COMMUNICATION

AND LEARNING
DISORDERS
P RESEN TED BY: D ORREN MAE M. HU BAHIB
COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS
▪Speech is the expressive production of sounds and includes an individual’s articulation,
fluency, voice, and resonance quality.

▪Language includes the form, function, and use of a conventional system of symbols (i.e.,
spoken words, sign language, written words, pictures) in a rule governed manner for
communication.

▪Communication includes any verbal or nonverbal behavior (whether intentional or

unintentional) that influences the behavior, ideas, or attitudes of another individual.
 COMMUNICATION
LANGUAGE DISORDER DISORDERS

Language Disorder is diagnosed when children show

marked problems in the acquisition and use of language due
to deficits in comprehension or production.

Language Disorder is not explained

by intellectual disability or a physical
disability.
Diagnostic Criteria
315.32 (F80.2)
A. Persistent difficulties in the acquisition B.
and use of language across modalities
(i.e., spoken, written, sign language, or
other) due to deficits in comprehension or
production that include the following:
1. Reduced vocabulary (word knowledge
and use).
2. Limited sentence structure (ability to C.
put words and word endings together
to form sentences based on the rules
of grammar and morphology). D.
3. Impairments in discourse (ability to
use vocabulary and connect
sentences to explain or describe a
topic or series of events or have a
conversation).
LANGUAGE
DISORDER
Language abilities are substantially and
quantifiably below those expected for
age, resulting in functional limitations in
effective communication, social
participation, academic achievement, or
occupational performance, individually
or in any combination.
Onset of symptoms is in the early
developmental period.
The difficulties are not attributable to
hearing or other sensory impairment,
motor dysfunction, or another medical
or neurological condition and are not
better explained by intellectual disability
(intellectual developmental disorder) or
global developmental delay.
 LANGUAGE
DISORDER
RISK AND PROGNOSTIC FACTORS
Children with receptive language impairments have a poorer prognosis than
those with predominantly expressive impairments. They are more resistant to
treatment, and difficulties with reading comprehension are frequently seen.

Genetic and physiological.

Language disorders are highly heritable, and
family members are more likely to
have a history of language impairment.
 LANGUAGE
CAUSAL FACTORS DISORDER

GENES AND BRAIN STRUCTURE

Heritability estimates for language
disorder range between .50 and .75.
The greater the genetic similarity the
greater the risk for language
impairment.
Abnormalities near the lateral sulcus is
likely to play a role in the development
of language disorder.
STRUCTURAL IMAGING
MORPHOLOGICAL GREY MAT TER ( GM) DIFFERENCES IN INDIVIDUALS
WITH (A), LANGUAGE DISORDER ( LD) AND (B), SPEECH DISORDER ( SD)
 LANGUAGE
CAUSAL FACTORS DISORDER

AUDITORY PERCEPTION
PROBLEMS
Auditory Perception is the ability
to identify and differentiate
sounds.
Auditory perception is important
because children must detect
subtle differences between
phonemes in order to develop
phonemic awareness.
 LANGUAGE
CAUSAL FACTORS DISORDER
DEFICITS IN RAPID TEMPORAL PROCESSING DELAYS IN SHORT-TERM MEMORY

Rapid temporal processing is the ability

to quickly and accurately process sensory Phonological Short-Term Memory is
information. the ability to hold auditory material
in memory for short periods of time.
Children who have deficits in rapid It is measured by asking children to
temporal processing take in and process
less fine-grained auditory information. remember long strings of nonsense
They simply miss out on linguistic input. syllables.
Problems with rapid temporal processing,
therefore, can contribute to delays in
children’s awareness of phonemes,
underdeveloped vocabularies, and
difficulty understanding sentences.
 LANGUAGE
CAUSAL FACTORS DISORDER

IMPOVERISHED PARENT-CHILD COMMUNICATION

On average, the parents of children with

language disorder do the following:
- Interact with their children less often
- Ask their children fewer questions
- Use shorter and less complex sentences
- Show less variation in their language toward
their children
- Respond less often to their children’s
utterances
SPEECH SOUND DISORDER COMMUNICATION
(SSD) DISORDERS

