Human Reproduction & Reproductive Health (12th Biology NCERT pg

no. - 42 to 57)

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Primary sex organ

MALE REPRODUCTIVE Secondary/associated/acces

SYSTEM sory sex organs/ducts

Associated/Accesory Glands

Primary sex organ-

• Testis is male primary sex organ placed situated outside the abdominal cavity in a
pigmented fibromuscular pouch called Scrotum which is present below pubic
symphysis & behind penis
• Scrotum or scrotal sac consists of 2 muscles dartos tunic muscle and
cremaster muscle
• The muscles help the scrotum in maintaining the low temperature of the testes (2–
2.5 degree lower than the normal internal body temperature) necessary for
spermatogenesis, muscles also help to move the testicle toward and away from the
body to maintain the ideal temperature for sperm production. This is why
 the scrotum hangs lower in warm conditions and closer to the body in cold weather.

• The scrotal sac is internally divided in to 2 compartments by a muscular band called

septum scroti, each sac consists of testis, epidydymis & testicular part of vas
deferens

Gubernaculum

•
• The testicular part of vas deferens (collectively also called spermatic cord) ascends
up in the abdominal cavity via inguinal canal
• Function- Protection from mechanical injuries or shocks, Thermoregulation
• Testis- They are a pair of male gonads, each testis is oval in shape, with a length of
about 4 to 5 cm and a width of about 2 to 3 cm
• Testis are mesodermal in origin & extra abdominal [Note-In mammals testis can be
seen either intra abdominal (eg:- Most of aquatic mammals, Elephant) or extra
abdominal (eg:- humans). Few mammals like otter & bat they show movement as
per the season i.e. extra abdominal during breeding season & intra abdominal
during non breeding season.]
• The testis is attached to the scrotum by a band of connective tissue known as
gubernaculum
• Developed during 3rd month of male foetal development in the lumbar region near
the kidneys, and descend into the scrotum during 7th month of embryonic
development.
• An undescended testicle in scrotal sac is generally rare in full-term babies, but
common in baby boys born prematurely is called cryptorchidism. The testicle
usually moves into the proper position on its own within a few months. If it doesn't,
it can be relocated by surgery.
Note- Following are types:
Anorchidism is a disorder in which a person is born without testes
Monorchidism is a disorder of having only one testes within the scrotum
• Testes have three layers, tunica vascularis, tunica albuginea and tunica vaginalis.
The tunica vascularis is the inner layer and consists of blood vessels, tunica
albuginea is middle layer made up of connective tissue, and outermost tunica
vaginalis is protective peritoneal covering.
• Each testis has about 250 compartments called testicular lobules. Each lobule
contains one to three highly coiled seminiferous tubules in which sperms are
produced.
• Each seminiferous tubule is lined by germinal epithelium which is formed of two
types of cells -male germ cells (spermatogonia) and sertoli cells.
• Germ cells undergo spermatogenesis to form spermatozoa or sperms and sertoli cell
(also called subtentacular cells) functions as nurse cells for differentiating
spermatozoa.

T.S. of Testis

• The regions outside the seminiferous tubules (called interstitial spaces) contain
small blood vessels and interstitial cells or Leydig cells. Leydig cells synthesize and
 secrete testicular hormones called testosterone (which is responsible for
maintaining secondary sexual characters in males after puberty).

Secondary sex organs-

• The seminiferous tubules of the testis open into 15-20 efferent ductules called vasa
efferentia through an irregular network called rete testis. The vasa efferentia leave
the testis and open into head or caput epididymis located along the posterior surface
of each testis.
• Epididymis is involved in temporary storage, nutrition, physiological maturation and
motility of sperms. Epididymis is divided into three parts– anterior caput epididymis,
middle corpus epididymis & posterior cauda epididymis (here spermatozoa is
concentrated & stored until ejaculation)

• Vas deferens is 40cm large duct which arises from the cauda epididymis that ascends
to the abdomen and loops over the urinary bladder & reaches upto seminal vesicle.
It helps in transferring the sperm from cauda epididymis to ejaculatory duct.
• Ejaculatory ducts are 2cm short straight muscular tubes passing through prostate
gland. It is formed by the union of ampulla region of vas deferens & duct of seminal
vesicle. Vas deferens will carry sperm & seminal vesicle will give seminal fluid into
urethra.

