have led to two concepts that are very much in vogue the ministries of labour focus more on work permits and employment
and often confused: multiculturalism and interculturality. contracts; while the ministries of justice monitor naturalisation and the
acquisition of citizenship; the ministries of planning see to the censuses,
Multiculturalism is the non-dependent co-existence of several cultures, where
while demographic institutes and centres of studies on migration provide
several groups of individuals with different cultures (in terms of language,
very pertinent and diversified case studies.
religion, history or collective memory) live in the same place, in the same
country, without the cultures in question interacting. The intensification of international consultation on migration issues and the
need to have up-to-date and comparable statistics on migration are prompting
Interculturality is an approach geared to distancing oneself from one’s own
many international organisations to collect data and to prod governments
culture to understand others and to succeed in establishing a dialogue and
to harmonise their data gathering methods. The UN recommendations
communication. At stake in interculturality is to ‘live together’, and to engage
on statistics in 199832 were intended to improve statistics on international
in recognition and respect of each other’s life styles and values.31
migration, giving a boost to governments to improve the quality of the data,
As exchange and communication between different cultures, interculturality and to develop data interchanges between the statistical services and the
is geared to the recognition of pluralism, cultural diversity and alterity. competent administrative authorities.
It requires another way of being whereby the subject is situated – without
Since 1998, the European Union has, through Eurostat (the statistical office
being wrenched – between the coherence of his own culture and the coherence
of the European Communities),33 endeavoured to produce a series of data
of the culture of others, which forces him to renew his vision of the world and
on international migration and asylum. These data are generally provided
to redefine his values which he had hitherto considered immutable.
by national institutes of statistics, and ministries of labour, justice and the
interior. Coordination between Eurostat, the statistical division of the UN,
8=6EI:G>>>#HI6I>HI>86A>B7GD<A>D/ the UN Economic Commission for Europe and the ILO is being reinforced
6H=6G:9EGD7A:B through a joint collection of data on international migration.34
“There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics” The available data thus clearly pose problems for users, given the
Benjamin Disraeli incompatibility of the sources, the discrepancies on the conceptual level,
the variety of data collection methods, and the more or less implicit political
Our analytical approach cannot but broach the issue of statistics. orientation that governs the course of such data.
44 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 45
The extension of the migration field makes it difficult to collect data on an entire assessment of migration flows. National data are not readily available on the
migrating population. Even if the same definitions are used, some populations direction of the flows or their chronology. Such data are generally produced
are not included in the migration processes, such as students or seasonal by the ministries of the interior and of labour, and thus politically oriented.
migrants, and a large fringe of illegal migrants, including women. The fact remains that they are often incomplete, refer to only a section of
female migration and provide no indication on types of migration other than
The official data on migration in the Mediterranean are therefore improving, legal migration. In the report on Mediterranean migration “Only five MEDA
but not yet sufficient to gauge major trends or to devise theories. Statistics countries (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia and Turkey) publish statistics
currently available remain widely scattered and do not provide a clear image on their migrants by country of residence, and few countries of destination
on population movements in the region, and even less on the characteristics of publish statistics per country on migrants from MEDA countries”.36
these persons. The confusion of data between the countries of origin and the
Major efforts have been made to develop reliable statistics on remittances
host countries, and the inconsistency of reference dates make research quite
by migrants in order to assess their impact on savings, investment and local
complicated for all scholars. The table which follows shows the paradoxes
development in the countries of origin. Nevertheless, other problems such
of these data. The use of different reference years makes comparison a more
as human smuggling, the unlawful trafficking of migrants, and the migration
tricky operation, for how can the data for Algeria (1995) be compared with
of skills are not covered sufficiently. It is therefore urgent to develop these
the data for Morocco which are more recent by nearly a decade (2004)?
sectors and to provide reliable and sufficient statistics, both at the national
and international level, concerning women more specifically.
Comparison between numbers of migrants counted by origin and
destination countries Women migrants are still the poor relations of the statistical system. Up to
Migrants counted Migrants counted Absolute Relative the 1970s, the main statistics on migration were concentrated essentially on
at destination at origin difference difference migrant workers. At that time, interest in the participation of women in the
Algeria 1995 807,051 1,058,202 251,151 31% international labour market was limited, and migrants for family reunification
Egypt 2000 429,428 1,050,850 621,422 145% were not entitled to work, thereby often winding up in the informal sector
Morocco 2004 1,721,892 2,887,319 1,165,427 68% and becoming invisible.
Tunisia 2003 362,988 691,771 328,783 91%
TOTAL 6,157,024 9,066,142 2,909,118 47% Up until recently, as Hania Zlotnik pointed out, “there were no global
estimates available on the development of female migration. The first
Source: Mediterranean Migration Report. CARIM 2006-2007. p.376
statistics for the period 1965-1990 were provided by the population division
In contrast to the statistics of the Euro-Mediterranean Consortium for Applied of the United Nations in 1998. Estimates by country were based on the
Research on International Migration (CARIM), which focus on Mediterranean number of foreign nationals born in the country according to census figures
countries, Eurostat statistics are more general and concern migrants who and completed with information about the number of refugees.”37 To be
arrive in the European Union, drawing a distinction between three types sure, migrant women of all ages were entered in the national statistics
of migrants: intra-European, non-European and returning national, which and already in 1960, women migrants represented 47% of the migrating
account for 34%, 52% and 14% respectively.35 population. Since then, the share of women among international migrants
has gradually grown to 48% in 1990, 49% in 2000 and 50% in 2005. Although
Statistics in countries of the South vary in terms of both quantity and quality.
It is difficult to specify who emigrates, how and where to, or to conduct any
36 CARIM, op cit, p 376
37 The Global Dimensions of Female Migration By Hania Zlotnik. “March 2003,” Migration
35 Anne Herm, Eurostat, 2008. Statistics in focus 98/2008. “p.3.” Information Sources, “United Nations. 2002.” International Migration Report: 2002.
46 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 47
this trend points to the feminisation of migration, the increase is nonetheless process in progress, in spite of the problems of representative sampling and
small compared with the existing high level of feminisation in the 1960s.38 the very high costs of this operation.
Data on female migration are still in a very elementary stage, particularly when It is imperative to have women better represented in statistical data so as to
analysing the development of data relating to entrants and their demographic be able to make an assessment that reflects reality and to make projections
and occupational characteristics. There is also a dearth of data available on to chart enlightened migration and development strategies. International
remittances by women or on beneficiaries, as well as on the regularisation of cooperation on migration issues is being intensified, as is the need to develop
women migrants. “During the Italian regularisation programme in 2003, there and update migration statistics taking due account of gender.
were 705,000 applicants, of whom 20% were Romanian, 15% Ukrainian, 8%
Albanian and 8% Moroccan. Statistics relating to the regularisation of women
were completely lacking.”39
8=6EI:G>K#B:I=D9DAD<>86A6EEGD68=
Natural sciences have to deal with material objects and processes. Social
Whereas women have always been involved in the migration process,
sciences, however, have to deal with psychological and intellectual objects
they are still not to be found in many statistical sources. Existing data contain
and consequently, the method of natural sciences consists of explanation,
fragments of information in certain surveys, archives, or NGO reports on
that of social sciences of understanding.”
migrants. These are often brief and rarely convergent, which requires an
effort on different levels to develop global and reliable statistics and thus Alfred Schultz 198240
make migrant women more visible.
The approach adopted in the paradigm of the previous chapter is intended
Nevertheless, all the statistics on migration in the Mediterranean and to be global, i.e. sociological, economic and legal, and at the same time
the migration of women in particular have been prepared by men, while geared to the triad of legal migration, illegal migration, and migration
the documents produced on the matter are male-dominated. Furthermore, and development.
the sources available tend to focus more on the status of women in the family,
the code of personal status, reproductive health or violence against women, It follows the footsteps of the comprehensive sociology initiated by the
which has continued to worsen this past decade. Women who migrate alone German school (Max Weber and Georg Simmel), the particular feature of
remain invisible. Migration by a woman or a group of women alone actually which was to study social activity within social interaction. The comprehensive
continues to appear suspect, since a woman’s place is purportedly in the approach turns out to be the most appropriate. “To understand means to
family. Women who migrate alone seem dangerous or of easy virtue, and thus abandon trying to explain a social fact or event by a single decisive factor.
easy prey for criminals, human traffickers and prostitution rings. Comprehensive sociology opts for a synoptical approach, in particular
synergies of all the characteristics of a phenomenon, even if antithetical”.41
Low-scale or medium-range surveys provide more data on the characteristics This method entails studying each element in its global context and within
of migrants than records of the administrative authorities or censuses. the framework of political events, so as to establish interactions between
Although more developed, statistics available in town halls or consulates the different components of reality. In brief, it considers each social element
are still difficult and time consuming to go through. Only large-scale surveys as a human element endowed with meaning; for that matter, Max Weber
on migration can meet such an enormous deficit and explain this complex
48 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 49
underscored that every human action has meaning, and that sociology must France, whereas migration flows from Algeria to Spain and Italy remain limited.
reconstruct that meaning. In Germany, most migrants come from Turkey. This type of migration includes
also all those who transit through the Maghreb to reach Europe, i.e. sub-
Various research tools have been deployed and have been adapted according Saharan migrants who cross the desert to reach Sabha in Libya or Tamanrasset
to the opportunities and constraints. In the absence of field work we turned in Algeria, and then disperse in the four North-African countries. This type of
our attention to an analysis of an extensive variety of documentation: books, migration from the South to the North is essentially economic in nature for
articles, international and European legislation, European Commission the migrants, whether from the Maghreb or sub-Saharan countries.
communications, regulations and directives, European Parliament reports,
Eurostat and CARIM statistics, World Bank and Council of Europe data, Migration from Egypt, the most populous country of Mediterranean Africa,
etc. We have also relied on our network and personal experience as is more restricted, with the exception of very modest migration to Italy and
an academic, minister for cooperation, ambassador to the European Greece, for proximity reasons. Otherwise, the major migration flows are to
Communities and member of the Global Commission on International oil-producing Arab countries or Anglo-Saxon countries (CARIM 2006-2007).
Migration. Our contribution to the international and regional discussion
on the issue (United Nations, HCR, UNFPA, European Commission, IEMed, Asian Mediterranean comprises two sets of migration flows: the first
our participation in NGOs and national organisms) has opened up wider being linked with the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, the second concerning
perspectives for the preparation of this study. neighbouring countries such as Syria, Lebanon and Jordan. Migration from
this region tends to be for political reasons. By way of reminder, owing to
The geographic area which our study covers is vast and varied. It can be the war in Lebanon (1974 – 1999), Lebanon is the only country in Asian
divided into two sub-sets: the North of the Mediterranean, with nine European Mediterranean whose migrants head for France and Greece. The first Gulf
countries concerned by the study: Germany, Austria, Belgium, France, War and the Iraq War drove many refugees to Europe.
Greece, the Netherlands, Italy, Spain and the United Kingdom; and nine MEDA
countries, i.e. Algeria, Egypt, Israel, Jordan, Morocco, Syria, the Palestinian In European Mediterranean, the migrant receiving countries form two
Territories, and Tunisia. sets. The first concerns Southern European countries of the Mediterranean:
Spain, France, Italy, and Greece. The second consists of Northern European
Gérard François Dumont’s42 classification seems very plausible. In his view, countries that receive a large number of migrants from the Mediterranean:
the geography of the Mediterranean comprises three distinct migration areas: Austria, Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and the United Kingdom.
African Mediterranean, Asian Mediterranean and European Mediterranean.
This distinction will lead to a more elucidating classification that we shall
For elucidation purposes, we have opted to revise it in accordance with
use during the study, namely the division of the MEDA countries into three
the guidelines for our study.
blocks: the Maghreb, the Mashreq and Israel, and the European countries,
African Mediterranean comprises four Maghreb states, which are into two subgroups: Mediterranean and non-Mediterranean countries.
emigration countries: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt. Migrants from
Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia generally head for the European Mediterranean,
and France, Spain and Italy particularly since the beginning of the 1990s.
Belgium and the Netherlands continue to be an important destination,
especially for Moroccans. Italy is the destination of choice for Tunisians after
42 Dumont Gérard-François, 2007, La diversité des flux migratoires en Méditerranée dans les
années 2000. “Communication présentée au Forum réalités. Tunis, Mai 2007. 14 p.”
50 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 51
EVgi>>
I]ZBV^c9ZiZgb^cVcih
d[;ZbVaZB^\gVi^dc
^cB:96$:J8djcig^Zh
Introduction ..........................................................................................57 VI. The great challenge of MEDA countries:
protection of human rights .........................................................97
I. Demographic, economic, political and socio-cultural
differences between MEDA and European countries 1. Political rights of women and participation in the
and their impact on the situation of women ..............................59 decision-making process ...................................................................... 99
1. Exacerbated demographic imbalance between MEDA 2. Backward personal status codes in societies in turmoil ................ 102
and European countries ....................................................................... 60
3. Violence against women, another discrimination mechanism ...... 104
2. The north and south sides of the Mediterranean have
Conclusions ......................................................................................... 106
antithetical demographic growth rates............................................... 63
54 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 55
>cigdYjXi^dc
>
½# bb^\gVi^dc]ZgZVcYZb^\gVi^dci]ZgZVgZi]Zild
^cY^hhdX^VWaZ[VXZhd[i]ZhVbZgZVa^inÄdcZXVccdiWZ
The migration situation between the MEDA countries and Europe is in
large measure conditioned by the geographic proximity, their historical ties,
trade and cultural contacts for centuries. Population movements have always
ZmeaV^cZYl^i]djii]Zdi]Zg#I]ZhZildY^bZch^dchd[i]Z taken place on both sides of the Mediterranean. Whereas the 19th century was
hVbZe]ZcdbZcdcVgZhZeVgViZYVcYgZcYZgZYVjidcdbdjh marked in part by a mass migration movement to the southern Mediterranean,
dcanWnYZX^h^dc!i]ZXVZhjgVWZ^c\i]ZhVbZVhi]Vi^bedhZY the second half of the 20th century witnessed an unprecedented migration
Wni]Zh]Vg^c\d[h`^aah!^ciZgZhihVcYeda^i^XVahiV`ZhWZilZZc activity to Europe. The EU has now become the destination of preference for
i]ZeVgicZghh^ijViZYdcZ^cgZaVi^dcidi]Zdi]Zg!^cV international migration in general, and for MEDA countries in particular.
[jcYVbZciVaanY^hhnbbZig^XVagZaVi^dch]^e#
Against this background, the migration of women from MEDA countries to
6WYZabVaZ`HVnVY& the EU has received particular attention in recent years. The development
in these last four decades can be summarised into three major waves that
followed each other or were superimposed, with a variable participation
by women.
1. The first wave after World War II consisted of a personal, essentially labour,
mostly male migration under bilateral workforce agreements. Another
migration was developing in parallel by male students and asylum seekers
endeavouring to escape from persecution and repression by authoritarian
regimes or to flee internal or other conflicts.
2. The second wave, which started in 1973, i.e. during the suspension of
bilateral workforce agreements, was characterised by female migration for
family reunification or the formation of new families.
3. The third wave of migration in the 1990s saw women leave on their own in
search of employment. In parallel, there was a migration of highly qualified
individuals and of undocumented workers following numerous restrictions
imposed on access to Europe by national legislations. Migration for
educational purposes continued with an increasingly higher percentage of
women compared with the years 1960-1970.
56 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 57
whether migrants are counted by their country of origin or their country of The first and main chapter is devoted to the analysis of demographic,
destination. They thus represented 3.8% to 5.8% of the aggregate population economic, social and cultural differences between MEDA and EU countries,
of the TMCs, which in 2005 amounted to 260 million, with women migrants while focusing on the inequalities that exist between European women and
representing a non-negligible average, between 9% and 45%.2 those in MEDA countries.
Migration in general is determined by multiple demographic, economic, The second chapter is an initial attempt to identify the main determinants
political and socio-cultural factors. This study aims to highlight the specific of female migration from MEDA countries to Europe.
determinants that induce women to migrate.
58 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 59
The MENA countries as a whole, as the Arab Human Development Report Maghreb and the Mashreq. Israel and the occupied Palestinian territories
2002 has shown, have made significant progress on human development in constitute exceptions in the region.7
recent decades. “Nevertheless, the predominant characteristic of the current
Arab reality seems to be the existence of deeply rooted shortcomings in the The size of the population is disproportionate from one bloc to the other.
Arab institutional structure. These shortcomings are an obstacle to building Whereas the nine European countries of our study had 354.7 million
human development. The report summarises them as three deficits relating to inhabitants in 2007, the Maghreb countries had only 75.2 million, and those
freedom, empowerment of women and knowledge”.5 of the Mashreq 110.7 million. Palestine has a very small population of some
4 million people. The state of war and persecutions since 1948 have caused
The MENA region has registered sustained economic growth since 2003, but is many Palestinians to flee as refugees or migrants to different countries and
still faced with the challenges of the rapid growth of its working population continents; all the more so as a large part of Palestine was annexed by Israel,
and the aforementioned deficits. Wars and ethnic or state conflicts, which have whose population has grown continuously to nearly 7 million in 2007. `
not ceased for more than half a century, and the tension between competing
ideologies (nationalism, Islamism or secularism) have moreover constituted Populations of different sizes
an obstacle to the economic and social development of the region. Soaring oil
prices have had a negative impact on the economy of non-producing countries Total population by country in millions of inhabitants (2007)
also, as the rise in energy and food prices has caused a deterioration of public 400
finances and the profitability of companies, creating widespread discontent 350
among the population”.6 300
250
200
&#:mVXZgWViZYYZbd\gVe]^X^bWVaVcXZWZilZZc 150
B:96VcY:jgdeZVcXdjcig^Zh 100
50
0
The demographic trends in EU and MEDA countries show major changes in Maghreb Mashreq Palestine Israël Countries in
the Mediterranean area. The 27 EU Member States are widely disparate in the North
terms of population in a Union that has 498.2 million inhabitants. Nevertheless,
Source: Human development report. UNDP. 2009. pp. 191-194
the development of demographic profiles points to similar behaviour and
a convergence towards a common demographic model, with very clear
affinities regarding the birth rate, fertility, infant mortality and life expectancy
at birth.
60 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 61
'#I]Zcdgi]VcYhdji]h^YZhd[i]ZBZY^iZggVcZVc
Total population by country in millions of inhabitants (2007)
90
]VkZVci^i]Zi^XVaYZbd\gVe]^X\gdli]gViZh
80
70 Fertility and natural population growth rates point to different trends.
60
50
40 Fertility rates are down throughout the world, while family planning,
30 the improvement of living standards and education for women have
20
10 contributed extensively to a drop in the number of children per woman and
0 a change from the extended family to the nuclear family. A comparison of
er e
ce
e
ria
m
n
Gr s
um
ia
co
ain
Jo a
Pa ria
ly
t
Ge aël
yp
d
the groups of countries reveals that the fertility rate in European countries
nc
tin
no
a
i
an
str
nis
do
Ita
ee
lan
oc
ge
rd
Sy
Sp
lgi
Eg
Isr
a
les
ba
rm
Au
ng
Tu
or
Fr
Al
Be
Le
Ki
th
Ne
d
ite
between 2.4 (Morocco) and 5.1 (Palestine), with the exception of Tunisia and
Un
Lebanon which have birth rates similar to that of France (1.9).
Source: Human development report. UNDP. 2009. P 191-194
For the countries in the South, only Egypt has a population as dense as that of 0
Occupied
the large European countries (80 million inhabitants). The two most populous Mashreq Maghreb Israël European
Palestinian
countries of the Maghreb, Morocco and Algeria, have a population of 31 and countries
Territories
34 million respectively, and Tunisia has 10 million inhabitants. Four countries
in the Middle East have smaller populations of 4 to 7 million inhabitants. Average according to our calculations based on UNDP data. Source: Human Development Report, 2009, pp.
Only Syria reaches 20 million inhabitants. 191-194.
62 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 63
Mashreq countries have a relatively high fertility rate of 2.9 to 3.3; Israel has a
rate of 2.8, whereas Palestine has nearly double that figure at 5.1. The state of Natural growth rate 2005-2010
3,5
war with Israel and the absence of natural resources fan the development of a
3
high birth rate culture and an orientation to human capital – the only reliable 2,5
resource for the country. 2
1,5
Maghreb countries have the lowest birth rate in the region (1.9 to 2.4), given the 1
0,5
efforts made for education in general, family planning and the entry of women
0
into the labour force (Morocco and Tunisia). There is a close correlation -0,5
between the level of education of women and the fertility rate: the higher
ce
e
sia
ria
ria
ria
n
to n
m
an
m
on
Te lest c
ly
y
t
ël
yp
nd
o
ec
ai
rri inia
s
an
iu
Ita
do
ra
an
rie
Pa ar
Sy
ge
st
rd
ni
Sp
Eg
re
lg
la
ba
Au
Is
ng
M
Jo
Tu
Fr
Al
Be
er
the level of education, the lower the fertility rate (UNFPA), and the larger
G
er
Le
Ki
th
G
Ne
d
ite
the number of children in the family, the more a woman is constrained to stay
d
ie
Un
up
cc
at home. This correlation is not essentially unique to the Maghreb, but tends
O
to be related to national social policies and the customs and traditions of
certain countries which tend to remove mothers of young children from Source: Human Development Report, UNDP, 2009, pp. 191-194
a working life.
