CYBER VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN AND GIRLS IN NIGERIA

AGBOOLA OLAMIDE

A RESEARCH SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MASTERS IN

PUBLIC AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS, FACULTY OF SOCIAL

SCIENCES, UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS, IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF MASTERS IN PUBLIC AND

INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

AUGUST, 2021
 CERTIFICATION

I hereby certify that the research work titled CYBER VIOLENCE AGAINST WOMEN

AND GIRLS IN NIGERIA is an authentic work of Agboola Olamide Hannah carried out

under my guidance. The thesis is hereby submitted for examination for the degree of

MASTERS IN PUBLIC AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS in the FACULTY OF

SOCIAL SCIENCES.

________________________ ________________________

DR. ISMAIL IBRAHEEM DATE

(Supervisor)

________________________ ________________________

DR. G. A. AKINBODE DATE

(Coordinator, MPIA)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 First, I give all thanks to God Almighty, the beginning and ending of everything.
Time will fail me to make a list of everything He did for me in the course of this research
work and the entire programme.

I would like to express my deep and sincere gratitude to my research supervisor,

Dr. Ismail Ibraheem, the Acting Director, Office of International Relations Partnerships and
Prospects at University of Lagos, for giving me the opportunity to do the research and
providing invaluable guidance throughout this research. It was a great privilege and
honor to work and study under his guidance. I am extremely grateful for his
understanding.

I am extremely grateful to my husband for his love, understanding, support and

sacrifice during this research work. Thanks for the sleepless nights Sweet. I must
appreciate my parents for their love, prayers, care and sacrifices for educating and
preparing me for my future. Also, I express my thanks to my sisters, brothers, parent-in-
law for their support and valuable prayers. My Special thanks goes to my pastors,
spiritual leaders, members of Deeper Christian Life Ministry for their prayers, advice and
support.

The completion of this project could not have been accomplished without the support of my
colleagues and friends. To friends that accommodated and showed me love, I really
appreciate. To friends and family who checked up my progress, I say a big thank you.

I am extending my thanks to the members of Straitgate School Magodo Lagos for

their acceptance of permission. And for the organization I work with presently, I say
thank you.

Finally, my thanks go to all the people who have supported me to complete this
research work directly or indirectly.

Agboola Olamide H.
 ABSTRACT

The growing use of the Internet, the rapid spread of mobile information and communications
technologies (ICTs) and the wide diffusion of social media have presented new opportunities
and enabled various efforts to address violence against women and girls. In Nigeria, the use
of mobile phones and other technologies has grown at an exponential rate over the last two
decades and a half. This has resulted in cyber-enabled gender-based violence and the
opportunity to advocate against such violence. CVAWG is understood as the use of internet to
cause, facilitate, or threaten violence against women and girls. Violence is a common
occurrence in most women's lives in Nigeria. Based on the forgoing this study therefore
investigated the consequences impact and prevention of cyber-violence against women and
girls in Nigeria.. Using a descriptive methodology, an e-survey was conducted and online
questionnaires was filled by close 180 respondents. In terms of the nature of cyber violence
among women and girls in Nigeria, the result showed that majority (75%) of women and girls
in the population of the study have at least experienced cyber based violence on one
occasion. The findings further revealed that the major forms of cyber violence are
experienced through victims receiving unsolicited/unwanted sexual images, online
impersonation and infringement of privacy through hacking of social media account. Others
are in form of receiving derogatory comments, body shaming from perpetrators, cyber
stalking and threat and harassment. Furthermore, the study revealed that the major
motivation or intent of perpetrators of cyber violence is for sexual and monetary desires.
Other intents or motivation are fuelled by the need to maintain social status jealousy and
others. Furthermore, the multiple regression method was used to further examine the casual
effect or relationship between the factor variables and occurrence of Cyber Violence, the
findings showed that age, educational level, social media security compliance and awareness
could affect occurrence of cyber violence, except for the Internet usage which was not found
to be a significant factor that affects cyber violence. Based on the findings the study therefore
recommends promotions of programs and cyber based awareness initiatives to increase the
level of awareness of these crimes, also the Government should cooperate with Information
and Communication Technology industries to help develop adequate strategies to fight cyber-
crime. Also, there is proper need for legal framework and policies to build regulatory
framework guiding cyber activities. Laws that prohibit cyber violence should be well spelt
out and implemented accordingly.
 TABLE OF CONTENT

TITLE PAGE………………………………..………………………………………………..i

CERTIFICATION……………………………………………………………………………ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT……………………………………………………………………iii

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………………......... iv

ABBREVIATIONS……………………………………………………………………………x

CHAPTER ONE........................................................................................................................1

INTRODUCTION......................................................................................................................1

1.1. Background of the Study.....................................................................................................1

1.2. Statement of the Problem....................................................................................................4

1.3. Research Questions.............................................................................................................5

1.4. Objectives of the Study.......................................................................................................5

1.5. Significance of the Study....................................................................................................6

1.6. Conceptual Clarification and Operationalization................................................................6

CHAPTER TWO.......................................................................................................................8

Literature Review.......................................................................................................................8

2.0. Introduction.........................................................................................................................8

2.1. Overview of Violence against Women and Girls...............................................................8

2.2. Violence against Women and Girls in Nigeria...................................................................9

2.3. Meaning of Cyber Violence..............................................................................................10

2.4. Cyber Based Violence against Women and Girls.............................................................12

2.5. Cyber Violence in Nigeria................................................................................................16

2.5. Types of Cyber Violence..................................................................................................19

2.6. Impacts of Cyber violence................................................................................................24

2.7. Theories of Cyber Violence Against Women...................................................................24

2.8. Empirical Literatures on Cyber Violence and Crimes......................................................24

2.9 Gap in the Literature..........................................................................................................33

2.10 Conceptual Framework....................................................................................................