• Urethra is a 20cm long structure which originates from the urinary bladder and
extends through the penis to its external opening called urethral meatus/orifice
It is divided into 3 parts- Prostatic urethra (carry only urine), Membranous urethra
(carry both urine & semen) & Penile/Spongial urethra (carry both urine & semen). It
act as a urinogenital duct (common passage for both urine & semen)
• The penis is the male external genitalia acting as male copulatory organ. It is present
extra abdominally, between thighs, usually it is small & limp but turns long & erect
during sexual arousal due to many blood vessels present in erectile tissues. It is
made up of 2 special/erectile tissues called corpora cavernosa (paired, present
posterior-laterally) and corpus spongiosum (single, median through which urethra is
passing) that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate insemination. Corpus
spongiosum gets enlarged at the tip of the penis to form a conical structure called
the glans penis (highly sensitive region) is covered by a loose retractile fold of skin
called foreskin/prepuce. (Note- Smegma is the thick, white, substance that collects
under the foreskin of the penis. It's more common in uncircumcised men who don't
maintain hygiene or clean that area well enough)
Associated/Accessory glands-

• The male accessory glands include paired seminal vesicles, a prostate and paired
bulbourethral/cowpers gland. Secretions of these glands constitute the seminal
plasma which is rich in fructose, calcium and certain enzymes. (Note- Seminal
plasma (i.e. secretion of all 3 glands) along with sperms is called semen.)
• Seminal vesicles: secrete an alkaline solution that makes up 60% of the semen
volume, this seminal fluid contains fructose (nutrient for the sperm) and
prostaglandins (substances that stimulate uterine contraction during sexual
excitation) & fibrinogen (that will cause coagulation of semen)
• Prostate gland: secretes prostatic fluid, milky white in colour that makes up about
30% of semen volume, this fluid helps neutralizing the acidity in female vaginal tract
as sperm is motile at ph 6-6.3 thus prostatic fluid ensures that sperm remains motile.
• Bulbourethral/cowpers gland: Secretion of bulbourethral gland helps in neutralizing
acidity present in male urethra caused due to previous micturition, it also helps in
lubricating the penis.
• Semen: Milky white gel like secretion which comes out from the penis during coitus
(act of sexual intercourse). Semen= Sperms (10%) + Seminal fluid (60%) + Prostatic
fluid (30%)
Properties of Semen
Volume : 3 - 4 ml Semen / Ejaculate (Each ejaculate has 300 million sperms, thus per
ml has 100 million sperms) large number of sperms ensures fertilization.
pH : 7.3 - 7.5 (Alkaline)
• Artificially introducing semen into the vagina to make a female pregnant is called
artificial insemination.
 Male Reproductive system (Front view)

Hormonal control of male reproductive system-

• The growth, maintenance and functions of secondary sex organs are under the
control of testosterone hormone secreted by Leydig's cells of testis, while those of
seminiferous tubules and Leydig's cells are controlled by Follicular Stimulating
Hormone (FSH) and Interstitial Cells Stimulating Hormone (ICSH) of anterior
pituitary lobe respectively.
Human Reproduction & Reproductive Health (12th Biology NCERT pg
no. - 42 to 57)

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Internal genetalia

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE
SYSTEM

External genetalia

• The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries alongwith a pair of

oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia located in pelvic region.
• These parts of the system alongwith a pair of the mammary glands are integrated
structurally and functionally to support the processes of ovulation, fertilisation,
pregnancy, birth and child care.
Primary sex organ-

• Ovaries are the primary female sex organs that produce the female gamete (ovum)
and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones like estrogen, progesterone to
maintain secondary sexual characters & menstrual cycle in female after puberty).
• The ovaries are located one on each side of the uterus in lower abdomen or pelvic
cavity. Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to uterus by ovarian
ligament & to the pelvic wall by suspensory ligament.
• The peritoneal covering over the ovaries are called as mesovarium

• Section of Ovary
• Each ovary is a compact or solid organ, consisting of an outer cortex and inner
medulla.
• The stroma of the cortical region is composed of spindle shaped fibroblasts. A poorly
delineated dense connective tissue layer, the tunica albuginea, covers the cortex. It
imparts the whitish colour to the ovary.
• Located outside the tunica albuginea, the germinal epithelium formed of simple
squamous or cuboidal epithelial cells covers the surface of the ovary.
• Ovarian follicles in different stages of development are embedded in the stroma.
• Follicles are specialized structure in which oocyte growth & meiosis I occur.
• Mature follicles are known as Graafian follicle which occupy a single cavity called
antrum & contains a secondary oocyte ready for ovulation.
• Ruptured graafian follicle is called corpus luteum (a temporary endocrine gland
which secretes progesterone hormone for the maintenance of pregnancy).
• Corpus luteum loses its yellow colour & become inactive & transformed into a small
cell mass called corpus albicans.
• Degenerated follicles are called atretic follicles.
• The oviducts (fallopian tubes), uterus and vagina constitute the female accessory
ducts.
• Oviducts (fallopian tubes):
• Oviducts develop from the mullerian duct of the embryo. It is supported by a double
fold of peritoneum called mesosalpinx
• 10-12 cm in length.
• Extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus.
• Part closer to the ovary is the funnel shaped is infundibulum
• Fimbriae are the finger like projections located on the edges of the infundibulum.
• Fimbriae help in collection of the ovum after ovulation.
• The infundibulum leads to the ampulla (site for fertilization) which is the wider part
of the oviduct.
• The last part of the oviduct is isthmus/cornua which have a narrow lumen and it
joins the uterus.
• It carry’s the egg from the ovary to the uterus, and provides the appropriate
environment for its fertilization.