Natural growth varies between 0.2 (Germany) and 0.4 (France), whereas it
The migration of women may also have an impact on the demographic ranges from 0.9 (Lebanon) to 2.5 (Syria) in MEDA countries, where it remains
behaviour of women in the countries of origin. Migrants tend to disseminate a below the international average (1.4%) (UNDP). The specific features
new image of family and show a serious concern about children, their needs, of Palestine and Israel, where the natural growth rate amounts to 3.2 and
education and social advancement. An innovative study by Philippe Fargues 1.5 respectively are also worth noting.
mentioned in the World Bank Report reaffirms the close connection between
Correlation between population growth and fertility rate
migration and fertility rate which is conveyed through the transmission of
ideas and behaviour patterns from the host country to the countries of origin
6
through migrants, particularly women. According to this author, “the migration 5
of Moroccan and Turkish women to Europe has led to a drop in the fertility 4
rate, whereas the migration of Egyptians to the more traditional societies of 3
the rich countries of the Gulf has checked the fertility trend”. 2
1
The high fertility rates in the graph below reveal a demarcation line between 0
Israël
Machreq
European
countries
Palestine
Maghreb
the countries in the north and those in the south of the Mediterranean.
64 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 65
The trend that emerges in this graph shows strong demographic growth in average in 2005 of 28.3% of those under 15 and 7.3% of those over 65,9 whereas
MEDA countries, with a young population as opposed to an ageing population in the MEDA countries the average of those under 15 is 33.5% and that of
in Europe. Since the 1970s, the proportion of working age people in the EU older people only 4.7%.
27 has been going down, whereas the number of people who retire has been
increasing.8 This decline in fertility may be an inducement for women to A comparison of the population structures of MEDA and European countries
in 2005 and projections for 2015 show the demographic dynamism of the
migrate and to encourage naturalisation as an integration policy.
Southern and Eastern Mediterranean which contrasts with the stability of the
European population which is hovering around a zero growth rate. We are
(#9^[[ZgZciV\ZengVb^YhVcYVldg`^c\ therefore entitled to ask whether this difference is not going to exert an
edejaVi^dc^cXg^h^h increasingly greater pressure on migration.
The age pyramids of MEDA and European countries show contrasting forms. Projections of the population under 15 and over 65 in MEDA and European
In the former countries, the pyramid has a rather large base and a narrow top, countries in 2015
indicating that the population is clearly younger with a strong proportion of
people under 15 years of age. In the latter, the pyramid is almost rectilinear, Under 15 Over 65
attesting to a certain homogeneity between the segments of the population 45
40
under 15 and those over 65.
35
30
Population under 15 and over 65 in MEDA and European Countries 25
20
Under 15 Over 65 15
10
50 5
45 0
40
m
e
n
G isia
Pa co
ria
ria
ria
m
M on
G s
Le an
y
y
t
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yp
nd
in
ec
c
ai
al
an
do
iu
35
ra
Ne ran
oc
st
Sy
ge
n
rd
st
Sp
t
n
Eg
re
lg
la
I
ba
m
Au
Is
ng
Jo
Tu
le
or
Al
Be
er
F
30
er
Ki
th
25
d
ite
20
Un
15
10 UNDP, Human Development Report, 2007/2008, pp 243-245.
5
0
This demographic difference is going to persist in the years to come according
Be ria
Pa co
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e
e
th nce
s
ia
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G isia
m
ria
M on
Au y
y
t
Jo l ë
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nd
ai
in
ec
an
l
er
Ita
iu
do
ra
oc
st
rd
Sy
n
Sp
st
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re
Ne Fra
la
g
m
ba
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ng
Tu
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Al
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G
er
Ki
owing to the drop in the birth rate since the 1980s. Similarly, the longer life
expectancy is going to mean more people over 65 in proportion to those of
UNDP, Human Development Report, 2007/2008, pp 243-245.
working age.
Europe had the lowest proportion of young people (15.9%) and the highest
proportion of older people (17.1%). These rates exceed by far the international
8 Eurostat: l’Europe en chiffres 2009, “p. 133.” 9 Eurostat 2009, “p. 138.”
66 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 67
Nevertheless, as Philippe Fargues has noted, “Until at least 2030, the
generation that has not reached working age will in MENA countries be
8]VeiZg>>#9^[[ZgZcXZh^c]ZVai]
larger than that which arrives on the labour market, even if the number of the A population can be an effective player in human development only if it
new arrivals has stagnated and will tend to diminish slowly between 2015 and is in good health. Will health indicators enhance the already important
2025. The size of the working age population will continue to increase in the differences between MEDA and European countries? This is what we shall
next two decades compared with the population of the European Union”.10 examine presently.
Is a demographic complementarity emerging between the north and the The health index will be gauged from three variables: life expectancy at birth,
south of the Mediterranean? Southern Mediterranean countries are offering
infant and maternal mortality, and health expenditures.
a young, working age population to their neighbours, which have a shortage
of labour force and skills, to be able to sustain international competitiveness 1. Life expectancy at birth is an indicator of the health and well-being
and meet the Lisbon Directives. “This apparent deficit that affects Europe can of the population
be attenuated by migration from the countries in the south, whose population
is young, mobile, educated and far less attached to family responsibilities Life expectancy at birth in 2007
than previous generations”.11 82
80
Serious imbalances are naturally exerting continuous migration pressures. 78
However, we should not jump to generalisations. In a comparative study,12 76
74
Hania Zlotnik had shown that there is no connection between demographic 72
growth and emigration rate. The correlation is even slightly negative, which 70
goes counter to the idea of demographic pressure. 68
66
This idea is also supported by Philippe Fargues, who confirms that the
demographic and economic situation in the MENA countries notwithstanding,
its strategic position is what makes that region a privileged source of Source: Our calculations based on data relating to World Development, UNDP, Human Development Report, 2009,
pp. 191-194
migration flows to Europe, the presence of an old population in the
North and a young population in the South is no guarantee for migration. A country-by-country analysis shows major differences between the MEDA
“The demographic realities must be correlated with the economic, political countries and the European countries of destination. Similarly, averages per
and social situations”,13 all the more so as Europe is not the only destination region reveal major differences. Life expectancy at birth varies between 70
of all MEDA countries. and 74 in MEDA countries with a slight difference between Mashreq and
Maghreb countries, compared with 80 and 81 in European countries. Israel
has a similar rate as European countries with 80.7 years. For its part, Palestine
shows a life expectancy of 73.3, higher than that of the MEDA countries, with
10 Philippe Fargues (2008), Emerging Demographic Patterns across the Mediterranean and the exception of Tunisia (73.8). In spite of the state of war, investments in
their Implications for Migration through 2030. “Washington DC. Migration Policy Institute.
www.migration-policy.org. P 5.” health continue to be sizeable in the occupied Palestinian territories, thanks to
11 Philippe Fargues (2008), Emerging Demographic Patterns across the Mediterranean and international aid and the presence of regional NGOs working on the matter.
their Implications for Migration through 2030. “Op cit.”
12 H. Zlotnik, International Migration 1965-96: an Overview, Population and Development
Review, “1998, 24, pp. 429-468.”
13 Phillipe Fargues, 2008, op cit
68 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 69
The life expectancy of women is generally higher than that of men, and the the two sides of the Mediterranean. There are large disparities between rural
calculations of the UNDP confirm as much.14 Even if there is quite a marked and urban areas, the periphery and the centre, and between social classes,
difference between MEDA countries and European countries concerning the revealing considerable inequality in the distribution of wealth and health
probability of survival of men and women until the age of 65, women have a services.
probability of survival of 6 to 10 years higher than that of men in countries in
the North, and 3 to 8 years in countries in the South. This difference, although Infant and maternal mortality per region15
minimal, can be explained by the maternal mortality rate, which is still high
in MEDA countries. 180
160
Maternal mortality poses a real challenge in most MEDA countries, apart 140
120
from Israel, where the figures are close to those of European countries. In the Infant mortality per 1000 children
100
graph below, six out of seven MEDA countries for which figures are available
80 Maternal mortality per 100,000 live
have a maternal mortality rate that exceeds 100 women per 100,000 living 60
births
births, and three countries have more than 150. The lowest maternal death 40
rate was actually registered in Jordan (62) and the highest in Morocco (240). 20
0
European
2. Persisting high infant and maternal mortality rates still constitute a major Maghreb Machreq Israël
countries
deficit in the South
Source: Our calculations based on data published by UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008
300
250 The Maghreb region is evidently more affected than the Mashreq, in terms
200 of both maternal and infant mortality. The countries of the Maghreb remain
150 the poor relation in terms of material and infant mortality, with the exception
100 of Tunisia which ranks third in the region after Syria and Jordan. These two
50 aforementioned countries have registered considerable progress in Mashreq,
0 12 per thousand for infant mortality in Syria and 62 for 100,000 living births in
an
on
ain
ia
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co
ia
ia
ria
e
e
ce
ds
pt
ly
l
gd ited
aë
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tin
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om
Jordan. The centralisation of the State in Syria, and the presence of an efficient
Ita
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ee
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oc
Sy
lan
an
Sp
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Isr
Fra
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Au
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Gr
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er
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th
Infant mortality per 1000 children Maternal mortality per 100,000 live births
14 UNDP, La probabilité à la naissance de survie jusqu’à l’âge de 65. Rapport mondial sur le
développement humain 2007-2008. “p 263” 15 Palestine is not included in Mashreq countries because of lack of data.
70 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 71
Illiteracy or the low level of education of women entails poor health For the Maghreb countries, whereas Tunisia and Algeria have made
management for mother and child. considerable progress on the medical front, with 134 and 113 doctors
respectively, Morocco lags behind with 51 doctors.
Precarious health conditions are relatively pronounced in countries in the
south. This situation can be explained by inadequate facilities, the lack of This situation is clarified further when government health expenditures are
health equipment in terms of hospitals, doctors and rudimentary living analysed. Although sizeable and growing, such expenditures remain relatively
conditions mainly in rural areas. low in countries in the South.
Whereas European countries enjoy appropriate health coverage with a high Dépenses publiques dans la santé en % du PIB en 2004
number of doctors per 100,000 inhabitants (230 and 450), in countries in 9
the South medical assistance is very minimal compared to the countries in 8
7
the North. More specifically, the number of doctors per 100,000 inhabitants 6
never exceeds 99 in the Maghreb and 180 in the Mashreq, as opposed to an 5
4
average of more than 350 doctors in the countries in the North and more than 3
380 doctors in Israel. 2
1
0
3. The number of doctors and health expenditures are still insufficient
Be ia
o
ria
e
an
er ia
er e
F n
s
ria
m
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t
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nd
in
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ai
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in countries in the South
Is
ng
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th
G
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ite
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Number of doctors per 100,000 inhabitants 2000-2004
500 Source: UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008
450
400
350
300
Health spending reflects the level of development of a country and the level
250
200
of physical well-being of the population. The graph below shows the wide
150
100
difference between MEDA and European countries. Health spending exceeds
50
0
7% of GNP in five European countries such as Germany and France (8.2%),
Austria (7.8%), Belgium and the United Kingdom (7%). Greece has the lowest
an
e
co
ce
a
in
ria
ia
on
m
ria
ly
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nd
ng ed
m
ec
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rd
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rate (4.2%). As to the MEDA countries, in spite of the efforts made by the
Is
Au
Jo
Tu
or
Fr
Al
Ho
U
Be
G
Le
72 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 73
Urbanisation rate of the population per region in 2005
Urban population in 2005
120 100
100 90
80
80
70
60
60
40 50
20 40
0 30
20
e
Pa cco
Ho e
Le an
M on
sia
ia
ria
Be ria
m
Fr n
m
Au y
Ki aly
Jo t
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G nd
G raë
yp
ec
in
c
ai
an
er
iu
do
an
rd
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st
10
ni
st
lla
Sp
It
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ng
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0
eb
e
rth in
eq
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tin
ra
No tries
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Un
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es
Is
ag
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M
Co
Source: UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008
e
Nearly 60% of the population of Mashreq and Maghreb is urbanised, compared Source: Our calculations based on UNDP data16
with more than 80% in countries in the North. The urbanisation levels are
The same observation can be made for MEDA countries, even if the
ranked in three degrees in European countries:
urbanisation rates are lower than those of European countries. Consequently,
1. Massive urbanisation, between 80% and 95% (Netherlands, UK and we can distinguish between:
Belgium);
1. Highly urbanised countries with rates between 70% and 88%
2. Very advanced urbanisation of more than 75% (Austria, Spain and (Jordan, Lebanon and the occupied Palestinian territories);
France);
2. Countries with sound urbanisation between 60% and 70%
3. Progressive urbanisation, where the rates vary between 67% and 70% (Tunisia and Algeria);
(Austria, Italy and Greece).
3. Countries in urban transition between 43% and 57%
(Egypt, Syria and Morocco);
For countries in the South, these urbanisation levels are the concurrent result
of natural population growth and rural exodus. The large cities of countries
in the South have undergone a real urban explosion, often not followed
by growth in urban jobs. Furthermore, this massive urbanisation which
occurred in a very short time frame has entailed a high concentration of the
16 The countries are grouped by region to facilitate comparison. Similarly, the urbanisation rate
of the countries in the North does not include Greece and Austria so that the calculations will
not be biased.
74 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 75
population in the outskirts of the cities and an increase in impoverishment, so that local markets did not have to face international competition, while
particularly of new migrants. It is worth pointing out that a rurality rate of proceeding to nationalise key sectors of the economy.
40% in countries in the South and persisting rudimentary living conditions
for a large fringe of the rural populations foster migration. Young people and Massive state intervention in the economy sustained by a rather favourable
women are increasingly drawn to urban centres where living conditions are international context enabled countries in the MENA region to register
clearly better. average annual growth of 3.7% between 1965 and 1985, ranking them among
the most dynamic economies of the planet.18 This moreover entailed a sizeable
This exodus to cities has destroyed the value system of the newly established reduction of poverty, extensive access to education, significant improvements
population, has introduced other standards and behaviour, and has at the in health indicators (in maternal and child healthcare), a decline in certain
same time contributed to a reconstitution of the family. Accordingly, there diseases, a decline in the birth rate and an increase of life expectancy from
is a growing trend of women as heads of households in cities in the South, 47 to 62 years.
where one third of all households are headed by women: these women are
among the poorest 10% segment of the population. As Eric Calpas pointed This development model nonetheless bore the seeds of numerous problems
out, women who are heads of households are the tip of the iceberg, the telltale which persist to this day, albeit to variable degrees, in the southern
that indicates the problems of the most destitute and those of women.17 Mediterranean countries. The domination of the State, as a repressive force
and engine of economic and social development, has cast a shadow on the
The cities in the MEDA countries afford an opportunity for women to work growth of the private sector, made the civil society more remote, and gave
and meet the needs of their children. They enable them to make up for the free rein to the development of corruption.
incapacity of their husbands (ill, unemployed or deserters of the matrimonial
The interior economic situation deteriorated rapidly. Thus, in the beginning
home) and to assume their role as head of household – a situation that motivates
of the 1980s, the World Bank and the IMF sounded the alarm and called on
women to engage in gradual mobility, from internal to external migration.
countries in difficulties to open up more to the private sector, reduce their
monopoly on the economy and promote greater citizen participation in the
8]VeiZg>>>#;aV\gVciZXdcdb^X^cZfjVa^i^Zh management of economic affairs – whence the introduction of structural
WZilZZci]ZXdjcig^Zh^ccdgi]ZgcVcY adjustment programmes (SAPs).
hdji]ZgcBZY^iZggVcZVc The macroeconomic reforms of the 1980s under the SAPs brought about a
certain macroeconomic stability in many southern Mediterranean countries
During colonisation, a structural dependence characterised the economies
with improvements in taxation and the balance of payment, as well as a
of southern countries and made them vulnerable. When they gained their
certain opening to the private sector. “Real per capita income increased very
independence, they sought first to ensure the autonomy -- and assume the
little on the whole, ca. 0.5% per year” between 1990 and 1998, but managed to
management -- of their economies. The political and economic debate in
curb poverty.19 The fact remains that the job creation deficit together with the
southern Mediterranean countries was naturally dominated by the dualist
rapid population growth have contributed to an increase in unemployment
notion of socialism versus capitalism.
and underemployment, particularly among young people, many of whom
Economic priority was given to the State that adopted industrial policies have a very high level of education. The structural adjustment programme
to replace imports and introduced important trade protection mechanisms
18 World Bank and the IBRD. Op.cit
19 It is estimated that less than 2.5% of the population in MENA countries lived below the
17 Calpas Eric. (1996), Les femmes chefs de familles: spécificités du milieu urbain. “In femmes poverty threshold, i.e. less than a dollar a day. Richard Adams Jr. and John Page (2001),
du sud chef de familles.” (1996). “Jeannne Bissiliat, ed., Editions Khartala 1996. Pp. 109-118.” Holding the Line: Poverty Reduction in the Middle East and North Africa, 1970-2000.
76 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 77
had exacerbated the economic difficulties, turning migration into a dimension Human capacity building and the use and effective contribution of such
of economic policies, to the point of being included in bilateral agreements. capacities constitute an engine for sustainable growth and reduction of
poverty. Economic growth in turn enhances the possibilities for human
A new impetus for growth was registered between 2000 and 2007 thanks development, so sustained and fair growth is an essential factor for human
to the major economic reforms initiated in many southern Mediterranean development.
countries. Nevertheless, the economic situation in Europe and the World has
a major impact on these countries. FEMISE underscored “The slowdown in
Europe has had a profound impact on Mediterranean countries inasmuch as
&#<9E^cZfjVa^i^ZhWZilZZcCdgi]VcYHdji]
their economies rely largely on the European markets for outlets”.20
The economic inequalities between MEDA and European countries
MEDA countries have highly diversified economies that can be very are reflected in differences in terms of GDP, and employment and
complementary, if the political will is there. According to the World Bank, the unemployment rates.
economies and growth in southern Mediterranean countries are conditioned
The human development index developed by the UNDP for 2008 remains
by four basic elements:
an important factor for measuring the development of a country and for
1. Oil and raw materials and their price variations; ranking it on a world scale. The disparity in the rankings according to the
human development index between MEDA and European countries confirms
2. Agricultural production and its hazards due to rainfall fluctuations; the major divergences already mentioned. The countries in the North are
ranked between 6th (Netherlands) and 25th (Greece), whereas the countries
3. The tourism sector which represents a growing percentage of GNP of over
in the South are ranked between 83rd and 130th and are very heterogeneous.
10% in all MNCs; very susceptible to political stability and security 21;
Israel constitutes an exception, as it is ranked 27th.
4. Remittances from the national community abroad and their contribution
Although not sufficient to measure a country’s level of development, per capital
to the country’s economy. The importance of remittances is clearly visible
GDP 23 is nonetheless an indispensable indicator for comparing economic
in the balance of payments. They constitute a large source of revenue
situations in terms of revenue. The differences between the per capita GDP
for many emerging economies. It is worth noting that remittances from
of the southern Mediterranean countries and those of the North tend to
migrants to their country of origin doubled between 1995 and 2006, from
persist if not increase. In 2006, the average per capita income in countries
$8.2 billion to $20 billion. The contribution to GNP increased substantially
in the southern and eastern Mediterranean (ca. $6,000) was 4.5 times lower
from 11.3% to 23% in Lebanon, and from 5% to 8% in Morocco and from
than the average income in the seven Mediterranean countries of the EU27.
4% to 5% in Tunisia. In Egypt, where revenues from the Suez canal and
The Mediterranean countries of the EU27 account for more than 74% of the
oil reserves remain important, remittances from migrants account for 5%
Mediterranean GDP.24
of GNP.22
Comparison of per capita GDP per region in 2005 25
20 Handoussa, Heba/Reiffers, Jean Louis (ed.), Rapport du Femise 2003 saur le partenariat
euro-méditerranéen. “p.13.”
21 Events such as the 9/11 attacks, followed by attacks in Luxor, Jerba and Casablanca have 23 The Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the value of all goods and services in a country in
reduced the inflow of tourists. The stability of the entire economy as well as the balance the course of one year. The GDP can be calculated by adding all the revenue elements –
of external accounts are compromised in fact. Chaponniere, Jean-Raphaël, Le tourisme, wages, interest, profits, rents – or, conversely, all the expenditure elements – consumption,
enjeu économique en Méditerranée. “MINEFI – DREE, Paris 2.e investments, public procurement, net exports (exports less imports) – of an Economy.
22 by Sergio Alessandrini, Full Professor of Political Economics at Modena and Reggio World Bank.
University and Associate Professor of Corporate Finance in the University Boccioni 24 World Bank, World Development Indicators (WDI). GDP 2006, and average annual growth
Accounting Department. Migration and Employment Strategies in the Southern rate from 1985 to 2006.
Mediterranean, World Economy 15/9/2008. 25 The graph shows the data per region, based on arithmetic averages.
78 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 79
The GDP disparities between North and South are very wide (from 7.5
35000
to 20.2), with former immigration countries registering the largest differences
30000
compared with new countries, such as Spain and Italy.
25000
20000
Per capita GDP differences between some of the main EU countries that receive
15000
migrants from Maghreb, and Central Maghreb 26
10000
5000 Countries Germany Belgium Spain France Italy Netherlands
0
Morocco 19.0 19.7 12.2 18.5 15.9 20.2
e
eb
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in
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Algeria 13.9 13.6 8.4 12.8 11.0 13.9
ra
e s
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Tunisia 11.3 11.7 7.25 11.0 9.5 12.0
Co
GDP per inhabitant
Source: Our table is based on 2002 data published by the “Bilan du Monde,” 2004. Le Monde.
Source: Our calculations based on data published by the UNDP, World Development, 2007/2008
In its last report on the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership in 2009, FEMISE
The graph below requires no further comment given a per capita GDP of provides a clear analysis of the impact the crisis has had on the Mediterranean,
$46,750 in the Netherlands and $1,729 in Egypt. Israel is again the exception and in particular the ways that the world economic crisis has been propagated
in the MEDA region with a per capita GDP of $22,835. to Mediterranean countries, which are not very exposed to financial risks. It
identifies four such risks, namely foreign trade, tourism, remittances from
GDP per inhabitant in US Dollars in 2007 migrant workers and direct foreign investment.
