CHAPTER -5

CHILDREN AND WOMEN IN SPORTS

INTRODUCTION

Physical activity stimulates growth and leads to improved physical and

emotional health. Sports not only help children realise their potential and feel good
about themselves, but also improves their self-esteem. Fun part of sports allows
children to get fully absorbed in play, thus developing their ability to concentrate.

Children benefit from sports

- Better vision
- Develop and maintain a healthy body weight
- Motor skills development
- Social skills development
- Develop self confidence
- Good sportsmanship spirit

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT AND FACTORS AFFECTING IT

MEANING OF MOTOR DEVELOPMENT: -

Motor development is the development of movement. Motor development

means the development of various motor abilities from birth till death. Motor
development is the progressive change in movement throughout one‟s life.
Various motor movements or motor skills are essential for everyday life
activities such as sitting, walking, jumping, skipping, throwing etc.

Motor development can be divided into two types:-

A) Gross motor development: - It involves the development of large muscles

in the child‟s body especially while sitting, walking, running, climbing etc.
B) Fine motor development: - It involves the small muscles of the body,
especially during the small movement of fingers and hands. For example
holding of javelin, discuss, catching a cricket ball, smashing the volley
ball etc.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT IN CHILDREN

1) Early childhood period (2 to 6 years)

2) Middle childhood period ( 7 to 10 tears)
3) Late childhood period ( 11 to 13 years)

1) Early childhood period( 2 to 6 tears)

- This period starts from two years and continues to till six years age.
- This is the phase of rapid motor development (especially gross motor
activities)
- This stage is known as the pre-school years.
- At this age the child is relatively independent and learned to run and talk
fluently.
 - A child perfect in various fundamental movement/basic skills such as
running, walking, jumping and throwing and acquires the abilities to
combines these movements.
- At this age the children‟s stride length increases and develops more
mature running.
- They can hop and gallop skilfully.
- At the end of this age motor development achieve at the satisfactory
level.
- The systematic training of child in various sports can be introduced such
as skating, swimming and gymnastics.
- Fine motor coordination takes place ie. eye hand coordination and eye leg
coordination.
- Competition at this age level is to early, so avoid competitive activities.

2) Middle childhood period ( 7 to 10 years)

- This period starts from the age of seven years and continues to the age of
ten years.
- Children become more active and agile.
- At this age have desire to compete with children of their own age group.
- They have strong urge to improve upon their previous performance.
- More Gross and fine motor development takes place.
- Children achieve more mature pattern of fundamental motor skills.
- Better posture and balance
- They can do variation in movements which they had already learnt.
- Mastering in the hop, running and throws.
- Synchronised the body movement ( dance, aerobic or rhythmic activities)
- Speed related activities developed at faster rate.
- During this period rules of games should be flexible.
- Stress is given on movement correction.
- There should be introduction of minimum competitions.

3) Late childhood period (11 to 13 years)

- This period of late childhood begins from eleven year and continues up to
thirteen years or till the beginning of puberty.
- Boys and girls are able to compete evenly. There is not so much big
difference of strength seen between them.
- Most of the children master most complex motor skills.
- Learn strategies and more complex play combination, in relation to
qualitatively as well as quantatively.
- The qualitatively and competitive spirit gets initiated, and weight and
height increases along with muscle mass and lung capacity.

FACTOR AFFECTING MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

1) Heredity: - heredity plays an important role in motor development. The

genes which we get from our parents are responsible for various types of
development including motor development. The percentage of fast twitch
fibre and slow twitch fibre depends upon heredity.
2) Environmental factor: - Children are surrounded by home and social
environment. Many studies have indicated the children exposed to poor and
underprivileged educational environments tend to be at a higher risk of being
negatively affected in terms of their development. Healthy environment provides
encouragement and security which makes children confident and courageous.

3) Nutrition: - Proper nutrition always leads to good motor development. Child gets
stronger development if they get good nutritious food. If child do not get proper nutrition
they are found to be less energetic and motor development takes place slowly.