Speech is produced when young children learn to modulate

their voice to produce specific, discernible sounds that have
meaning in a particular language.
 SPEECH SOUND DISORDER
Diagnostic Criteria (SSD)
315.39 (F80.0)
A. Persistent difficulty with speech sound production that interferes with
speech intelligibility or prevents verbal communication of messages.
B. The disturbance causes limitations in effective communication that
interfere with social participation, academic achievement, or
occupational performance, individually or in any combination.
C. Onset of symptoms is in the early developmental period.
D. The difficulties are not attributable to congenital or acquired conditions,
such as cerebral palsy, cleft palate, deafness or hearing loss, traumatic
brain injury, or other medical or neurological conditions.
 SPEECH SOUND DISORDER SPEECH SOUND DISORDER
(SSD)
(SSD)
Five (common) Sound Production problems:

◦ Omission Errors:
◦ For example, children may say “at” for “cat” or “ba” for “ball.”
◦ Substitution Errors
◦ For example, they may say “wed” instead of “red” or “thoup” instead of “soup.”
◦ Sound Distortions
◦ Children with SSD most frequently distort the /r/, /l/, /z/, /sh/, and /ch/ sounds.
◦ Addition Errors
◦ For example, children may say “farog” instead of “frog” or “salow” instead of “slow.”
◦ Lisp
◦ For example e.g., “thun” instead of “sun”.
 LANGUAGE
TREATMENT DISORDER and SSD

▪Speech and Language Therapy Psychotherapy

- The common treatment for language A helpful tool to manage the
disorder is speech and language emotional and behavioral issues that
therapy. may arise in children with language
disorder.
 SPEECH SOUND DISORDER
(SSD)
CAUSAL FACTORS
HERIDETARY
Approximately 35% to 40%
of children with SSD have a
family member with a
history of the disorder. It is
likely that this familial
association is caused by
shared genes.
CHILDHOOD-ONSET
FLUENCY DISORDER COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS
(STUTTERING)
Speech Fluency refers to the ease and automaticity of
speech. It has several components, including rate, duration,
rhythm, and sequence.
 CHILDHOOD-ONSET
Diagnostic Criteria FLUENCY DISORDER
(STUTTERING)
315.35 (F80.81)
A. Disturbances in the normal fluency and time B. The disturbance causes anxiety about
patterning of speech that are inappropriate for the speaking or limitations in effective
individual’s age and language skills, persist over communication, social participation, or
time, and are characterized by frequent and academic or occupational performance,
marked occurrences of one (or more) of the individually or in any combination.
following:
1. Sound and syllable repetitions. C. The onset of symptoms is in the early
2. Sound prolongations of consonants as well as vowels. developmental period. (Note: Later-onset
3. Broken words (e.g., pauses within a word). cases are diagnosed as 307.0 [F98.5] adult-
4. Audible or silent blocking (filled or unfilled pauses in
onset fluency disorder.)
speech).
D. The disturbance is not attributable to a speech-
5. Circumlocutions (word substitutions to avoid motor or sensory deficit, dysfluency associated
problematic words).
with neurological insult (e.g., stroke, tumor,
6. Words produced with an excess of physical tension.
trauma), or another medical condition and is
7. Monosyllabic whole-word repetitions (e.g., “I-I-I-I see not better explained by another mental
him”).
disorder.
 CHILDHOOD-ONSET
FLUENCY DISORDER
(STUTTERING)

Risk and Prognostic Factors Prevalence

Genetic and physiological. The risk of Approximately 5% of youths have problems
stuttering among first-degree biological with stuttering at some point during childhood.
relatives of individuals with childhood-onset Boys are more likely to stutter than girls.
fluency disorder is more than three times the Furthermore, the gender ratio for stuttering
risk in the general population. increases with age.
Functional Consequences of Childhood-Onset
Fluency Disorder (Stuttering)
In addition to being features of the condition,
stress and anxiety can exacerbate dysfluency.
Impairment of social functioning may result
from this anxiety.
Person who stutter show anatomical
differences in key speech areas of the brain.