50000
45000
40000
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The employment rate of the population varies widely between countries in the
5000 North and in the South, from 59% (Italy) to 76% (Netherlands) in the North,
0 and 42.5% (Algeria) and 53.65 (Morocco) in the South. The employment rate
in Israel is 63.7%.
tor ed
th nce
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e
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Tu ia
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ai
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80 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 81
rate in MENA31 as a whole, this region registered a higher increase in economic
Employment rate participation than other regions of the world during the years 1990 –2003, i.e.
80 19%, compared with 3% in the world.32
70
60 Employment rate by gender 200733
50
40
90
30 80
20
70
10
60
0
50
er e
e
G tine
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c
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Euro-Mediterranean statistics. Eurostat, 2009, p 88
Pa co
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Be ria
ce
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Gr s
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On the labour market front, an enormous gap divides MEDA countries from
ng
Al
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th
countries in the North, as employment growth in countries in the South
d
ite
has not been able to withstand demographic pressures. More specifically,
Un
the reforms introduced in the formal sector, the employment crisis, plus
Men Women
the privatisations and redundancies they brought about and the slowness
of the private sector to absorb this growing workforce 27 have inevitably led Source: Euro-Mediterranean statistics. Eurostat, 2009, p. 88.
to a sizeable growth of the informal sector.28 Composed of very many tiny
companies, this informal sector remains the major provider of employment The fertility rate has dropped considerably in MENA countries in recent years,
and income, especially in urban areas. It is said to employ a considerable from 7 to 2.9 children per woman between 1960 and 200834, whilst marrying
proportion of the working population in non-agricultural sectors, between age has gone up, as has access of women to secondary and higher education.
43% and 50% respectively in Algeria, Egypt, Morocco and Tunisia. The lowest Aspirations for greater empowerment are developing so that demand for
percentage is in Syria (22%).29 employment exceeds supply among women. There is a close correlation
between the female employment rate and the fertility rate: in countries with
The level of female employment in the South is lower than in the North. Only a high fertility rate, few women are gainfully employed.
28% of women aged 15 and over are gainfully employed on average, compared
with 48% of women in the North.30 Yet in spite of the low female employment
31 The MENA region has the lowest economic participation rate by women in the world, i.e.
33.3%, whereas the world average is 55.6%. UNDP Arab Human Development Report 2005.
27 U. Barbak, H. Huitfeidt, J. Wahba. (2006). 32 UNDP, Arab Human Development Report 2005. Towards the Rise of Women in the Arab
28 (All economic activities carried out on the margin of the criminal, social and fiscal legislation, World. “Volume in Arabic, p. 84.”
or which escape the National Accounts). 33 The graph shows countries for which data are available.
29 UNDP, Arab Human Development Report 2009. “P 246.” 34 UNDP, world population prospects: the 2006 revision population database (online, September
30 Our calculated averages, based on data published by the UNDP. 2007), http://esa.un.org/undp.
82 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 83
The nature of the job is also an inducing variable. More specifically, female The proportion of women in services is very high in European countries,
employment is relatively pronounced in the agricultural sector in countries in exceeding that of men by 15% to 20%. This is a rapidly developing sector in
the South. This is particularly the case in Morocco, Syria, Egypt and Palestine, the MEDA countries, in Morocco and Egypt where the number of women in
where employment in agriculture remains a priority and exceeds 50%. The this sector exceeds that of men, due to the growing importance of tourism.
situation is completely different in other MEDA countries, where nearly
35% to 58% of women work in the agricultural sector, at times exceeding the The proportion of women senior civil servants is generally still lower than
male employment rate in Morocco, Syria, Egypt and Palestine. In countries that of women clerical workers, whether in the North or the South of the
where agriculture predominates, women are highly integrated as seasonal Mediterranean. The struggle of women to occupy positions of responsibility
agricultural workers, family helpers, with a tiny proportion having the status is shared by all women, and breaking the ceiling is taking time, given the
of farmer. resistance from and persistence of the patriarchical society at various degrees
in countries of the Mediterranean region.
Very few women in the North work in the agricultural sector. The highest
percentage is in Greece, where agriculture accounts for 14% of overall female Women in the South in senior positions of responsibility are rare, as shown by
employment (1% to 6% for the other EU countries). These data are illustrated the graph below. Fewer than 10% of women in the South occupy positions of
in the graph below. responsibility. Those who have a job usually execute tasks, whereas men are
better represented in conceptual and decision-making positions – particularly
Female employment per sector among the public authorities and political positions. The female workforce
that arrives on the labour market encounters numerous structural, cultural
100 and family-related obstacles. In a rather inefficient economy, with sexist
90 preconceptions of the roles in the family and in society (with the husband as
80
sole and unique provider for the needs of the family, and the wife relegated
70
to a reproductive role and the household chores; when a woman does work,
60
her salary is deemed as extra income and not as an effective contribution to
50
the household budget), economic integration is hindered in the very least, and
40
the unemployment rate among women and young people remains quite high.
30
20
10
0
e
Ho e
e
Pa co
M an
n
ia
ia
Be ia
m
m
ly
y
pt
nd
Jo l
ë
in
ec
ai
an
er
Ita
do
iu
y
ra
oc
an
rd
Sy
st
st
Sp
lla
Eg
re
lg
g
m
Au
Is
ng
le
or
Fr
Al
G
er
Ki
G
d
ite
Un
Agriculture
Industry
Service
84 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 85
Female employment per socio-professional category and per region35 The development of female entrepreneurship that provides women with
new opportunities to generate higher income is worth underscoring. A study
60
50
conducted by the World Bank in five MENA countries,36 Bahrain, Lebanon,
High-ranking female civil
40 servants and managers Jordan, Tunisia, and the UAE, i.e. concerning three MEDA countries, showed
30
20
that female entrepreneurship in its modern form is a completely recent
Female employees in the
10 professional and technical phenomenon, as only 13% of companies are managed by women. Lebanese
0 sectors women are the oldest in the business worlds, followed by Tunisian and
e
co
rth n
t
ël
yp
No i
ra
oc
e es
st
Eg
Is
le
or
th tri
management of their businesses, they are aged between 35 and 54, have a high
Pa
un
M
Co level of education and training, and are generally married: 72% in Tunisia, 61%
in Jordan and 56% in Lebanon.
Source: Human Development Report, 2007/2008
The management of their businesses is identical to that of men,
The relatively high percentage of non-remunerated female employment in the but businesswomen seem to be closer to their employees than their male
South reveals the vulnerability of certain sectors and the precarious nature colleagues. Three characteristics define female entrepreneurship in all MENA
of female employment. The percentage of women working under precarious countries, namely that most business women work in a family setting where
conditions with low salaries and without social security is very high in the influence of the entrepreneur father is more important than that of the
countries in the South, exceeding 34% on average, as opposed to only 3% in husband, recourse to bank loans tends to be more limited among women,
countries in the North and 0.5% in Israel. and finally most of the businesses created belong to the service sector.37
Vulnerable, non-remunerated female employment per region in 2006 Studies on an international scale show that the increase in female income
leads to high expenditure for the well-being of the family, the nutrition and
60
50
education of the children, in particular the girls. Similarly, unemployment
40 among women affects first the lifestyle of those most dependent in the family,
30
20
namely children and the elderly.
10
0 The unemployment rate of women as shown in the graph below is higher
than that of men for countries on both sides of the Mediterranean, but
e
e
ce
ria
ria
Pa co
Be a
m
m
ly
y
t
ël
yp
ec
in
ri
an
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oc
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st
st
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Au
Is
nonetheless higher for women in the South: more than 10% of these women
ng
le
or
Fr
Al
G
er
M
Ki
G
Men the North.38 The variations between men and women vary widely, from
Women 0.2% (Germany) and 7.6% (Greece), to 0% (Morocco) to 15.3% (Jordan) and
14.1% (Syria).
Source: World Development Indicators, World Bank, 2008
36 IFC, International Finance Corporation. And CAWTAR, Center for Arab Women for Training
and Research. Women entrepreneurs in the middle East and North Africa.2007.www.ifc.org/
GEM
37 Aicha Belarbi. (2008). Quels rôles jouent les femmes d’affaires arabes dans le développement
35 The data are calculated from arithmetic averages according to information available. For économique. Congrès sur le rôle du secteur privé dans le développement et la promotion de
countries in the South, data are available only for Morocco, Egypt and Palestine. l’emploi. “Organisation Arabe du Travail, Rabat, 21-23 October 2008. 45 p.”
38 Our calculations based on the arithmetic average.
86 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 87
Unemployment rate by gender 2007 Youth unemployment remains a major international concern. Upon
graduating from universities or training institutes, young people encounter
30 serious difficulties to find work, to join the ranks of the gainfully employed
25 and to get a job that corresponds to their training. This explains the deep
20
crisis of unemployed graduates which is assuming alarming proportions in
15
10 MEDA countries. Some alternative measures have been taken in European
5 and MEDA countries to remedy this situation, but the questions remains
0 particularly critical, especially in countries in the South.
om
ain
ria
Be ia
er e
ria
Le an
co
sia
m
M on
e
ce
Gr s
t
Au y
in y
Jo l
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tin
d
c
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an
d K Ital
str
iu
ee
oc
lan
rd
Sy
ge
ni
Sp
gd
les
Eg
Isr
lg
rm
ba
Tu
or
Al
F
Pa
Ge
th
ite
40
Un
Men Women 35
30
Euro-Mediterranean statistics. Eurostat, 2009, p 90.
25
Palestine
Algeria
Egypt
Morocco
France
Israël
Jordan
Lebanon
Germany
Austria
Belgium
Greece
Spain
Netherlands
Italy
United
Kingdom
Syria
differences in Algeria and Lebanon, tend to increase in Mashreq countries.
Israel is a special case, with an unemployment rate similar to that of European
countries (6.9%) and a minimal difference between men and women (1.1%).
Unemployment among young people aged 15 to 24
In Maghreb, the weight of tradition remains dominant, along with inappropriate Young people aged 15 to 24 are the most vulnerable in Mashreq, where youth
legislative provisions (family code, labour code). Furthermore, the outlets and unemployment can reach 35%, as in the Palestinian Territories and Jordan.
the existence of inefficient economic structures continue to prevent married The state of war in Palestine and the proximity of Jordan in the conflict zone
women with small children from accessing the labour market. In Mashreq, remain a serious obstacle to the promotion of economic activity in these
women comply more with the demands of tradition than women in Maghreb, countries. The many efforts taken by Jordan, such as cooperation with the
who are far more affected by the vagaries and discriminations of the market. EU through the association agreement, the signing of a free trade agreement
88 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 89
with the USA, have not managed to curb these high unemployment rates, more particularly by the massive arrival of women of this age group on the
all the more so as the high fertility rate risks perpetuating the situation. labour market once they graduate. Their knowledge and skills are put to little
use on the employment market in view of their studies (often literature),
The growth of the working age population (i.e. people between 15-64) in the enhanced demand for work before marriage, the discrimination of young
MEDA countries has put the governments before a new challenge. Either women because of maternity, the pay inequalities which are more pronounced
because they had no development policy or because they lacked sufficient in the private than in the public sector39 and a lack of childminding facilities.
resources, these governments could not manage the volume of new entrants
in the labour market. That is why the unemployment rate, especially among Deprived of the means to earn a living and to join the world of work, these
young women, remains high. young adults make up a class of disgruntled, anti-establishment people more
inclined to migrate.
Unemployment among young people aged 15 to 24
60 8]VeiZg>K#HdX^d"XjaijgVa^cZfjVa^i^ZhVcY
50 i]Z^g^beVXidc\ZcYZgY^hXg^b^cVi^dc
40
The economic differences between North and South are such that they are
30 evidenced increasingly in the field of education and access to technology.
20 Four variables seem pertinent in order to broach cultural factors and their
10 impact on the migration phenomenon: the degree of adult literacy, the level
of education by gender and level, government spending on education and
0
access to modern technology.
n
Be a
an
co
ain
om
ce
ia
ce
e
ds
pt
in y
Jo l
i
aë
tin
no
an
l
str
er
iu
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an
ee
oc
y
lan
rd
Sp
gd
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ba
les
Au
Gr
or
Fr
Al
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Pa
M
th
dK
Ne
ite
Un
Men Women
The unemployment rate differences between men and women among the
former is eminently important, ranging from 0.7% in Tunisia, to 1% in Lebanon
and 2.4% in Morocco, compared with 30.7% in Egypt and 10.4% in Jordan. For
Algeria and Palestine, it is around 9%. These differences should nonetheless be
put into perspective with European countries by pointing out that the gender
gap is still sizeable in certain EU countries, such as Greece, where it stands
at 16.4%. In Israel, a breakdown by age class shows no serious disparities
between men and women in terms of unemployment – only 2%.
39 A World Bank study (2004) on the MENA region estimates that when a man earns $1,
Unemployment, which hits women aged 15 to 24 in MEDA countries harder, a woman earns $0.73, i.e. 27 cents less. This situation is explained by a difference in
qualifications or by gender discrimination. In Les femmes et le développement économique
and their lesser economic participation compared with men, are explained en méditerranée. “FEMISE, April 2006. P 13.”
90 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 91
&#>aa^iZgVXngZbV^chegdcdjcXZYVbdc\ldbZc^c of women attend colleges and universities, and 100% attend primary and
secondary school.
B:96Xdjcig^Zh
As shown in the graph below, access to higher education and, to a lesser
Literacy rate among adults aged 15 and over by gender extent, secondary education, is relatively limited for women in the South:
42% of women in Mashreq, and 22% of women in Maghreb have access to
120 higher education, compared with 75% of women in countries in the North.
100
80 Women’s education by level and by country
Women
60
40 Men Gross enrolment rate of women in primary education
20 Gross enrolment rate of women in secondary education
0
Gross enrolment rate of women in higher education
an
co
n
ria
sia
ia
ain
ia
ce
ce
s
ly
t
l
do d
yp
nd
aë
tin
no
an
str
er
ng ite
iu
Ita
m
an
ee
oc
rd
Sy
ni
Sp
Isr
Eg
g
rla
lg
rm
les
ba
Au
K i Un
Tu
Jo
Gr
or
Fr
Al
Be
he
Le
140
Pa
Ge
M
t
Ne
120
Source: UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008 100
80
60
Female literacy, a process nearly completed in European countries, is in full 40
development in the MEDA region. Yet in spite of the efforts made in recent 20
0
years on this front, progress remains limited and variable from one country
co
rie
ce
e
n
ria
ria
n
an
m
m
y
ly
t
ël
yp
nd
in
ec
no
ai
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an
to another. Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and Tunisia have gradually managed to
do
iu
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ra
oc
an
Sy
ge
st
rd
st
Sp
n
Eg
re
la
lg
ba
Au
Is
ng
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Fr
Al
er
Be
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er
Le
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M
Ki
th
eradicate illiteracy among the young generation of women, whereas Algeria,
Ne
d
ite
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Egypt and especially Morocco are lagging far behind.
Source: UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008
In European countries, female illiteracy belongs to the history of the 19th
century, although there are some small lingering pockets, particularly in Nevertheless, in spite of the constant increase in the number of women
Greece. The young generation has been spared. It is more in competition for attending higher education, their studies are generally geared to literature and
knowledge in the information and communication society and is engaged in a the social sciences, and to a lesser extent to natural sciences and medicine.
struggle for another type of literacy, i.e. digital literacy. These disciplines do not often open ways to employment. This characteristic
is not specific to MEDA or MENA countries, but assumes more sizeable
'#9^[[ZgZci^VaZYjXVi^dceZgaZkZa proportions since the most attractive professions for women are the civil
service, teaching and medicine.
In spite of the success of Arab countries in girls’ education, by reducing
the differences between the sexes in the three levels of education, primary Girls often perform better than boys in nearly all the MEDA countries,
education for girls is weak in the different MEDA countries, whereas their at all levels.40 Parents in urban areas, especially the well to do, invest in the
access to secondary education shows considerable lag which worsens in education of and support their daughters throughout their degree course,
higher education. This disparity between the three levels of education is providing extra courses that become indispensable for obtaining conclusive
small in countries in the North, especially in higher education, where 60%
92 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 93
results. They therefore encourage them to choose the best courses which The World Bank Report44 shows that countries in the MENA region invest
were generally reserved for boys. Education is therefore turned into an a higher proportion of their gross domestic products in education than the
instrument for reinforcing the social stratification, but one geared to world’s other regions, but they must still acquire high quality education
eliminating gender discrimination. systems at all levels, and promote a system of continuing education and
training adapted to the needs of the market.
Gross enrolment rate for women per level and per region41
Government expenditures in education per country between 2002 and 2005
120
Gross enrolment
public expenditure on education in % of GDP 2002-2005
100 rate of women in 8
primary education
7
80 6
Gross enrolment 5
rate of women
60 in secondary 4
education 3
40 2
Gross enrolment 1
20 rate of women in 0
ce
co
e
n
an
ria
m
higher education
ly
y
ël
nd
ec
ai
no
isi
an
Ita
iu
do
ra
an
oc
rd
st
Sp
lla
n
re
lg
ba
m
Is
Au
ng
Jo
Tu
or
Fr
Ho
Be
G
er
0
Le
Ki
G
d
Maghreb Mashreq Palestinian Israël European
ite
Un
countries
Source: Our graph based on data published by the UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008 Source: UNDP, World Development, 2007 /2008
Relatively few girl students study science, engineering or production and It must nonetheless be borne in mind that education and the acquisition
construction in countries in the North and the South alike, ranging from of knowledge in the information age are closely connected to technology.
15% (Netherlands) to 31% (Greece), and 18% (Occupied Palestinian Territories) The limits relating to technology may explain the difficulty of certain countries
to 24% (Lebanon). The rate in Israel is 38%.42 to raise the level of attainments of the population. More specifically, the
educational disparities between the countries of the North and of the South
(#CZVgh^b^aVgZmeZcY^ijgZhdcZYjXVi^dc[dg constitute one of the explanatory bases for the differences in access to
information and knowledge technologies, reflecting an elitist education that
deedh^iZgZhjaih
affects both men and women.
The efforts made by the MEDA countries in education are explained by the The MEDA countries are making considerable efforts to catch up, but the high
expenditures which have continued to rise since these countries gained cost of the infrastructure relating to knowledge highways, the persistence of
independence. The structural adjustment programmes have tended to stabilise information control, the unequal sharing of knowledge, and the difficulties
or reduce them, depending on the country. Nevertheless, expenditures in relating to the freedom of communication simply widen the gap between
education represent a near similar average in MEDA and European countries, these countries and European countries. A favourable environment, a political
i.e. 5.3%43 and 5.1% of GDP respectively. opening and democratisation of institutions as well as a fair justice system
are prerequisites to the establishment of the information society.
41 The calculations were based on the arithmetic average per region.
42 UNDP. World Human Development Report. “2007-2008. pp. 269-271.”
43 MEDA countries for which figures are available are Jordan , Lebanon, Morocco and Tunisia. 44 Dina El Naggar. World Bank. MENA 2008, “p 5”.
94 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 95
8]VeiZgK#Eda^i^XVa^cZfjVa^i^Zh$ cooperation.47 The violence in Algeria between 1989 and 1998 against men
(murders, assassinations, kidnappings, attacks) and women -- against those
YZbdXgVi^XigVY^i^dcVcYYZbdXgVXn^c^ih women who allegedly transgress social standards or gender boundaries, have
^c[VcXn been factors of instability and emigration.
“Good governance45 is perhaps the single most important factor in The fight against terrorism and the sporadic attacks due to the rise of
eradicating poverty and promoting development” Islamism in many MEDA countries – Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Egypt,
Kofi Annan, US Secretary General. -- very hard conflicts for the region to support, have fractioned the budgets of
these countries, as a large part has been earmarked for defence,48 and have
The countries of the southern shore of the Mediterranean are still lagging far hindered the economic and social development of the region.
behind in terms of democratisation and system of governance.
The conflicts, development deficits, slow reforms, and the protectionist spirit
Furthermore, the persisting conflicts that rage in the region, particularly the have led to the following main results:
conflict between Israel and Palestine, have a decisive impact on the economic
development of MEDA countries, on the establishment of South-South 1. Difficulties to create a large southern Mediterranean market, and the flight
cooperation, and the efficiency of the Euro-Mediterranean cooperation. The of investors; and, for the case of Maghreb;
civil war in Lebanon (1975-1991) led to the collapse of modern integration
2. The development of a major migration flow in three directions: the Gulf
institutions.46 It aggravated ethnic and identity problems and caused economic
countries, the European countries, and North America;
decline leading to a deterioration of the quality of life, in particular among the
middle classes and the poor, and emigration on a massive scale during this 3. Constant violations of human rights.
period: the intellectual elite, men and women, businessmen, professional and
denominational groups.
8]VeiZgK>#I]Z\gZViX]VaaZc\Zd[B:96
In Maghreb, the conflict around the Sahara (Moroccan South) has flamed Xdjcig^Zh/egdiZXi^dcd[]jbVcg^\]ih
tensions and rivalries between Algeria and Morocco for decades, preventing
the construction of the greater Maghreb and the development of horizontal Radical political changes have taken place in recent years in the way
governments in the MEDA countries operate. The political systems have
started to open up to greater democratisation, considerable progress has been
made in terms of participation in political life and the enhanced intervention
45 The concept of “governance:” definition and measure. Of Anglo-Saxon origin, the concept
of “governance”, unlike the conventional term of “government”, does not describe organic
institutions, but rather “the rules of the game”, processes, modes of organising decision-
making and public action. Its use refers to a new way of exercising power, in a new social and 47 These conflicts preclude any prospects of establishing an integrated economic and political
institutional context, based on the appearance of new players in the public interest alongside area. The Mashreq countries have not managed to establish economic cooperation between
the State, the multiplication of the levels of negotiation, the questioning of the Nation-State, them, and efforts made by the Arab League since 1998 to create an Arab free trade area
i.e. the traditional framework for exercising popular sovereignty and political power. Finally, have run into many obstacles due essentially to the protectionist spirit that prevails in Arab
this concept has a strong standard-setting dimension, because when the term “governance” countries. Great hopes were placed in the Agadir Declaration and the creation of a free
is used, what is often meant is “good governance”, drawing inspiration from «corporate trade area between southern Mediterranean countries, but from the time that it was signed
governance»: this is essentially a matter of applying, to the public sector, the organisational in 2004 until today, only the four signatory countries -- Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt and Jordan
principles that ensure economic efficiency in the private sector (evaluation, obligation of – have continued to negotiate without any opening to the other signatory countries of the
result and not of means, etc.), in Calamé 2004, op cit, p 13. association agreement with the EU.