4) Physical activities: - Regular physical activities always promote motor development. The
activities should be planned according to the age and capabilities of the children.

5) Opportunities: - It is often found that children who get more opportunities to do more
curricular activities, motor development is better in them. Better sporting opportunities
gives a better chance of motor development.

6) Immunisation: - Timely immunisation of mother and child always facilitates better

sensory motor development. Many diseases can also be prevented from proper
immunisation.

7) Sensory impairments: - Sensory impairment such as visual impairment, hearing

impairment etc. are likely to affect the motor development in children. Instruction
which are given to the sensory impairment children are more difficult to understand
by them.

8) Obesity: - Obesity and being overweight have negative effect on the motor
development of children. It means that children who are overweight or obese are
not enthusiastic to do motor activities and may feel uncomfortable to do it.

9) Proper sleep: -lack of sleep can lead to the accumulation of fatigue that can
deteriorate the motor development.

10) Trauma: - Any trauma happened during early childhood can cause negative effects
on the development of the children. The happening of natural disaster, losing a
family member, experiencing a chronic illness etc. can have adverse impact on
children‟s development.

11) Parental interactions: - It is observed that parents who spend time playing with
kids can have a positive impact on their child‟s development.
 EXERCISE GUIDELINES AT DIFFERENT STAGES OF
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Regular physical activities help to improve overall health and fitness. To stay
healthy or to improve health every individual has to go under physical activity
regularly.

INFANCY (1-2 years)

- Gross motor activities should be encouraged.
- Exercise to develop head control, sitting, crawling etc. should be
encouraged.
- Infants have little control over their muscles, they enjoy the felling of their
limbs flexing, extending, twisting and crawling in the free space.
- Infant should be provided objects, toys and games that encourage them to
move and do things for themselves.
- They should be provided with the safe environment for performing the
activities.
- Watching T.V and other electronic gadgets should be avoided by the infants.
- Simple exercises like throwing, pushing, catching and kicking the balls are
the most suitable exercise for them.

EARLY CHILDHOOD (3-7 years)

- This is the age of rapid motor development and sensory skills.
- Development of movement skills such as throwing, jumping, catching or
kicking the balls.
- Daily physical activities are necessary for building strong bones and muscles
as well as strengthening heart and lungs.
- Structured and unstructured physical activities should also be performed
daily for at least one hour by the children at this age.
- Emphasis should be laid on participation not on competition.
- Recreational as well as enjoyable methods should be used to encourage
them for participation in various physical activities.

LATER CHILDHOOD (8-12 years)

- During this period, exercise not only improve physical attributes but have
also been proven to be really important for cognitive development.
- At this age children should indulge in activities such as stunts, throwing,
jumping, catching, and running etc. so that they can acquire body control,
strength and coordination.
- Endurance activities should be avoided.
- Stress should be given on the team games which aim to develop social-
consciousness in them.
- Introduction to the competitions with the basic rules of the competition, so
that they can enjoy the games.
- Simple strategies and tactics are introduced.
- Introduction of the concept of sports training and the exercise that build
basic endurance (running, swimming and cycling etc.), strength (resistance
exercise) and agility, coordination and balance.

ADOLESCENCE (13-19 years)

- During this stage of adolescence, moderate to vigorous intensity exercise is
recommended for at least 60 minutes and up to 3 hours.
- Participating in games like running, aerobic, skateboarding, yoga, swimming
dancing, push ups, basketball, gymnastics etc.
 - This is the age to improve muscle strength, flexibility and endurance up to
the desired level.
- Weight training under the supervision of qualified adult or coach, will
improve strength.
- Competitive athletes and winners of championship events are produced at
this age. The spirit of winning, competitiveness and aiming for the medals in
the nationals is developed at this age.