TREATMENT
▪ There is NO cure for stuttering.
▪Fluency Shaping Approaches
- Modify the way the person speaks all
of the time to reduce the chance that
stuttering will occur
- May be considered a preventive
approach
CHILDHOOD-ONSET
FLUENCY DISORDER
(STUTTERING)
Stuttering Modification Approaches
- Client focuses on changing the way
he or she stutters so that it is less
severe, and easier
- Emphasizes that stuttering should not
be avoided since it creates more
fear/anxiety about speaking
SOCIAL (PRAGMATIC) COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS
COMMUNICATION DISORDER
Some children show no obvious
problems with language or
speech. Their fluency,
phonological processing,
morphology, grammar, and
semantics are all well developed.
However, they still show marked
impairments in their ability to
communicate with others.
 SOCIAL (PRAGMATIC)
Diagnostic Criteria COMMUNICATION
DISORDER
315.39 (F80.89)
A. Persistent difficulties in the social use of verbal and A. The deficits result in functional limitations in effective
nonverbal communication as manifested by all of the communication, social participation, social relationships, academic
achievement, or occupational performance, individually or in
following: combination.
1. Deficits in using communication for social purposes, such as
greeting and sharing information, in a manner that is B. The onset of symptoms is in the early developmental period (but
appropriate for the social context. deficits may not become fully manifest until social communication
2. Impairment of the ability to change communication to demands exceed limited capacities).
match context or the needs of the listener, such as
C. The symptoms are not attributable to another medical or
speaking differently in the classroom than on the neurological condition or to low abilities in the domains of word
playground, talking differently to a child than to an structure and grammar, and are not better explained by Intellectual
adult, and avoiding use of overly formal language. Disability, Global Developmental Delay, Autism Spectrum Disorder,
or another mental disorder.
3. Difficulties following rules for conversation and
storytelling, such as taking turns in conversation,
rephrasing when misunderstood, and knowing how to
use verbal and nonverbal signals to regulate
interaction.
4. Difficulties understanding what is not explicitly stated
(e.g., making inferences) and nonliteral or ambiguous
meanings of language (e.g., idioms, humor,
metaphors, multiple meanings that depend on the
context for interpretation).
 SOCIAL (PRAGMATIC)
COMMUNICATION
DISORDER

