CALCULUS 1 – DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS

BICOL UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CALCULUS 1 (DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS)

LECTURE NOTES

INSTRUCTOR: ENGR. JASON ANTHONY B. CONSULTA

FUNCTIONS, LESSON 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

Calculus is a branch of mathematics which started to develop in the 17th century. Sir
Isaac Newton (English, 1642-1727) and Wilhelm Leibniez (German, 1646-1716) created
Calculus in time. The invention of Calculus by this two remarkable men has provided the
scientists a mathematics that could handle many of the difficult problems about motion and
things that could handle many of the difficult problems about motion and things that
change. Today, Calculus has an important application in almost every field of study that
uses mathematics.

The word “Calculus” is derived from the Latin word for stone or pebble. In ancient
times, pebbles were used for counting. Thus, Calculus roughly means a “method of
calculation”. The technique of calculation develop by Newton and Leibniz was undoubtedly
remarkable so much so that it was called the CALCULUS.

In the study of Calculus, the first important concept or idea which must be
introduced in the concept of functions and limits. As we shall eventually notice, the
whole structure of Calculus is based upon the function and limit concept.

*FUNCTIONS*
A function is a relationship between two variables such that to each value of the
independent variable there corresponds exactly one value of the independent variable.

Consider 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), which is a relationship between two variables 𝑥 and 𝑦, where 𝑓(𝑥)
is the independent variable and 𝑦 is the dependent variable.

The collection of all values assumed by the independent variable is called the domain
of the function, and the collection of all values assumed by the dependent variable is
called the range of the function.

Example 1:
From the following equations, identify which define functional relationships between
the variables x and y.
1. 𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟑
2. 𝒙 + 𝒚 = 𝟐

Solution:
To determine if an equation defines a functional relationship between its variables,
isolate the dependent variable on the left side and the independent variable on the right
side.

Consider 𝑦 as the dependent variable and 𝑥 as the independent variable, we have,

1. 𝑦 = ±√3 − 𝑥,this is not a function since there are two values of y for some value of 𝑥.

2. 𝑦 = 2 − 𝑥 , this is a function since there is only one value for y for every value of x.

Example 2:
1
Determine the domain and range for the function defined by 𝑦 = 𝑥−3.
Solution:
The domain is all real numbers 𝑥 ≠ 3.
The function has a zero denominator when 𝑥 = 3, thus, the domain is restricted to all
real numbers except 𝑥 = 3. The range is all real numbers, 𝑦 ≠ 0
FUNCTIONS, LESSON 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

*FUNCTIONAL NOTATION*
The equation 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 is a function where 𝑦 is the dependent variable and 𝑥 is the
independent variable. In functional notation, this equation has the form,
𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 1
Functional Notation 𝑓(𝑥), which is the dependent variable is read, “f of x” and
denoted that 𝑓(𝑥) is a function of 𝑥.

The following examples show how to evaluate functional notations.

EXAMPLE 1:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 7. Find, 𝑓(−2), 𝑓(0) and 𝑓(−3𝑥).

SOLUTION:
𝑓(−2) = (−2)2 + 3(−2) − 7 = −9
𝑓(0) = (0)2 + 3(0) − 7 = −7
𝑓(−3𝑥) = (−3𝑥)2 + 3(−3𝑥) − 7 = 9𝑥 2 − 9𝑥 − 7
EXAMPLE 2:

𝜋
Let 𝑔(𝑥) = sin 2𝑥 − cos 𝑥. Find, 𝑔(𝜋), 𝑔 ( 2 ) and 𝑔(−𝑥).

SOLUTION:

𝑔(𝜋) = sin 2𝜋 − cos 𝜋 = 0 − (−1) = 1

𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑔 ( ) = sin 2 ( ) − cos ( ) = 0 − 0 = 0
2 2 2
𝑔(−𝑥) = sin 2(−𝑥) − cos(−𝑥)
= − sin 2𝑥 − cos 𝑥
EXAMPLE 3:

Let 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 1, find (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(2) and (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥)

SOLUTION:

The composition of 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) is (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)). This is called as function
composition.