34

CHAPTER THREE..................................................................................................................35

METHODOLOGY...................................................................................................................35

3.0 Introduction........................................................................................................................35

3.1 Research Design.................................................................................................................35

3.2 Population of the study.......................................................................................................35

3.3 Sampling technique / Sample Size.....................................................................................36

3.4 Research Instrument...........................................................................................................36

3.5 Data Collection Method.....................................................................................................38

3.6 Reliability and Validity of the Instrument.........................................................................38

3.7 Method of Data Analysis...................................................................................................39

3.8 Ethical consideration..........................................................................................................39

CHAPTER FOUR....................................................................................................................40

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION.........................................................................40

4.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................40

4.2 Response Rate....................................................................................................................40

4.3 Respondents Demography.................................................................................................40

4.4 The Nature and the Trend of Cyber Violence against Women and Girls..........................43

4.5. Factors influencing Cyber-Violence against women and girls in Nigeria........................45

4.6. Regression Analysis.........................................................................................................48

4.7. Consequences of cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria..............................51

4.8. Summary of Findings........................................................................................................54

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION.......................................................................54

5.1. Introduction.......................................................................................................................54

5.2.1 1. The nature and the trend of violence against women and girls...................................52

5.2.2 2. Factors Influencing Cyber-Violence against Women and Girls in Nigeria................53

5.2.3 3 Consequences of cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria.........................53

5.3 Conclusion..........................................................................................................................56

5.4 Recommendations..............................................................................................................56

5.5 Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research............................................57

References……………………………………………………………………………………58

Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………..67
List of Tables

Table 4.1 Response Rate..........................................................................................................40

Table 4.2. Location of the Respondents...................................................................................41

Table 4.3: Respondent’s demographics...................................................................................42

Table 4.4: OLS Regression-.....................................................................................................49

List of Fugures

Figure 2.8: Conceptual Framework..........................................................................................34

Figure 4.1: Occurrence of Cyber Abuse..................................................................................43

Fig 4.2 Nature of Cyber Violence............................................................................................44

Figure 4.3. Internet Platforms where Cyber violence occurred...............................................44

Figure 4.4 Intent of the Perpetrators........................................................................................45

Figure 4.5 Internet usage..........................................................................................................46

Figure 4.6 Reasons for using Internet......................................................................................47

Figure 4.7 Impact of Cyber based Violence.............................................................................51

Figure 4.8 Social Media Security Awareness..........................................................................47

Figure 4.9 Social Media Security Consciousness....................................................................48

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

VAWG - Violence Against Women and Girls

CVAWG - Cyber Violence Against Women and Girls

GSM - Global System for Mobile Communications

ICT - Information and Communications Technologies

EFCC - Economic and Financial Crimes Commission

 CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background of the Study

Millions of women and girls globally are subjected to intentional violence because of their

gender. It occurs in a variety of settings, including the home, the workplace, schools and

universities, the street, inside public transportation, and the internet. Violence against women

and girls (VAWG) has no boundaries, crosses borders, races, cultures, and socioeconomic

groups. However, it is an essential global problem with serious implications for cultures,

societies and also economies. It causes significant harm to victims, those around them, and

society as a whole. Violence, in general, has a negative impact on the female gender's general

well-being and prevents her from fully participating in society. A large number also have to

face hate speech and trolling online (Liou, 2013).

In 1995, less than 1 per cent of the world’s population was connected to the Internet

(Dickerson, 2005; Shimokawa, 2004). That number has grown to 40 per cent, with over three

billion unique Internet users (Jacobs et al., 2014; Meese, 2014; Reid, 2015; The Economist,

2010). While women are about 25 per cent less likely to have access today(Fredericks &

Anderson, 2013; Ryan et al., 2016; Intel, 2013 ). Women and the Web, estimates 450 million

new female Internet users could come online within the next three years (Commission, 2015;

Summary, n.d.).

The online/internet violence is now on the high side (Deer & Miller, 2002; Ellis, 2014;

Schmid, 2004). The age of social internet, new communication tools offered by new

technologies both online and offline are being misused by both men and women

(Commission, 2015; Summary, n.d.). The new technologies are being used to cause harm to
others, as well as to assert dominance, terrorize, humiliate, and silence them. Technologies

and mobile analysis shows that the increasing reach of the internet, and also the growing

widespread use of social media platforms such as Facebook, WhatsApp, Twitter, and

Instagram, have a major effect on the habits and behaviors of internet users (Lai, 2007;

Surakka et al., 2011).

The growing reach of the Internet, the rapid spread of mobile information and

communications technologies (ICTs) and the wide diffusion of social media have presented

new opportunities and enabled various efforts to address violence against women and girls.

