Electronic Circuits

Fall-2021
 Course Books
Textbook: Electronic Devices by Thomas L. Floyd
Conventional Current Version,
9th Edition

Reference Book:
Microelectronic Circuits by
Adel Sedra/Smith,
6th Edition
 Course Learning Outcomes
Bloom’s
S.
Course Learning Outcome (CLO’s) Learning
No. Level

1. C2
Explain the basic construction, operation and
characteristics of diodes and transistors.
3. Apply the acquired knowledge of semiconductor C3
devices to design, implement and troubleshoot small-
scale circuits.
4 Analyze dc and ac response of circuits containing C4
semiconductor device.
 Policies
Assignments: Grading Policy:
– Assignments will be
handwritten, submitted in
proper folder.
– No plagiarism and
copying as per HEC Policy.
Quizzes:
Quizzes may be announced /
unannounced.
Attendances:
75% (min)
(Lab and Th. both)
Attendance less than 75% is
not allowed for any reason
including:
Illness, Family Issues, Visa etc.
 Course Outline
• Semiconductor Materials
• Diode
• BJT
• FET

– Internal Structure
– Operation
– Biasing
– Applications
 Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
 Objectives
ØDiscuss basic operation of a diode
ØDiscuss the basic structure of atoms

ØDiscuss properties of insulators,

conductors, and semiconductors
ØDiscuss covalent bonding
ØDescribe the properties of both p and
n type materials
ØDiscuss both forward and reverse biasing of
a p-n junction
 Introduction
The basic function of a diode is to restrict current flow
to one direction.

Forward bias Reverse Bias

Current flows No current flow
 Bohr model of an atom

As seen in this
model, electrons
circle the nucleus.
Atomic structure of a
material determines
it’s ability to conduct
or insulate.
 Electrons & Shells
Ø Electrons orbits the nucleus at certain distances
Ø Electrons near the nucleus has less energy as compared to the
electrons in distant orbits
Ø Discrete values of electrons energies exist so distance of electrons
from nucleus is also fixed
Ø Orbits of same energies are grouped as shells
Ø Each shell has a defined number of electrons it will hold. This is a
fact of nature and can be determined by the formula, 2n2.
Ø The outermost shell is called valence shell
Ø Number of electrons in valence shell determine the chemical &
electrical properties of the element
Ø If an atom loses a valence electron, positive ion is formed
Ø If an extra electron is added to valence shell, negative ion is formed
 The Quantum Model
• Unlike Bohr’s Model, electrons do not circulate in fixed
circular orbits
– Wave-particle duality
– Uncertainly principle
• Each shell comprises orbitals s(2),p(6),d(10),f(14)
• Quantum representation of Si, atomic number:14
Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors

Ø The ability of a material to conduct current is

based on its atomic structure.
Ø Each shell has a defined number of electrons it
will hold. This is a fact of nature and can be
determined by the formula, 2n2.

Ø The outer shell is called the valence shell.

Ø The less complete a shell is filled to capacity the
more conductive the material is.
 Conductors, Insulators, and Semiconductors
The valence shell determines the ability of material to
conduct current.
A Copper atom has only 1 electron A Silicon atom has 4 electrons in it’s
in it’s valence ring. This makes it a valence ring. This makes it a
good conductor. It takes 2n2 semiconductor. It takes 2n2 electrons
electrons or in this case 32 or in this case or 18 electrons to fill
electrons to fill the valence shell. the valence shell.
Comparison of Silicon & Germanium
 Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding is a bonding of two or more atoms by the
interaction of their valence electrons.
 Covalent Bonding
Certain atoms will combine in this way to form a crystal
structure. Silicon and Germanium atoms combine in this
way in their intrinsic or pure state.
 Current in Semiconductor
• @ 0kelvin
• @ room temperature
 N-type and P-type Semiconductors

The process of creating N and P type

materials is called doping.
Other atoms with 5 electrons such Other atoms with 3 electrons such as
as Antimony are added to Silicon to Boron are added to Silicon to create a
increase the free electrons. deficiency of electrons or hole charges.