Risk and Prognostic Factors

Genetic and physiological.
A family history of autism spectrum disorder,
communication disorders, or specific learning
disorder appears to increase the risk for social
(pragmatic) communication disorder.
UNSPECIFIED COMMUNICATION DISORDER
307.9 (F80.9)
This category applies to presentations in which symptoms
characteristic of communication disorder that cause clinically
significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or
other important areas of functioning predominate but do not
meet the full criteria for communication disorder or for any of
the disorders in the neurodevelopmental disorders diagnostic
class. The unspecified communication disorder category is used
in situations in which the clinician chooses not to specify the
reason that the criteria are not met for communication disorder
or for a specific neurodevelopmental disorder, and includes
presentations in which there is insufficient information to make
a more specific diagnosis.
 The brain is complex and our understanding is very
COMMUNICATION limited.
DISORDERS A few known causes of communication disorders are:
CAUSAL ▪Hearing impairment - full or partial hearing impairment
may cause difficulty in speech and language
FACTORS development
▪Physical disability - cleft lip and palate, or
malformations of the mouth or nose may cause
communication disorders. More involved disabilities,
such as severe cerebral palsy, may preclude any speech
at all and for these non-verbal children augmentative
communication methods must be used.
▪Developmental disability - some children (not all) with a
developmental disability or Down's Syndrome may be
slower to learn to talk and may need extra assistance.
 ▪Children with learning disabilities may have
COMMUNICATION communication disorders.
DISORDERS ▪Children with Pervasive Development Disorders (P.D.D.),
or Autism spectrum disorders will also have
CAUSAL communication disorders.
FACTORS ▪Children with significant behaviour or emotional
problems may also have a communication disorder.
COMMUNICATION ▪There are no specific ways to
DISORDERS prevent communication disorders.
▪When communication disorders
PREVENTION are suspected in children, they
should be identified as soon as
possible
 COMMUNICATION
DISORDERS
PREVENTION TIPS
In Children:
✓ Talk and read with your child
In Adults:
✓ Have your child’s hearing checked Reduce risk factors by:
regularly
✓ Learn about speech and language ✓ stopping smoking
development
✓ Don’t drink or use drugs while you are
✓keeping your blood
pregnant pressure down
✓ Be sure that your child uses a helmet and
seat ✓ Use helmets and seat
✓ Belt to prevent accidents that cause belts to prevent brain
brain injury
injury.
✓ Give the child time to talk.
✓ Try not to interrupt the child while he or
she is speaking.
✓ Have the child tested by a speech-
language pathologist.
INTERVENTIONS
COMMUNICATION
▪Directive Interventions
DISORDERS - Directive interventions tend to
include the following characteristics:
INTERVENTIONS ✓providing massed blocks of trials
✓having the professional control the
antecedents (stimuli) and
consequences (reinforcers)
✓using consequences such as verbal
praise or tokens that are not related
to the child's current activities
 Naturalistic interventions
COMMUNICATION
- Naturalistic approaches commonly include the
DISORDERS following characteristics:
✓providing distributed learning opportunities rather
INTERVENTIONS than massed blocks of trials
✓following the child's focus of attention or interest
✓using antecedent and consequent stimuli naturally
associated with a particular communication response
▪This approach utilizes aspects of adult-child
interaction that promote language acquisition.
▪Naturalistic and enhanced or modified milieu
methods (also called incidental teaching) involve the
professional arranging materials in the environment
in a way designed to elicit targeted responses from
the child.
 Behavioral Interventions/Techniques
COMMUNICATION
Behavioral interventions and techniques can be used
DISORDERS to modify existing behaviors or teach new behaviors.
These approaches are based on principles of learning
that include identifying desired behaviors (e.g., social
INTERVENTIONS skills), gradually shaping these behaviors through
selective reinforcement, and fading reinforcement as
behaviors are learned.
 ▪Peer-Mediated/Peer-Implemented
COMMUNICATION ▪Social Communication Treatments
DISORDERS o Comic Strip Conversations—conversations between two or more
people illustrated by simple drawings in a comic strip format.
o Score Skills Strategy—a social skills program that takes place in a
cooperative small group and focuses on five social skills: (S) share
INTERVENTIONS ideas, (C) compliment others, (O) offer help or encouragement,
(R) recommend changes nicely, and (E) exercise self-control
(Vernon, Schumaker, & Deshler, 1996).
o Social Communication Intervention Project (SCIP)—speech and
language therapy for school-age children with pragmatic and
social communication needs.
o Social Scripts—a prompting strategy to teach children how to use
varied language during social interactions.
o Social Skills Groups—an intervention that uses instruction, role
play, and feedback to teach ways of interacting appropriately with
peers.
o Social Stories™—a highly structured intervention that uses
stories to explain social situations to children and help them learn
socially appropriate behaviors and responses.
 EARLY INTERVENTION OFTEN PLAYS AN
IMPORTANT ROLE IN A SUCCESSFUL OUTCOME.
COMMUNICATION DISORDER
RECENT RESEARCHES
A preliminary epidemiologic study of social (pragmatic) communication
disorder in the context of developmental language disorder
August 12, 2021
DOI: 10.1111/1460-6984.12664
When using the first case definition, SCD was much more common in children with a history of
DLD than without DLD and history of language disorder at kindergarten was a significant risk
factor for SCD in adolescence. However, it is important to note that SCD could be found in
children with no prior deficits in other aspects of language. When the second definition was
employed, SCD was equally distributed across children with and without a history of DLD.
These findings contribute to our understanding of the association between SCD and DLD by
recognizing varying profiles of pragmatic and social communication difficulties, which in turn
may help refine our diagnostic categories. Preliminary prevalence estimates of SCD can serve as
an initial guidepost for identification and planning for intervention services for this condition.
COMMUNICATION DISORDER
RECENT RESEARCHES
Telepractice in School-age Children Who Stutter: A Controlled Before and
After Study to Evaluate the Efficacy of MIDA-SP
August 12, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.5195/ijt.2021.6380
A non-randomized controlled pre- and post-treatment study included an
experimental group (11 children) receiving a telepractice adaptation of MIDA-SP
and a historical control group (11 children) receiving in-person MIDA-SP. Both
groups had been assessed with SSI-4 and OASES-S pre- and post-treatment. No
statistically significant differences were found between the two modes of delivery.
These findings suggest that MIDA-SP treatment delivered via telepractice is
effective for school-age children who stutter.
LEARNING DISORDER
SPECIFIC LEARNING
DISORDER
Diagnostic Criteria
A. Difficulties learning and using academic skills, as
indicated by the presence of at least one of the
following symptoms that have persisted for at
least 6 months, despite the provision of
interventions that target those difficulties:
1. Inaccurate or slow and effortful word reading (e.g., reads
single words aloud incorrectly or slowly and hesitantly,
frequently guesses words, has difficulty sounding out
words).
2. Difficulty understanding the meaning of what is read
(e.g., may read text accurately but not understand
the sequence, relationships, inferences, or deeper
meanings of what is read).
Diagnostic Criteria
B. The affected academic skills are substantially and
quantifiably below those expected for the individual’s
chronological age, and cause significant interference
with academic or occupational performance, or with
activities of daily living, as confirmed by individually
administered standardized achievement measures
and comprehensive clinical assessment. For
individuals age 17 years and older, a documented
history of impairing learning difficulties may be
substituted for the standardized assessment.
Diagnostic Criteria
3. Difficulties with spelling (e.g., may add, omit, or substitute
vowels or consonants).
4. Difficulties with written expression (e.g., makes multiple
grammatical or punctuation errors within sentences; employs
poor paragraph organization; written expression of ideas lacks
clarity).
5. Difficulties mastering number sense, number facts, or
calculation (e.g., has poor understanding of numbers, their
magnitude, and relationships; counts on fingers to add single-
digit numbers instead of recalling the math fact as peers do;
gets lost in the midst of arithmetic computation and may
switch procedures).
6. Difficulties with mathematical reasoning (e.g., has severe
difficulty applying mathematical concepts, facts, or
procedures to solve quantitative problems).
Diagnostic Criteria
C. The learning difficulties begin during school-age years
but may not become fully manifest until the demands
for those affected academic skills exceed the
individual’s limited capacities (e.g., as in timed tests,
reading or writing lengthy complex reports for a tight
deadline, excessively heavy academic loads).
D. The learning difficulties are not better accounted for
by intellectual disabilities, uncorrected visual or
auditory acuity, other mental or neurological
disorders, psychosocial adversity, lack of proficiency in
the language of academic instruction, or inadequate
educational instruction.
Specify If:
315.00 (F81.0) With Impairment in Reading
Word reading accuracy
Reading rate or fluency
Reading comprehension
Note: Dyslexia is an alternative term used to
refer to a pattern of learning difficulties
characterized by problems with accurate or
fluent word recognition, poor decoding, and
poor spelling abilities. If dyslexia is used to
specify this particular pattern of difficulties, it
is important also to specify any additional
difficulties that are present, such as difficulties
with reading comprehension or math
reasoning
DYSLEXIA
Specify If:
315.2 (F81.81) With Impairment in Written Expression
Spelling accuracy
Grammar and punctuation accuracy
Clarity or organization of written expression
Specify If:
315.1 (F81.2) With Impairment in Mathematics
Number sense
Memorization of arithmetic facts
Accurate or fluent calculation
Accurate math reasoning
Note: Dyscalculia is an alternative term used to
refer to a pattern of difficulties characterized by
problems processing numerical information,
learning arithmetic facts, and performing accurate
or fluent calculations. If dyscalculia is used to
specify this particular pattern of mathematic
difficulties, it is important also to specify any
additional difficulties that are present, such as
difficulties with math reasoning or word reasoning
accuracy
Specify Current Severity:
MILD
Some difficulties learning skills in
one or two academic domains,
but of mild enough severity that
the individual may be able to
compensate or function well
when provided with appropriate
accommodations or support
services, especially during the
school years.
MODERATE
Marked difficulties learning skills
in one or more academic
domains, so that the individual is
unlikely to become proficient
without some intervals of
intensive and specialized teaching
during the school years. Some
accommodations or supportive
services at least part of the day at
school, in the workplace, or at
home may be needed to
complete activities accurately and
efficiently.
SEVERE
Severe difficulties learning skills,
affecting several academic
domains, so that the individual is
unlikely to learn those skills
without ongoing intensive
individualized and specialized
teaching for most of the school
years. Even with an array of
appropriate accommodations or
services at home, at school, or in
the workplace, the individual may
not be able to complete all
activities efficiently.