The introduction of GSM in the telecommunication industry in 2001 coupled with the

evolution of digital mobile phones made access to people and dissemination of information

easier (Adediran, 2021). The mobile internet has made it possible to connect to the internet

from anywhere in the world with ease. In Nigeria, the use of mobile phones and other

technologies has grown at an exponential rate over the last two decades and a half. Internet

access is now highly prevalent, even in rural areas (Omodunbi et al., 2016). According to

(Moss, 2016), the majority of Nigerians own and use mobile phones are with varied smart

technologies. This has resulted in cyber-enabled gender-based violence and the opportunity to

advocate against such violence. Violence is a common occurrence in most women's lives in

Nigeria, particularly in households where every member expects psychological uplift and

growth (UNIFEM, 2010).

However, it is being used as tool to inflict harm on women and girls. Cyber-VAWG is

emerging as a global problem with serious implications for societies and economies around

the world. The statistics pose risks to the peace and prosperity for all enshrined in the Charter

of the United Nations, and, in particular, to the goals of inclusive, sustainable development
that puts gender equality and the empowerment of women as key to its achievement.

(Broadband Commission, 2015)

The growing global reach of the internet, the rapid spread of mobile information, and the

widespread use of social media, coupled with the existing pandemic of violence against

women and girls, has contributed to the emergence of cyber VAWG as a growing global

problem with potentially significant economic and societal consequences. (Commission,

2015; Summary, n.d.; Tandon et al., 2015). Since more and more people can easily access the

internet and social media, cyber violence against women and girls is an increasing concern.

Women are more likely than men to be victims of severe forms of cyber violence and the

impact on their lives is far more traumatic (Boukemidja, 2018).

There are no formally recognized definitions of online violence. However, some efforts have

been made to define the issue of online abuse and gender-based violence, despite the fact that

there are different terms that are not synonymous but are similar, such as cyber violence,

online violence, and technology-related violence against women (Abuse & Women, 2015).

New concerns have emerged regarding technology-enabled gender-based violence. Mobile

phones are currently the most commonly used tool for perpetuating cyber violence against

women, particularly in developing regions such as Africa (Boukemidja, 2018; UNODC,

2015). African counties are not immune to this new trend of violence. Nigeria, Kenya, and

South Africa are rapidly becoming hotspots for cybercrime activity (Moss, 2016). In South

Africa for instance, viral rape videos have become a common thing. There are also growing

concerns over the use of technology to ‘cyber stalk’ victims. In Nigeria, quite a number of

people are dead as a result of cyber-crime. Increases in the availability of information online,

for example through location tagging, may facilitate these forms of victimization and increase

risks for victims. Others are cyberbullying, cyber harassment etc. Technology also has the
potential to facilitate the prosecution of crimes in cases of gender-based violence.

(Broadband, 2015)

Cybercrimes have taken different shapes over the years. The rapid growth of Cyber VAWG

can be traced back to the fact that insufficient attention has been paid to the impact of

negative images of girls online UN Women outline the fact that only 26% of law

enforcement agencies in 86 countries are taking legal measures to fight CVAWG

(Boukemidja, 2018). Besides the fear of reporting the crime, due to the high likelihood of no

response or action being undertaken, only very few victims report their experiences online or

to the police. This observation goes hand in hand with the limited awareness of the close

linkage between the online and offline world (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016). Though the

internet has the potential to be a vehicle for equality, it has also frequently reinforced the

power of offline realities; increasing cyber VAWG is one indicator that further cements and

magnifies unequal power relations between men and women. Different organizations and

even individuals have responded to this development in various ways and continue to do so.

We have organization like the Association for Progressive Communications (APC) which is

both at the forefront of sounding the alarm about cyber VAWG and contributes to a global

perspective to the discourse with the objective of reversing the tide against this form of

violence against women and girls.(Broadband, 2015) APC and like-minded organizations are

promoting anti-violent behaviours while acknowledging that technology, if properly

instrumentalized can also be served as an effective tool to combat all forms of VAWG.

(Violence & Women, n.d.).

A number of individuals in Nigeria are taking to social media to demand for justice after

series of high-profile cases of violence against woman sparked outrage in the country. Cyber

violence has led to death and other malicious acts towards the victim and the effect of this
can be deep and far reaching in damaging the emotional well-being of the victims.

Sometimes, it can affect a person’s performance in his/her job and even affect their domestic

and family life. In some more serious cases, it has caused the victims to commit suicide. It

has become important that adequate legislations and proper enforcement mechanisms be put

in place to curb the menace.

This study will consider the statistics of Cyber VAWG worldwide, the different forms,

consequences coupled with different examples and interviews. This research will present the

current legal and regulatory framework in order to proceed to potential solutions, what

recommended action taking could look like and what measures need to be undertaken to

combat CVAWG.

1.2. Statement of the Problem

Violence against women and girls is an essential global problem with serious implications for

cultures, societies and also economies. Studies such as Hart and Klein (2013) has pointed out

that threats of rape and stalking may lead to emotional distress and put stress on financial

resources due to legal fees or online protection services. (Abuse & Women, 2015; Adeyemo

& Bamidele, 2016; Adikari, 2016; Communications, 2017; Council of Europe, 2018; Jukić,

2016; Summary, n.d.; Violence & Women, n.d.). Many women and girls have to endure

physical and verbal attacks, many are harassed and even driven to suicide by online violence.

