Subjects ELME

1. Define the intensity of the electric field. Write Coulomb’s Law (definition, equation,
measures involved and corresponding units). Use Coulomb’s Law to calculate the
electric field produced by charge distributions.

Legea lui Couloumb atesta ca particulele cu sarcini opuse se atrag si particulele cu acelasi
sarcina se resping ,cu o forta proportionala a produsul dintre cele doua sarcini si cu o forta
invers proportionala a distantei patrate dintre cele doua particule.

Simbolul sarcini electrice (+/-)

𝑞−+ Sarcina electrica este masurata in Coulomb’s=1C
e= -1.6*10^-19*C
𝒒𝟏 ∗𝒒𝟐 𝑁∗𝑚^2
F=k* k-Couloumb constant k=9*109 *
𝒓𝟐 𝑐^2
q1&q2- sarcini
r- distanta dintre doua sarcini
Fortele electro-statice pot fi de atragere si de respingere ,depinzand de sarcinile q1 si q2

- -

r=1*n*m=10^-9

Campul electric : Orice particula incarcata genereaza un camp magnetic care merge si
absoarbe fortele tuturor particulelor incarcate intalnite in raza .
𝐹 ത
𝐸ധ = 𝐹ത - forta dintre doua obiecte
𝑞
q - magnitudinea sarcini

Intensitatea campul electric presupune masurarea intensitati sau puterea fortei electrice pe unitate la
un punct dat in campul electric (E=N/C)
2. Action of electric fields on charges. Discuss: the motion of point charges in
electric fields, dipoles in electric fields, the dipole moment, the torque on a
dipole and potential energy of a dipole in an electric field. Definitions,
equations and units.

From a positive charge ,the electric field lines radiate from the
charge to the exterior.

From a negative charge ,the electric field lines radiate from the
exterior into the charge.

The electric field lines shoe the magnitude of the direction of the force exerted on any
particle or electric field .
The greater the electric force ,the higher the electric field .
The density (strength ) of the electric field depends on the magnitude of change
Electric diploe properties :
1.The field lines must be tangent to the
direction of the electric field .
2.The greater the density , the greater the
lines living the the object (electric field)
3.The electric field lines starts from the
positive and goes into negative charge
4.The electric field lines must never cross each other .

Dipol momentum : is a measurement of the separation of two opposite charges .

Dipol momentum are vector quantity .

𝜇 – diploe momentum
q – the magnitude of the separated charge
𝜇ҧ = 𝑞 ∗ 𝑟ҧ r – the distance between tow charges.
Diploe in electric fields :
𝐹1 There is an external electric field .
+ A uniform external electric field extract
𝐹2 𝜇ҧ - 𝑟ҧ a torque that tends to rotate the dipol , so
it well aligned in the direction of the
+q electric field .
-q + 𝐹2 A torque tends to rotate so that is aligned to the electric field
- ത 𝜇ҧ 𝜇 − 𝑑𝑖𝑝𝑜𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝐹1 𝜇ҧ 𝜏ҧ = 𝐸𝑥 E – intensity of the electric field
+
The molecule acquired an induce diploe momentum
parallel to the external electric field and it’s said to be
polarized.
3. Define the electric flux through a surface in the following cases: when the surface is
oriented perpendicular to the electric field, the electric filed is perpendicular to the surface
but makes an angle with the unit vector normal to the surface area, when the surface is
curved. Write Gauss’s Law for electric fields.

The mathematical quantity that corresponds to the number of field lines penetrating a surface is
called flux
∅ − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝑚2
∅ = 𝐸ത ∗ 𝐴 𝐸ത − 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ∅ 𝑠𝑖 = 𝑁 ∗
𝑐
A – electric field area

𝐸ത
𝐸ത ⊥ 𝐴

𝐴
𝑛ො

𝐸ത ∅ = 𝐸ത ∗ 𝑛ො ∗ 𝐴
𝑛ො − 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

𝐸ത ∅ = ර(𝐸ത ∗ 𝑛ො ∗ 𝐴)𝑑𝐴
𝑛ො
DAi S

S
Gauss’s Law : The net work flux through any closed surface , the net change inside the
surface by 𝜀0 .