• Uterus (also called womb) is a piriform, hollow muscular thick-walled but distensible
median structure located above and behind the urinary bladder.

• It is meant for nourishing and development of foetus. For this, uterus is capable of
tremendous enlargement.
• The empty uterus is 7.5 cm long and 5 cm broad and 2.5 cm thick.
• It is covered by peritoneal covering called mesometrium & supported by ligaments
attached to the pelvic wall.

• The uterus has three layers – outer perimetrium, middle myometrium (thickest layer
containing areolar connective tissue & smooth muscle fibres) & inner endometrium.
• The endometrium undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle while the
myometrium under the stimulation of oxytocin, contracts during labor pain to expel
the fetus out (parturition)
• The base of uterus is closed by a narrow passageway called cervix to prevent the
entry of foregin substances
• During pregnancy, endometrium forms the maternal section of the placenta.
• The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix. The cavity of the cervix is
called cervical canal which along with vagina forms the birth canal.
• The surgical removal of uterus is called hysterectomy.
• The uterus is the site of implantation of the pre-embryo and for the subsequent
embryonic & fetal development.
• Vagina is a tubular female copulatory organ and passageway for menstrual flow as
well as birth canal. It is of about 10 cm length.
• Vaginal wall is made of an internal mucosa, muscular layer and an outer adventitia.
Its mucous membrane is non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. Glands are
absent. However, cervical glands do pass on some mucus into it during ovulation.
• During reproductive life, vagina contains certain bacteria (species of Lactobacillus
and Lactoneustroc, also called Doderlein's Bacillus) which bring about fermentation
of glycogen and produce acid which inhibits the growth of other microorganisms.
• In virgins, the vaginal orifice is partially covered by an annular centrally perforate
vascularised mucus membrane called hymen.
• The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, hymen
and clitoris
• Vulva (external female genitalia) is flanked by two pairs of fleshy folds of skin : the
inner small, thin, moist, labia minora and outer larger, hair-covered labia majora
(homologous to scrotal sac of male). All the labial folds have numerous sebaceous
and sweat glands on both sides.
• A small erectile organ, the clitoris, lies at the anterior junction of the labia minora. It
is homologous to the penis in the male but is very small and solid, having no
passage through it. It consists of a short shaft with erectile tissue. It ends in a

rounded glans clitori. The latter is covered by a small hook of skin, the prepuce.
Rubbing of clitoris during intercourse produces a pleasurable sensation.
• Urethra and vagina open by separate apertures, the upper urethral and lower
vaginal orifices, into the vestibule. A fleshy elevation above the labia majora is
known as mons veneris or mons pubis. It bears pubic hair, made up of adipose
tissue.

Female external genitalia

• In virgins, the vaginal orifice is partially covered by an annular centrally perforate

vascularised mucus membrane called hymen.
• The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse)
 • Bartholin's glands are a pair of small glands which open in the vestibule lateral to
vaginal orifice. The secretion of this gland is thick, viscous and alkaline for lubrication
and counteracting urinary acidity (similar to Cowper's glands in males)

• Mammary glands are modified sweat glands that lie over the pectoral muscle.
• A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female mammals.
• The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that contain glandular tissue
and variable amount of fat
• The glandular tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells called alveoli
• The cells of alveoli secrete milk, which is stored in the cavities called as lumens of
alveoli.
• The alveoli open into mammary tubules and the tubules of each lobe join to form a
mammary duct which joins to form a wider mammary ampulla.
• Mammary ampulla is connected to lactiferous duct through which milk is sucked out
via nipple.
• The small darkened area around the nipple of the breast is called areola.

Hormonal control of female reproductive system-

• Ovary is regulated by pituitary gonadotropins or GnRH.
• Anterior pituitary secretes follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) which controls the
transformation of young primary follicle into graafian follicle, maturation of ovum
and secretion of estrogen by its follicular cells.

• The Luteinizing hormone (LH) of anterior pituitary regulates the ovulation from the
graafian follicle, transformation of empty graafian follicle into yellowish, conical
corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone hormone from the corpus luteum.