How Common Are Learning Disabilities?
Prevalence
Approximately 5% of children have been
classified with learning disabilities and are
receiving special education services in US
schools
An alternative way to estimate prevalence is to
ask parents if their child has even been
diagnosed with a learning disability, either by
school officials or by private practitioners
SPECIFIC LEARNING
DISORDER
Gender, Ethnicity, and Culture
Studies examining gender differences in the
prevalence of learning disabilities have yielded
mixed results.
Most data indicate that boys are more likely
than girls to be classified with a learning
disability and receive special education
services.
Children whose primary language is not
English are not more likely than native
English speakers to be diagnosed with
learning disabilities.
 Family history and genetics. A family history of learning
COMMUNICATION disorders increases the risk of a child developing a disorder.
DISORDERS Prenatal and neonatal risks. Poor growth in the uterus
(severe intrauterine growth restriction), exposure to alcohol
or drugs before being born, premature birth, and very low
birthweight have been linked with learning disorders.
Psychological trauma. Psychological trauma or abuse in early
CAUSAL childhood may affect brain development and increase the risk
of learning disorders.
FACTORS
Physical trauma. Head injuries or nervous system infections
might play a role in the development of learning disorders.
Environmental exposure. Exposure to high levels of toxins,
such as lead, has been linked to an increased risk of learning
disorders.
Comorbidity. Children with learning disabilities are at a
higher-than-average risk for attention problems or disruptive
behavior disorders.
 ▪Avoiding all alcohol, tobacco, and recreational drugs before, during and
LEARNING after your pregnancy