𝑄𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒
∅𝑛𝑒𝑡 = ර(𝐸ത ∗ 𝑛)𝑑
ො 𝐴=
𝜀0
S
 4. The electric potential difference: description, definition, equations and units. The general
relation between the electric field and the electric potential. The electric current – how is
current formed, definition, equations and units. The current density vector.

Electrical potential : A charge object can have electric potential energy when is held in an
electric field , it has potential energy . This potential energy when is held in an preformed work
a force is apply over a distance.

+ - W – work
d – distance
+ - W=𝐹ത ∗ 𝑑 𝐹ത − 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

+ - dU=−q ∗ 𝐸ത ∗ 𝑑𝑙
+ - dU=-W

The potential energy change per unit change is called potentiable

∆𝑢
𝑑𝑢 ∆V=Vb-Va= =-
dU= =-E*dl 𝑞
𝑞 𝑏
‫𝑙𝑑 ∗ 𝐸 𝑎׬‬
1 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝐽
1 Volt= =
1𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑚𝑏 𝐶

High Voltage dV=-𝐸ഥ ∗ 𝑑𝑙

+ 𝑞𝑜 a
𝐸ത [E]=
𝑁
𝐶
Low Voltage 𝑉
[E]=
𝑚
Electrical current : can be considerate the total amount of change passing through a cable ,area
spread on time . When there is a difference in electric potential between 2 points , the difference
of voltage between that 2 places makes charges to move from + to -.
The flow of electric charge through a surface
A – cross section in a conductible wire
q ∆𝑄 ∆𝑄 − 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑖𝑛 𝐴 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡
q A I= The current is measured in Amper 1A= 1𝑠
1𝐶
∆𝑡
ҧ the point in a current
The current density vector 𝐽at 𝐼
conductor is equal to the amount of change per unit time 𝐽=ҧ ∗ 𝐸ത
𝜑
that flow through a unit area of a chosen cross section
𝜑 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
5. Resistance and Ohm’s Law. Resistivity. Combinations of resistors: in series and in parallel.

Ohm’s Law : U=R∗ 𝐼 U – tension , R – resistance , I – intensity [R]=Ω(𝑜ℎ𝑚)

𝑉
All the electric circuits have the same level of resistance 1Ω = 𝐴
Potential drop (Vb-Va)
Vb
I The ratio of a potential drop in the direction of current is called resistance.
Va b
𝑈
a R=
𝐼
𝐸ത When the resistance of a material is constant the voltage drop is
proportional to the current.

Resistivity : the resistance of conducting wire a is found to be proportional to the length loop ,
to the length of the wire and the inversely proportional to his cross section area .
𝐿 𝜑 − 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
R= φ ∗ [𝜑] = Ω ∗ 𝑚
𝐴
Combination of resistors :
- Resistors connected in series :
𝑈𝑒
+ -

The potential drop is : U=R∗𝐼

U=I*𝑅1 +I*𝑅2
I
I*R=I*(𝑅1 +𝑅2) R=𝑅1 +𝑅2 + ..
R1 R2
- Resistors connected in parallel :
+ 𝑈𝑒 𝑈
- I=
𝑅
𝑈 𝑈 𝑈 𝑈
= + +
I1 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R1
I2 1 1 1 1
R2 = + +
I3
𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅3
R3

I=𝐼1 +𝐼2 +𝐼3 ..

 6. Energy and power in electric circuits. The emf (electromotive force) and batteries

Energy in an electric circuit :

Resistance cause lose of energy on the circuit .
In a light bulb current flows to the light bulb into a small filament providing resistance which
transform electrical energy in thermal energy and light .

Power in an electrical circuit :

Power is the amount of energy transformed over time.

𝐸 [P]=W
P=
𝑡 1W=1A*1V

The rate of partial energy lose :

𝑑𝑈 𝑑𝑄 I 𝑑𝑄
= *U I= P=I*U
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ∆𝑡

The rate at when proportional energy is defined to a device is the product of

potential drop cross the device and the current of the device.