• Growth and function of secondary sex organs are regulated by estrogen and
progesterone. Estrogen controls the growth, maintenance and functioning of
secondary sex organs of female. Progesterone suspends ovulation during pregnancy,
promotes implantation of foetus on the endometrium and development of foetus in
the uterus.

• At the end of pregnancy, the corpus luteum secretes relaxin which broadens the
pelvis for easy parturition

Hormonal control of female reproductive system

Human Reproduction & Reproductive Health (12th Biology NCERT pg
no. - 42 to 57)

GAMETOGENESIS

The process of formation of gametes in primary sex organs is called Gametogenesis.

Gametogenesis includes-

• spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis (conversion of spermatids into sperms) in

males
• oogenesis in females.

SPERMATOGENESIS

• Spermatogenesis results in the formation of sperms that are transported by the male
sex accessory ducts.
• Spermatogenesis is a continuous process & occurs in seminiferous tubules at the
time of puberty (due to significant increase in the secretion of GnRH) & continues
throughout life.
• Increased levels of GnRH acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates the
secretion of interstitial cell stimulating hormone (ICSH) and follicle stimulating
hormone (FSH). ICSH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis and secretion of
androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate the process of spermatogenesis. FSH acts
on the Sertoli cells and stimulates secretion of some factors which help in the
process of spermatogenesis.
• The spermatogonia present on the inner wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by
mitotic division and increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium is diploid and
contains 46 chromosomes. Some of the spermatogonia called primary
spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis.
• A primary spermatocyte completes the first meiotic division (reduction division)
leading to formation of two equal, haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes,
which have only 23 chromosomes each.
• The secondary spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic division to produce four
equal, haploid spermatids.
• Spermiogenesis or spermateleosis is the process of formation of flagellated
spermatozoa from spermatids.
• After spermiogenesis, sperm heads become embedded in the Sertoli cells and are
released from the seminiferous tubules by the process called spermiation
• Spermiogenesis begins in the seminiferous tubules but usually completed in
epididymis.
STRUCTURE OF SPERM

• Sperm is a microscopic structure composed of a head, neck, a middle piece and a

tail.
• The sperm head contains an elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior portion of
which is covered by a cap-like structure, acrosome (produced by golgi body). The
acrosome is filled with hydrolytic enzymes (hyaluronidase) and proteolytic enzymes
like zona lysine, that help in fertilization of the ovum.
• If acrosome is removed from a sperm, it will fail to penetrate the ovum.
• Neck is very short containing proximal & distal centriole. Axial centriole helps in
initiation of cleavage after fertilization and distal centriole is associated with axial
filament
• The middle piece possesses 10-14 spiral turns mitochondria (nebenkern), which
produce energy for the movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility essential for
fertilization.
• Deficiency in the number of sperms result in sterility which is known as oligospermia.
 • Absence of sperms in semen is known as azoospermia.
• Although normal number of sperm are present in semen but if these are completely
non-motile, then this condition is known as necrospermia.

OOGENESIS

• The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called oogenesis.

• Oogenesis is a discontinuous process.
• Oogenesis begins before birth, stops in mid process and only resumes a year after
menarche (the first menstrual bleeding).
• Oogenesis is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of
million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary; no more
oogonia are formed and added after birth. These cells start division and enter into
prophase-I of the meiotic division and get temporarily arrested at that stage, called
primary oocytes.
• Each primary oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and then
called the primary follicle. The primary oocytes enlarge and mature by obtaining
food from follicle cells. A large number of these follicles degenerate during the phase
from birth to puberty. Therefore, at puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are
left in each ovary.
 • The primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and a new
theca and are called secondary follicles. The secondary follicle soon transforms into
a tertiary follicle which is characterized by a fluid filled cavity called antrum.
• The tertiary follicle further changes into the mature follicle or Graafian follicle. The
secondary oocyte forms a new membrane called zona pellucida surrounding it. The
Graafian follicle now ruptures to release the secondary oocyte (ovum) from the
ovary by the process called ovulation.
• Secondary oocyte is a female gamete in which the 1st meiotic division is completed
& second meiotic division (metaphase stage) begins. Secondary oocyte complete
the secondary meiotic division only after fertilization by the sperm in the fallopian
tube). The egg is released at secondary oocyte stage under the effect of LH.