46 Fatima Charafeddine (1996). The change in Lebanon after the recent war and prospects for 48 Defence spending continues to exceed spending on education or health in Lebanon (9% of
a solution (in Arabic). In Conférence sur la gestion des transformations sociales dans la total spending), Israel (18% of total spending) and in Jordan (24% of total spending). In Egypt
région des Etats arabes. ”Tunis 26-28 February 1996. UNESCO.” and Morocco, it represented between 10% and 15% of overall spending. Calamé, op cit, p 23.
96 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 97
of the civil society through many initiatives, with a broadening of the public &#Eda^i^XVag^\]ihd[ldbZcVcYeVgi^X^eVi^dc^ci]Z
space and the defence of fundamental freedoms.
YZX^h^dc"bV`^c\egdXZhh
The militancy of Arab intellectuals and the civil society, international
As regards the laws, equal rights are of course accorded to all citizens on both
pressures, and the implementation of the Beijing platform have borne fruit to
sides of the Mediterranean, as all the countries of the region recognise such
goad governments to review and even change the family codes, advocate new
rights without distinction as to race, gender or religion.
measures to get women to take part in the political life, and introduce new
mechanisms to deal with violence against women. Many constitutions of MEDA countries include articles on equality between
men and women, equality at work, in education, political rights, and equality
The debate on human rights is no longer taboo. It is part of governmental
in general in rights and obligations, focusing on equal opportunities. However,
programmes. Ministries, councils or other institutions of human rights have
there is a gap between these laws and the reality that women face.
been created.
The issue of the political participation of women has arrived far later in
Nevertheless, in spite of all these reforms and international commitments,
MEDA countries than in Europe – certainly after these countries gained
the reports of Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch or Arab institutes
independence and in the effervescence of nationalist movements, inspired
of human rights attest to a constant violation of the rights of men and women,
and guided by the dynamics of the Arab renaissance, that considered that
workers, the civil society and above all of transit migrants who take up
the suppression of male domination in the name of religion or tradition was a
temporary residence in southern Mediterranean territories whilst waiting to
condition sine qua non for the awakening of a people and its women.
cross to Europe.
The women’s movements in Mashreq, with Egypt in the vanguard,49 for the
emancipation and visibility of women, propagated in Syria and Lebanon
through the women’s press, and women in the Maghreb engaged in the
national liberation struggles, created the premises for Arab feminism –
guided initially by men and then taken over by women during their struggles
for liberation, democracy and human rights. The legislators in the Arab world
were consequently constrained to take account of the legitimate claims of
half the population and to grant women the first political rights, such as the
right to vote and stand for elected office. The three MEDA countries that
granted these rights to women were Lebanon in 1952, followed by Egypt in
1956 and Tunisia in 1959. In the beginning of the 1960s, Algeria and Morocco
followed suit, in 1962 and 1963 respectively; whereas Syria, which was the
first Arab country in favour of granting women the vote (1945), completed its
policy mix in 2003.
49 Duriyah Chafiq. An Egyptian feminist who conducted a major campaign for the political rights
of women. She organised a sit-in in front of the Parliament in 1951. Egyptian women obtained
the right to vote in 1956.
98 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 99
For the MEDA countries, whereas Egypt and Tunisia complied with the The graphs below require little comment:
principles of law, it took some time from the moment that the right to vote
was granted to a women being sent to Parliament: Syria and Morocco, where Proportion of women in Parliament in 2007
women gained the right to vote in 1945 and 1963 respectively, elected a
woman in 1973 and 1993. Women were of course more mobilised to elect Women in parliament
40
men, because very few of them stood for election. It is worth underscoring
35
that in many MEDA countries, the women’s vote has been manipulated by 30
the political parties and the public authorities to elect the male candidates of 25
20
their choice. They took advantage of their illiteracy and their level of poverty
15
to create a human mass in the service of politics in general. 10
5
For Algeria, the first woman in Parliament was appointed after the war in 0
co
e
n
e
ria
an
ria
ria
m
ly
y
t
ël
yp
ec
no
nc
isi
1962, when it was only fair for the public authorities to appoint a woman
an
Ita
iu
do
ra
oc
ge
rd
Sy
st
n
Eg
re
a
lg
ba
Au
Is
ng
Jo
Tu
or
Fr
Al
Be
G
er
Le
Ki
in Parliament in recognition of the contribution of women in the struggle
d
ite
Un
for the liberation of their countries, whereas in Lebanon and Jordan, owing
to internal strife, the domination of a tribal spirit, and the management of Source: World Development Indicators, World Bank, 2008
multiple religious denominations, the choice has weighed more in favour of
appointing then electing women. Proportion of women in government in 2005
The case of Israel is exceptional, as from the moment the country was
established in the region, it opted for greater equality between men and Women sitting in government in 2005
women, as it received a multiethnic population that had lived mostly in 60
50
democratic countries.
40
30
It was nonetheless in the 1990s, and especially after the world conferences
20
on human rights in Vienna (1993) and in Beijing (1995) on women, that claims
10
for access to politics were stepped up in the North as well as in the South. 6
The European Charter of Human Rights insists on the fact that equality
ce
ia
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e
n
Be a
n
ria
sia
om
ly
t
nd
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yp
ai
ec
da
ri
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r
iu
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ra
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oc
ge
st
Sy
ni
Sp
lla
gd
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re
lg
r
ba
Is
Jo
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or
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Al
between men and women must be ensured in all areas (Article 23), and in
Ho
n
Le
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the meantime, many European countries have opted for parity in political
ite
Un
authorities. Other initiatives have been taken in MEDA countries, such as the
use of quotas and other positive action measures. Source: UNDP, Human Development Report, 2007/2008
In spite of all these measures and commitments, the number of women in the The presence of women in decision-making posts, whether in the executive
parliaments and governments of the South, and even in the North, remains or the legislative branch, does not often reflect a national policy in favour of
relatively small. equality between men and women. Many MEDA countries are adapting to
the Beijing platform and are endeavouring to project a positive image as a
modern, democratic society. The New policy of the Middle East partnership
Tunisia was the first country in the Arab world to adopt, already in 1957, 50 Sana’ Benachour (2007), Le code du statu personnel Tunisian 50 ans après. Les dimensions
de l’ambivalence in Année du Maghreb. Dossier femmes familles et droit. “Ed CNRS. Paris,
a fairer personal status law, due to the secularisation processes initiated by Dir karima Dirèche Slimani. pp. 55-70.”
51 Ilhem Marzouki (2007), La conquête de la banalisation par le code Tunisian du statut
personnel. “Année du Maghreb 2007, op cit. p. 71-96.”
The development of the status of women is one of the fundamental elements For their part, the personal status codes are subjected to a permanent
that reflects the degree of democratisation of political regimes and the level of political game which oscillates between positive law and Islamic orthodoxy.
economic and social development of a country. The problem of modernisation The Arab governments which have proceeded with such changes in personal
of society in MEDA countries, and more particularly the status of women, is status codes have always faced a dilemma: the most courageous among them
in fact directly related to that of the construction of a modern state and the adopted the method of the ijtihad (Tunisia and Morocco), the others have
political, economic and socio-cultural reforms implemented. remained more prudent in their attempts at reform so as not to anger religious
movements and men in general. As a result, such issues as the suppression of
Tangible changes have occurred in recent years in MEDA countries and have
polygamy,56 equality for inheritance and the transmission of nationality from
transformed the family structure, getting women to break their silence and to
the mother57 are not subject to discussion.
assert claims for a better life. The drop in the fertility rate, access by women
to education and the labour market, their demands for the protection of their In politics, quotas have been granted to women, a positive action for which
rights, the establishment of gender equality, and the demand for political they have fought long and hard, but it is the men of the parties that give the
participation have led to far-reaching reforms making women citizens green light for a woman to be elected, who control the careers of activists
even more visible. Nevertheless, constraints persist and hinder the way and who at times exclude them because of nepotism and clientelism. Even if
56 The Tunisian Code does not recognise polygamy. The Moroccan code has simply introduced restrictions.
57 The right of transmission of nationality from a woman to her husband and children in case of
55 Camille Lacoste Dujardin, Violence en Algérie contre les femmes. In Masculin féminin au marriage with a foreigner is not granted to women in MEDA countries, with the exception of
Maghreb et en immigration. “Pp. 19- 31.” Tunisia, Morocco and Egypt.
In brief, the many changes that have taken place in the life of women in
MEDA countries do not question the patriarchal structure of society. The new
behaviour has been re-interpreted for a better adaptation in societies in which
differential socialisation and the sexual division of labour are embedded.
To be sure, the strong demographic growth of the 1970s and 1980s, as well as
the increasing needs of the population and the democratic deficit weakened
the modernity project that developed after independence. It upset the
reconstruction of a coherent society project with a strong social content, where
woman was the node. Thus, religion becomes a unique and indispensable
means of protection against modernity and the invasive globalisation, and is
used to preserve the power of men.
And yet, many women are not prompted to migrate by their own choice. In
societies where they are overprotected, they cannot take off this armour that
weighs on them and their fate and decide to go all on their own. They are
motivated to leave, and desire to discover other places, and in so doing escape
family constraints. But actually doing so is the hardest and most delicate part
of the undertaking. Why do they leave? This is a pertinent question that we
shall try to answer in the next chapter.
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Introduction ........................................................................................114
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1. Principal international conventions on migration ......................115
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1.1. UN legal arsenal ................................................................................. 115
[V^ajgZd[hiViZhidgZheZXii]dhZXdckZci^dch!
V\gZZbZcihVcYYZXaVgVi^dchi]Vii]Zn]VkZ 1.1.1. International Convention on the Protection
[gZZanVXXZeiZY#<8>B!e#*. of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members
of their Families of 1990.......................................................... 116
1.2. ILO Conventions: old protection for migrant workers .................. 119
Conclusion ............................................................................................140
The aim is not to conduct an exhaustive analysis of the international legislation t$POWFOUJPOBHBJOTU5PSUVSFBOE0UIFS$SVFM
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that governs migration. Particular attention will be paid to the question of 5SFBUNFOUPS1VOJTINFOUo
family reunification, given the importance of this process in the migration of
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women from MEDA countries, and the number of them that reach Europe.
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The legislative and regulatory framework will be broached on three levels:
8PSLFSTBOE.FNCFSTPGUIFJS'BNJMJFTo
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The importance of these covenants and conventions1 lies first and foremost in
t5IFSFHJPOBMDPOWFOUJPOTBOESFHVMBUJPOTUIBUEFBMXJUIUIFNBOBHFNFOU the general coverage of human rights that apply to migrants in the same away
PGNJHSBUJPOnPXT as to all citizens and thus constitute the foundation of the rights of migrants.
Their implementation is surrounded by some confusion however, because
t5IFCJMBUFSBMBHSFFNFOUTUIBUSFHVMBUFUIFSFDSVJUNFOUBOENPWFNFOUPG of their dispersion through different instruments, which makes it even more
the workforce. difficult to articulate them.
1 It has actually been shown that the second part of these covenants and conventions was
signed and ratified by most European and MEDA countries.
1. The convention of 1990 has been ratified by only some forty States to The convention calls on the States to recognise that the family is the natural
date, which do not include any EU Member State,6 any State of the Persian and fundamental element of society and that it must be protected by society
Gulf, North America and Australia. Different reasons have been put forth and the State. The latter must take the measures needed to facilitate the
by the States, such as the similarity of provisions in other international reunion of migrant workers with their spouse or with persons that have
instruments, the complexity and scope of this convention, the obligations relations of marriage or filiation with them, so as to enable the members
it imposes on the States that have ratified it, and the lack of distinction of the family of migrants workers to benefit from the same treatment
between regular and irregular migration. Some countries consider that accorded to nationals in the State of employment in such areas as education,
the provisions relative to non-discrimination made it more difficulty to training, access to social services and cultural participation (Article 45).
introduce a temporary migration programme which did not confer on The words woman, wife, and female migrant are not used in the
participants the same rights as other workers.7 This convention has been convention, which deals with the rights of children and makes general
ratified by four MEDA countries: Egypt in 1993, Syria in 2005, Morocco in reference to members of the family.
1993 and Algeria in 2005.
The convention of 1990 is still the most efficient instrument for the
Two interesting studies analyse the refusal of States to ratify this convention. protection of migrant workers and members of their families. But even
The first was conducted by UNESCO in 2007. It identified the main causes States that have ratified it do not always manage to implement it, especially
of resistance to ratification in seven European countries: France, Germany, after they go from a country of emigration to a transit and immigration
Italy, Norway, Poland, Spain and the United Kingdom. On the legal front, country.
reticence tends to focus on the limitation of state sovereignty, in particular
Other, older UN organisations have endeavoured to defend the rights of
control of access to the territory, and the fear that this Convention confers
workers in general and those of migrants in particular like the International
a right to family reunification to all legal resident workers. The second
Labour Organisation (ILO).
study was conducted by the Centre for Equal Opportunities and the Fight
against Racism in Belgium in 2008. It specifies that ratification would
&#'#>AD8dckZci^dch/daYegdiZXi^dc[dgb^\gVcildg`Zgh
show that the Belgian authorities were concerned about the conformity
of regulations concerning stay and regulations concerning employment of ILO convention 143 on migrant workers of 1975 (Article 11) defines migrant
foreign nationals. The launch of the economic migration project would be worker as “a person who migrates or who has migrated from one country to
an excellent opportunity for Belgium to assume a pioneering role towards another with a view to being employed otherwise than on his own account
ratification among EU countries. and includes any person regularly admitted as a migrant worker.” This idea is
echoed in the International Convention on the Protection of the Rights of all
2. “The term ‘members of the family’ refers to persons married to migrant
Migrant Workers and Members of their Families.
workers or having with them a relationship that, according to applicable
law, produces effects equivalent to marriage, as well as their dependent The protection of workers employed in a country other than their country
children and other dependent persons who are recognised as members of of origin has always been a prime concern for the ILO. These are the people
most exposed to exploitation and the neglect of their rights, in particular
6 The Flemish Government came out in favour of having this instrument ratified by Belgium
in May 2005. The UN ECOSOC committee was also in favour of such ratification in Opinion
when they are irregular migrants. This organisation has consequently from
2004/C302/12 of 1 July 2004. the outset endeavoured to protect the rights of migrant workers through the
7 GCIM. p 62.
The EU initiated two important directives on the management of migration This directive is hybrid in nature, as the Member States retain their capacity
flows. The “return” directive (Directive 2008/115/EC of the European to grant or to refuse a blue card to a candidate depending on the situation on
Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on common the national employment market.13
standards and procedures in Member States for returning illegally
'#'#B:96Xdjcig^Zh/Vb^\gVi^dceda^Xn[dXjhZY
staying third-country nationals)11 is an instrument geared essentially
to the return of irregular migrants. It thus legitimates the readmission dcZbeadnbZci
agreements and the entire arsenal, logistics and action of Frontex to deny
For MEDA countries, migration had for many years been a subject of debate in
access to European territories to illegal migrants, and the outsourcing of
relations between the different countries of the southern Mediterranean. An
procedures and controls. The detention of illegal migrants is going to become
efficient legal arsenal was thus developed by and between the MEDA countries
the normal method for managing migration in Europe, and the emergence of
and Arab oil-producing countries. In this context, the conventions concluded
camps and detention centres in Europe is a symptom of a global policy to cast
by the Arab League try to organise migration through bilateral agreements
out illegal foreign nationals.
on labour migration. Created in 1965 by the Arab ministers of labour, the
In addition to this restrictive directive for illegal migrants and the Arab Labour Organisation (ALO) adopted the Arab Labour Charter in 1968,
implementation of this policy of dissuasion, the EU is looking for legal means which contains clauses that guarantee the fundamental rights of migrant
to encourage the skilled migration that it needs. Thus, a directive discussed workers. This was the start of Arab cooperation to harmonise legislation on
since 2007 was adopted in May 2009 on the ‘blue card’ (Council Directive employment and social security.
2009/50/EC of 25 May 2009 on the conditions of entry and residence of third-
The three Maghreb countries ratified the Charter in 1974. The annual ALO
country nationals for the purposes of highly qualified employment). At the
conference held in Algiers (February 2005) adopted a declaration on migrants.
end of November 2009, the European Parliament gave the green light to this
This concern is not recent. Already in 1965, the Council of Arab Economic
new scheme for ‘highly qualified’ foreign nationals.
Unity had adopted a resolution to facilitate the movement of Arab citizens
Based on the model of the American green card, this blue card is an between the different countries of the region. The States even undertook
authorisation entitling the holder to reside and work legally on the territory a commitment to encourage the employment of citizens from other Arab
of the EU and to go from one Member State to the other to take up highly
12 Marie-Martine Buckens. Une “carte bleue” pour les cerveaux du tiers-monde. “Le courrier
11 http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOIndex.do?ihmlang=fr ACP, N° IX”.
13 Hélène Zwick - 16 Avril 2009. La carte bleue, tentative européenne d’immigration choisie.
14 Mohamed Saïb Musette, in cooperation with Monia Benjemia, Khadija Elmadmad and Azzouz 15 All these conventions have not been ratified by the Maghreb countries, with the exception of
Kerdoun. Report on Legislation concerning International Migration in Central Maghreb. Convention no. 14 (1981) concerning the right of Arab workers to social security, ratified by
“International Labour Organization Report. 2006. p 26”. Morocco in 1993. Mohamed Saïb Musette, op cit.
Establish bilateral agreements to manage labour migration better; Develop policies geared to secure social security, healthcare, and
the protection of human rights for Jordanian migrants;
Strengthen ties with Algerians of the diaspora;
Algeria Jordan Establish bilateral agreements governing labour migration;
Mobilise skills and capacities;
Establish ties with the Jordanian diaspora and encourage
Protect the Algerian community abroad. remittances;
Prepare policies and plans of action to facilitate and encourage
plans for a successful migration; Prepare return policies.
Develop policies for successful emigration;
Help the Egyptian community abroad and encourage it to establish
associations; Consolidate ties among Moroccans and the diaspora;
Provide the community abroad with cultural and media material for Develop associations and establish institutions to strengthen
contacts with the country of origin; cultural and political ties with the diaspora;
Egypt Lebanon
Capitalise on the human potential abroad for development and Consider action plans for socio-economic, cultural and political
technology; integration;
Conclude bilateral agreements to manage labour migration. Develop policies for successful emigration;
Facilitate successful emigration; Consolidate ties among Moroccans and the diaspora;
Israel Establish and strengthen ties between Israel and the diaspora; Develop associations and establish institutions to strengthen
cultural and political ties with the diaspora;
Prepare bilateral agreements relating to economic migration.
Morocco Consider action plans for socio-economic, cultural and political
integration;
Encourage remittances; The cooperation agreements do not deal with migration proper, which is dealt
with in special ‘labour force agreements’ signed by and between Maghreb
Establish bilateral agreements on economic emigration; countries after their independence and the main European countries,
Develop action plans to have emigration perceived as an integral including France, Germany, Belgium and the Netherlands. Issues concerning
process of cooperation with the EU. the connection between migration and development emerged late, well after
the Barcelona conference and after lengthy maturation of migration policy
in the EU.
This table shows that MEDA countries are concerned to:
t*NQMFNFOUCJMBUFSBMBHSFFNFOUTXJUIUIFIPTUDPVOUSJFT
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and policies to facilitate and encourage emigration under favourable
17 Cooperation agreements between the EEC and southern Mediterranean countries were
conditions. signed with Israel (1975), Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco (1976), Egypt, Jordan, Syria and
Lebanon in 1977.
t$POTPMJEBUFUJFTXJUIUIFJSEJBTQPSBBCSPBE
FODPVSBHJOHUIFJSOBUJPOBMTUP 18 Bishara Khader (2001). Le partenariat euro-méditerranéen: le processus de Barcelone,
une synthèse de la problématique. In Bishara Khader (2001). “(S /D). Le partenariat euro-
create unions and associations to defend their interests in the host countries méditerranéen vu du Sud. Harmattan 2001. pp. 13-39, p 15”.
and to facilitate contacts with the country of origin. The importance 19 Bachir Hamdouch. La migration dans le partenariat euromaghrébin. In Bishara Khader, op
cit, pp. 133-147, p. 134.
t"HSFFNFOUXJUI#FMHJVNPO.PSPDDBOXPSLFSTJO#FMHJVN
'FCSVBSZ
Algeria has redirected its policy towards building new bridges between
and a social security clause in 1970.
immigrants and their countries of origin with the creation of the Coordination
and Monitoring Council in 1995, the aim of which is to defend the interests of t "HSFFNFOU XJUI UIF /FUIFSMBOET PO POTJUF SFDSVJUNFOU PG .PSPDDBO
migrants abroad (with a special division for the Algerian community abroad in workers in the Netherlands in May 1969, with a social security clause in
the Ministry of Foreign Affairs). On the other hand, the national employment 1970.
agency was also created to direct Algerian workers to job offers abroad.