ADULTHOOD ( above 19 years)

- Adults should try to be active always.
- They should do brisk walking, bike riding, dancing, yoga, and swimming with
moderate intensity.
- The best way to prevent lifestyle diseases of adulthood is to follow a regular
exercise schedule.
- As we grow in age , we lose muscle mass and bone density, so to maintain
that adults have to do regular exercises comprises of strength training,
endurance training, flexibility exercise.

COMMON POSTURAL DEFORMITIES

Common postural deformities are related to bony structure of the body. Such
deformities of human body may be acquired or congenital. The reasons may be an
accident, inadequate diet, wrong habits of sitting, standing and sleeping.
Following are the common postural deformities: -

1) Spinal curvature
a) Kyphosis
b) Lordosis
c) Scoliosis
2) Flat foot
3) Knock knees
4) Bow legs
5) Round shoulder

1) Spinal curvature : -
This type of deformity is related to spine. This deformity is caused by
carrying excessive weight beyond one‟s capacity, or may be carrying weights on
the head and weak muscles around the spine and abdomen.
Depending on the curve the spine deforms into the following types: -

A) Kyphosis: - (depression of chest)(HUNCH BACK)

- This is the most obvious, visible and commonest spine deformity.

- It occurs in the thoracic region (middle) of the spine.
- It is due to the excessive curvature (posterior curve) of the spine at the
back.
- It is an exaggeration of the outward or backward curvature of the spine.
- It is also known as the HUNCH BACK.
Causes Of Kyphosis

- Malnutrition
- Illness
- Crowded area
- Unavailability of pure air
- Rickets
- Carrying heavy weights on the shoulder
- Unsuitable furniture
- Weak muscles of back
- Habit of doing work by leaning forward.

Precautions for kyphosis

- Take proper diet

- Teachers and parents should pay attention while students are studying.
- Always adopt appropriate sitting, standing and walking posture, so that
distribution of body weight equally.
- Use suitable furniture
- Proper and adequate exercise to be done for strengthening of muscles.

Remedies for kyphosis

- Sit on the chair that your hips should touch the back of the chair. While
looking upward, interlocked your fingers of both hand and place at the back
of your neck in such a way that your shoulder may remain stretched
backward. Remain in this position for some time.
- Always keep pillow under your back while sleeping.
- Perform dhanurasana regularly.
- Consciously bending your head backward while standing.
- Try to perform push ups.

Corrective measures of kyphosis

a) Lie on the back, ie. in supine position with knees drawn up and feet flat on the
ground. Both hands should be at the side. Then moves your arms sideways in
horizontal position. Palm should face upward. Raise your arm upward over the
head, palm still facing upward. Hold this position for some time. After that bring
your arms back in horizontal position. Repeat the exercise for 10 times.

b) Lie down in the prone position, ie. on the chest with hands on your hips. After
that raise your head and trunk some inches from the ground. Hold this position
for some time and then come back to the previous position. Repeat this
exercise for 10 times.

c) Sit in a normal position, with a stick held in horizontal position over the head,
hands well spread. After that lower the stick behind your head and shoulder. At
the time of exercise, keep your head and trunk straight. Repeat this exercise
for 10 times.

d) Thoracic spine foam rolling, lie down on the floor in supine position with a foam
roller under you(across your mid back). Gently roll up and down on the foam
roller, massaging the muscles of your back. Do this for at least 30 sec. to 1min.

e) Do Dhanurasana and bhujangasana.

B) Lordosis: - ( Inward curvature of the spine)(hollow back)

- It is an abnormal curvature of spine at front ie. increased forward curve in

the lumbar region.
- Here, the hips tends to stand out and the front of the pelvis tilts forward.
- It creates problem in standing and walking.
- Body seems to be stiff.
- It is also known as hollow back.

Causes of lordosis

- Imbalance diet
- Improper environment
- Improper development of muscles
- Obesity
- Disease affecting vertebrae and spinal muscles
- Not performing exercise
- Eating excessively

Precautions for lordosis

- Balance diet should be taken.

- Obesity should be kept away specially in early age.
- The body should be kept straight while carrying weight.
- Excessive intake of food should be avoided.