For (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(2),
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(2) = 𝑓(𝑔(2))
But 𝑔(2) = 5(2) − 1 = 9, then,
𝑓(𝑔(2)) = 𝑓(9) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5
= 2(9)2 − 9 + 5
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(2) = 158
For (𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥),
(𝑓 ∙ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥))
But 𝑔(𝑥) = 5𝑥 − 1, then,
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓(5𝑥 − 1) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 + 5
= 2(5𝑥 − 1)2 − (5𝑥 − 1) + 5
= 50𝑥 2 − 25𝑥 + 8
FUNCTIONS, LESSON 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

*LIMITS*
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be the function of 𝑥, and let "𝑎" be constant.
We say that the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) is 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎 and write this as,
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎

Can read as, “the limit of 𝑓(𝑥) equals 𝐿 as 𝑥 approaches 𝑎”, provided we can make 𝑓(𝑥)as
close to 𝐿 as we want for all 𝑥 sufficiently close to 𝑎 from both sides, without actually
letting 𝑥 be 𝑎.
The notion of limit explains the behavior of a function near 𝑎, not 𝑎.
Consider the function,
𝑥2 − 4
𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−2
0
This function is not defined at 𝑥 = 2 since at this point, 𝑓(𝑥) will be equal to
0
which is undefined and meaningless. However, we can still know what happens to 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥
approaches 2, we should calculate the values of 𝑓(𝑥) for 𝑥 near 2

EXAMPLE 1:
𝑥 2 −4
Evaluate the lim .
𝑥→2 𝑥−2

SOLUTION:
𝑥 2 −4
lim
𝑥→2 𝑥−2
Notice that the function is not defined by 2. The result of plugging 2 directly to 𝑥
0
is which is undefined.
0
Examine the table below and notice what will happened to 𝑓(𝑥) as 𝑥 approaches 2.
x f(x)

2.000001 4.000001
2.00001 4.00001
2.0001 4.0001
2.001 4.001
2.01 4.01
2.1 4.1

From the table we noticed that the limit approaches 4 as x approaches 2. As x get
closer and closer to 2, L also gets closer and closer to 4.

*LIMIT THEOREMS*

THEOREM 1. Uniqueness of Limits

A function can have as most one limit at 𝑎.
𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿1 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) → 𝐿2 𝑎𝑠 𝑥 → 𝑎, 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛
𝐿1 = 𝐿2
THEOREM 2. Limit of a Constant
The limit of a constant function 𝑐, is equal to that constant.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 3. Limit of Identity
The limit of the identity function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 at any number 𝑎 is 𝑎.
lim 𝑥 = 𝑎
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 4: Limit of a Sum and Difference.
FUNCTIONS, LESSON 1
LIMITS AND CONTINUITY

The limit of a sum and difference of two or more functions is equal to the sum and
difference of their limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ± lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 5. Limit of a product.
The limit of a product of two or more functions is equal to the product of their
limits.
lim [𝑓(𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)] = lim 𝑓(𝑥) ∙ lim 𝑔(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 6. Limit of a quotient.
The limit of two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided that
the limit of the denominator is zero.
𝑓(𝑥) lim 𝑓(𝑥)
lim [ ] = 𝑥→𝑎 ,
𝑥→𝑎 𝑔(𝑥) lim 𝑔(𝑥)
𝑥→𝑎
Provided that the lim 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 7. Limit of Polynomial
The limit of polynomial at any number 𝑎 is the value of that polynomial at 𝑎.
lim (𝑓𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 +. . . +𝑓1 𝑥 + 𝑓𝑜 ) = 𝑓𝑛 𝑎𝑛 + . . . +𝑓1 𝑎 + 𝑓𝑜 .
𝑥→𝑎
THEOREM 8. Limit of a Root.
The limit of the root of a function is equal to the root of their limits.
𝑛
lim √𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑛√ lim 𝑓(𝑥).
𝑥→𝑎 𝑥→𝑎
EXAMPLE 1.

Evaluate the lim(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥).

𝑥→2
SOLUTION:
By Theorem 4,
lim(𝑥 2 + 3𝑥) = lim 𝑥 2 + lim 3𝑥
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
Then, by Theorem 5,
lim 𝑥 2 + lim 3𝑥 = (lim 𝑥 ∙ lim 𝑥) + (lim 3 ∙ lim 𝑥)
𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2 𝑥→2
= (2)(2) + (3)(2) = 10

EXAMPLE 2.

𝑥 3 +3𝑥 2 +𝑥−1
Evaluate the lim ( )
𝑥→4 𝑥 2 +6𝑥+3
SOLUTION:
By Theorem 6 and 7,
𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1 lim 𝑥 3 + 3𝑥 2 + 𝑥 − 1
𝑥→4
lim ( )=
𝑥→4 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3 lim 𝑥 2 + 6𝑥 + 3
𝑥→4
(4)3 + 3(4)2 + 4 − 1 115
= =
(4)2 + 6(4) + 3 43