𝑈2
P=I*R=
𝑅

Electromotive force and battery:

A device that supply electrical energy to a circuit is called a source of electromotive
force (emf)

Ue – tension
𝑃∗∆𝑡 Le – mechanical work called tension of the sorce
=Ue dQ – reactive power
𝑑𝑄

+ -
Battery
a
+ I
Ua-Ub=Ue-I*r
Ue
R
- I*R=Ua-Ub=Ue-I*r
b
 7. Kirchhoff’s rules. Write the seven steps involved in analyzing a multiloop circuit.

Kirchhoff's rules:
Kirchhoff’s junction rule. At an junction in a circuit where the current can divide the sum
of the current entering the junction most equal the sum of the current leaving the junction
(based on the law of conservation of change)

Multiloop circuit:
A C
𝐼1 𝐼3
R1 R3
𝐼2
O2

𝐼4
O1
R4 𝐼5
R2

Ue(r)

O3

R5
B
Step 1 . Determine the number of junction in the circuits .A junction is a point where
minimum 3 circuits element meet .
A,B,C N=3
Step 2 . Determine the number of brunches in the circuit . A brunch is a succession of circuit
elements , where at last one element is located between two neighbor junction :AB,AC,BC …
L=5
Step 3 .Determine the number of loops
Ochi=Loop=O+L-N+1=3

Step 4 .Apply the first law of Kirchhoff’s :

A: 𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 +𝑰𝟑 =0
෍ 𝐼𝑘 = 0 B: 𝑰𝟏 +𝑰𝟐 +𝑰𝟒 + 𝑰𝟓 =0
C: 𝑰𝟑 = 𝑰𝟒 + 𝑰𝟓
𝐾∈𝑁

Step .Apply the second law of Kirchhoff’s :

K,Loop j j=1,2,3

෍ 𝐼𝑘 ∗ 𝑅 = ෍ 𝑈𝑒 ∗ 𝐾 𝑅𝐾 − 𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑐ℎ 𝑘

𝐾∈𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑗 𝐾∈𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝 𝑗
Spep 6 .

𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝1 , (O1) A: 𝐼2 ∗ 𝑅2 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑟 = 𝑈𝑒
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝1 , (O2) A: 𝐼3 ∗ 𝑅3 + 𝐼4 ∗ 𝑅4 − 𝐼2 ∗ 𝑅2 = 𝑈𝑒
𝐿𝑜𝑜𝑝1 , (O3) A: 𝐼3 ∗ 𝑅3 + 𝐼5 ∗ 𝑅5 − 𝐼1 𝑅1 + 𝑟 = 𝑈𝑒

Step 7. Validation stage

𝑃𝐺 = 𝑃𝑅 𝑃𝐺 − 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 , 𝑃𝑅 − 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

𝑃𝐺 = ෍ 𝑈𝑒 ∗ 𝐼𝐾 𝑃𝐺 = −𝑈𝑒 ∗ 𝐼1
𝑘=1

𝑃𝑅 = ෍ 𝐼𝑘2 ∗ 𝑅𝑘 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝑟 + 𝐼22 ∗ 𝑅2 + 𝐼32 ∗ 𝑅3 + 𝐼42 ∗ 𝑅4 + 𝐼52 ∗ 𝑅5

𝑘=1
 8. Capacitance (definition, description, units). Combinations of capacitors: in series and in
parallel. Dielectrics in a capacitor, permittivity of a dielectric.

The Capacitance –stores energy.

The potential energy can be stored and raised to the concept of a capacitor :

K – constant of coulomb
𝑘∗𝑄 Q – charge
V= V – voltage
𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠

𝑘∗𝑄 1
V*radius=k*Q ⋮𝑉 radius= K=
𝑉 4𝜋∗𝜀0

radius 𝑄 𝑄
= 4𝜋 ∗ 𝜀0*radius c=
𝑄
= 𝑉 𝑉
𝑘 𝑉

The capacitance is the measure of the capacity to store charge for a given potential difference

1𝐶 C- capacitors
[C]=F 1F=
1𝑉

A capacitor is formed from two

conducting plates , one charged with
+q , and one charged with-q .The
electric field in the plates is uniform.