(Poudel-Tandukar et al., 2008) Some are dead already. A large number also have to face hate

speech and trolling online. (Campbell & Runyan 1998)

Women aged 18 to 24 are at a heightened risk of being exposed to every kind of cyber

VAGW; they are “uniquely likely to experience stalking and sexual harassment, while also

not escaping the high rates of other types of harassment common to young people in general”,
like physical threats. (Broadband 2015). “The Internet is a forum where perpetrators of these

crimes feel a sense of unaccountability for their actions and as such can create a climate in

which women do not feel safe or supported (Unicef) et al., 2009; Adeyemo & Bamidele,

2016, 2016; Council of Europe, 2018; Diop-Sidibé et al., 2006; Hart & Klein, 2013; Jukić,

2016; Liou, 2013; Patel, 2011; UNIFEM, 2010; Watch, 2017). There are different contents

circulating the internet today. “The widespread circulation of such content is particularly

harmful for women. The pervasive gender discrimination in our society is further heightened

since the digital medium provides the convenient shield of anonymity and fake identities.

Errant persons become more emboldened in their offensive behavior since it is presumed that

they will not face any consequences.” (Commission, 2015).

1.3. Objectives of the Study

The aim of this study is to investigate the cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria:

consequences and prevention. The more specific research objectives are to:

 examine the nature and the trend of cyber violence against women and girls;

 identify the major factors influencing cyber violence against women and girls in

Nigeria; and

 examine the consequences of cyber violence against women and girls in Nigeria.

1.4. Research Questions

Based on the problem statement, the research questions for the study were formulated as

follows;

 What is the nature and the trend of cyber violence against women and girls?
  What are the major factors influencing cyber-violence against women and girls in

Nigeria?

 What are the consequences of cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria?

This research specifically seeks to establish the nature of the new trend of violence against

women and girls which is Cyber-violence. To investigate the consequences of Cyber-VAWG

in Nigeria, some real-life instances will be considered in the study. The most important tools

for eliminating cyber violence against women and girls will be discussed. The objective of

this work is to recommend solution that will help prevent if not eliminate gender-based

violence. This will help to raise a good voice for women and girls in order for them to be free

from violence and attain equal opportunities in education, healthcare, employment, and

political participation. This will make them stand tall, lift up their families, communities and

nations and act as an agent of change.

1.5. Significance of the Study

Violence against women and girls (VAWG) knows no boundaries, cutting across borders,

race, culture and groups, profoundly harming victims, people around them, and society as a

whole. The growing reach of the Internet, the rapid spread of mobile information and

communications technologies (ICTs) and the wide diffusion of social media have presented

new opportunities and enabled various efforts to address VAWG. However, they are also

being used as tools to inflict harm on women and girls. Cyber-VAWG is emerging as a global

problem with serious implications for societies and economies around the world. (Tandon et

al., 2015)

The findings from this study could be of great interest to policy makers, the media, the police

and other law enforcement agents, researchers and academicians whose work is geared
towards meeting the specific needs of battered women and girls or ending such violence in

Nigeria.

1.6. Conceptual Clarification and Operationalization

Violence: It is an intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against

oneself, another person, or against a group or community, which either results in

or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment,

or deprivation.

Violence against women and girls: The United Nations defines violence against women as:

“Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or

psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or

arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.”(Unicef) et al.,

2009; Abuse & Women, 2015; Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016, 2016; Adikari, 2016;

Boukemidja, 2018; Burelomova et al., 2018; By et al., n.d.; Communications, 2017; Council

of Europe, 2018; Hart & Klein, 2013; Jukić, 2016; Moreno-Ruiz et al., 2019; Msibi, 2018;

Patel, 2011; Poudel-Tandukar et al., 2008; Reid, 2015; UNIFEM, 2010; Violence & Women,

n.d.; Watch, 2017) It includes forced intimate partner violence and sexual assault, marriage,

dowry-related violence, marital rape, sexual harassment, intimidation at work and in

educational institutions, forced pregnancy, forced abortion, forced sterilization, trafficking

and forced prostitution, gender-related killings and of course, cyber-violence.

Cyber-violence: This is the use of computer systems to cause, facilitate, or threaten violence

against individuals that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological or

economic harm or suffering and may include the exploitation of the individual’s

circumstances, characteristics or vulnerabilities.(Abuse & Women, 2015; Adeyemo &

Bamidele, 2016, 2016; Adikari, 2016; Boukemidja, 2018; Burelomova et al., 2018;

Commission, 2015; Communications, 2017; Council of Europe, 2018a; Fagbamigbe et al.,

2020; Hart & Klein, 2013; Jukić, 2016; Liou, 2013; Msibi, 2018; Patel, 2011; Poudel-

Tandukar et al., 2008; UNIFEM, 2010; Violence & Women, n.d.) This is a growing treat

especially for women and girls.

Cybercrimes: is a new trend that is gradually growing as the internet continues to penetrate

every sector of our society. The crime usually requires a hectic task to trace.

Prevention: The act of stopping something from happening or of stopping someone from

doing something.