Remedies for lordosis

- While in standing position, bend forward from hip level. Repeat exercise 10
times.
- Lie down on your back and raise your head and legs simultaneously for 10
times. Ie. make NAUKASANA
- Perform sit ups regularly.
- HALASANA should be performed regularly
- Lie down in supine position, then raise your legs at 45o angle.
- Practice PASCHIMOTAN ASANA regularly.

Corrective measures of lordosis

- Abdominal muscles strengthening exercise, this exercise helps in the

strengthening of spine and reducing the inward curve.
- Do SETUBANDH ASANA (bridge exercise)
- Sit on a chair with feet wide apart. Bend and position your shoulder between
your knees. Hold this position for some duration.
- Sit down with knee extended, feet together and hands at sides. After bend
forward, touching the fingers to toes. Hold this position for some time.
- Lie down in prone position, with hands under abdomen. Then keep hips and
shoulder down, press your hands up on the abdomen and raise the lower
back.
C) Scoliosis: - (postural deformity of spine in lateral direction(sideways) is
called scoliosis)
- These are sideways curves are also called scoliotic curves.
- These curves may be to the right side called right convexity and the curve
which is towards the left side called left convexity, both side curve are
known as “C Shape Curve”.
- Scoliotic curve may be in found in “S Shape” ie is from the top it may be
towards to left side or right side and from bottom it may be right side or left
side.

Causes of scoliosis

- The main reasons are the disease in the joints of bone.

- Infantile paralysis.
- Rickets.
- Carrying heavy loads on the shoulder.
- Unhealthy condition such as inadequate lighting arrangement.
- Uncomfortable furniture.
- Wrong standing posture.
- It may be caused by congenital or acquired abnormalities of vertebrae,
muscle or nerves.

Precautions for scoliosis

- Balance diet should be taken.

- Sitting and standing should be avoided in sideways bending position.
- Avoid walking for long time while carrying weights in one hand.

Remedies for scoliosis

- Bending exercise should be done on the opposite side of the „C‟ shape curve.
- Hold the horizontal bar with hands and let your body hang for some time.
- Hold the horizontal bar with your hands and swing your body to the left and
right sides.
- Swim by using breaststroke techniques.

Corrective measure of scoliosis

- Spiral movement and tension: - This exercise is the best for scoliosis.
Initially stand straight keeping feet apart as per the shoulder width. Turn
head to the left but do not let the shoulder move. When head reaches the
end of its rotation then allow the shoulders also to turn. Perform the same
exercise to the other direction.
- Spine release exercise: - This exercise is performed lying on the floor. The
knee is raised to form a T shape and then moved to left direction. The
shoulder should be kept flat on the floor. Lower the knees till a comfortable
point. Repeat same to the other side.
- Lie on rolled towels.
- Hang on the horizontal bar as long as possible.
2) Flat foot: -

- Flat foot is also called as Pes planus or Fallen arche.

- Flat foot happens when the normal curvature of the feet is missing and feet
fall flat fully on the ground.
- Flat foot is commonly found among new born babies but it becomes a
postural deformity if it still persists during later childhood.
- The children with flat foot deformity cannot become efficient sportsperson.
- Such children feel pain in their feet when they run, standing and walking.
- To find out if one has flat foot deformity or not, wet the feet and take an
imprint on the dry floor. If there is not a proper arch of footprints on the
floor then the individual have the deformity of flat foot.

Causes of flat foot

- The main cause of flat foot is weak muscles of feet.

- Flat foot common in children in case of obesity.
- Improper shoes.
- Carrying heavy weight for longer duration.

Precautions for flat foot

- The shoes should be of proper shape and size.

- Don‟t walk bare feet for a longer duration.
- Obesity should be avoided.
- Don‟t force babies to walk at an early stage.
- High heeled shoes should be avoided.
- Children should not carry heavy weights in early childhood.