STRUCTURE OF OVUM

• An ovum is generally spherical, non motile gamete with eccentric nucleus and
abundant cytoplasm or ooplasm.
• Size of ovum varies in different animals and depends upon the amount &
distribution of yolk.
• Eggs Based on Quantity of Yolk:
1. Microlecithal Eggs: They contain very small amount of yolk, e.g. eggs of Sea
urchin, Herdmania, amphioxus.
2. Mesolecithal Eggs: They contain moderate amount of yolk, e.g., eggs of
lamprey, lung fish, frogs and toads.
3. Macrolecithal (Megalecithal or Polylecithal) Eggs: They contain large amount
of yolk, e.g., eggs of insects, sharks, bony fishes, reptiles, birds and egg laying
mammals.
• Eggs Based on Distribution of Yolk in Cytoplasm:
1. Homolecithal Eggs: Yolk is uniformly distributed, e.g. eggs of annelids,
molluscs, echinoderms and protochordates.
2. Telolecithal Eggs: Yolk is concentrated in the vegetal half, e.g. eggs of
amphibians.
3. Meiolecithal Eggs: Yolk is very large which occupies nearly the entire ooplasm,
leaving free only a small disc like area of cytoplasm for the nucleus, e.g., eggs of
reptiles, birds and egg laying mammals.
4. Centrolecithal Eggs: Yolk is localized at the centre, e.g. eggs of insects.
• Size of ovum varies from 10µ to a few cm.
• Egg size and yolk amount are interdependent. In humans, it is generally alecithal
and about 100µ.
• The life span of eggs in female reproductive organs in human being is 48 hrs.
• The nucleus of egg is known as germinal vesicle.
• It is non cledoic (without shell)
• It is devoid of centrioles.
• The egg is surrounded by various coverings,
• The egg membrane is called vitelline membrane, it secrets a non cellular
glycoprotein membrane called zona pellucida (this membrane prevents
implantation at abnormal site)
• Between vitelline membrane and zona pelucida we have perivitelline space in
which the first polar body is seen.
• Outside zona pellucida there are several elongated radiating cells called corona
radiata which are glued to each other by hyaluronic acid.
Human Reproduction & Reproductive Health (12th Biology NCERT pg
no. - 42 to 57)

MENSTRUAL CYCLE

• Menstrual cycle is the cyclic change in the reproductive tract of primate females.
• The first menstruation begins at puberty in females is known as menarche.
• Menstrual cycle starts only after attaining sexual maturation (puberty). During
ovulation, only one ovum is released per menstrual cycle.
• The cyclical changes in the ovary and uterus during the menstrual cycle are
induced by changes in the levels of pituitary (FSH & LH) and ovarian (Estrogen &
Progestrone) hormones.
• Cyclic menstruation is an indicator of normal reproductive phase and extends
between menarche (the first menstrual cycle) and menopause.
• The length of menstrual cycle varies widely in women, but on average it is
completed in 28 days (mensus means a month).
• Menstrual cycle is absent during pregnancy, may be suppressed during lactation
and permanently stops at menopause.
• Menstrual cycle is divided into four phases -
menstrual or bleeding phase- (1st to 4th day)
follicular or proliferative phase- (5th to 13th day)
ovulatory phase- (14th day)
luteal or secretory phase- (15th to 28th day)

MENSTRUAL PHASE OR BLEEDING PHASE

• It lasts for about 3-5 days and extends from 1st to 4th day of the menstrual cycle.

• When the ovum remains unfertilized, then the corpus luteum starts degenerating.
The level of progesterone in the blood declines.

• The endometrium fail to be maintained & become 1mm thin. Then the unfertilized
ovum along with ruptured uterine epithelium or endometrium, about 50 - 100 ml of
blood and some mucus is discharged out through the vaginal orifice and is called
menstrual flow or menstruation.

• Decrease in the level of progesterone and estrogen in the blood stimulates the
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to release FSH-RF and FSH respectively (positive
feedback). FSH starts the follicular phase of next menstrual cycle.

FOLLICULAR (PROLIFERATIVE) PHASE OR POST-MENSTRUAL OR PRE-OVULATORY PHASE

• It follows the menstrual phase and lasts for about 9-10 days (from 5 to 13th day of
menstrual cycle).
 • It involves following changes :

o Under the stimulation of FSH-RF of hypothalamus, there is increased

secretion of FSH from anterior pituitary.

o FSH stimulates the change of a primary follicle of the ovary into a Graafian
follicle called folliculogenesis.

o Follicular atresia is seen.

o Follicular cells of Graafian follicle secrete estrogen which help in repairing the
endometrium 3-4mm thick.

• Proliferative phase consists of growth of endometrium, fallopian tube and vagina.

• The follicular phase ends with ovulation.

OVULATORY PHASE OR FERTILITY PHASE

• It involves the rupturing of graffian follicle to release ovum or secondary oocyte from
the Graafian follicle of ovary.

• It occurs at the end of proliferative phase i.e. 14th day

• Ovum is released in coelom or pelvic cavity which is then received by the fimbria of
the fallopian tube to assist ovum towards ampulla or ampullary isthumus
junction(site for fertilization). Ovum is viable for two days & arrested at metaphase
meiosis 2.