Consequences: A result or effect, typically on that is unwelcome or unpleasant.

Women: This is plural of woman. A woman is an adult human female.

Girls: Young women or female children.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0. Introduction

Building on the foundational chapter in this research work, this chapter discusses the theories

around the theme of this study, the conceptual review of the study and the empirical review

of relevant literature on cyber based violence against women. It explicates the findings of

other studies making up the empirical literature review. Additionally, this chapter unveils

some important and relevant theories to back up the subject matter. It also presents the

conceptual framework as well as the literature gap.

2.1. Overview of Violence against Women and Girls

Violence against women is any act of gender-based violence that causes or could cause

physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of harm or

coercion, in public or in private life. This definition encompasses all forms of violence that

women experience (including physical, sexual, emotional, cultural/spiritual, financial, and

others) that are gender based. It occurs in every country of the world, rich and poor, stable

and in conflict, and affects most women and girls, regardless of their age or socio-economic

status (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016; Diop-Sidibé et al., 2006; Hart & Klein, 2013; Liou,

2013; UNIFEM, 2010)

Thirty years ago, most forms of violence against women were hidden under a cloak of silence

or acceptance. As more and more talked with each other in the recent wave of the women’s

movement, it became apparent that violence against us occurs on a massive scale; that no

women is immune; and family, friends, and public institutions have be cruelty insensitive

about it. Women have mobilized to offer direct services to those who have encountered

violence, to educate people about the range and nature of male violence against women, and

to develop strategies for change (Ricci, 2017a, 2017b).

To understand a form of violence, it is necessary to look at the general definition of

“violence” which can be applied to cyber violence and hate speech against women and girls.

According to the figures approved by UN Women in the report on violence against women

and girls, 62 million women in Europe, or one in every three women, have been victims of

violent acts since the age of 15(Navarra et al., 2021; UNHCR, 2019; Van Der Wilk, 2018).

Globally, it is evident that these events take place on a shocking scale in many countries:

Sexual, physical, or psychological violence is reported to affect 9 out of 10 women. Women

aged 18 to 24 are at a greater risk of being subjected to all forms of cyber violence.

(UNIFEM 2010).

2.2. Violence against Women and Girls in Nigeria

Violence is a regular part of most women’s experience in Nigeria, especially at home

(Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016). Acts of violence include rape (forced sex), physical abuse,

verbal abuse, incest, female genital cutting/mutilation (FGC/M), denial of food, denial of

time for relaxation, forced marriage, and child marriage (Ricci, 2017). It is worthy of note

that violence is not attributable to cases involving women folk alone, as there is no category

of persons that cannot be subjected to violence. However, violence against females is

prevalent because they are considered to be the weaker sex and are easier targets.

The level of violence against women in Nigeria is increasing by the day with two out of every

three women in certain communities experiencing violence in the family. Many women do

not report the abuse as they are ashamed that their marriages are not working and for most

women in Nigeria, divorce is not an option at all. So they suffer in silence.

UNICEF (2001) in its study asserted that traditionally in Nigeria, as in many other African

countries, the beating of wives and children is widely sanctioned as a form of discipline.
Therefore, in beating their-children parents believe they are instilling discipline in them,

much the same way as in husbands beating their wives, who are regarded like children to be

prone to indiscipline which must be curbed. Cases of domestic violence and other forms of

violence against women have been on the increase in Nigeria. There have been reports of

cases of husbands killing and maiming their wives in the media. The statistics presented by

This Day (2011) newspaper are daunting. About 50% of women have been battered by their

husbands (Poudel-Tandukar et al., 2008). Project alert (2001), in a survey on violence against

women conducted interviews with women working in the markets and other places of work

and girls and young women in secondary schools and universities, in different states in

Nigeria . We have seen reports in the print and electronic media that revealed vicious attacks

on women by intimate partners in different forms such as ‘acid bath’, rape, beatings, some of

which sometimes result in the death of the victim. Many victims do not report for fear of

reprisal from abusers or the belief that the police and the judicial system cannot help. The

police are also reported to frequently dismiss complaints of domestic violence as a ‘private

matter’ (Poudel-Tandukar et al., 2008).

In Nigeria, women and girls are too often subjected to violence. Gender-based violence is an

issue that needs to be urgently dealt with. Nigeria’s Minister of Women Affairs and Social

Development, during the launch of the national sex offenders register in November 2019,

estimated that every year two million women and girls are sexually assaulted in the country.

(Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016). However, only few are reported. Too many cases of rape or

femicide go unpunished, and perpetrators frequently escape justice or are not prosecuted.

(Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016; Council of Europe, 2018a; Delhi, 2017; Hart & Klein, 2013;

Van Der Wilk, 2018)

2.3. Meaning of Cyber Violence

While there are no formally recognized definitions, some efforts have been made to define

the issue of online abuse and gender-based violence, albeit using terms that are not

synonymous but similar such as cyber violence, online violence and technology-related

violence against women). The UN HRC consensus resolution, the promotion, protection and

enjoyment of human rights on the Internet affirmed that the same rights that people have

offline must also be protected online (Abuse & Women, 2015). There are also numerous

international human rights instruments and documents that state clearly that all forms of

gender-based violence amount to discrimination, and seriously inhibit women's ability to

enjoy their human rights and fundamental freedoms. According to (Abuse & Women, 2015;

Council of Europe, 2018a) such acts of gender-based violence that are experienced online or

expressed through the use of ICTs.