These agreements tend essentially to organise the recruitment of Moroccan
For its part, Tunisia encourages migration which provides a part of revenue workers and to recognise some of their rights as workers once they have
injected into the Tunisian economy, while retaining close ties with its been admitted, such as equal treatment with nationals or the right to family
nationals. A strong relation binds the community with its country of origin, reunification. For its part, through these agreements, Morocco tended
and different programmes and measures have been taken by the government to control the departure of its citizens and the good conduct in the host
in this sense (tax relief, banking facilities). The Tunisian investment code countries, and to ensure remittances
considers members of the community as potential investors in their country
of origin. Other measures concerned the instruction of the language and The management of Moroccans residing abroad has been entrusted to the
culture of origin and the participation in national elections. The Tunisian Hassan II Foundation, an independent institution geared to strengthening ties
Migration Office 25 plays an important role in providing support to migrants with the Moroccan community. The creation of a plethora of institutions 26
abroad, with assistance to the communication and training programmes for attests to the great interests that Morocco shows to its nationals living
Tunisians and their families. It also helps to encourage the community abroad abroad.
to take part in promoting investments in their country of origin.
The management of the Maghreb community through the diplomatic and
consular structures continues to be limited to administrative aspects
24 Mohamed Saïb Musette with the cooperation of Monia Benjemia, Khadija Elmadmad and
Azzouz Kerdoun. Report on Legislation concerning International Migration in Central
Maghreb. Copyright © International Labour Organisation 2006. “P 8. Same idea as in 26 Ministry of the Moroccan Community Abroad, Ministry of Human Rights, the Mohamed V
Azzouz Kerdoum. The legal protection of Algerians in CARIM 2008”. Foundation which conducts the annual campaign for return to the country during summer
25 Le guide du Tunisian à l’étranger, 2003, “published by the Office of Tunisians Abroad and holiday, and the Commission of Moroccans Abroad in the Advisory Committee on Human
the Ministry of Social Affairs and Solidarity”. Rights as well as the Council of the Moroccan Community abroad.
Morocco 3/2000
Tunisia 1998
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Introduction ........................................................................................146 IV. Integration of migrant women in European countries ............. 206
1. Numbers of female migrants from MEDA countries in Europe ...... 153 6. Integration as a demand ...................................................................... 220
2. What about immigration of women in European countries? ........... 160 Conclusions ........................................................................................ 221
The third chapter deals with the activity of migrant women. It describes and
analyses the sectors and types of activity in which they work as well as the
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rate of unemployment and underemployment.
In addition to the ageing of the European population and the ensuing need to
The fourth chapter provides a tentative analysis of the integration of migrant recruit migrant workers to meet the requirements in terms of well-being, the
women in the host countries by considering female labour as an important need to renew the migration policy is explained by the globalisation of the
parameter for the integration of mothers and daughters. economy. The opening up of trade, the free movement of goods and capital
boosted the demand for labour and greater mobility of the workforce, especially
highly skilled workers. The enlargement of the EU to the East is the second
8]VeiZg>#BV^c]^hidg^XVaVcY factor that put labour migration in Europe back in the limelight. The accession of
aZ\VagZ[ZgZcXZh new countries imposed a freedom of movement of workers that certain Member
States, fearful of social dumping, tried to limit by adapting restrictive transitional
The different analyses conducted by the World Bank and the OECD explain measures. Nevertheless, irrespective of the timeframe of these measures, the
migration flows and numbers by the different opportunities of access to freedom of movement is a fundamental principle of the European Union. The
employment offered in the host countries. Put another way, the pull process third explanatory factor has to do with a well-established diaspora in the host
turns out to be more decisive than its push counterpart. The prime objective countries that exerts a pull effect, especially for young people and women from
of migration from South to North has consequently always been access to the countries of origin, given the continuing wide gaps of development between
employment. Whether explicit or latent, this motive is vital in the decision to North and South. A fourth, no less important factor, has to do with the need
emigrate, the choice of country and the channels and networks used. The first of human capital to build a competitive European economy, which reinforces
migrants from MEDA countries to Europe were manual workers, mostly men, competition between the States to attract the people with the best skills. The
working in such sectors as mining, construction and heavy industry. Hired introduction of a ‘European blue card’, or the French ‘skills and talents card’
under contract, they stayed for as long as the contract could be renewed. are the most tangible examples. Whether at EU or national level, these workers
are granted “authorisation to work on the territory of the Union, whereas an
A radical change occurred in 1973 when European countries, opting for greater
immigrant is authorised to work only in the host country.”5
stabilisation of the work force, opened their borders to the families of workers,
i.e. their women and children. The needs relating to family reunification Taken together, these factors show that labour migration has become one
brought about a series of claims, especially from women, concerning their of the most important parameters of the management of migration, which is
own integration and that of their children, as the latter face an uncomfortable bound to intensify in the years to come, in the form of circular migration, with
dilemma between the education and socialisation standards handed down by the double aim of maintaining and amplifying growth in the host countries,
their parents, and those imparted in school and the host society. European while contributing to the growth and development of the countries of origin.
societies also experienced a ‘problem’ with their immigrants, as the workers of Migration thus has a positive character, as both sides find themselves in a
yesteryear were turned into heads of families aspiring for a better life for their win-win situation, without forgetting the third party in the equation, i.e. the
families, i.e. higher wages, family allowances and access to employment for their
5 Cécile Jolly. (2007), Migrations de travail en Europe .”Idem”
The global migration policy attests to the diversity of the immigrant population, 8]VeiZg>>#9ViVdci]ZaZ\Vab^\gVi^dcd[
the multifaceted nature of labour migration and the plurality of the players
concerned. Immigrant women are included in all these categories, but with
ldbZc[gdbB:96id:jgdeZVcXdjcig^Zh
their own specific characteristics. Four categories of migrant women can be
thus distinguished:
Emigration from MEDA countries to Europe has become one of the essential
Resident migrants, who arrived for family reunification and who are established components of the Mediterranean landscape and an indispensable dimension
permanently in the host countries (three generations: grandmothers, mothers of the economic and social life of the countries in the region. This phenomenon
and their daughters), and those who arrived alone, initially for a limited is explained by the importance of the South to North flows, in particular the
period, and who finally opted to live in the host country. The types of activity flows of women, and by the impact of emigration on the improvement of
of each group vary depending on the generations and the host country. the living standards of families of migrants as well as on the economy of
the countries of origin. In this chapter, we shall broach the distribution of
Seasonal migrants (seasonal work being considered as a particular form of female migrants from MEDA countries as well as their socio-demographic
labour migration7), who constitute a workforce employed in certain sectors characteristics.
like agriculture and tourism for a renewable specified period (3 months to
2 years). &#CjbWZghd[[ZbVaZb^\gVcih[gdbB:96
Temporary migrants who arrived through skills migration, were recruited Xdjcig^Zh^c:jgdeZ
under contract, and are supposed to return to their country after a specified
period. The 2007-2008 report on migration in the Mediterranean8 concludes that the
migration flows from southern Mediterranean countries continued in 2008, as
Pendular migrants who come and go between the country of origin and the confirmed by records from host countries and data from the SEM countries.
country of destination for purely economic reasons.
In Spain, for instance, municipal records show that the Moroccan immigrant
population went up by 73,397 people in 2007 (+13.2%). In Italy, that same
leaving, as some 21,500 people emigrated in 2007. Between 1990 and 2005, 70.0
some 230,000 Israelis left the country, i.e. 3.5% of the population. 58% of these 60.0
50.0
emigrants were not born in Israel.”11
40.0
The rise in emigration from Mashreq countries is explained by the persisting 30.0
conflicts in the region which cause many young people to leave. It is also 20.0
due to the economic and social divide, which continues to widen between 10.0
0.0
countries of the North and of the South. In the eyes of young people, Europe
Algeria Egypt Lebanon Morocco Tunisia
is still an economic eldorado and an area of peace, security and freedom, in
EU/ Statistics of host countries Arab countries Rest of world
spite of the effects of the crisis or dissuasion through the border controls.
Statistics nonetheless show that migration from southern Mediterranean
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, Stocks 2008, p 2.
countries is not geared exclusively to Europe. The MEDA countries are
In the 1970s, the world economy was characterised by growth in the
9 Robert and Choghing Kasparian. (2006), Émigration, emploi et conditions économiques. Le movement of labour, not only to industrialised countries, but also to the new,
cas du Lebanon. Rapporté par Migrations et Migrants. “Les notes de l’IPEMED.N° 1 .P 28.” oil-producing countries of the Middle East. Neighbouring Arab countries
10 Myriam Ambroselli, L’immigration en Israël en chiffres vendredi 18 décembre 2009 in Un écho
d’Israel. www.un-echo-israel.net
11 David Rosenfeld News: ISRAEL - L’IMMIGRATION vers Israel est au plus bas depuis près de
20 ans. 20 Mar 2008. www.israelvelley.com/news 12 Statistics for the other MEDA countries were still not available.
Egyptians who went to the Gulf countries in search of work represent a very
high percentage (77.5%). The Lebanese took another route, emigrating to
different continents and countries throughout the world (54.7%), followed by Table 3 / Number of immigrants (in thousands) in MEDA countries in 2005 with
the Egyptians (15.3%) who form a sizeable diaspora in the USA and Australia, projection for 2010 and percentage of immigrants
whereas their presence in Europe is lower (7%) than the Lebanese (24.5%).
No statistics are available for Jordan and Syria, but a similar trend to that of % of the total
Egypt is observable. 2005 2010 population in 2005 % of women
Algeria 242,4 242,3 0.7 45.2
Migration from Maghreb is geared essentially to Europe, with nearly 90%
Egypt 246,7 244,7 0.3 46.7
of Algerians, 82.2% of Moroccans and 68.1% of Tunisians. Migration to Arab
Israel 2661,3 2 940,5 39.8 55.9
countries is still very low, with 8% for Algeria and 11% for Morocco. Tunisia
Jordan 2345,2 2 973,0 42.1 49.1
has sent the most important contingent from the Maghreb (26.6%). Emigration
from Maghreb to Europe, which started in the beginning of the 19th century Lebanon 721,2 758,8 17.7 49.1
and resumed massively in the 1950s, was strongly encouraged by the French Morocco 51 49,1 0.2 49.9
government and employers. The Algerians were the first to leave, followed Syria 1326,4 2 205,8 6.9 48.9
by the Moroccans and the Tunisians.13 In 1974, European countries put a stop Palestinian
1660,6 1 923,8 44.1 49.1
to immigration and adopted measures to encourage immigrants to return to Territories
their country of origin. This attitude was dictated by the world economic
Tunisia 34,9 33,6 0.4 49.5
crisis and the scope of unemployment in these countries at that time, as well
Source: Human Development Report, 2009, UNDP, pp 143-145
as by the “relatively high cost of social benefits for immigrants, which had
become unsustainable for these countries.”14
Number of immigrants in MEDA countries in 2005 in millions
This change of European attitude forced migrants from Maghreb to change
3 000
their destination and to turn to Libya and the Gulf countries, even if the 2 500
number of emigrants to that destination remains relatively modest for 2 000
Maghreb countries, the biggest beneficiaries being the Mashreq countries. It is 1 500
1 000
worth pointing out that MEDA countries, considered as emigration countries,
500
are nowadays transit, and especially immigration countries. The population 0
movements are such today that each country in the world has its share of
on
co
ia
to an
a
ia
an
pt
si
aë
r
er
s
oc
y
rri ini
rd
Sy
an
ni
rie
Eg
Isr
g
migrants and its type of migration. For instance, there is a transit migration
Tu
Jo
or
Te lest
Al
b
Le
Pa
13 Philippe Bernard, L’immigration. “Editions marabout 1993. P 22.” Source: Human Development Report, 2009, UNDP, pp 143-145
14 Mohamed Ayed, Les grandes étapes de l’émigration Tunisianne. “In Louis Di Comite
(ed.).1995 La migration du Maghreb, Cacucci Editore, Bari 1995. pp. 31-39. p. 33.”
15 This contract recognises domestic work as productive work and domestic workers as wage
earners provided with recognised rights guaranteed by law. It includes insurance for workers
in case of illness and death, rest periods, the payment of wages on a fixed date, and the right
to be treated humanely, in compliance with international standards for human rights. In
Genre et migration, 16 October 2005.
17 Françoise De Bel-Air, Migrations et politique au Moyen-Orient: populations, territoires,
16 Flore Gubert and Christophe J. Nordman. (2008-2009), The future of International Migration
citoyennetés à l’aube du XXIe siècle.
to OECD countries. “Regional Note/ North Africa. Paris IRD, DIAC.”
Women from Mashreq tend to emigrate to Arab countries. They include the 50.0
wives of migrants, and those who accompany women who leave alone to 45.0
40.0
study or to work. “In terms of numbers, they represent an important segment
35.0
of the migration movement. In Egypt, for example, they account for 30% 30.0
of the total number of migrants. They are not only university graduates or 25.0
women from well-to-do strata of society, but also illiterate, unskilled women 20.0
belonging to underprivileged segments of society.”20 15.0
10.0
An analysis of the figures of female migration from MEDA countries to 5.0
European countries is an important indicator of the freedom of movement 0.0
ia
ain
om
m
ce
ce
ds
ly
y
an
str
granted to women from the South. Data available on the presence of migrant
I ta
iu
an
ee
lan
Sp
gd
lg
rm
Au
Gr
Fr
er
Be
in
Ge
women from MEDA countries in European countries can be used to analyse
th
dK
Ne
ite
their economic and social situation, their degree of integration and the impact
Un
of migration on their attitudes and behaviour.
19 Abdellah Berrada, Les perspectives de retour des émigrés dans le cadre de la coopération
euro-maghrébine. “In Luigi DE Comite, op cit., pp. 55-74, p. 60.”
20 Aicha Bendiab. (1991), Femmes et migration vers les pays du golfe. “In G. Beauge et F.
Buttner (ed.) 1991. Les migrations dans le monde arabe. Editions du centre national de
recherche scientifique. “Paris. Pp. 110-122. p. 112.”
50.0 50.0
45.0 45.0
40.0 40.0
35.0 35.0
30.0
30.0
25.0
20.0 25.0
15.0 20.0
10.0 15.0
5.0 10.0
0.0 5.0
Germany Austria Belgium Spain Greece Italy Netherlands United
Kingdom 0.0
Germany Austria Belgium Spain Greece Italy Netherlands United
Kingdom
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006).
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006)
Egyptian migration in Europe goes back to the beginning of the 19th century
when, after Napoleon’s campaign (1798-1801), Mohamed Ali sent the first
Egyptian missions of students: in Italy in 1813 to study printing and the arts; The data relating to Israeli women migrants in Europe show limited and
and in France in 1818 for military and naval training. In the 1960s, political, contrasting numbers: fewer than 25 women migrants in Greece, nearly 4,000
economic and social developments in Egypt prompted young people to in Germany and 6,000 in the United Kingdom. For their part, Jordanian
emigrate to Europe and the United States. According to CAMPAs data (2001), migrant women are established primarily in Germany (nearly 3,000), in Italy
824,000 Egyptians emigrated to destinations other than Arab countries, nearly and in the United Kingdom (with a little more than 1,000 women migrants).
80% of whom to the US, Canada, Italy, Australia and Greece. The remaining This is immigration for studies or to accompany a highly skilled spouse.
20% are dispersed in seven West European countries.21 Egyptians established
in OECD countries are generally more educated and more skilled than
those who emigrated to Arab countries. They constitute a sizeable scientific
community. The Egyptian Medical Society in London, for instance, has more
than 120 professors and researchers.22
21 Ayman Zohry. (2006) Egyptian Youth and the European Eldorado: Journeys of Hope
and Despair. “Danish Institute for International Studies, DIIS. Working Paper no 2006/18.
Copenhagen.”
22 Ayman Zohry. (2006). Ibid.
e
ria
in
m
m
ly
y
nd
women established in France (293,000).
ec
an
Ita
do
iu
st
Sp
re
rla
lg
m
Au
ng
Be
G
er
he
Ki
G
et
d
N
te
ni
U
Percentage of Moroccan migrant women in Europe
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006) 50.0
45. 0
40. 0
There is a sizeable number of Lebanese migrant women in Europe. The effects 35. 0
30. 0
of the war and the existence of a rich and attractive Lebanese diaspora
25. 0
encourage many women to emigrate and to get established abroad. The highest 20. 0
number of migrant women is in Germany (15,769) and in France (14,000). 15. 0
10. 0
5. 0
Percentage of Lebanese migrant women in Europe 0. 0
70.0
e
a
m
y
ly
nd
nc
ec
tri
ai
an
iu
do
Ita
Sp
s
re
lg
rla
m
Au
ng
Fr
60.0
Be
G
er
he
Ki
G
et
d
N
te
50.0
ni
U
40.0
30.0 Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006)
20.0
Spain seems to be turning into the country of choice for Moroccan women.
10.0
The geographic and cultural proximity, the rapprochement of mentality, the
0.0
image that the Spanish convey in Morocco as being amiable and less arrogant
e
e
ria
um
om
n
s
y
ly
nd
nc
ec
ai
an
Ita
than the French feed the collective imagination and make Moroccans
st
Sp
i
gd
a
re
lg
rla
m
Au
Fr
Be
n
er
he
Ki
G
think that the Spanish are closer and more likely to accept and understand
et
d
N
te
ni
U
ce
n
s
ria
m
y
ly
nd
ai
ec
an
iu
do
Ita
an
st
Sp
re
rla
lg
m
Au
ng
Fr
Be
G
er
he
Ki
G
et
d
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006)
te
ni
U
The migration figures for Palestinian woman in Europe seem infinitesimal, Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006).
all the more so as many European countries do not provide data on the
matter. The direction of the migration seems clear, with Belgium as the prime
In conclusion, women from MEDA countries are involved in the migration
destination, followed by Austria and Italy.
process to Europe. The number of immigrant women from Maghreb
countries is clearly higher in absolute figures than the number of immigrant
women from Mashreq, which shows a two-prongued trend in migration from
Percentage of Palestinian women in Europe
MEDA countries to Europe, where migration to the Gulf exceeds by far that
40. 0
to European countries. The direction of migration for language reasons is
35. 0
obvious: there are French-speaking immigrants in France and Belgium,
30. 0
25. 0
and English-speaking immigrants in the United Kingdom, Germany and
20. 0
Austria. The Netherlands is chosen as a destination because of the flexibility
15. 0 of the legislation on immigration.
10. 0
Gender not only crosses the migration landscape, but it is an important
5. 0
parameter that shapes and modifies it. The study of the socio-demographic
0. 0
Austria Belgium Greece Italy United Total characteristics (age, marital status, fertility, number of dependent children)
Kingdom of migrants in Europe will make it possible to gauge the development of the
migration process as well as the changes that have occurred in the lives of
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006) immigrant women.
25 Algeria
t5IFTFDPOEHFOFSBUJPO
DPNQSJTJOHUIFXPSLJOHQPQVMBUJPOCFUXFFOBOE 20 Morocco
64 years of age; 15
10
t5IFmSTUHFOFSBUJPO
JFJOBDUJWFBOESFUJSFEQFPQMF
BHFEBOEPWFS
5
of migrants from MEDA countries, by age and sex, to Europe, has led us 0 - 19 20 - 39 4 0- 6 4 65 and over
to select the host countries with available and significant figures. Three old
immigration countries, France, Germany and the United Kingdom, whose
Source: Mediterranean Migration Report 2006-2007, p 385.
figures by age are relatively important, were selected, along with two new
immigration countries, Italy and Spain, with emphasis placed on the presence The Algerian immigrant female population is ageing, with 17% of women
of Moroccan women in Spain and of Egyptian women in Italy. aged over 65, whereas children up to 19 years of age represent only 9.6%. Its
Moroccan counterpart is younger, with children accounting for 28.04% and
The figures available in France concern migrant women from Algeria and
the aged population only 4.8%. The Algerian female population of working age
Morocco. The distribution of migrant women by age from these two countries
is larger in the 40-64 age group (48.7%), compared with 38.7% for Moroccan
shows the seniority of Algerian immigration in France and the continuous
women of the same age group.
flows of Moroccan women to that country.
The first generation of immigrant women from Algeria is clearly more
Table 6 / Proportion of migrant women from MEDA countries in France by age group
numerous than the first generation of immigrant women from Morocco,
reflecting the seniority of Algerian female migration. For Moroccan women,
Algeria Morocco
it is the third generation that is growing, owing to the continuing arrivals in
0-19 9.60 28.04
France and the later family reunification in the 1970s and 1980s.
20-39 24.97 28.45
40-64 48.72 38.69
65 and over 16.69 4.80
Source: Mediterranean Migration Report 2006-2007, p 385.
40-64 14.06 11.86 22.86 13.50 12.05 18.30 20-39 53.50 16.47 35.74 45.36 49.66 49.33
65 and over 2.00 2.37 11.36 3.70 1.94 5.32 40-64 24.74 45.73 36.54 24.40 31.14 39.49
In spite of the variable figures, this table shows a certain homogeneity, 1. France has an ageing immigrant population where the first generation
attesting to the particular character of immigration to Italy. This concerns is predominant;
young women (more than 80% are between 0 and 39 years of age), i.e. single-
2. Germany and the United Kingdom play host to a sizeable immigrant
parent families or women alone. The 40-60 age bracket is not represented
population of working age (20-64 years old), which attests to the seniority
as much (13% to 16% of the overall total), and those over 65 represent a tiny
of female immigration;
proportion.
3. Italy and Spain, recent host countries, play host to a very young female
The distribution per sex within each nationality reflects the new importance
immigration: the proportion of 0-19 year olds is particularly important as is
of female migration to Italy, particularly from Algeria, with 27.5% women
the proportion of women entering the labour force (20-39 years old), which
compared with 72.5% men, whereas these rates amount to 33.5% against
attests to the existence of a relief potential.
66.5% for Egypt and 39.5% compared with 66.5% for Morocco.
Some demographic parameters: changes of attitudes on a cultural basis inmotion.
Table 10 / Proportion of migrants from MEDA countries in Spain by age group
7^gi]gViZ
Age group / country Algeria Morocco
0 - 19 32.5 33.4 This is an important parameter for gauging changes in the demographic
20 – 39 47.3 47.5 behaviour of migrants from MEDA countries. The massive arrival of women
40 – 64 16.2 17.1 in Europe for family reunification, in particular young women of reproductive
age, has disturbed the reference models of immigrant women confronted
65 and over 4.0 2.0
with a society that has different references. They are thus confronted directly,
Total 100.0 100.0
for the first time, with modernity through the dressing practices and behaviour
Source: Mediterranean Migration Report 2006-2007, p.387. of European women, the family structure and the employment of women.