• Ovulation is controlled by the increased level of LH in the blood. Egg at that time is in
the secondary oocyte state. LH also starts the change of empty Graafian follicle into
corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum.

• During ovulation, the secondary oocytes remains surrounded by its zona pellucida
and corona radiata. There is no much change in uterine endometrium during
ovulatory phase.

• Ruptured graffian follicle heals the trauma due to bleeding from theca interna &
forms a clot called “bloody body or corpus hemorargicum” which later turns into
corpus luteum.

In animals, the ovulation follows three patterns:

o Fix or spontaneous ovulators : In these animals, ovulation takes place at a fix

time in the midway of cycle. There is no need of coitus for ovulation. E.g.,
Primates (Human, Ape and Monkey).
 o Induced or reflex ovulators : In these animals, copulation or coitus is
necessary for ovulation, e.g., rabbit,

o Seasonal ovulators : Ovulation occur in breeding season, e.g., frog.

LUTEAL OR PROGESTATIONAL OR PRE-MENSTRUAL OR SECRETORY OR POST-OVULATORY

PHASE

• It lasts for about 12 - 14 days and extends from 15th to 28th day of menstrual cycle.

• It is characterised by following changes -

o Corpus luteum (yellow body) is formed from empty Graafian follicle so is

called luteal phase.

o The endometrium prepares for the implantation of an embryo & the corpus
luteum is active.

o Corpus luteum begins to secrete a hormone called progesterone. The later

reaches its peak about 22nd day after the beginning of cycle.

Fate of corpus luteum

• When egg is not fertilized

o If the egg is not fertilized, the corpus luteum stops secreting progesterone
and decays (Regression of corpus luteum occurs on 25th day).

o It then degenerates into a corpus albicans which is a mass of fibrous tissue.

o Endometrium wall degenerates and next menstruation or menstrual cycle

starts due to decline in progesterone levels.

• When egg is fertilized

o If the egg is fertilized, there is secretion of HCG from embryo for first
3months (Human chorionic gonadotropin) which extends the life of corpus
luteum (as HCG is the hormone which will mimic the action of LH)

o Next 6 months HCG is been secreted by placenta in order to maintain

pregnancy

o Presence of HCG in maternal blood and urine is an indicator of pregnancy

o It then degenerates into a corpus albicans which is a mass of fibrous tissue.

 o Endometrium wall degenerates and menstruation starts due to decline in
progesterone levels.

Some menstrual hygiene tips you must keep in mind while on your period

1. Change your sanitary napkins at least 2 -3 times a day keeping it for long increases
the chance of infection & same might happen if damp and dirty clothes are used.

2. Dry washed undergarments under the sun to minimise the chances of infections.

3. Don’t skip a bath during periods. The chances of infections reduce if your body is
clean.

4. Wipe your vagina with a soft tissue after using the loo (front to back), especially
during periods. Keep dry, keep clean.

5. Wrap your used napkins or tampons carefully before disposing them.

6. Use antiseptic hand wash while changing pads or tampons.

7. Opt for sanitary pads that are natural and do not use artificial additives like perfumes
or harsh synthetics.

8. Don’t hesitate to talk about periods. Even if it means confronting your roommate
about her poor period-hygiene, talk about it.
In entherian mammals (other then primates) reproductive cycle is estrus cycle which occurs
during specific breeding season.

Amenorrhoea . Absence of menstruation cycle.

Precocious puberty : Menstruation occurs before the age of 8 years.

Pregnancy is detected with the help of HCG in urine of pregnant lady.

Cryptomenorrhea : Occurrence of menstrual symtoms without external bleeding.

Dysmenorrhoea : Painful menstruation is called Dysmenorrhoea.

Menorrhagia : A normal menstrual blood loss is 50-80 ml, and does not exceed 100 ml. In
menorrhagia the menstrual cycle is unaltered but the duration and quantity of the
menstrual blood loss are increased.

Polymenorrhoea : In polymenorrhoea or epimenorrhoea, the menstrual cycle is reduced

from the normal of twenty-eight days to a cycle of two to three weeks and remains constant
at that increased frequency.

FERTILIZATION
o The fusion of haploid male gamete, sperm and haploid female gamete, ovum is
called fertilization.

o During coitus, sperm is released by male partner into the vagina of the female
partner is called as insemination

o The motile sperms swim and pass the cervix to enter into the uterus and finally to
reach the ovum released by the ovary in the ampulla-isthmic junction.

o Fertilization takes place in the ampulla-isthmic junction.

o All copulations do not lead to fertilization because fertilization can only occur if the
ovum and sperms are transported simultaneously to the ampulla-isthmic junction.

o Mechanism of fertilization :

1. Movement of sperms towards the secondary oocyte.

2. Penetration or hydrolysis of hyaluronic acid of corona radiata by the hyaluronidase

enzyme.