Combination of capacitors:
- In series :
V = V1+V2+V3
𝑄 𝑄1 𝑄2 𝑄3
= + +𝐶
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶 𝐶1 2 3
1 1 1 1
= + +
𝐶𝑒𝑞 𝐶1 𝐶2 𝐶3

- In parallel :
 Q = Q1+Q2+Q3
Q=𝐶1 ∗ 𝑉 + 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑉+𝐶3 ∗ 𝑉
𝐶𝑒𝑞 ∗ 𝑉 = 𝑉 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3
𝐶𝑒𝑞 = 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 + 𝐶3

The over-all equivalent capacitance of the circuit will be increase the current , will flow and will
stop when each capacitors hold the maximum amount of charge.
Dielectrics :Non-conductor material (glass, paper ,wood)
When the space between two plats of the capacitor is occurred by a dielectric , the capacitance
incise because the electric field between plates is weaker because E is reduce V is reduce and so C
will incise.

K – dielectric constant
𝐸 d – distance between to plates of
E= 0 capacitors
𝑘

𝐸0 𝑉0 𝑄 𝑄∗𝑘 𝑄
V=E ∗ d = ∗𝑑 = C= = =𝑘∗ = 𝐶0 ∗ 𝑘
𝑘 𝑘 𝑉 𝑉0 𝑉0

𝜀0 ∗𝐴 𝜀∗𝐴 𝜀 − 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦
C= 𝑘 ∗ = 𝐶0 ∗𝑘 𝜀=𝜀0 ∗ 𝑘
𝑑 𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐
9. The magnetic field. The force exerted by a magnetic field on a moving charged particle
and on a straight segment of wire carrying a current (discussion, definitions, formulas and
units of the main terms involved). Sources of magnetic fields. Torques on current loops.

Magnetic fields are different from electric fields.

Although both types of fields are interconnected, they
do different things.
Magnetic field lines always form a close loop ,only
spatial material can be magnets (materials that contain
iron ), that start from the north(+) and goes to south(-)
The more crowded the magnetic field lines are , the
stronger the magnet is .(measured in tesla).

B – magnetic field(T) 1𝑁
1T=
ത
𝐹=q* ҧ 𝐵ത
𝑣* V – velocity(m/s) 1𝐴∗1𝑚
Q – charge (C)

𝐵ത ത 𝐵=V*B*sin𝜃
𝑉x ത
𝐹ത =q* 𝑣⊥𝐵 *B
V*Sin𝜃
𝜃 𝑉ത
𝐹ത =q* v*B*sin𝜃

The right hand rule :points the direction of the current and the magnetic field line , you just
hold your palm open and keep tour thumb up ,then imagine you catch a wire , your thumb
will show the sense of the current and the magnetic field lines will form around your hand
There are four facts that influence the magnitude of a force :
1.The strongest the current running through a wire the stronger the force is.
2.The larger the wire L ,the stronger the force
3.The stronger the magnetic field B , the stronger the force
4.The angel 𝜃 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 , 𝑖𝑓 𝜃=90
The force will be max when B is perpendicular to the direction of the
conducting wire ,if 𝜃 = 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑛𝑜 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝐹ത = 𝑞 ∗ 𝑣𝑑 ∗ 𝑛 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐿
The total force exerted by magnetic
field on a wire carrying an electric 𝐹ത = 𝐼 ∗ 𝐿 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
current
 Sources of magnetic field :
a)Magnetic field created by a moving point charge :
The point charge q , moves with velocity v and create the magnetic field in space.
b)Magnetic field produced by a current element Idl :
Produce a magnetic field in a point P1 and B1 ,so the direction of the B is perpendicular to
the brought 𝐼𝑑𝑙 𝑥 𝑟ҧ
c) Magnetic field produced by a solenoid :
Is a conducting wire terns into oval helix of closely spaced terns . A solenoid produce a
strong magnetic force in the region surrounded by its loops.
𝐹2
A uniform magnetic field exerts no
net force on a current loop but it
I 𝑛ො does exert a net torque. Let's say the
magnetic field is in the plane of the
loop and is parallel to two sides. If
𝜃 the loop has a width a, a height b,
𝐵ത and a current I, then the force on
each of the left and right sides is F =
p I*b*B. The other sides experience no
force because the field is parallel to
a those side