Remedies for flat foot

- Walking on heals.
- Walking on inner and outer side of feet.
- Walk on toes.
- Stand up and down on the heels.
- Jumping on toes for some times.
- Rope skipping.
- Perform Vajraasana.

Corrective measures for flat foot

- Jumping on toes for some time.

- Rope skipping
- Stand up and down on the heels.
- Sit down with stretched legs. Try to grip marbles with your toes.
- Roll foot on the hard ball (golf ball).
- Walk on toes.
- Walking on sand.
- Use proper shoes which consist of an arch.
- Writing with foot.
3) Knock knees: -
- Knock knees is derived from the latin word Genu and Valgus which means
knee bent inward, so that it is also known as Genu Velgum.
- Knock knees is one of the major postural deformities.
- In this both knees touches each other while standing.
- “There is an increase a gap between the toes and decrease a gap between
the knees”.
- People who are having this type of deformity cannot be a good players and
not to be selected for the defence services.
- Individual who are doing fast walking and running may fall.

Causes of knock knees

- Due to lack of balance diet, especially vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus.

- Due to rickets or osteomalacia.
- Chronic illness.
- Obesity
- Carrying heavy weight at early age.

Precaution for knock knees

- Balance diet should be taken.

- Not encouraged or force the babies to walk at early age.

Remedies for knock knees

- Horse riding is the best exercise for knock knees.

- Do padmasana, vrikshasana, and gomukhasasna regularly.
- Cod liver oil may be beneficial in reducing this deformity.
- Keep a pillow between the knees and stand erect for some time every day.
- Use of walking callipers may also be beneficial.

Corrective measure for flat foot

- Horse riding is the best exercise for knock knees.

- Keep a pillow between the knees and stand erect for some time every day.
- Use of walking callipers may also be beneficial.
- Do padmasana, vrikashasana, and gomukhasasna regularly.
- Do butterfly exercise.

4) Bow legs: -

- It is the opposite of knock knees.

- Bow legs is derived from the latin word Genu and Varum which means
knee bent outward, so that it is also known as Genu Varum.
- “If there is an increased gap between the knees and decreased a gap
between the ankle” then the individual is having bow legs.
- This deformity can be observed easily, when an individual walk or runs.
 Causes of bow legs

- Due to lack of balance diet, especially vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus.

- Due to the overweight and obesity.
- Improper way of walking.
- Forcing the babies to walk at early age.

Precautions for bow legs

- Don‟t let the children be overweight.

- Don‟t force the babies to walk at an early age.
- Balance diet should be given to children.
- There should be proper diet of Vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus.

Remedies for bow legs

- Vitamin D should be taken in required form.

- Balance diet should be taken.
- It can be corrected by walking on the inner edge of feet.
- One should walk by bending the toes inward.

Corrective measures for bow legs

Deformity of bow legs can be corrected up to some extent during the

early phase of childhood.

- Stand erect with feet joined together. Wrap a soft piece of cloth on both legs
at knee level. Tighten it with the help of a partner. Try to squat as far as
possible. Hold that position of squat for some time. Come to the original
position and repeat the exercise 4 to 6 times.
- Walk some distance at the inner edge of the feet.
- Perform ardhmatseyendrasana, garudasana and ardha chakrasana.

5) Round shoulder: -
- This is the condition in which the shoulders become rounded and appears
bent forward, the head extended, and chin pokes forward.

Causes of round shoulder

- Due to heredity.
- Sitting, standing, and walking in bent position result in round shoulder.
- Wearing very tight clothes can lead to round shoulders.
- Sitting on improper furniture.
- Lack of proper exercise.

Precaution for round shoulders

- Don‟t sit walk or stand in bent position.

- Avoid tight fitting clothes.
- Avoid sitting on uncomfortable furniture.
 Remedies for round shoulder

- Keep your tips of fingers on your shoulders and rotate your elbows in
clockwise and anti-clock wise.
- Hold the horizontal bar for some times.
- Perform chakrasana and dhanurasana regularly.
- Perform push ups.
- Bench press.
- Use pillow below your neck at night time while sleeping.