Article 1 the Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women defines violence

against women to mean:

‘any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or

psychological harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts, coercion or

arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.’ ((Unicef) et

al., 2009; Abuse & Women, 2015; Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016, 2016; Adikari, 2016;

Aguirre et al., 2020; Boukemidja, 2018; Burelomova et al., 2018; Communications, 2017;

Council of Europe, 2018; Delhi, 2017; Hart & Klein, 2013; Jones et al., 2013; Jukić, 2016;

Moreno-Ruiz et al., 2019; Msibi, 2018; Patel, 2011; Poudel-Tandukar et al., 2008; Reid,

2015; Ricci, 2017a, 2017b; UNHCR, 2019; UNIFEM, 2010; Van Der Wilk, 2018; Violence

& Women, n.d.; Watch, 2017)

Article 3 of the Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against

women and domestic violence defines violence against women as:

‘a violation of human rights and a form of discrimination against women and shall mean all

acts of gender-based violence that result in, or are likely to result in, physical, sexual,

psychological or economic harm or suffering to women, including threats of such acts,

coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private life.’

A report by Women's Aid looked into online harassment, stalking and abuse and defined

online abuse as: ‘the use of the internet or other electronic means to direct abusive, unwanted

and offensive behaviour at an individual or group of individuals.’ (Abaver & Cishe, 2018;

Abuse & Women, 2015; Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016; Ahmed, 2020; Boukemidja, 2018;

Chiang et al., 2018; Communications, 2017; Council of Europe, 2018; Delhi, 2017; Hart &

Klein, 2013; Liou, 2013; Michau et al., 2015; Patel, 20s11; Van Der Wilk, 2018)

Research by the Association for Progressive Communications (APC) defines technology-

related violence as encompassing:

‘acts of gender-based violence that are committed, abetted or aggravated, in part or fully, by

the use of information and communication technologies (ICTs), such as phones, the internet,

social media platforms, and email.’ (Abuse & Women, 2015; Communications, 2017;

Council of Europe, 2018a; Van Der Wilk, 2018; Violence & Women, n.d.)

The recently published (and subsequently withdrawn, pending updates) UN Broadband

Commission for Digital Development Working Group on Broadband and Gender report

defines cyber violence against women to include:

‘Hate speech (publishing a blasphemous libel), hacking (intercepting private

communications), identity theft, online stalking (criminal harassment) and uttering threats. It

can entail convincing a target to end their lives (counselling suicide or advocating genocide).

The Internet also facilitates other forms of violence against girls and women including

trafficking and sex trade.’ (Abuse & Women, 2015)

The term “cyber” is used to explain the form of violence on the online information system in

which the abuse is present and can be spread and broadcast. In particular, it includes online

harassment as well as the desire to cause physical harm, such as sexual assault, murder, and

suicide (UNODC, 2015). Cyber VAWG includes hate speech (publishing a blasphemous

libel), hacking (intercepting private communications), identity theft, online stalking (criminal

harassment) and uttering threats. It can entail convincing a target to end their lives

(counselling suicide or advocating genocide). The Internet also facilitates other forms of

violence against girls and women including trafficking and sex trade (Abuse & Women,

2015;). For example, when computers are used to cause or facilitate violence through the

transmission of messages that cause psychological harm, or through advertisements for

murder, rape, kidnapping, or trafficking in human beings, such cases may be prosecuted

(depending on their facts) as assault, violation of privacy, illegal threat, extortion, solicitation

of rape or murder, illegal distribution of content(such as photographs) or domestic violence,

and so on. (Council of Europe, 2018a)

2.4. Cyber Based Violence against Women and Girls

This phenomenon is a growing global problem with significant societal and economic

consequences, limiting the human rights of women. While three in ten women will

experience violence during their lifetime, research shows that seven in ten women have been

exposed to or have experienced some form of online violence (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016;
Communications, 2017; Council of Europe, 2018a; Van Der Wilk, 2018). Hence, CVAWG is

an obstacle for the digital inclusion of women, who are likely to mistrust platforms and

retreat from them after experiencing CVAWG. Consequently, women’s free speech is

limited, and also their outsider-status prevents them from participating in the development,

production and design of the online sphere. A synergic effect of this observation is the

increased likelihood of the World Wide Web as a patriarchal hall of mirrors of the offline

reality, characterized by continued unconscious bias and harassment, which again leads to a

decreasing inclusion of women and potential increase of discriminatory structures (UNSA,

2019).