b 𝐹1 = 𝐹2 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏
𝐹ഥ1
In P the torque has the magnitude :
𝜏 =F2*B*sin𝜃 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝐼 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝜏 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 N – number of loops on a coil
A torque tends to rotate the loop so that
the N is in the same direction with B
𝑛ො − 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑓 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒
𝐹2 𝑛ො 𝜇 − 𝑖𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑦𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒:

𝜃 𝜇 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐼 ∗ 𝑛ො
𝐵ത
[𝜇] = 𝐴 ∗ 𝑚2
B*sin𝜃 𝐹ഥ1
 10. Gauss’s Law for magnetism. Ampere’s Law.
Gauss’s Law for magnetism:

The line of the magnetic field 𝐵ത similar to a solenoid when his divergence is equal to 0.
The net flux (𝜙𝑚 ) of the magnetic field 𝐵ത through an surface S is zero .
Fundamental unit of magnet is the magnetic dipoles.
𝜙𝑚 =‫𝐵 𝑆ׯ‬ത ∗ 𝑛ത 𝑑𝐴 Isolated magnetic pulse does not exist

Ampere’s Law:
A current through a wire generate a magnetic field circulating around the wire . The
magnetic field is slower and get’s weaker the farther you gets from the wire

If you draw a circle around a wire , Ampere say that

the stronger the current , the stronger the magnetic
field is around the wire

The equation of Amperes law applies to any kinds of loops , not just a circle nor surrounding
the current , no matter how many wires there are or how are they arranged or shaped .
The amperes law is valid as long the current is constant

‫𝜇=𝑆𝑑 𝜃𝑠𝑜𝑐 ∗ 𝐵 𝐶׬‬0 ∗ 𝐼 𝜇0 − 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡

B – magnetic field
cos𝜃 − 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑑𝑙 − 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑦 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝
‫𝜇=𝑙𝑑 𝐵 𝐶׬‬0 ∗ 𝐼
 11. Magnetic Induction. Magnetic flux through a closed surface and through a
solenoid. Induced emf and Faraday’s Law of induction (through one loop of wire and
through a coil of wire). Write Lenz’s law.

Magnetic induction : is the production of an electromotive force across an electrical

conductors in a changing magnetic field .
The basic principals of the Faraday’s law of induction say’s :
A charge magnetic field will induce an emf in a loop of a wire , some other methods to
induce the magnetic flux is by charging the area of the loop (N,B) .
The property that induces an emf is the magnetic flux through a surface :

𝜙𝑚 = ර 𝐵ത ∗ 𝑛ො 𝑑𝐴
𝑠

𝐵ത 𝑛ത − 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒

A – Aria
B – uniform energy where the magnetic flux
is given by :
𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵ത ∗ 𝐴 ∗ cos 𝜃
𝑛ത Flux is measured in Weber's (Wb)

dA 1Wb=1T*𝑚2

If the magnetic field is perpendicular to the surface cos𝜃 = 1 , then 𝜙𝑚 = 𝐵ത ∗ 𝐴 . In a coil

the magnetic flux with N turns is :

𝜙𝑚 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝐵ത ∗ 𝐴 ∗ cos 𝜃 N – number of terns in a coil

𝐵ത − 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥

The Faraday’s law of induction : if the magnetic flux through a loop of a wire decreases with
the time , the emf increases . If flux increase , then emf decreases .
𝑑∗𝜙𝑚 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥
𝜙𝑚 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝐵ത ∗ cos 𝜃
The emf is equal to: 𝜉= =
𝑑𝑡 𝑐𝑔𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

