DPB 30063

STATISTICS

REPORT OF MINI PROJECT(CHAPTER 2)

LECTURER: MDM NORAINI BT. MOHARAD

PREPARED BY:
NISHA A/P DURAI RAJ (23DBS20F2014)
THULASI A/P MUNIANDY(23DBS20F2036)
KHAVIN KUMARAN A/L UTHAYASORIAN(23DBS20F2035)
 CONTENTS

NO TOPICS
1.0 INTRODUCTION OF THE TOPIC
2.0 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
3.0 FORM OF GRAPH AND EXPLAINATION

4.0 CONCLUSION
5.0 REFERENCES
 INTRODUCTION OF THE TOPIC

Statistics is all about data. Data presentation is defined as the process of using various
graphical formats to visually represent the relationship between two or more data sets
so that an informed decision can be made on them. Data are usually collected in a raw
format and thus the inherent information is difficult to understand. Therefore, raw data
need to be summarized, processed, and analyzed. However, no matter how well
manipulated, the information derived from the raw data should be presented in an
effective format. The techniques of data and information presentation in textual,
tabular, and graphical forms are introduced. Text is the principal method for
explaining findings, outlining trends, and providing contextual information. A table is
best suited for representing individual information and represents both quantitative and
qualitative information. A graph is a very effective visual tool as it displays data at a
glance, facilitates comparison, and can reveal trends and relationships within the data
such as changes over time, frequency distribution, and correlation or relative share of a
whole. Text, tables, and graphs for data and information presentation are very
powerful communication tools.

Data are a set of facts, and provide a partial picture of reality. Whether data are
being collected with a certain purpose or collected data are being utilized, questions
regarding what information the data are conveying, how the data can be used, and
what must be done to include more useful information must constantly be kept in
mind.

Since most data are available to researchers in a raw format, they must be summarized,
organized, and analyzed to usefully derive information from them. Furthermore, each
data set needs to be presented in a certain way depending on what it is used for.
Planning how the data will be presented is essential before appropriately processing
raw data.
First and foremost, for which an answer is desired must be clearly defined. The more
detailed the question is, the more detailed and clearer the results. Data must be
prepared in such a way they are properly recognized by the program being used. The
present study does not discuss this data preparation process, which involves creating a
data frame, creating/changing rows and columns, changing the level of a factor,
categorical variable.  Discuss the issues that must be addressed when presenting
various kinds of information, and effective methods of presenting data, which are the
end products of research, and of emphasizing specific information. Data may be
presented in 3 ways:

- Textual

- Tabular

- Graphical

Methods of presentation must be determined according to the data format, the method
of analysis to be used, and the information to be emphasized. Inappropriately
presented data fail to clearly convey information to readers. Graphs allow readers to
understand the overall trend in data, and intuitively understand the comparison results
between two groups. Textual defined the data gathered are represent in paragraph
form. It is a combination of texts and figures. Next, tabular presentation is systematic
organization of column and row. Text is the main method of conveying information as
it is used to explain results and trends, and provide contextual information. Data are
fundamentally presented in paragraphs or sentences. Text can be used to provide
interpretation or emphasize certain data. If quantitative information to be conveyed
consists of one or two numbers, it is more appropriate to use written language than
tables or graphs. Graph presentation used for presenting all the information, graphs
simplify complex information by using images and emphasizing data patterns or
trends, and are useful for summarizing, explaining, or exploring quantitative data.
While graphs are effective for presenting large amounts of data, they can be used in
place of tables to present small sets of data. A graph format that best presents
information must be chosen so that readers. A bar graph is used to indicate and
compare values in a discrete category or group, and the frequency.

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

Tables, which convey information that has been converted into words or numbers in
rows and columns, have been used for nearly 2,000 years. Anyone with a sufficient
level of literacy can easily understand the information presented in a table. Tables are
the most appropriate for presenting individual information, and can present both
quantitative and qualitative information. Examples of qualitative information are the
level of sedation, statistical methods/functions, and intubation conditions .
The strength of tables is that they can accurately present information that cannot be
presented with a graph. A number such as “132.145852” can be accurately expressed
in a table. Another strength is that information with different units can be presented
together. For instance, blood pressure, heart rate, number of drugs administered, and
anesthesia time can be presented together in one table. Finally, tables are useful for
summarizing and comparing quantitative information of different variables. However,
the interpretation of information takes longer in tables than in graphs, and tables are
not appropriate for studying data trends. Furthermore, since all data are of equal
importance in a table, it is not easy to identify and selectively choose the information
required.
For a general guideline for creating tables, refer to the journal submission
requirements .

FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTIONS TABLE:

 A frequency distribution for qualitative data lists all categories and the number of
elements that belong to each of the categories.

 It exhibits the frequencies are distributed over various categories

 Also called as a frequency distribution table or simply a frequency table.

 The number of students who belong to a certain category is called the frequency of
that category.
 The class boundary is given by the midpoint of the upper limit of one class and the
lower limit of the next class.

  Also called real class limit.

 To find the midpoint of the upper limit of the first class and the lower limit of the
second class, we divide the sum of these two limits by 2.

 Class width = Upper boundary - Lower boundary

 Class Midpoint = Lower limit - Upper limit / 2

CONSTRUCTING FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE

 To decide the number of classes, we used Sturge’s formula, which is:

c = 1 + 3.3 log n

where c is the no. of classes

n is the no. of observations in the data set.

 Class width

Relative Frequency and Percentage Distribution

 A relative frequency distribution is a listing of all categories along with their

relative frequencies (given as proportions or percentages).

 It is commonplace to give the frequency and relative frequency distribution

together.

 Calculating
relative
frequency
and percentage of
a category.

FORM OF GRAPH
AND

EXPLAINATION(Graphical Presentation of Qualitative Data)

 BAR GRAPHS

 A graph made of bars whose heights represent the frequencies of respective

categories.

 Such a graph is most helpful when you have many categories to represent.

 Notice that a gap is inserted between each of the

bars.
 It has:

=>simple/ vertical bar chart

=> horizontal bar chart

=> component bar chart

=> multiple bar chart

COMPONENT BAR CHART

MULTIPLE BAR CHART

 HISTOGRAM

 A histogram is a graph in which the class boundaries are marked on the horizontal
axis and either the frequencies, relative frequencies, or percentages are marked on
the vertical axis. 

 The frequencies, relative frequencies or percentages are represented by the heights

of the bars.

 In histogram, the bars are drawn adjacent to each other and there is a space
between y axis and the first bar.
 SATISFACTION OF ONLINE ORDERING
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.5 - 3.5 3.5 - 6.5 6.5 - 9.5 9.5 - 12.5 12.5 - 15.5 -
15.5 18.5
 POLYGON

 A graph formed by joining the midpoints of the tops of successive bars in a

histogram with straight lines is called a polygon.

SATISFACTION OF ONLINE ORDERING

18
16
14
12
FREQUENCY

10
8
6
4
2
0
2 5 8 11 14 17
MIDPOINT

 For a very large data set, as the number of classes is increased (and the width of
classes is decreased), the frequency polygon eventually becomes a smooth curve
called a frequency distribution curve or simply a frequency curve.
 OGIVE

 Data may be expressed using a single line.

 An ogive (a cumulative line graph) is best used when you want to display the total
at any given time.

 The relative slopes from point to point will indicate greater or lesser increases; for
example, a steeper slope means a greater increase than a more gradual slope.

 An ogive, however, is not the ideal graphic for showing comparisons between
categories because it simply combines the values in each category, thus indicating
an accumulation (a growing or lessening total).

 If you simply want to keep track of a total and your individual values are
periodically combined, an ogive is an appropriate display.

SATISFACTION OF ONLINE ORDERING

80
70
CUMULATIVE FREQENCY

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.5 - 3.5 3.5 - 6.5 6.5 - 9.5 9.5 - 12.5 12.5 - 15.5 15.5 - 18.5
CLASS BOUNDARIES
 CONCLUSIONS

Text, tables, and graphs are effective communication media that present and convey
data and information. They aid readers in understanding the content of research,
sustain their interest, and effectively present large quantities of complex information.
As journal editors and reviewers will scan through these presentations before reading
the entire text, their importance cannot be disregarded. For this reason, authors must
pay as close attention to selecting appropriate methods of data presentation as when
they were collecting data of good quality and analyzing them. In addition, having a
well-established understanding of different methods of data presentation and their
appropriate use will enable one to develop the ability to recognize and interpret
inappropriately presented data or data presented in such a way that it deceives readers'
eyes .
 REFERENCES

 https://www.slideshare.net/wanbk/statistik-chapter-2-2516557?
from_action=save

 https://www.statisticshowto.com/probability-and-statistics/descriptive-
statistics/frequency-distribution-table/

 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5453888/
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