During the 1980s, the burden of births tended to ease among immigrant
A similar tendency emerges for Algeria and Morocco, with the nuance
women, due to the precipitous drop in fertility in generations that reached
nonetheless that there are 170,498 Moroccan immigrant women in Spain as
the age of procreation.23 A comparison between the number of births in the
opposed to only 11,145 Algerian immigrants. Immigration from Algeria to
three communities during the 1980s shows the drop in fertility of immigrant
Spain has been opened up very recently, owing to the problem of language
women from Maghreb.
and the relatively tense political relations between the two countries during
the 1970s and 1980s.
23 Alain Nervez, Les femmes maghrébines en France. “In Khemais Taamallah.( 2005) (ed.) Les
dimensions socioculturelles des maghrébins émigrés en Europe. Publication université de
Tunis. pp 67-82.”
According to an INSEE study from the 1990s, the number of children per
BVig^bdc^VahigjXijgZ
woman has gone from 5.2 to 3.5 among Moroccans, from 5.3 to 3.9 for Tunisians,
and from 4.2 to 3.2 among Algerians. “Stemming from old immigration, Algerian The matrimonial behaviour of immigrants has undergone major changes.
women are cast increasingly in the French mould, and with 3.2 children, they For instance, the age at marriage has been delayed and young couples live
are far below the 7 children per family in the country of origin.”24 The drop in together under more informal arrangements outside marriage. The 1990
the fertility of immigrants seems to constitute a decisive factor in the size of census in France showed the new matrimonial trends of the Maghreb
the immigrant family. communities. In view of their older contacts with France and French culture,
Algerian women seem more Europeanised. Two categories of Moroccan
The rate of abortion, which has been authorised in France since 1975,
women can be distinguished: the younger ones, who are trying to adopt
is higher among foreign than French women, i.e. 0.6% and 0.44% respectively.25
modes of behaviour close to those of Algerian women, and the older ones,
Abortion therefore occupies a particular place as a means for limiting births
who remain attached to the patterns of the society of origin. For their part,
Tunisian women are adopting behaviour patterns not far removed from their
society of origin, but much more adapted to the host society. The fact is that
24 Bakalti Souad, femmes méditerranéennes dans les migrations internationales, le cas de
la France. “In Mohamed CHAREF (2002), (sld). Les migrations au féminin. Les Editions Sud
Contact. Pp. 33-46, p 39.” 26 Youssef Courbage, Utilisation des données censitaires et d’état civil pour mesurer la mortalité
25 (A. Berrada) op cit. et l’émigration des Moroccoains en France. “In Luigi De Comite, op cit., pp. 113-130, p 115.”
8]VeiZg>>>#>bb^\gVcildbZcdci]Z XXZhhd[^bb^\gVcildbZcidi]ZaVWdjgbVg`Zi
aVWdjgbVg`Zi Female migration is multi-dimensional: young and old, single and married,
heads of household and housewives, immigrant women from the 1970s and
Gainful employment is becoming increasingly feminised in the world,
from the 2000s. One common element unites them: the search for and exercise
including among immigrant women (from 34% in 1993 to 40% in 2003).28
of an occupation, or where needed, the projection of a better integration in
The data available show that immigrant women are increasingly seeking to
the economic channels of host countries for their daughters.
get integrated in the world of work. They also show that the rate of working
women is higher in countries of recent immigration such as Spain or Italy, The first immigrants in Europe from MEDA countries came to accompany
as the women who arrive in those countries are young, independent, and their husbands and to look after their children. The justificatory discourse
have their own migration project, the focal point of which is employment. of family reunification raises questions about the balance of the family, the
comfort of immigrant workers so as to be more productive, and above all,
greater integration in the host society. The employment of migrant women
was not on the agenda. Nevertheless, family burdens, new needs created by
28 Claudine Blasco. Forum social med. op cit.
Tunisian women come in second, with a nearly identical distribution by age In these southern European countries (Greece, Italy and Spain), the
group where, for women aged 30 to 49, the employment rate is between participation rate of immigrant women in the labour force is clearly higher,
33% and 36%. The peaks were noted among younger women, aged 20 to 29. as migrant women are on average younger and have work experience in their
For their part, Moroccan women have the lowest employment rate in the 30- country. They are often literate, with varied levels of education, and are above
49 age bracket (26%-29%), while the figure for younger women aged 20 to 29 is all suffused by the culture of employment and the independence it provides.
nearly identical to that of the other Maghreb countries. The first generation of Young, single, widowed or divorced, these women actually migrated in order
migrants, often illiterate and from rural backgrounds, could not really manage to work.
to get integrated in the European world of work. The greatest approximation
among women from Maghreb is the higher employment rate among young Women alone, from MEDA countries, and in particular from Morocco, living
women aged 20 to 24, which is explained by the nearly compulsory schooling in Italy and especially in Spain, migrated solely in order to find work. The
for girls, their education and their desire to integrate. Before the age of 20-24, market demand for foreign workers is constantly up, establishing thus
the employment rates have become constant because of schooling. a migration dynamic that includes not only migrant women but several
social players, including the families, networks, agencies and the State. The
The main causes that explain these low rates of employment among economic integration of new arrivals occurred in major sectors such as
first generation immigrant women are varied, and include having young services, agriculture and hotel and catering.
children29, lack of familiarity with how institutions function in host countries,
apprehension about the alien outside world, and the arrival of successive '#HZXidghd[i]ZZXdcdbn
waves of migrants. All the more so as the mentality of the husbands was not
yet ready to accept their wives working outside the home and see them leave Migrant men are distributed in many different sectors of the economy,
every day, leaving household work and children behind. whereas migrant women, irrespective of their nationality, tend to be more
concentrated in the service sector, which employs nearly three-fourths of
There are pronounced differences in employment rates between French and
foreign women. Other sectors have emerged in recent years, such as trade
Maghreb women, showing different itineraries and life projects, making the
and interpreting. In the old immigration countries, migrant women used to
lag of women from Maghreb, especially from Morocco, in joining the world
be very present in industry. But changes have occurred in the secondary
of work, all the more flagrant. Furthermore, in France, the labour market has
sector, in particular textiles, which led to a reduction of nearly 20% of the
been invaded by the baby-boom generations. In 1990, women aged close to 50
workforce.30 A much reduced number of immigrants works in the agricultural
had an employment rate of 71.6%.
sector. The search for low-paid, docile workers prepared to perform chores
A ‘new migration model’ emerged in the new immigration countries of southern led to the recruitment of women to replace men in the agricultural tasks.
Europe, quite different from that in northern Europe. An unorganised, Migrant women are still marginally present in mines and construction.
Domestic work is the sector where demand for immigrant female labour is
29 Migrant women from third countries are far more inclined to have young children in their
families than are women nationals. In Jennifer Rubin, Michael S. Rendall, Lila Rabinovich,
Flavia Tsang, Barbara Janta Constantijn van Oranje-Nassau. (2008). Migrant Women in the 30 Souad Bakalti, Femmes Méditerranéennes dans les migrations internationales. Le cas de
Eu Labour Force. Summary of Findings. Commissioned by the European Commission, la France. In les migrations au féminin. Collectif, coordination par Mohamed Charef. “Ed Sud
Directorate General for Employment, Social Affairs and Equal Opportunities. 2008. Contact. 2002 . pp33-46. p. 42.”
Studies show that immigrant women who create businesses are still rare, but Table 13 / Occupational concentration among native and third-country women
the sector is growing. In the case of France, the number of migrant women in certain sectors, 2005 32
entrepreneurs nearly doubled between 1982 and 1990, from 6,532 to 14,109.31
The businesses created concern essentially commercial services and trade: Types of migrant women Native migrant women Migrant women from
hotel and catering, hairdressing, foods, clothing shops, and retail, especially and sectors in the EU Total 57% third countries. Total 65%
in the informal sector. The schooling of girls, their learning and success at
Sales and elementary services 16% 25%
school, and the duration of immigration have enabled an orientation shift to
other types of employment, such as in commercial services, administration, Assistants and care providers 14% 18%
teaching, entrepreneurship or community services and cultural activities.
Even domestic services (housekeepers) have tended to diminish for the Clerical employees 13% 9%
benefit of new services in cleaning and maintenance firms (S. Bakalti). Other assistant positions 8% 6%
We may deduce from the foregoing that migrant women work in many
different sectors. They vary depending on the country of residence and the Teachers 6% 6%
legislation in force. Nevertheless, given the dearth of harmonised data, it is Models, salesgirls, hostesses 6% 5%
difficult to conduct a detailed analysis of the many occupations. We shall
therefore limit our attention to sectors where the migrant women are present Source: Données de l’Enquête sur les forces de travail de l’UE (EU LFS or LabourForce Survey) de 2005.33
44 AENEAS, explains that Moroccan women do not run away because some farmers keep the
passport of their workers during their entire stay, as well as the fact that they must learn
Spanish and that they are made aware of the dangers of illegal migration.
45 Petites mains marocaines pour la fraise espagnole. www.algerie-dz.cm/forums/archive.
10/05/2008_
As regards the countries of destination, highly skilled women from Mashreq Highly skilled women work in traditionally female sectors such as healthcare,
countries tend to head for Anglo-Saxon countries, in particular Egyptian teaching and research. There are also expertise lines in industry or information
women. For the Maghreb countries, the highest concentration is in Europe, technology. The feminisation of migration, especially the migration of skills,
although there is a skilled diaspora also in the USA, Canada and the Gulf raises specific economic problems. There are many studies, in fact, that insist
countries. This is particularly the case of Tunisia. The classification per on the role of education of women in economic and social development,
sex, according to the areas of specialisation on the list of skills of Tunisian confirming that the male-female gap in education is an obstacle for sustainable
emigrant women, drawn up by the Office of Tunisians Abroad, shows the development. These countries are therefore in the process of losing part of
scope of this movement, especially for women. the major growth potential represented by women.
52 International Labour Office. Towards a Fair Deal for Migrant Workers in the Global Economy.
International labour Conference, 92nd session, 2004. p. 23.
53 Frederic Docquier (FNRS, UCL), Abdeslam Marfouk (ULB), Sara Salomone (UCL, Tor Vergata
University) and Khalid Sekkat (ULB), Are Skilled Women more Migratory than Skilled Men?.
“October 2008, online.” 55 Abderazak Bek Haj Zekri, Les compétences Tunisiannes à l’étranger. “CARIM. Rapport
54 Table drawn up by Docquier, Lowell and Marfouk ( 2007), ibid., p. 5. 2009.”
Prostitution is also an occupation that immigrant women engage in. There French Total foreign Non-EU
EU nationals
are no figures, but it would appear that the number of prostitutes from nationals nationals nationals
southern Mediterranean countries in Europe has increased, or at least they
Men 7.0 14.8 7.3 19.6
have become more visible. Many of them, from the northeast shores of the
Women 8.0 18.3 8.9 26.1
Mediterranean, were tricked by promises of marriages or employment in the
Total 7.5 16.3 8.1 22.2
eldorado of Western Europe, or got caught in the nets of Mafia trafficking
rings. In Italy, half of the 50,000 prostitutes are foreign and the police estimate Source: INSEE, Employment survey from the 1st to the 4th quarter 2007. European Union of 27 countries.
that they generate €50 million per year. In France, half of the prostitutes are Metropolitan France, working people aged 15 and over (age at the time of the survey).
thought to be foreign and generate an annual turnover of €1.5 billion.58
59 Jennifer Rubin, Michael S. Rendall, Lila Rabinovich, Flavia Tsang, Barbara Janta Constantijn
58 Claudine Blasco. ATTAC France, Commission on Women, Gender and Globalisation. van Oranje-Nassau. (2008), op. cit.
“December 2003.” 60 Abdallah Berrada, op cit.
8]VeiZg>K#>ciZ\gVi^dcd[b^\gVcildbZc his wife to France, had three daughters, and the entire family acquired French
nationality. All three daughters went on to higher education in France, and do
^c:jgdeZVcXdjcig^Zh not want to hear about integration. They consider themselves “both French
and Moroccan”, and impugn the term “young people with an immigrant
“The fact that a first mover, born abroad to foreign parents, arrives in the
background”. Soraya, 28 years old, has considerable experience on her CV
country without knowing a word of French, can become Vice-President of
gained in “France, Germany and the United States”. She has gone back to
the National Assembly, a general counsel or mayor of a large city, would
school to earn a master’s degree (she already holds a bachelor’s degree in
suggest that there is finally an efficient integration model the French way.”62
international marketing). Yasmina, the eldest, aged 30, is a business unit
Arthur Paecht63
manager in a large office automation company, and is married to a Frenchman
Integration is a fundamental element in the processes put in motion by legal of Portuguese origin. The father respects the choices his daughters have made.
migration. Nevertheless, the question asked since the 1980s concerns the Naturally, he passed on to them his religious culture, but that of an “Islam of
ways to integrate migrants established with their families that do not plan to tolerance and open-mindedness”. Yasmina would not dream of asserting that
go back to their country of origin. Immigrants of course do various jobs, but she observes Ramadan, does not eat pork and does not drink alcohol. For her,
they are not very integrated in the host society. Women who came through “religion is a strictly personal matter”. She deplores “all these debates about
family reunification get integrated only slowly and gradually in the economic Islam from the veil to the burqa, finding them surrealistic.”
and social structures of the host country, whereas their children tend to get
The father never imposed on his daughters the annual ritual of travelling to
integrated more easily, because they were born or arrived in the host country
Morocco, preferring to ‘tighten the belt’ so that they could discover France
when they were very young, all the more so as the school plays an important
during their holidays. Like many second generation Moroccans residing in
role on the cultural socialisation front. The integration of women who came
France, Mr Amri’s daughters do not exclude that they might move to Morocco
alone for economic reasons proceeds separately; it depends on their level of
one day. “If a professional opportunity arises…not in order to get back to
education, the occupation carried out, and the degree of integration in the
their roots.” They are French, but remain attached to the Moroccan traditions
world of work.
handed down to them. They have dual nationality, but nonetheless live in a
more cosmopolitan environment than merely Moroccan or even French.
In the mid 1970s, political, ideological and legal stakes developed around Council Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 establishing a general
the idea of integration. Awareness that labour migration, previously seen as framework for equal treatment in employment and occupation,74 which
temporary, was changing to immigration with permanent residence, turned introduces protection against discrimination based on religion or belief,
the question of integration into one of the main concerns of the public disability, age or sexual orientation;
authorities and a subject of political debate.
The EU instrument includes an incentive section which materialised in
The family reunification policy naturally heightened the problem of integrating November 2000 with the publication of a programme for the fight against
immigrants in the host societies, particularly for the old immigration countries. discrimination for the period 2001-2006;
Nevertheless, its implementation remains contingent on ‘controlling migration
flows, and the regulation of stay and repatriation’. The fact remains, however, The directive that provides protection against discrimination based on race or
that the integration effort is a shared responsibility incumbent, albeit to ethnic origin is very important in several respects. It establishes a vast system
different degrees, upon the public authorities of the countries of origin and of of protection against direct and indirect discrimination and even provides for
destination, NGOs, and the migrants themselves. affirmative action.75 It is applied to areas where there was no EU competence
(#;gdbcVi^dcVaid:J^ciZ\gVi^dceda^Xn 70
71
CIG of 1991.
Commission Européenne. 1985, Orientations pour une politique communautaire des
migrations. “COM(85) 48 def. Bruxelles: CEC, 1985.”
72 Five Member States had immediately objected, and the Court of Justice of the European
Communities (CJEC) ruled in their favour in 1987 by overturning the decision: there was no
Community competence on integration policy for third-country nationals.
73 Directive 2000/43/EC of 28 June 2000 (Official Journal of the European Communities L 180 of
19 July 2000).
68 Didier Fassin (op cit. p. 404) underscores, by way of (significant) example, an analysis of 74 Directive 2000/78/EC of 27 November 2000 (OJEC L 303 of 2 December 2000) and Council
the general table of contents in the fifteen years of the Revue européenne des migrations Decision of 27 November 2000 (OJEC L 303/23 of 2 December 2000).
internationales which shows that not only the term “discrimination” no longer appears in a 75 The directive actually stipulates that “the prohibition of discrimination should be without
single title of an article, whereas “racism” or “segregation” occurs many times in such titles. prejudice to the maintenance or adoption of measures intended to prevent or compensate for
69 Nacira Guénif-Souilamas, (2001), L’intégration, une idée épuisée, in Libération, “12 July disadvantages suffered by a group of persons of a particular racial or ethnic origin.”
2001:” and Michel Wiewiorka, Faut-il en finir avec l’intégration? Cahiers de la Sécurité
Intérieure. “45, 2001, pp. 9-20.”
The arrival of young, second and even third generation migrants, with a As Abdelamlek Sayad aptly put it, “the immigration of families entails
new perception of migration and their role as nationals from southern assimilation, irrespective of the terms and various euphemisms”91 used to
Mediterranean, particularly Muslim countries, with different traditions, refer to this social reality (adaptation, integration, insertion). In a process of
questioned the dominant miserabilist and victimised mindset, and showed separating from one society and merging with another, the frames of reference
both a greater motivation to integrate and a greater concern for the respect of the country of origin disintegrate to make room for the adoption of new
of fundamental rights. ones, more adapted to the host country and its expectations, thereby shaping
the behaviour of migrants who merge with society and are recognised only by
the family name or the colour of their skin.
90 Resolution of the Council of Europe. Women and Religion in Europe. 15 September 2005. 91 Abdelmalek Sayad, (1999), La double absence. “Paris, Editions Seuil, p 111.”
92 Statistics were not always available for the other MEDA countries
Total Total Women Percentage of Israeli Migrant Total Women Percentage of Lebanese
Total Migrants
Migrants Migrants Women in Europe Migrants migrant
Germany 9,798 3,854 39.3 Germany 38,028 15,769 41.5
Austria 2,280 1,015 44.5 Austria 1,062 640 60.3
Belgium 3,325 1,433 43.1 Belgium 4652 1,780 38.3
Spain 2,660 982 36.9 Spain 3,065 969 31.6
France 4,281 NA NA France 33,000 14,000 42.4
Greece 102 24 23.5 Greece 550 236 42.9
Italy 2,332 887 38.0 Italy 3,471 1,230 35.4
Netherlands 4,780 2,067 43.2 Netherlands 2,939 1216 41.4
United Kingdom 14,000 5,741 41.0 United Kingdom 19,000 4,499 23.7
Total 43,558 16,003 36.7 Total 105,767 40,339 38.1
Distribution of Jordanian migrant women in Europe according to statistics Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006),
of the host countries Distribution of Moroccan migrant women in Europe according to statistics
of the host countries
Total Total Women Percentage of Jordanian
Migrants Migrants Women in Europe
Total Women Percentage of Moroccan
Germany 7,716 2,857 37.0 Total Migrants
Migrants migrant women in Europe
Austria 644 209 32.5
Germany 66,189 28722 43.4
Belgium 682 228 33.4
Austria 1563 699 44.7
Spain 2,097 488 23.3
Belgium 163,626 76,676 46.9
France 686 NA NA
Spain 683,102 253662 37.1
Greece 8 2 25.0
France 625,000 293,000 46.9
Italy 2680 1,032 38.5
Greece 491 111 22.6
Netherlands 804 308 38.3
Italy 365,908 149,391 40.8
United Kingdom 3,105 1,194 38.5
Netherlands 167,063 78,524 47.0
Total 18422 6,318 34.3
United Kingdom 16,000 5640 35.3
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006),
Total 2,088,942 886,425 42.4
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006),
Distribution of Palestinian migrant women in Europe according to statistics Percentage of migrant women from MEDA countries in Europe by country of origin
of the host countries
Total Migrants % of Women Migrants
Total Women Percentage of Palestinian Algeria 355,880 23.47
Total Migrants
Migrants migrant women in Europe
Egypt 47,274 3.12
Germany NA NA NA Israel 16,003 1.06
Austria 188 57 30.3 Jordan 6,318 0.42
Belgium 137 46 33.6 Lebanon 40,339 2.66
Spain NA NA NA Morocco 886,425 58.45
France 620 NA NA Syria 22,697 1.50
Greece 754 229 30.4 Palestinian Territories 521 0.03
Italy 316 88 27.8 Tunisia 141,107 9.30
Netherlands NA NA NA Total 1,516,564 100
United Kingdom 2490 101 4.1
Source: Our table based on CARIM data, 2008/2009. pp 473-477.
Total 4,505 521 11.6
Source: CARIM, 2008/2009, pp 473-477. Recent data (2008), except for France (2005) and Greece (2006).
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Introduction ........................................................................................ 236 3.1.4. The female diaspora of the MEDA countries in Europe:
I. The overall context - migration and development: a new contribution to development
the positive aspect of migration in the of the countries of origin ................................................................284
Euro-Mediterranean region ......................................................... 241
3.1.5. Partnership and cooperation between associations
1.1. Development, a fast-changing concept ........................................... 242 of immigrants and European nationals ......................................286
1.2. Migration and development: a global, positive approach to IV. The impact of migration on empowerment of women
migration .............................................................................................. 243 and the evolution of the family ................................................... 289
1.3. The integration of women in the development of 4.1. Migration of women from MEDA countries to Europe:
MEDA countries: Contribution of the Barcelona process ............. 252 liberation and resistance .................................................................... 292
II. Remittances sent to the countries of origin: 4.1.1. Migration of women as a factor of social transformation .... 294
what participation for migrant women? ..................................... 261
4.1.2. Zones of resistance to change .................................................. 298
2.1. Individual transfers to improve living conditions of the family .... 264
4.2. The daughters of migrants, with youth comes change................... 301
2.2. Remittances invested in real estate
or entrepreneurial activities .............................................................. 266 4.2.1. Parent-child relations ................................................................ 301
2.3. Remittances and investments ............................................................ 267 4.3. Migrant women and religious practice:
religion coming to the rescue of lost identity .................................. 307
2.4. Channels of transmission ................................................................... 268
4.4. Migrant women and European women, an ambivalent relation ... 311
III. Role of the diaspora in the development
of the country of origin .......................................................................270 Conclusions ......................................................................................... 315
2 Studies and reports of the United Nations, the World Bank, OECD, the European
1 Report of the Global International Migration Commission (2005). “p 25.” Commission, the European Parliament, the African Development Bank, Euro-African
conferences, etc.