𝐵ത The emf is distributed through loop (1) tangent to the

𝑣ҧ I loop of wire.
E The electric force associated with E are doing the
dl
work on the mobile changes:
𝑑 𝜙𝑚
𝜉 = ර 𝐸ത 𝑑𝑙 = − ∗ ර 𝐵ത ∗ 𝑛ො 𝑑𝐴 = −
𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑠 𝑑𝑡

The total emf in a coil wire : 𝜙𝑚

𝜉 = −𝑁 ∗
𝑑𝑡
 Lenz’s law :The induced emf is in such a direction as
to appose the charge that produce it
I The magnetic generated by induces current will be in
the oppose direction of the charging magnetic flux .

N
𝑣ҧ

S
 12. Working principles of generators and motors. The ac generator (description plus the
magnetic flux and the emf in the coil). General description of the electric motor.

Electrical generators: produce electric current in the form of alternative current .

Electrical generators are compose from a coil rotating in a uniform magnetic field.

N The ends of the coil are connected to

rings called slips rings.
Electrical contact is made with a coil
tray stationary graphite brunches in
contact with the ring

B
S
R

𝜇
When the norman n of the plane makes
an angle with B
(𝜃) , 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑥 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑖𝑙 is ∅ = 𝑁 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝑛ത , an emf will be induced in the coil
according to Faraday’s law .
The coil will rotate with a constant
angular speed
𝜔 𝜔 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝐵 , 𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
A sinusoidal emf
∅=𝜔∗𝑡 B
∅𝑚 = 𝑁 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔 ∗ 𝑡=N*A*B*cos2𝜋 ∗ 𝜑 ∗ 𝑡
𝑑𝜙𝑚 𝑑
Emf=ξ = =-N*A*B* cosω ∗ 𝑡 ∗ =-𝜔 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 ∗ 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Emf=𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∗ 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔 ∗ 𝑡

Emf=𝜉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜔 ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝐵
Motors fundamental :in a magnetic field ,instead of a mechanical
rotation , we apply to a coil an alternative current and the coil start
to rotate around the magnet producing a force .
A current loop in a magnetic field experience a torque that tends to
rotate the loop ,such that its magnetic momentum 𝜇ҧ ,points in the
direction of 𝐵ത and the plane of loop is perpendicular to
𝐵ഥ 𝑖𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑐 𝑖𝑠 supply the coil , the torque of the
coil will change direction , so when the coil rotate past its
equilibrium position . As the coil rotate in the magnetic field , a
back emf is generated ,that tends to oppose the current . As the
motor begin to rotate , the back emf increase and current decrees .
 13. Inductance: self-inductance, mutual inductance, magnetic energy stored in an inductor.
Description and definitions.

Self-inductance :If we have a coil carrying a current ,the current produce a magnetic field
B . The magnetic flux of B through the coil is perpendicular to the current 1 and L is a
proportionally constant called self-inductance : 𝜙 =𝐼∗𝐿
𝑚
𝜙
L is measured in Henry 1H= 𝐼𝑚

Mutual inductance : When 2 or more circuits are in close proximity to each other , the
magnetic flux depend not only on the current on that circuit , but also on the current of the
nearby circuit
I1 Circuit 2
Circuit 1
R2 M – mutual inductance
I2

R1 R1

The flux 𝐵1 through circuit 2: 𝜙𝑚12 = 𝑀12 ∗ 𝐼1

The flux 𝐵2 through circuit 1: 𝜙𝑚21 = 𝑀21 ∗ 𝐼2

Magnetic energy : An inductor store magnetic energy

S – open , no current
I s S – open ,current on
R
𝑑𝐼
emf L 𝜉 =𝐼∗𝑅+ *L ⋮∗ 𝐼
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼
𝐼 ∗ 𝜉 = 𝐼2 ∗ 𝑅 + *L*I
𝑑𝑡

Um – energy stored into inductor

𝑑𝑈𝑚 𝑑𝐼
= *L*I dUm=dI*L*I
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

𝐿∗𝐼2
dUm=
2