3. Adherence of sperm to the ZP3 receptors/region on zona pellucida, the

glycoprotein layer surrounding the oocyte.

4. Sperm bind to a sperm receptor on the zona and this leads to initiation of
acrosomal reaction. Various enzymes are released. eg. Acrosin (Zona lysin).

5. Acrosin facilitate the penetration of sperm through zona pellucida.

6. Fusion of sperm and vitelline membrane of secondary oocyte. (Syngamy)

7. Completion of meiosis-II of secondary oocyte to form ovum and simultaneously it

releases 2nd polar body.

8. Structural changes in zona pellucida through cortical reaction and discharge of

cortical granules in perivitelline space forms fertilization membrane, which prevent
polyspermy.

10. In the event of fertilization complete sperm enters inside the ovum.

11. It is followed by plasmogamy, karyogamy and amphimixis i.e. completion of

fertilization.
 Significance of Fertilization

1. Secondary oocyte completes its second maturation division on coming in contact

with the sperm.

2. Amphimixis process leads to the formation of a diploid zygote to restore the

normal diploid number of the chromosomes.

3. The centriole of sperm after entering into egg induces the egg to undergo
cleavage.

4. The paternal and maternal characters are transmitted to the offsprings through
the process of fertilization.

5. The peripheral changes occurring in the egg prevent the further entry of sperm
into the ovum, thus checking polyspermy.

SEX DETERMINATION IN HUMAN

o Male has two sex chromosomes X and Y hence male produces 50% of sperms
carrying X and 50% carrying Y, while female has two X chromosomes.

o After fusion of the male and female gametes the zygote would carry either XX or XY
depending on whether the sperm carrying X or Y fertilized the ovum.
 o The zygote carrying XX would develop into a female baby and XY would form a male.

CLEAVAGE

o In fertilized egg, the egg undergoes repeated cell divisions which occur rapidly
producing a multicellular structure without changing its size. All these rapid mitotic
cell divisions are collectively called cleavage or segmentation.
 o Cleavage is the mitotic division of the zygote unit moving through the isthmus of the
oviduct towards the uterus and forms 2, 4, 8, 16 daughter cells called blastomeres.
o Cleavage occurs more readily in the active cytoplasm.
o Cleavage in human is equal holoblastic.
o Morula is a solid ball without a cavity which is formed after cleavage. Morula looks
like a little mulberry.
o Cells produced as a result of cleavage are termed as blastomeres.

CLASSIFICATION OF CLEAVAGE

On the basis of fate of blastomere

Determinate cleavage- The fate of blastomere is fixed, determined i.e. blastomere forms a
particular portion of embryo eg. Nematoda, annelida, mollusca

Indeterminate cleavage- The fate of blastomere is not definite. These are totipotent in early
stage of embryo eg. Human

• Classification of cleavage on the basis of amount of yolk

Blastulation

The morula continues to divided and transforms into blastocyst.

Blastocyst - Blastula of eutherian and metatherian mammals is called blastocyst, because

blastula is in the form of a cyst.

The blastomeres in the blastocyst are arranged into an outer layer called trophoblast and an
inner group of cells attached to trophoblast called the inner cell mass.

Trophoblast is destined to make extra embryonic membranes are of four types. 1. Amnion
2. Chorion 3. Yolk sac 4. Allantois

Inner cell mass or embryoblast is destined to make future embryo

Zona pellicuda layer remains intact till it reaches uterus to prevent implantation at abnormal
site.

The trophoblast layer then gets attached to the endometrium after disintegration of zona
pellicuda and the inner cell mass gets differentiated as the embryo.

The trophoblast layer towards embryonic pole (called cells of rauber) then gets attached to
the endometrium of the uterus (by 6th-7th day after fertilization) and the inner cell mass
divide to cover the blastocyst hence blastocyst becomes embedded in the endometrium of
the uterus and the process is called as implantation or nidation.

The trophoblast differentiates into two different cell masses, shortly before it comes into
contact with the endometrium:

• the outer syncytiotrophoblast (ST)

• the inner cytotrophoblast (CT)

In the periphery the syncytiotrophoblast forms a syncytium, i.e., a multi-nucleic layer
without cell boundaries that arises from the fusion of cytotrophoblast cells.

The syncytiotrophoblast produces lytic enzymes and secretes factors that cause apoptosis
of the endometrial epithelial cells.

The inner cytotrophoblast is with cell boundaries which forms future amnion.

In human, implantation is of interstitial type in which embryo is buried in the uterine

epithelium which completely surrounds it.