As the Internet becomes more accessible, a greater reach becomes possible and with it, an

increased risk of violence. the reach and use of these platforms and the new technologies they

are based on continue to proliferate. Although women have benefited from outstanding

possibilities on the internet and via new technologies, both in terms of power and visibility

and in terms of access and opportunities, they are also at threat of violence in dire ways in the

digital world. Van der Wilk (2017)

The rapid growth of Cyber VAWG can be traced back to the fact that insufficient attention

has been paid to the impact of negative images of girls online. UN Women outline the fact

that only 26% of law enforcement agencies in 86 countries are taking legal measures to fight

Cyber VAWG (Al-Nasrawi, 2021; Faith & Fraser, 2018). Besides the fear of reporting the

crime, due to the high likelihood of no response or action being undertaken, only very few

victims report their experiences online or to the police (Adediran, 2021; Council of Europe,

2018a; Jones et al., 2013; Msibi, 2018)

CVAWG is understood as the “use of internet to cause, facilitate, or threaten violence against

women and girls, which results, or is likely to result in physical, sexual, psychological or
economic harm or suffering and may include the exploitation of the individual’s

circumstances, characteristics or vulnerabilities (Adikari, 2016; Ali et al., 2015; Millar et al.,

2021; Navarra et al., 2021). Mobile Internet access broadens the scope of this crime, since the

violence can come at any time and follows targets everywhere. Cyber violence is the use of

computer systems to cause, facilitate, or threaten violence against individuals that results in,

or is likely to result in, physical, sexual, psychological or economic harm or suffering and

may include the exploitation of the individual’s circumstances, characteristics or

vulnerabilities (Council of Europe, 2018a; Hart & Klein, 2013; Wolak et al., 2008). Cyber

VAWG is a new and emerging form of violence and the term is used to describe how the

internet and information and communication technologies exacerbate and magnify acts of

violence against women and girls. They are hacking, impersonation, Surveillance/Tracking,

harassing/spamming, recruitment, malicious distribution of intimate photos and messages.

(Faith & Fraser, 2018)

It is critical to recall that many forms of cyber violence are already covered in domestic or

international law by “physical world” provisions, and investigations may not have to wait for

new legislation.(Council of Europe, 2018a) Laws on cybercrime may in particular be applied

when violence such as injury or death is caused, for example, through computer-based attacks

against critical infrastructure or medical devices (Al-Nasrawi, 2021; Council of Europe,

2018a). The UN defines violence against women as ‘any act of gender-based violence that

results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to

women, including threats of such acts (Adikari, 2016; Patel, 2011; UNODC, 2015). Cyber

violence is an extension of that definition that includes acts like trolling, hacking, spamming,

and harassment (Van Der Wilk, 2018). Cyber violence is just as damaging to women as

physical violence. Nowadays, women are growing even more vulnerable to cyber violence as

more and more regions gain access.

Information received from parties suggests that some countries have laws that specifically

address particular forms of cyber violence. Although cyber violence has existed for some

years, its specific forms seem to have only recently begun to be identified and understood.

Most countries are struggling to recognize the different facets of the problem and to address

them in domestic law. (Council of Europe, 2018a). Every government – especially through

political, administrative, and justice structures, mechanisms and processes – is accountable to

end society’s tolerance of and states’ lack of responsiveness to this pervasive scourge on

society. Worldwide, women are vulnerable and at risk – enduring emotional and

psychological trauma through harassment, terror and threats, intimidation, humiliation,

degradation, exploitation and physical, especially sexual, injury, maiming and disability, all

with chronic health consequences even death.(UNIFEM, 2010)

The prevalence of Cyber violence against women and girls are largely unknown. There have

been a number of large-scale, national surveys of youth that examine cyber bullying and

cyber dating violence. The rate of online harassment nearly doubled in a decade, from 6% in

2000 to 11% in 2010. Girls made up 69% of victims, an increase from 2000, and were more

likely to report the incident occurred on a social networking site like Facebook (Chiang et al.,

2018).

In Europe, 18% of women have experienced a form of cyber violence since the age of 15 –

which corresponds to about 9 million women. 77% of women who have experienced cyber

harassment have also experienced at least one form of sexual and/or physical violence from

an intimate partner. The risk of a suicide attempt is 2.3 times higher from a victim of cyber

violence when compared to non-victims. Women aged 18 to 24 are at a heightened risk of

being exposed to every kind of cyber VAGW; they are “uniquely likely to experience
stalking and sexual harassment, while also like physical threats (Hart & Klein, 2013; Van Der

Wilk, 2018).

In Kenya, the office of the Director of Public Prosecutions acknowledges that women who

are victims of cybercrime and bullying very rarely report the crime. A report from India, for

instance, suggests that “only 35 per cent of the women have reported about their

victimization, 46.7 per cent have not reported and 18.3 per cent have been unaware of the fact

that they have been victimized , women prefer not to report about their victimization owing to

social issues.”(Munyua et al., n.d.).

According to (Adikari, 2016; Broadband, 2015), a BBC World and Globes can poll across 17

countries – in both developed and developing countries – revealed a growing sense of

insecurity among users. GlobeScan’s Chair commented that: “The poll suggests that two of

the underpinnings of modern democracies are at risk – a media seen as free and fair; and an

Internet safe for the free expression of views.” Those who feel “the Internet is a safe place to

express opinions” (40 per cent) are outnumbered only slightly by those who disagree (52 per

cent). the pool reveals that France is among the countries where respondents do not feel they

can express their opinions safely online (76 per cent), alongside South Korea (72 per cent),

Spain (66 per cent), Canada, the USA, and Germany (65 per cent each). Only six surveyed

countries have majorities that feel they can express their opinions online safely: Nigeria (71

per cent), India (67 per cent), Indonesia (57 per cent), Kenya (52 per cent), Pakistan and Peru