8 Une cagnotte très convoitée. Al-khiyal. Janvier 2006. www.Algeria.com/forum/al-khiyal/html. 11 Med 2005, p 227.
9 The World Bank estimated these remittances at 240 billion dollars in 2007, whereas PDA 12 African Development Bank (ADB) Group. March, 2009, The Bank’s approach to migrants’
represented only 103 billion dollars for the same year. remittances. Migration and development initiative. “p 4.”
10 Report of the French CES. 16 May 2008. L’argent des migrants au service du 13 Med 2005, L’année 2004 dans l’espace euro-méditerranéen. “CIDOB Foundation. Barcelona.
codéveloppement. p 226.”
A general consensus has been found in the Euro-Mediterranean policies, This overview of migration and development serves as a framework to better
agreements and large conferences of the MEDA countries and the EU on situate and analyse the participation of migrant women in the development of
the need to promote mobility of migrants, so that they can contribute to the their countries of origin. Consequently, we need to say a word about the real
development of the countries of origin. The idea of co-development is slowly situation pertaining to the three aspects of this question: women, the Euro-
progressing. However, there is a question: the migrants’ funds, the development Mediterranean region, and the North-South Mediterranean partnership.
projects that they set up, the expertise they offer to the countries of origin
– can these suffice on their own to settle development problems or are they 1. The economic, social and cultural situation of women in MEDA is in an
one of the reliable parameters alongside DFI and PDA, good governance and upheaval. The efforts made by the States and international organisations
participative democracy in the countries of origin? have given women a new place on the political, economic and social
scenes of these countries. However, in 2002, the first UNPD report on the
Contribution to development and maintaining and reinforcing ties Arab world defined the difficult condition of women as one of the major
with the emigrant community by the countries of origin obstacles to development in the geographic area.19 How has migration been
able to give women a new status as contributing to development in the
All MEDA countries experiencing significant migration to Europe have set
countries of origin?
up institutions, often ministries, centres, councils and offices to organise
their relations with their expatriates. These institutions adopt two major 2. The Euro-Mediterranean region includes two shores that appear to be
guidelines, one economic and the other cultural.18 The economic guideline strongly contradictory. On the one side the European Union, a highly
consists of maximising the benefit that the country can draw from the developed geographic, political and economic entity and on the southern
diaspora. The idea is to encourage emigrants to transfer a large part of their side of the Mediterranean a series of independent States, without horizontal
savings to the country of origin and to make as many investments as possible. cooperation, that are generally considered as developing or emerging
In all countries of emigration, this has encouraged the adoption of banking countries. The number of immigrants is growing continually: how does
and tax reforms, liberalising circulation and investment of funds. this massive mobility express women’s aspirations in MEDA countries and
their capacity to be true agents of development?
The cultural guideline responds to the concern of the countries of origin
and of the migrants themselves to maintain solid ties with each other. If the 3. The Euro-Mediterranean partnership began in 1995 with great ambitions, but it
first generation has remained attached to the standards and values of its dealt timidly and ambiguously with the promotion of women and women’s rights.
country of origin, the arrival of the second and third generations has meant a It took several years, nearly a decade,20 for the promotion of women’s rights to
major cultural transition within the family due to the intervention of school, be considered an essential instrument for development in the region. How did
the media and other institutions. Ministries and public institutions responsible the Euro-Mediterranean partnership put an end to this delay and invest directly
for emigration have developed a series of activities allowing each generation in a gender strategy to improve the integration of women in the development
to revive its national and Arab identity (language courses, holidays in the of MEDA countries, the only alternative to ensure the promotion of women in
home country, cultural centres in the host country, and they appointment of neighbouring countries and, consequently, reduce illegal migration of women?
Arabic language teachers in host countries), and Moslem identity (religious
19 See UNDP, Arab Human Development Report 2002: Creating Opportunities for Future
18 Philippe Fargues CARIM, IUE and Hervé Le Bras EHESS, INED. Generations. “New York, Oxford University Press, 2002.”
IPMED Notes N°1, September 2009. 20 See Euro-Mediterranean Women’s Conference in 2005.
This participation came earlier in the European Union where large efforts
have been made to promote equal opportunities between men and women in
economic, social and civil life. Participation in decision taking, consideration 21 Aïcha Belarbi, March 2002. La contribution des femmes dans le partenariat euro-
méditerranéen. “Thé de Médéa. Bruxelles.”
28 Rabéa Naciri and Nusair Isis, op cit. 29 Op. cit.: Euromed women’s conference conclusions.
The concept of sending funds as underlined in a study of the ADB does not While remittances from migrant women are important, they are nevertheless
refer only to simple individual operations, but corresponds to an integrated, hard to determine. The real volume and regularity of these remittances
dynamic system where each player, in this case the migrant, the beneficiary, from female immigrants to their countries of origin are still quantitatively
the government, the formal financial intermediaries and the informal little-known, due to the many channels they go through, be they official
operator, has his own motivations and strategies. The contribution and use of circuits, repatriation by the immigrants themselves or by informal means.
remittances favours the trend to emigration. In the context of globalisation, Remittances express the social and economic success of migrants of both
it is observed that migration of women is often promoted and facilitated by sexes. A woman migrant who regularly or irregularly sends funds to her
families and governments of issuing countries, as the migrant women are family proves that her departure and her installation in a foreign country
recognised for their great propensity to send back money.33 This is true despite were successful. The positive image of migration that she carries often helps
the fact that their incomes are lower than those of men, a good proportion of develop the culture of migration in younger women of the family or from the
their wages is dedicated not only to their parents, their spouses and children, same area. The Saadia El Hariri study on female Moroccan immigrants in the
but also to various members of the family, whereas men generally send funds Paris area, although it dealt with a limited sample, shows their determination
to their parents or their wives. to be present both here and there. The first observation is that all the female
migrants send remittances to the country of origin. The amount sent back is
Many studies show that migration of women has become a family strategy for relatively small, varying between € 75 and € 90, while some women admit that
getting out of poverty. The World Bank study “Moving out of Poverty” done they send much less. These are essentially women who came in the context
in 2007 shows that in communities that accept migration of women, several of family regrouping, who do not work or have a part-time job. The fact that
households benefit from remittances, thus proving that the integration of life is expensive, that transport and housing costs are high, the presence of
women on the labour market is crucial to get households out of poverty. young children and in certain cases the husband’s unemployment are what
It also underlines that even the most traditionalist households want to send is behind these very small monetary flows. The women say that they reduce
their expenditures to put together a small amount. “These tiny remittances
33 Carlota Raminez, Mar Garcia Dominguez, and Julia Miguez Maorais. (2005), Crossing
borders: remittances, gender and development. “INSTRAW. United Nations international
research and training Institute for the advancement of women. 2005.”
37 UNPD Human Development Report 2009, World Bank reports 2005, 2007;
34 Saadia Hariri, Les transferts monétaires et commerciaux des femmes marocaines et le “FNUAP report 2006.”
développement local au Maroc. “In : M. Charef et Patrick Gonin.(2005): Emigrés, immigrés 38 Catalina Herrera, Nora Dudwick, and Edmundo Murrigarra. (2008), Remittances gender
dans le développement. local, Editions sud contact. PP 117-131. p 118.” and children welfare outcomes in Morocco. The EC-Funded World Bank programme of
35 Vermande, 1994, p 74. international migration from MENA and Poverty reduction strategies. “September.”
36 ADB Group. Op cit , p 8 -9. 39 Catalina Herrera, Nora Dudwick, and Edmundo Murrigarra. (2008). Op cit, p 6.
A portion of the migrants’ funds are also intended for investments in real This kind of project is a source of personal satisfaction for the migrant,
estate (construction, purchase or modernisation of housing). This indeed male or female, and even an expression of his/her success that gives him/
is an important sector of investment for the migrant. Fitting out a place to her a name in the field in the country of origin and a reputation outside it.
live in the country of origin enables the migrant to move from one area to Financially speaking, this is often presented as a type of savings, but on the
another and from one space to the other, without problem. In a rural area, whole, it is in fact really a way of structuring the immigrants’ life straddling
migrants have become the main real estate investor, because they are among the country of origin and the host country.40
the rare people who can acquire a lot or a house, given the high prices of real
estate. In this context, the migrant contributes to improving and modernising '#(#GZb^iiVcXZhVcY^ckZhibZcih
housing, which, on the other hand, results in a rise in the real estate market
The funds are also used for projects for basic infrastructure, such as the
that can become hardly affordable for local populations. Real estate has a
construction of sections of roads, bridges, setting up drinking water schemes,
dual advantage: it represents a sure investment, provides an income from
drilling wells, installing electric and telephone lines and other public works
the invested funds, particularly since it is relatively simple and inexpensive
such as construction or restoring of a mosque or a cemetery, or putting a football
to manage. For certain migrants, these investments prepare a possible return
field back into shape. Sometimes, these projects are co-financed in the context
and add a solid basis for the attachment to their society of origin.
of cooperation between civil society and international organisations.41 In the
The ADB study showed the importance of resources allocated to investment absence of research that makes this contribution financially visible, it is more
in real estate or in the productive sector. The volume varies between 25% and than probable that the contribution of women to this type of investment is at
60% of total remittances, depending on the social-economic profiles of the a basic stage, given the still recent character of female economic migration,
senders. The most qualified and best paid migrants allocate more resources to
investments in real estate or other productive activities. Women have begun
40 Thomas Lacroix, Les organisations de solidarité internationale issues de l’immigration
to invest in real estate, although it is not possible to give a figure. It is probable marocaines : les motifs transnationaux du développement local. “In: M. Charef and Patrick
that the higher the incomes, the more women construct or purchase housing Gonin.(2005).” Emigrés, immigrés dans le développement local. “Editions Sud contact.
pp 191-205. p 195.”
in their countries of origin. The situation is easier for single women than for 41 UNDP 2009, “p 90.”
8]VeiZg>>>#GdaZd[i]ZY^VhedgV^ci]Z take over space that previously was barely accessible or closed. The female
diaspora now presents a new aspect: more resourceful, more dynamic,
YZkZadebZcid[i]ZXdjcignd[dg^\^c working with limited resources but great conviction and confidence.
Diasporas are groups that share a common memory, culture and religion. At a crossroads of immigration movements and women’s movements,
They capitalise a set of standards, values and practices in the economic, social actors and witnesses of the transformation of European societies and the
and cultural fields. The classical approach to diasporas uses the existence of mobilisation of women in host countries in political, economic and civil life,
a strong community conscious as the basic criterion. Today, ‘diaspora’ has diaspora women’s movements have given greater visibility to foreign women,
become a synonym of ‘population of national origin living abroad’. However, and a greater echo to their actions. They have also changed perceptions
the diaspora is far from being a consistent, coherent community because it is with regard to them, as passive agents they have become effective actors of
divided into distinct social groups, depending on the social-economic, social development. However, their actions are often still veiled and the memory of
and cultural levels and membership in a territory. them tends to deteriorate because of dispersion of their initiatives, the lack of
access to resources and poor documentation.A historical work to safeguard
this memory, preserve and enhance records and reinterpret the history of
46 UNPD Human Development Report 2009, “p 8.” immigrant women’s movements is indispensable.
47 Philippe Fargues CARIM, IUE and Hervé Le Bras.
48 Philippe Fargues CARIM, IUE and Hervé Le Bras, op cit.
49 Françoise De Bel-Air. Populations, territoires, citoyennetés à l’aube du XXIe siècle.
In Migrations et politique au Moyen-Orient.
270 :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> :JGDB:9B><G6I>DC>> 271
The study of origins and evolution of these movements shows the diasporas are not simply service providers to families who stayed in the home
preoccupations, demands and actions supported by migrant women to country – they are beginning to be real institutions for economic development,
gain their place in the host country and reinforce ties with the country of and organisations for the struggle for migrant women’s rights and for equality,
origin, thus creating a dynamic that changes with the issues, the contexts democracy and respect of human rights in the countries of origin.
and migratory policies. These movements can be considered not only social
movements but also political movements that have given impetus to a Our objective in this chapter is to throw a certain light on the history of
generation of militants, giving rise to demands for migrant women’s rights and immigrant women’s movements comprising women originating from MEDA
their integration in development. Personal paths, collective commitments, countries, by answering the following questions: how did immigrant women
testify to the preservation and maintenance of ties between generations of get involved in the associative movement? What was their contribution to the
immigrants and between immigrants with their compatriots in the country of development of their country of origin and their contribution to improved living
origin. At the intersection of the feminist combat and the fight for democracy conditions of members of their families, their towns or regions? What was
and human rights, these movements have shown migrant men’s and women’s their contribution to social change and more particularly to empowerment of
strength and capacity to act and innovate. migrant women or women who stayed in their countries of origin?
The example of France is very pertinent, an example that can be generalised (#&#I]ZVhhdX^Vi^kZbdkZbZci/WVX`\gdjcYVcYZkdaji^dc
to other European countries. Migrants from MEDA countries, essentially
The birth and evolution of movements of immigrant women and the paths
from the Maghreb, have created several types of associations50 for the fight
of their leaders cannot be analysed outside their sociological and political
for women’s rights, undocumented immigrants, access to jobs and the right of
context, and their interaction with other social movements.51
free movement. These organisations are growing in number to build solidarity
between the country of origin in the host country, and between associations of We can identify four major stages52 in recent decades.
migrants and local associations. The number and diversity of women’s NGOs
has resulted in the creation of women’s networks or Euro-Mediterranean 1. The 1970s, birth of immigrant women’s associations: actions of militant
women’s networks to which migrants have contributed significantly. A intellectuals.
tangible example is the Mediterranean Women’s Forum, focusing on the
2. The 1980s, a new dynamic introduced by the second generation: immigrants’
promotion of women’s creativity in literature and crafts, which has enabled
daughters join the movements.
the development of a women’s economic network around the Mediterranean,
particularly valorising the work and creativity of immigrant women. 3. The 1990s, immigrant women take action to defend their rights in the
countries of origin and destination.
The creation of these associations has pooled actions and brought together
various skills needed to start collective projects on a large scale for the 4. The years 2000, growth of associations for development.
community and to create a new dynamic within the host country. A study by
Daum (2000) lists 720 migrant associations in France working in 32 different
countries. This is an initial estimate and apparently there are in fact still more.
In recent years, immigrant women have initiated or participated in collective
development projects with very positive effects for the country of origin. The
51 Claudie Lesselier: Aux origines des mouvements de femmes de l’immigration. Conference :
Histoire, genre et migrations (March 2006)
http://www.femmes-histoire-immigration.org/claudie.
50 (Groupe femmes algériennes, collectif femmes immigrées, collectif des femmes du 52 In the article above, Claude Lesselier identifies three major periods, that we have revisited
Maghreb, les Yeux Ouverts, les nanas beurs, etc.) and reinterpreted, adding a fourth one starting in 2000.
62 Nadia Châabane L’émergence des mouvements de femmes dans l’immigration des années
quatre-vingt. “Round Table 11 March 2004.” http://www.femmes-histoire-immigration.org/liste. 64 Mujeres mediterraneas. http//www.mediterraneas.org Round Table: September 2005.
63 Interviews of Alima Thiery-Boumediene. 1991. Hommes et migrations, n°1141, March 1991. Cordoba. Las otras españolas)
67 Bouamama. S and Sad Saoud. H. (1996), Familles maghrébines de France. “Paris, Editions No doubt, migrations influence and shape the life of migrants, as has been
Desclée de Brouwer p. 74-82.”
68 Aicha Belarbi, Biographies de femmes migrantes marocaines en Belgique. “December 2004.
shown in the previous chapters. Gender determines who migrates, why and
Not published.”
79 Insertion on the labour market, even for menial activities in the case of housework, enables
immigrant women to save money, so they can benefit from a large part or their entire wages
78 Boukhobza Noria (1997), La noce au féminin : transmission des valeurs culturelles féminines (servants live at the employer’s home).
dans le contexte migratoire maghrébin. “pp 53-61, in Migrations Société, vol 9, n° 52.” 80 Nacira Guénif Souilamas. (2000), Les beurettes. “Editions Grasset et Fasquelle. p 15l.”
These women take their stance with regard to culture, to religion, in favour
of modernity that takes account of various cultural parameters, demanding
access to school and work, excluding any non-emancipating aspects of
tradition. By rejecting a patriarchal ideology, these religiously active women
also make claims to recover their dignity. The relations between tradition
and modernity, which are often fluctuating, can also become a haphazard
combination of value systems with different references, causing ruptures,
cracks and stopgap measures that make it possible to live in a multicultural
world. If men and women are to benefit from migration, there must be new
focus on an approach to human rights concerned with the equality of men
and women, to ensure that development policies and practices are not limited
to the economic aspects of migration (remittances to the country of origin
or investments by the diaspora, for example), but embrace a broader vision
of development including culture, human rights and equality. This means
putting greater focus on certain factors such as invisibility, lack of protection,
illegality, working conditions, violence and stigmatisation. These factors are
decidedly gender-specific, given the different needs of men and women in
terms of health, employment, resources and information, which are clearly
apparent in the case of migrant women in an irregular situation.
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Introduction ........................................................................................ 322 5. Irregular migration of women and violence of spouses ...............364
1. Illegal migration: the general context .......................................... 328 5.1. Violence in the arranged or Internet marriages.................................. 364
1.1. ‘Irregular’ migration means different things .......................................332 5.2. Domestic violence with regard to women in
an irregular situation.............................................................................. 365
1.2. Irregular migration: a few determinant factors ..................................332
5.3. Health of migrant women in an irregular situation ............................ 367
1.3. Irregular migration – between profit and security .............................333
Conclusions and recommendations ....................................................372
2. Irregular migration: legal aspects ................................................. 334
2 The vast majority of refuges from the Sudan, followed by those from Somalia, Ethiopia,
Eritrea and the African Great Lakes region are in Egypt. Jane Freedman and Bahija Jamal.
(2008), Violence à l’égard des femmes migrantes et réfugiées dans la région
euro-méditerranéenne. Études de cas : France, Italie, Egypte & Maroc.
1 IOM, Report 2008.World Migration Report. “© Copyright 2008 Réseau euro-méditerranéen des droits de l’Homme p 63.”
By their very nature, the movements of clandestine immigrants and the In this part, we will go into the three main dimensions (legal, economic and
presence of irregular immigrants in European countries are hard to tally. social) of illegal immigration, after having described the overall context in
While statistics of persons arrested in an illegal situation are at times available which illegal migration takes place, more particularly for women.
in host countries, it is hard to find reliable, consistent and comparable
data, particularly on women. We can only deal with estimates and they are 1. The legal dimension: we will examine the international legal arsenal, in
contradictory, dissimilar, partial and even distorted, when it comes to a particular international treaties and European legislation, that protect
breakdown by gender. To compensate for the lack of data on the question irregular migrants, in order to take a look simultaneously at the new
of migrant women, we agreed with the persons responsible for the Euromed orientations of European policy and the logic behind the security tendencies
Migration II Programme, to include a chapter on the irregular migration of in force in Europe today, as well as the mechanisms implemented to
women from MEDA countries to Europe. In this part of our study, which was protect irregular migrants and prevent trafficking of women.
the hardest one to do, we tried to cast light on the problem in a pertinent way, 2. The economic dimension: we will identify the real issues of the European
to define new channels for research and to draw the attention of decision employment market, particularly the demand by employers for cheap
takers to the need to undertake research and studies to improve knowledge labour in certain sectors of the economy, highlighting the situation of
and therefore to aid in taking decisions.. employment of immigrant women in an irregular situation.
The issue of female migration in an irregular situation is multidimensional. 3. The social dimension: we will present various forms of exploitation of
It involves several disciplines (social sciences, legal sciences and political irregular migrant women, the violence inflicted on them, the exclusion
sciences) and many partners, in particular the intervention of States, they suffer from and the precarious situation they live in, and refer to
international organisations and NGOs. The treatment of the subject is touchy the fundamental principles of democracy and human rights, on which
and complex, it is barely visible, and when it emerges much is left unspoken. Mediterranean societies are built.
Women’s movements are always controlled, when a woman emigrates
underground, or is in an irregular situation and is deported, she represents
shame and dishonour for the family.
The term ‘irregular migration’ is commonly used to describe a variety of Today, clandestine migration is generally perceived as a threat. A clandestine
different phenomena involving people who enter or remain in a country of immigrant is considered like a criminal, increasing the general impression
which they are not a citizen in breach of national laws.8 It includes: of insecurity, which at times is amplified by the media.10 The handling of this
question falls under the responsibility of the Minister of the Interior in the
t Migrants who enter or remain in a country without authorisation; context of the safeguard of the territory.
t Persons who are smuggled or trafficked across an international border; The expression ‘clandestine immigration’ takes on a special meaning in the
Maghreb. In the local dialect, clandestine emigration is called hargua or hrig,
t Migrants in an irregular situation who entered a foreign country legally but
meaning ‘burning’, as in ‘burning the border’, crossing the border incognito,
remain after the validity of their visa;
or ‘burning paper’ to become anonymous. This is a recent expression that
t Unsuccessful asylum seekers who fail to observe a deportation order; appeared in Maghreb countries in the 1990s with reference to the emigration
of compatriots leaving to Europe by sea on makeshift vessels or in the hold of
t People who circumvent immigration controls through the arrangement of a ship or a container. So hargua is a form of infringement of the law, an illegal
bogus marriages. undertaking that can only be done behind the backs of security services and
in places that are not continually under supervision.11
Clandestine migration implies “the migrant’s decision to leave using means
that escape the control of the State and get around its authority, thus
infringing the sovereignty of the State which, in the name of that sovereignty,
9 Badie. B. Flux migratoires et relations transnationales. “In Etudes Internationales.
March 1993, N° 1, p 16.”