After implantation endometrium is known as decidua.

The decidua is the modified mucosal lining of the uterus (that is, modified endometrium)
that forms in preparation for pregnancy.

It is formed in a process called decidualization under the influence of progesterone.

GASTRULATION

In gastrula stage rate of cleavage division is slow and ultimately stops at the end of gastrula.
Gastrula stage is the most important stage in embryonic development because two main
events take place during gastrula stage.

(a) Differentiation of blastomere: As a result of differentiation of blastomere; three germinal

layers i.e. ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm are formed.

Formation of three germinal layers is the significance of gastrula stage. All the preparation
of differentiation of blastomere are completed in late blastula stage.

(b) Morphogenetic Movements: During gastrula stage blastomere perform amoeboid

movement and reach to their definite place in embryo because after the gastrulation
organogenesis has to start in embryo.
Morphogenetic movement requires enormous energy. So respiratory activity of egg
increases.

Method of Gastrulation :

(a) Epiboly : Movement of ectoderm forming blastomere

(b) Emboly : Movement of mesoderm and endoderm forming blastomere.

In same animals new cavity if formed in gastrula this is called gastrocoel or archanteron
cavity.

Immediately after implantation, the inner cell mass (embryo) differentiates into an outer
layer called ectoderm and an inner layer called endoderm. A mesoderm soon appears
between the ectoderm and the endoderm. These three layers give rise to all tissues (organs)
in adults.

The establishment of germ layers initiates the final phase of embryonic development i.e.
organogenesis.
Pregnancy
Summary of developmental stages in human

After one month of pregnancy, the embryo's heart is formed.

By the end of the second month of pregnancy the foetus develops limbs and digits.

By the end of 12 weeks (First trimester), most of the major organ system use formed.

The first movements of the foetus and appearance of hair on the head are usually observed
during the fifth month.

By the end of 24 weeks (Second trimester), the body is covered with fine hair, eye-lids
separate and eye lashes are formed.

By the end of nine months of pregnancy, the foetus is fully developed and is ready for
delivery.

Placenta

o After implantation, finger like projections appear on the trophoblast called

as chorionic villi.

o Uterine tissue and maternal blood surrounds the chorionic villi.

o The chorionic villi and uterine tissue together form a structural and functional
organic structure between developing embryo and tissues of the mother called
as placenta

o Placenta is an intimate mechanical connection between foetus and uterus of mother

for nutrition, respiration and excretion.

o Placenta contains minute finger like projections called villi. The uterine wall forms
corresponding depressions called crypts.

o Human placenta is hemochorial placenta (in which maternal blood bathes foetal
chorionic villi directly), non-deciduous and meta discoidal.

o In simplest type of placenta, six barriers separate maternal blood from foetal blood.
Three barriers are lost in human placenta.

o Umbilical cord is a flexible cord like structure connecting the foetus at the navel with
the placenta and containing two umbilical arteries and one vein that nourishes the
foetus and remove its wastes.

o Both type of blood vessels in the umbilical cord is surrounded by Whaton's jelly.

o The placenta facilitates the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the embryo and also
removal of carbon dioxide and excretory /waste materials produced by the embryo.
 o Placenta also acts as an endocrine tissue as it secretes several hormones like human
chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), human placental lactogen (hPL), estrogens,
progestogens, etc that are essential for maintaining maternal physiological
conditions appropriate for continued development of the conceptus. In the later
phase of pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin is also secreted by the ovary.

PARTURITION AND LACTATION

o After nine months of pregnancy, the fully developed foetus is ready for delivery. The
process of childbirth is called parturition.

o It is induced by a complex neuroendocrine mechanism involving cortisol, estrogens

and oxytocin.

o Powerful contraction of the uterus in labor are needed for parturition.

o The signals for placenta parturition originate from the fully developed foetus and the
placenta which induce mild uterine contraction called foetal ejection reflex.
o Stages of labor in parturition are

o 1st stage : Dilation of cervix (DILATION)

o 2nd stage : Delivery of baby (EXPULSION)

o 3nd stage : Delivery of placenta and umbilical cord. (PLACENTAL)

o Foetal effection reflex induces oxytocin release from the posterior pituitary, which
acts on uterine muscle and causes stronger uterine contraction.

o Gestation period is the length of time from conception to birth. Gestation period of
280 days is calculated from time of last menstruation (hence 266 days).
o Mammary glands differentiate during pregnancy and secrete milk after child-birth.
The new-born baby is fed milk by the mother (lactation) during the initial few
months of growth.

o The milk produced during the initial few days of lactation is called colostrum which
contains several antibodies (Ig A) absolutely essential to develop resistance for the
new-born babies.