Corrective measures for round shoulders

- Keep your tips of fingers on your shoulders and rotate your elbows in
clockwise and anti-clock wise.
- Hold the horizontal bar for some times.
- Perform chakrasana and dhanurasana regularly.
- Perform push ups.
- Bench press.
- Use pillow below your neck at night time while sleeping.

WOMEN AND SPORTS

Introduction
For women‟s participation in sports have a look at ancient period, at that time
women were not allowed to participate and even not had permission to saw the
games. Right from the beginning of modern Olympic Games, the role of women in
sports and games has been neglected. Regarding the participation in the first modern
Olympics (1896 Athens), there was no participation of women.

Women participated first time in 1900 Olympics (22 women participated in it).
It was seen from last many years that there was an increase interest of women in
sports both as participants and spectators.

SPORTS PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN INDIA

- First time four women athletes were sent to the Helsinki 1952 Olympics. In
athletics Nilima ghosa and Mary D,souza while in swimming Dolly Nazir and Arti Saha
represented Helsinki Olympics.

- P.T.Usha became the first Indian woman to enter into the finals of 400m in
1984 Los Angeles Olympics, but here she could not able to win the medal but her
performance was remarkable. In the same Olympic four members squad of the
4X100m relay, P.T.Usha, M.D.Valsamma, Vandana Rao, and Shiny Abraham secured
seventh position.
- In 2000 Sydney Olympic games Karnam Malleshwari won bronze medal in
weight lifting in 69 kg weight category and became the first Indian women to get
medal in the Olympic.

- Later Anju Bobby George entered the finals of women long jump at 2004
Athens Olympics.

- In 2012 London Olympic games Saina Nehwal(badminton) and MC Mary

Kom(boxing) added feather in the cap of India by securing one-one bronze medal in
their games.

- In 2016 Rio Olympic games P.V Sindhu(badminton) won silver medal and
Sakshi Malik(wrestling) won silver medal in their games. Deepa karmakar secured 4th
position in gymnastic(vaulting horse).

- Geeta Poghat became the first women to qualify for the 2012 London Olympic
games in 55kg weight category. And she is the first Indian women who secured first
position in2010 Delhi commonwealth games.

- Sania Mirza:- A tennis player who won a grand slam title at Wimbeldon in 2015.

- Mithali Raj is a cricketer and was the first women in Asia to score a double
hundred in Tests, and held the record the highest score in women‟s test cricket.

- There is a long list of Indian women sports persons who had won various
positions in the World Cups, Commonwealth Games, Asian Games, SAF Games etc.
among these are Anju Bobby George, Krishna Poonia, Seema Antil, Garima
Choudhary, Jawala Gutta, Geeta Poghat, Babita Poghat, Heena Sidhu, Deepika Kumari
etc.

Apart of the long list of women who feels India proud in the field of
sports but there is a stereotype of Indian society towards women‟s participation in
sports. There is an unacceptable attitude towards the participation of women in sports
because such participation is considered unfeminine.

It is usually observed that women are not provided equal opportunity in

comparison to male. Men are still given preference over women. Our social
environment makes it easier for men to participate in sports and makes it harder for
women to do so.

About participation of women in sports, Hart mentioned in his book, a

comment from an Australian racing driver for a women lady driver of Holland, ”Why
don‟t they stay in the kitchen where they belong”. Even Mary Kom‟s father objected to
her boxing because he felt that it would spoil her face and ruin her marriage
prospects.

There are so many movies were made for the upliftment of women‟s
participation in sports. Examples Check De India, Dangal, Sand ki Aakh, Mary Kom,
Panga.
REASONS FOR POOR/LESS PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN
SPORTS IN INDIA
1) Lack of role models: -
There are few of sports women as role models such as PT Usha, Sania
Mirza, Saina Nehwal, Mary Kom, PV Sindhu but still they are not so much
popular on televisions or other media. Their public profile was not convincing
enough to inspire other girls to join sports.