N-type P-type
 The Depletion Region
p region n region p region n region

With the formation of the p This creates the depletion

and n materials combination
of electrons and holes at the
junction takes place.
region and has a barrier
potential. This potential
cannot be measured with a
voltmeter but it will cause a
small voltage drop.
 Forward and Reverse Bias
Forward Bias
Voltage source or bias connections are
+ to the p material and – to the n
material
Bias must be greater than .3 V for
Germanium or .7 V for Silicon diodes.
The depletion region narrows.
Reverse Bias
Voltage source or bias connections are –
to the p material and + to the n material
Bias must be less than the break down
voltage.
Current flow is negligible in most cases.
The depletion region widens.
Forward Bias Measurements With Small Voltage
Applied

In this case with

the voltage
applied is less
than the barrier
potential so the
diode for all
practical purposes
is still in a non-
conducting state.
Current is very
small.
 Forward Bias Measurements With Applied
Voltage Greater Than the Barrier Voltage.

With the applied

voltage
exceeding the
barrier potential
the now fully
forward biased
diode conducts.
Note that the
only practical loss
is the .7 Volts
dropped across
the diode.
 Ideal Diode Characteristic Curve
In this characteristic
curve we do not consider
the voltage drop or the
resistive properties.
Current flow
proportionally increases
with voltage.
 Practical Diode Characteristic Curve

In most cases we
consider only the
forward bias voltage
drop of a diode. Once
this voltage is
overcome the current
increases
proportionally with
voltage.This drop is
particularly important
to consider in low
voltage applications.
 Complex Characteristic Curve of a Diode
The voltage drop is not
the only loss of a diode.
In some cases we must
take into account other
factors such as the
resistive effects as well
as reverse breakdown.
Diode approximations
Electronic Devices

Three diode approximations are:

IF IF IF

VR VF VR VF VR VF
0.7 V 0.7 V

IR IR IR

Ideal Practical Complete

Example
Electronic Devices

Use the practical model to determine the current in the

circuit:
R

3.3 kW
+
VBIAS 12 V
–
Example
Electronic Devices

Use the practical model to determine the current in the

circuit:
R

3.3 kW
+
VBIAS 12 V
–

VR = VBIAS - 0.7 V = 12 V - 0.7 V = 11.3 V

Example
Electronic Devices

Use the practical model to determine the current in the

circuit:
R

3.3 kW
+
VBIAS 12 V
–

VR = VBIAS - 0.7 V = 12 V - 0.7 V = 11.3 V

VR 11.3 V
I= = =
R 3.3 kW
Example
Electronic Devices

Use the practical model to determine the current in the

circuit:
R

3.3 kW
+
VBIAS 12 V
–

VR = VBIAS - 0.7 V = 12 V - 0.7 V = 11.3 V

VR 11.3 V
I= = = 3.4 mA
R 3.3 kW
 Troubleshooting Diodes
Testing a diode is quite simple, particularly if the multimeter
used has a diode check function. With the diode check function
a specific known voltage is applied from the meter across the
diode.

With the diode check

function a good diode will
show approximately .7 V or
.3 V when forward biased.

When checking in reverse

bias the full applied testing
voltage will be seen on the
display.
K A A K
 Troubleshooting Diodes

An ohmmeter can be used to check the

forward and reverse resistance of a diode if
the ohmmeter has enough voltage to force the
diode into conduction. Of course, in forward
biased connection low resistance will be seen
and in reverse biased connection high
resistance will be seen.
 Troubleshooting Diodes

Open Diode
In the case of an open diode no current flows in either
direction which is indicated by the full checking voltage
with the diode check function or high resistance using an
ohmmeter in both forward and reverse connections.

Shorted Diode
In the case of a shorted diode maximum current flows
indicated by a 0 V with the diode check function or low
resistance with an ohmmeter in both forward and reverse
connections.
 Diode Packages

Diodes come in a variety of sizes and shapes. The

design and structure is determined by what type of
circuit they will be used in.
Diode packages
Electronic Devices

Some common configurations are

K
K A
K
A
A K
A K
A
K

K
A

K A
K K

A A
K
K
A
 Summary

Ø Diodes, transistors, and integrated circuits are

all made of semiconductor material.
Ø P-materials are doped with trivalent impurities
Ø N-materials are doped with pentavalent impurities
Ø P and N type materials are joined together to form a
PN junction.
Ø A diode is nothing more than a PN junction.
Ø At the junction a depletion region is formed. This
creates barrier which requires approximately 0.3 V for
a Germanium and 0.7 V for Silicon for conduction to
take place.
 Summary

Ø A diode conducts when forward biased and does not

conduct when reverse biased
Ø When reversed biased a diode can only withstand
so much applied voltage. The voltage at which
avalanche current occurs is called reverse breakdown
voltage.
Ø There are three ways of analyzing a diode. These
are ideal, practical, and complex. Typically we use a
practical diode model.