10 Monica Lorio, Anna Leone and Fabiola Podda. 2000. Op cit p 120-121.
11 Hocine Labdelaoui. 2009, “ Hargua “ ou la forme actuelle de l’émigration irrégulière
8 GCIM, p 35. des algériens. “Carim, report 2009, pp 1-24, p 2.”
Surveys done in Algeria by the police departments, the gendarmerie and A distinction should be made between human trafficking, and smuggling of
the Ministry of Solidarity in 2006-2007 attest that the haragua are young migrants. As Article 3 of the Palermo protocol states,14 “ ‘Trafficking in persons’
men, under 35 for 91%. They are generally single (90%) – married persons shall mean the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of
represent only 8.5%, the others being widowers or divorced. Haragua persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion,
with a medium level of instruction are more numerous (50%) than those of abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of
with a primary school education (16%) and only 6% have higher education vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve
degrees. The report specifies that the causes of emigration under illegal the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose
conditions are, first and foremost, unemployment (82.5%) and the desire to of exploitation. Exploitation shall include, at a minimum, the exploitation of
improve living conditions (17.5%).12 It should be noted that these studies say the prostitution of others or other forms of sexual exploitation, forced labour
nothing about the participation of Algerian women in this type of migration. or services, slavery or practices similar to slavery, servitude or the removal
Southern Mediterranean women, like many others, are not tempted by death- of organs.”
threatening undertakings. The risks run by the young clandestine emigrants
In the case of trafficking, the victims are exploited to a maximum, or even
are numerous. In reaction, associations of families victimised by clandestine
reduced to slavery, and traffickers use any and all means to achieve this:
emigration sprung up in Maghreb countries. They operate on three aspects:
fraud, corruption, violence, confinement, sequestration, blackmail, threats,
prevention, repatriation and informing families. One very meaningful and
deprivation of freedom, confiscation of identity documents, etc. Trafficking
exceptional example is the creation in Senegal of an association of mothers
can be exercised in the country of origin but most of the time victims are
and wives of victims of clandestine emigration. They grouped in a cooperative
displaced to other countries. Trafficking of persons cannot be dissociated
manufacturing couscous in order to provide the needed aid to families and
from international migration flows and at times, it takes the same itineraries.
prevent the death of husbands and sons on the high seas or in the desert.
Victims are mostly, but not exclusively, women and children. On the whole, the
The expression ‘irregular migration’ is used to refer to a variety of phenomena, traffic goes from poor countries to rich countries. The types of exploitation
particularly the illegal entry of nationals from third countries into the territory are highly varied, as is clear in the definition above. Criminal organisations
of a State other than the State of origin, or legal entry that becomes illegal create a durable relation of dependency with their victims, who live constantly
when the resident permit expires or renewal is refused after the loss of the under their control – their loss of freedom is similar to slavery.
person’s job or for other reasons. Authorities in the host country, who are not
informed of the migrant’s residence, cannot issue any papers if the migrant
does not meet the necessary conditions. Illegal status keeps the migrant in a
marginal situation, as migrants who infringed the country’s law cannot benefit 13 Agence nationale d’Accueil des Etrangers et des Migrations (2007), Rapport d’activité
2005-2006. “Paris : ANAEM.”
14 Additional Protocol to the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised Crime
to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children
12 Hocine Labdelaoui ? 2009, op cit pp 5-8. adopted in 2001.
20 FNUAP. (2006), Etat de la population 2006. Vers l’espoir, les femmes et la migration
internationale. “p 47.”
21 Danièle Lochak and Carine Fouteau. (2008), Immigrés sous contrôle.
19 In Le Monde 16/06/1999. Interview of Philippe Bernard. “Le Cavalier Bleu publishers. P 41.”
This Convention applies to legal migrant workers and those in an irregular Many schemes have been created in the field of the fight against smuggling and
situation. Chapter 3 of the Convention calls for protection of human rights trafficking of human beings, considered as a violation of human rights. Since
for all, both for regular migrants and for those who are pejoratively and the end of the 1990s, a new scope of the fight against this traffic has developed,
modestly referred to as ‘irregular’, ‘undocumented’.22 It first proclaims giving rise to a host of protocols, recommendations, conferences and
intangible rights, like the right to life (Article 9), prohibition of the use programmes. The latter are generally carried out jointly by UN and European
of torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment (Article 10), prohibition institutions, the States and NGOs. The texts that organise the fight against
of slavery or servitude (Article 11, par. 1) and the use of forced labour this traffic are ranked in a series and are applicable at every international
(Article 11, par. 2). The Convention also recognises fundamental liberties for (Palermo protocol, IMO), European (Parliament, European Committees,
migrant workers such as the freedom of opinion, expression and to seek, OSCE) and national level. Note that the largest and most restrictive legal
receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of borders, framework concerns trafficking and smuggling of human beings. Some States,
orally, in writing, in print or in the form of of art, or through any other media in particular the members of the European Union, have made it one of their
of their choice (Article 13); freedom of thought, conscience and religion priorities. The General Assembly of the United Nations, meeting in plenary,
(Article 12); freedom to take part in meetings and to join a trade union adopted the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organised
(Article 26). All these universally recognised fundamental freedoms constitute Crime and its two additional protocols on 15 November 2000. They were
the backdrop of fundamental freedoms and rights that are applied to presented for the signature by the States at the Palermo Conference.
migrant workers.
23 Yao Agbetse (2004), La convention sur les droits des travailleurs migrants, “op cit, p 55.”
24 The States parties to the Convention, whether they are the States of departure, transit
or destination, undertake to put an end to trafficking of labour, notably by fighting the
circulation of misleading information, (Article 68, par. 1 a). So they agree to punish persons,
groups or bodies that organise clandestine migration (Article 68 par. 1b) or that have
22 Yao Agbetse (2004), La convention sur les droits des travailleurs migrants : Un nouvel recourse to violence, threats or intimidation against migrant workers (Article 68 par. 1c)
instrument pour quelle protection? “Droits fondamentaux, n° 4, January – December 2004. and to inflict sanctions on employer of migrant workers in an irregular situation
www.droits-fondamentaux.org. Pp 47- 66, p 53.” (Article 68, par. 2).
29 The measures taken are:1/ the creation of a real European police at the borders, 2/ finishing
the biometric project for visas, 3/ reinforcing the Frontex agency, in charge of coordinating
supervision of external borders of the EU. To improve effectiveness, the Frontex scheme 30 Textos de Casa Árabe www.casaarabe-ieam.es.
of border control will have a dual command for the Southern and Northern zones of the 31 UNFPA, State of the population 2006. A passage to hope, women and international
European Union. migration. “p 44.”
Trafficking of human beings is synonymous to deprivation of freedom and The Convention of the Council of Europe on action against trafficking
infringement of human rights. People caught up in a network of traffickers in human beings (2005), covers all forms of trafficking including those
are often isolated and their travel documents are stolen. Criminal networks practiced within the boundaries of one country, and sets up a monitoring
exploit the absence of multilateral migration policies and the absence of system involving both representatives of ministries, independent experts,
cooperation between countries. Traffickers force women and girls into in charge of assessing the implementation of the convention and
prostitution, the number of unaccompanied minors, both boys and girls, is recommending improvements.36
growing. Figures show that nearly 80% of victims of trafficking are women.
No doubt the informal economy and clandestine employment constitutes
Gaps in national legislation in countries of destination such as Germany, a factor attracting clandestine immigration, smuggling and trafficking in
the United Kingdom, Belgium, Denmark, Spain, Italy, the Netherlands and human beings, and results in exploitation of persons and particularly women.
Sweden represent one of the obstacles to fighting migration associated with The Member States of the European Union have undertaken an increasingly
trafficking of women and prostitution. The provisions in these countries go strict control of carriers that transport clandestine immigrants and apply
from prohibition of the purchase of sexual services to legalislation of pimping severe sanctions to employers who work with labour entering the country
insofar as the prostitution is voluntary.32 illegally or who turn a blind eye to persons who are subject to trafficking.
The example of the proposal for a Directive of 16 May 2007 providing for
Trafficking in migrant women and their prostitution has been covered in sanctions against employers of illegally-staying third country nationals37
vehement speeches in politics and the media that tend to draw the attention is very significant.
of various institutions which consider the subject to be trafficking and not
migration movements. Nevertheless, there is an interrelation between The European Union has also set up various programmes to stop this serious
migration, trafficking of human beings and prostitution that follows a problem that comes to a large extent from Eastern European countries.
division based on class, gender and origin.33 Women who are victims of The programme STOP (trafficking of persons for the purpose of sexual
trafficking are usually forced into prostitution and sex tourism, commercial exploitation) targets helping people working in Justice and Home Affairs
marriages and other ‘female’ activities like domestic work, agriculture and Departments to collect data and do studies in their fight against criminals.
sweatshop labour.34 The programme that lasted five years had a budget of 6.5 million ECU
(European Commission, 1996) pooled and disseminated data and trained
To protect these women, short-term residence permits were issued to officials in charge of immigration present at the external borders of the
victims of smugglers and traffickers who cooperate with the competent European Union.
authorities. A proposal for a directive in 200235 provides for a grace period
One might think that with all these measures, migration flows are better Control over borders and asylum policy have fallen under the scope of
controlled and trafficking of human beings is punished. Nevertheless, intergovernmental decisions (Justice and Home Affairs) since Maastricht
obstacles remain: lack of data on the questions, gaps in concerted in 1992. The Treaty of Amsterdam introduces measures to fight clandestine
programmes, corruption and the clever resistance of criminal networks that immigration, including repatriation of people whose residence is irregular.
change strategies and tactics frequently, continue to undermine the efforts Bilateral admission agreements have been set up long since between
made, flout existing laws and hide behind legal mechanisms, or purely European countries and, as from 1991, with non-Community neighbours of
the European Union.
38 Schwenken, H. (2005), The Challenges of Framing Women Migrants Rights in the European
Union. Revue européenne des migrations Internationales, “21, 1.”
39 WAVE website, http://www.wave-network.org.
40 Jane Freedman and Bahija Jamal. (2008), Violence à l’égard des femmes migrantes et
réfugiées dans la région euro-méditerranéenne. Études de cas : France, Italie, Egypte & 41 Green paper on a Community policy on the return of persons in an irregular situation,
Maroc. “© Copyright 2008 Réseau euro-méditerranéen des droits de l’Homme. p 27-28.” “COM (2002) 175, April 2002”
Concern with managing migration trends began early this century with The emergence of the concept of irregular migration and trafficking goes
joint initiatives in countries on the southern and northern shores of the hand in hand with the growing poverty in the countries of Africa, deterioration
Mediterranean basin. An interesting intergovernmental initiative was set up in the economic and legal situation of women in countries in the former
– this was the first interministerial conference on migration in the western Soviet bloc after 1989, restrictive policies for entering into Western Europe,
Mediterranean, organised in Tunis in October 2002 (Dialogue 5+5),51 that and the emerging desire for freedom resulting from globalisation. This is also
targeted setting up a context of dialogue and regional cooperation between the consequence of deficits in aid to development. “No doubt, for 30 years,
the Maghreb and Southern Europe. Discussions started up again in October development aid confiscated a certain number of prerogatives of women in the
2003 in Rabat, where emphasis was on the security dimension in the dialogue economy, business or production. This is because the agents of international
on migration.52 There was also a multilateral initiative that was set up to organisations favoured control of resoures by men, by dealing exclusively
define the main points of agreement on migration transiting through the with them, including in fields that traditionally were controlled by women.“54
Mediterranean, where 18 European countries and 5 MENA countries, plus
Employers are the ones who draw the main advantages from irregular
the European Commission, the Arab League and the UNHCR met53 for the
migration: it considerably contributes to the economic system insofar as the
first time in June 2003.
demographic slump and the growing need for labour with various levels of
qualifications, accentuated by the unwillingness of nationals to do certain
49 For each control by the police, an undocumented person bears a heavy fine -- up to
€10,000 -- and is sent before a judge to be deported on the spot. Badanti and colf are spared. jobs, considered unpleasant or unworthy, continually boost demand for
50 Salvatore Aloïse. L’Italie découvre l’utilité sociale de ses sans-papiers. “Le Monde of 02.08.09”
51 Algeria, Morocco, Libya, Mauritania, Tunisia, Spain, Portugal, Italy, France and Malta. Aubarell, migration in countries of destination.
G. (2003), La relance du Dialogue 5+5 : pour un nouveau plan. “in Afkar/Ideas nº1.”
52 Tunis Conference:http://www.iom.int/en/know/dialogue5-5/ tunis.shtml Rabat Conference:
http://www.iom.int/en/know/dialogue5-5/ rabat_fr.shtml
Intermediary Euro-Mediterranean conference of Ministers of Foreign Affairs
(Crete, May 2003) 54 Françoise Guillemaut, (University of Toulouse Le Mirail), Mobilités au féminin Journées de
53 A meeting held in Alexandria in June 2003, coordinated by the International Centre for rencontres internationales, Tangiers, 16 - 19 November 2005, Laboratoire Méditerranéen de
Migration Policy Development (ICMPD). Sociologie (Maison Méditerranéenne des Sciences de l’Homme, Aix-en-Provence, France).
64 Jane Freedman and Bahija Jamal. (2008), Violence à l’égard des femmes migrantes et
réfugiées dans la région euro-méditerranéenne. “op cit, p 49.”
61 Commission of the European Communities. 1991. “Immigration of citizens from third 65 ILO (2003), An Information Guide: Preventing Discrimination, Exploitation and Abuse of
countries into the southern member states of the EEC”. Brussels 1991. Women Migrant Workers. “Geneva: ILO, p. 30.”
62 Jane Freedman and Bahija Jamal. (2008),Violence à l’égard des femmes migrantes et 66 UNIFEM (2003), Human Rights Protections Applicable to Women Migrant Workers.
réfugiées dans la région euro-méditerranéenne. Études de cas : France, Italie, Egypte & “New York: UNIFEM.”
Maroc. “© Copyright 2008 Réseau euro-méditerranéen des droits de l’Homme. P 19.” 67 Human Rights Watch (2006), Swept Under the Rug: Abuses Against Domestic Workers
63 Salvatore Aloïse, L’Italie découvre l’utilité sociale de ses sans-papiers. “Le Monde of 02.08.09.” Around the World. “New York: Human Rights Watch.”
However, reliable data on this phenomenon in different regions of the Compared to the violence incurred in the milieu of departure, violence during
world including Western Europe are rare. Existing information, although displacement is as strong or more. During travel as irregular migrants, women
incomplete, shows the extent and recent trends in these movements. are subjected to all kinds of abuse and mistreatment – rape, pregnancies,
The social aspects of migration of women in an irregular situation show the hunger and disease. Women can be doubly persecuted: by spouses or other
main forms of abuse against women: sexual exploitation, arranged marriages men they are travelling with and by border police, who submit them to the
and healthcare deficits, abuse that affect their bodies, their psyches and their same treatment as men, except for pregnant women or women accompanied
social lives. with young children. Once they arrive in Europe, they might suffer from the
treatment in detention centres and police interrogation.
68 Mediterranean Institute of Gender Studies (2007), Study Visit in Italy November 2007, Report
prepared by the INTI Team, report available at www.medinstgenderstudies.org/wp/
69 Parliamentary Assembly. (2003), Migrations liées à la traite des femmes et à la prostitution. 70 Françoise Guillemaut, (Université Toulouse Le Mirail), Mobilités au féminin. Journées de
Commission report on equal opportunities between men and women. “Doc. 9795. 25 April rencontres internationales, “Tangiers, 16 - 19 November 2005, Laboratoire Méditerranéen de
2003. Rapporteur: Mme Zwerver, Nethelands, SOC.” Sociologie (Maison Méditerranéenne des Sciences de l’Homme, Aix-en-Provence, France).”
86 Jennifer Klot, VIH/SIDA, Genre et sécurité, social. Lettre du Centre Régional d’Information et
de Prévention du Sida N°74. “CRISPS March 2005.”
87 Migrant women and HIV/AIDS in the world: an Anthropological Approach. Acts of the
Round Table organised on 20 November 2004 in UNESCO – Paris. Studies and reports, special
85 Santé et précarité. Santé des nouvelles migrantes 72 Organisme Responsable series No. 22. Cultural policies and intercultural dialogue department. “UNESCO, 2005.
De La Fiche DREES. http://unesdoc.unesco.org p 48.”
As concerns the use of drugs, migrant women, and particularly those from the
Maghreb seem to be essentially spared. The use of heroin particularly affected
young people from disadvantaged neighbourhoods in the 1980s where it took
hold in the context of failure in school and professional discrimination, etc.
Visibility of the epidemic is greater in developments in the suburbs where
immigrants originating from the Maghreb are segregated to large extent. In
response to this deficit, the first association of Maghreb ‘Mums’ was created
in Marseille in the mid-1980s. The objective was to “bring down taboos
about injection of drugs”.90 They were first able to express themselves on the
question of AIDS based on their social status as ‘mothers’ and the risks that
their children, particularly their sons, could run.
88 Migrant women and HIV/AIDS in the world: an Anthropological Approach. Acts of the
Round Table organised on 20 November 2004 in UNESCO – Paris. Studies and reports, special
series No. 22. Cultural policies and intercultural dialogue department. “UNESCO, 2005.
http://unesdoc.unesco.org”
89 Katerina Stenou, Lettre du Centre Régional d’Information et de Prévention du Sida N ° 74.
“CRISPS March 2005. www.lecrips-idf.net/lettre-info/lettre74.pdf”
90 Femmes migrantes et VIH/sida dans le monde : une approche anthropologique.
“Op cit, p 51.”
No doubt, migration schemes differ when they apply to men or to women, but
it is important to realise that the impact is often radically different, and that
migrant women on the whole are more vulnerable. However, women can
also contribute to changing modern migration in a positive way. This is why
the countries of origin, transit and host countries should take gender into
consideration in their migrant policies, so that an analysis of the respective
effects of migration on men and on women can be done, before any decision
is taken, in order to take advantage of the specific skills of women and to
protect them from abuse.
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Introduction ....................................................................................... 379
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1. Conclusions .................................................................................... 380
To cross the history of women in general in the Euro-Mediterranean region
1.1. Growing concern for female migration ..............................................380 with that of migrant women is to embark on an immense field and engage
in an essential debate on the condition of women in the region, but also on
1.2. Multi-dimensional process of female migration to Europe .............382 their place in society and their role in the social transformation process in the
countries of the region.
1.3. The need for a gender approach to European policies ....................385
As shown in this study, the situation of migrant women has certain specific
1.4. Impact of migration on gender equality ................................................385
features precisely where patriarchal practices, which are reflected in family
2. Recommendations .......................................................................... 386 legislation, maintain huge gender inequality, and where various forms of
violence are committed against women (excision, honour crimes, etc.) in the
2.1. Understand and act on factors that prompt women name of tradition. In spite of this obvious burden of the patriarchal tradition
to emigrate .............................................................................................386 brought to bear on the condition of women, most migration policies and rules
2.2. Reactivate the synergies between female migration do not always include the gender dimension.
and develop ............................................................................................387 In recent years, such policies throughout the world and in Europe have focused
2.3. Respect gender equality rights in migration ......................................388 particularly on the migration flows and border controls within a framework
of security and the fight against terrorism, as well as the de facto condition
2.4. Develop studies and statistics .............................................................388 of migrant women. Statistics nonetheless show that women henceforth
represent more than 50% of the migrant population in the European Union.
2.5. Maintain an ongoing dialogue between the countries of
Moreover, more and more scholarly studies have revealed the impact of the
origin and of destination ...................................................................... 388
patriarchal tradition on their movements, their substantial contribution to
the social and economic development of the Member States and the countries
of origin, and the fact that they are maintained in a rather marginal socio-
economic position in these societies. All these elements consequently plead
for integrating the gender dimension in the approach to migration policies
and analyses of international migration.
1 This remark can be applied to all MNCs. The Arab Human Development Report 2002 is
unequivocal on this issue.
As indicated in the study, the economic and social situation in the countries Remittances by economic migrant women in particular are constituting
on opposite sides of the Mediterranean is characterised by major economic, an increasing share of the family and state budget and make a major
social and cultural inequalities. This generates a very strong migration trend contribution to supporting and improving the living conditions of the
families that have stayed behind. In certain cases, they constitute a pillar for
the education of the girls. This attests to the intensive contribution of the
3 The salient characteristics of the help offered by men for domestic work in Europe consist
of avoiding the most constraining tasks and preferring those that occur outside the
diaspora to the development of the countries of origin. The female diaspora
boundaries of the domestic and family space. Thus, nearly 60% of European men who help should be encouraged to promote and contribute to the development of the
with domestic tasks do the shopping (which moreover enables them to keep direct control
of the ‘family’s purse strings’), whereas only 30% participate full-time in housekeeping and country of origin by sending funds and be investing in development projects.
cooking. The contribution of men to domestic work is limited to ‘occasional help’ for women This requires the pertinent and adapted strategies from the countries of
who thus remain responsible for the proper running of the household, and the coordinators
of ‘aid’ that different family members and domestic staff may provide from time to time. M. origin, and the introduction of measures to facilitate and reduce the cost of
Kempeneers et E. Lelièvre, Famille et emploi dans l’Europe des douze, Eurobarometre 34:
Mode de vie dans la Communauté européenne. sending remittances in the countries of residence.
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