2) Lack of time: -
Majority of women usually have less leisure time than men because they
have to take care of the household work also. Some of them have full time jobs
to earn a living.

3) Lack of self-confidence: -
Women tends to have less self confidence in comparison to men. In
sports and every aspects of life self-confidence is must.

4) Male dominated culture of sports: -

As culture of sports is perceived to be male dominated, some women
seem to hesitate to take part in sports activities.

5) Lack of interest of spectators and no media coverage of women‟s sports: -

Lack of interest of spectators is one of the major reasons for less
participation of women in sports.

6) Social discrimination: -
Our society did not allow women to go out of their homes and pursue
their ambitions. They were supposed to be confined to home and kitchens.

7) Lack of female sportsperson as role models: -

8) Lack of adequate fitness: -

Since women had little opportunity of being physically fit and active, they
were weak and frail. Inadequate food poor in vital nutrients and their habit of
eating last.

9) Lack of awareness among women: -

There are various misconceptions in our society that women who were
participate in sports that their bones become weak and their femininity is also
at risk. It is also considered that women faces numbers of problems at the time
of child birth.

10) Less number of female coaches: -

Less number of female coaches is the main reasons of less participation
in sports. Actual, women may feel comfortable in the company of female
coaches and they will take part in sports wholeheartedly without any hesitation.

11) Attitude of the society towards women‟s participation in sports: -

12) Lack of safety: -

Personal safety on roads, streets, public transport and in and around
sports venues is a very common problem. They may be easy target of bullying
and abuse. Due to this reason they feel unsafe.
 13) Lack of women centric government policies: -
Most of the government policies tends to focus on male dominated
sports. Little attention was paid on female oriented sports in terms of setting up
facilities or funding or scholarships to encourage outstanding female athletes.
Now promotion of women sports is now being done vigorously by the sports
ministry.

14) Lack of proper sports facilities: -

Proper sports facilities is not provided to females such as grounds,
equipment, training, and coaching in comparison to men.

15) Economic factors: -

16) Stress on academics: -

SPECIAL CONSIDERATION (MENARCHE AND

MENSTRUAL DYSFUNCTION)

MENARCHE: -

Menarche is the first period or first menstrual bleeding that a young girl has.
Menarche usually occurs approximately at the age of 12 years, it may be happen at
early age ie. 8 to 9 years or may be late during the age of 16 years.

It is also known fact that delayed menarche may succeed in sports such as
gymnastics, athletics etc. and those women who have early menarche have an
advantage in sports such as swimming, synchronised swimming and rowing because
these activities required adipose tissue.

MENSTRUAL DYSFUNCTION: -

Menstrual dysfunction is a disorder or irregularity of menstrual cycles in

women. It can be defined as an „abnormal bleeding‟ during the menstrual cycle.
Normal menstrual cycle varies from 21 to 35 days. Its flow lasts approximately 2 to 7
days.
Menstrual irregularities seem to be higher in women athletes in comparison to
non-athletic women.
Menstrual dysfunction is characterised by disruption. It has several types and
explained below

a) Eumenorrhea: - it is known as the normal menstrual function.

b) Oligomenorrhea: - it is termed as abnormally infrequent menstrual periods. A

woman who regularly goes more than 35 days without menstruating may be
diagnosed with oligomenorrhea. Young athletes who participate in sports or
engaged in heavy exercise can developed this condition.

c) Amenorrhea: - it is the absence of menstruation. Basically it has two types

i) Primary amenorrhea: -when a woman of 18 years of age or older

do not have menarche are diagnosed as primary amenorrhea.
ii) Secondary amenorrhea: - it happens in women who do not have
normal menstrual cycle for months or even years. Over exercising
can also be one of the causes of amenorrhea. Mostly women have
done intense training like distance running, cycling, body building,
gymnastic may face secondary amenorrhea.