DISORDERS ▪Avoiding exposure to toxic substances during pregnancy and after your
child’s birth
PREVENTION ▪Carefully assessing risks versus benefits for your child’s medications with
your health care practitioner
TIPS ▪Eliminating stressful influences from your child’s home and social
environment
▪Getting prompt help to correct any detected sensory deficits, especially
hearing deficit or poor vision
▪Obtaining early childhood screenings for your child and discussing early
childhood development milestones with your child’s health care provider
▪Protecting your child by limiting medications both during pregnancy and
breastfeeding
▪Providing good nutrition and a healthy environment for your child
▪Seeking early intervention if your child is diagnosed with a learning
disability or a potential disability
INTERVENTIONS
 •Individualized education program (IEP). Public schools in
the United States are mandated to provide an individual
COMMUNICATION education program for students who meet certain criteria
DISORDERS for a learning disorder.
•Accommodations. Classroom accommodations might
include more time to complete assignments or tests, being
INTERVENTIONS seated near the teacher to promote attention, use of
computer applications that support writing, including
fewer math problems in assignments, or providing
audiobooks to supplement reading.
•Therapy. Some children benefit from therapy.
• Occupational therapy might improve the motor skills of
a child who has writing problems.
•Medication. Your child's doctor might recommend
medication to manage depression or severe anxiety.
•Complementary and alternative medicine. Further
research is needed to determine the effectiveness of
alternative treatments.
 Clinical Psychologist. The Clinical Psychologist conducts specific intelligence
test (such as Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children test) to determine
COMMUNICATION whether the child’s intellectual functioning is normal.
DISORDERS Special Educator assesses the child’s academic achievement by
administering standard educational tests to assess the child’s performance in
areas like reading, spelling, written language, and mathematics.
INTERVENTIONS Counselor helps in understanding behavior, checks for any behavioral
issues, and for any problems that may exist due to poor home or school
environment.
Pediatrician/ Pediatric Neurologist: If a learning disability is suspected, The
pediatrician needs to enquire about the child's performance in school and
guide the parents to get their child's psycho-educational assessment done.
The pediatrician may also counsel the parents and class teacher about the
usefulness of remedial education.
Child Psychiatrist: Checks if there are symptoms of ADHD because it may
coexist with any type of learning disability. The psychiatrist also checks for
other disorders which may be the cause for poor academic performance.
LEARNING DISORDER
RECENT RESEARCHES
Psychological Aspects of Students With Learning Disabilities in E-
Environments: A Mini Review and Future Research Directions
Januart 7, 2021
DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.611818
This mini-review has attempted to analyze both the quality of life of students with LDs
and their interpersonal relationships and the features of e-learning that can have
positive and negative effects on them. The considerable heterogeneity of the articles we
selected led us to the following reflections: we are aware that the heterogeneity could
represent a limit but also an expected consequence of the chosen way of to explore a
complex topic.
THANK YOU!
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