(both 51 per cent) – all of them emerging or developing countries. (Abuse & Women, 2015;

Adikari, 2016; Ahmed, 2020; Al-Nasrawi, 2021; Boukemidja, 2018; Delhi, 2017; Diop-

Sidibé et al., 2006; Liou, 2013; Patel, 2011; Saha & Srivastava, 2014; Shimokawa, 2004;

UNIFEM, 2010; Violence & Women, n.d.; With et al., n.d.) At the same time, two-thirds of

respondents (67 per cent) say the Internet brings them greater freedom, with the most
enthused respondents being in Africa (81 per cent in Nigeria and 78 per cent in Kenya),

followed by Australians (77 per cent), Britons (76 per cent), Indonesians (73 per cent),

Canadians and Americans (both 72 per cent). In contrast, people in China do not report a

strong sense of increased freedom from using the Internet, with a narrow majority agreeing

with the statement and 45 per cent disagreeing with it.(Broadband, 2015) The counter-

evidence shows that 70 per cent of Internet users consider the Internet to be ‘liberating’ and

in a 2013 survey of 2,200 women; 85 per cent said it “provides more freedom.” Therefore, if

the Internet remains a place where users can be harassed, stalked, bullied, and threatened

without consequence, the ‘liberating' and ‘safe' aspects of this space will inevitably diminish.

2.5. Cyber Violence in Nigeria

In Nigeria today, several internets assisted crimes known as Cybercrimes are committed daily

in various forms such as fraudulent electronics mails, pornography, identity theft, hacking,

cyber harassment, spamming, Automated Teller Machine spoofing, piracy and phishing.

Though there are various cybercrimes in Nigeria, yet, crimes, sexism and misogyny have

increased dramatically during recent decades. According to Check Point, a global network

cyber security vendor, as of 2016, Nigeria is ranked 16 th highest country in cyber-attacks

vulnerabilities in Africa (Omodunbi et al., 2016). One of the various types of cybercrimes is

cybercrimes on Social Media Sector from where Cyber violence against women and girls

emanated. VAWG has followed this national trend, with the overall situation deteriorating

during 2014 and into January 2015. With steadily increasing VAWG incident reports year on

year, reported incidents rose by over 30% in 2014 from 2013 based on Nigeria Watch data.

(Violence Affecting Women & Girls First Quarter Report, 2015, 2015)

There are different forms of violence, the common forms of violence against women in

Nigeria are rape, molestation, wife beating, acid attacks, cyber violence and corporal
punishment. The Nigerian government has taken legal proceedings to prosecute men who

abuse women in several states. Gender-based violence occurs in Nigeria just as it does in the

United States and every other nation (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016). Recently, the rape cases

have increased in Nigeria in recent times, especially during this period of Covid-19. Large

numbers of Nigerians are taking to social media to demand "justice" after a series of high-

profile cases of violence against women sparked outrage in the country recently.

The Inspector General of Police of Nigeria (IGP) Mohammed Adamu, on the 15 th of June,

2020 stated that a total number of 717 rape cases have been recorded from January to May,

2020. A total number of 799 arrests have been made with regards to the rape incidents. 612

cases have been investigated and charged to court. And 52 cases are still being investigated

by the police. He encouraged any rape victim to speak up and report the rapists to the

appropriate bodies (TVC news of 15th June, 2020).

In Nigeria, women and girls are too often subjected to violence. Gender-based violence is an

issue that needs to be urgently dealt with. Nigeria’s Minister of Women Affairs and Social

Development, during the launch of the national sex offenders register in November 2019,

estimated that every year two million women and girls are sexually assaulted in the country.

However, only few are reported. When they are reported, too many cases of rape or femicide

go unpunished, and perpetrators often escape justice or are not prosecuted (Pérouse De

Montclos, 2006).

Social networks have gained a very high ground in every sector in Nigeria. The banking

industry, government, business, universities use this platform to promote and communicate

with each other, social networking sites such as Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Instagram

serve a fertile ground for cybercriminals to launch new attacks. Users create semi-public
profiles and can directly communicate with friends without restriction (Omodunbi et al.,

2016).

Cyber violence in Nigeria came to limelight when the story of Cynthia went viral. Cynthia

was born on 10 November 1987 in Agbor town, Delta State. Cynthia developed some

friendships via the social networking site Facebook after chatting with a newly added

“friend”, Okwumi Echezona Nwabufor and his cousin Ezike Ilechukwu Olisaeloka via

her BlackBerry Messenger. Cynthia owned a boutique which she opened in Keffi, a town

in Nasarawa State. Even though she already had a relation in the United States who often sent

her goods to sell in her retailing business, her newly found friends on Facebook told her they

were in the same business, that they were also retailers and offered to sell her the items at

cheaper prices. She believed them. When she informed them she usually comes to buy goods

in Lagos, they made arrangements for her visit while promising to help her get the goods at

cheaper prices. These young men seemed normal and promised to host Cynthia when she

came to Lagos. The trip was organized by Echezona Nwabufor, one of the two new friends.

On July 21, 2012, Cynthia flew to Lagos from Abuja to meet with these new retailers

regarding the better price offer on the clothes and accessories for her fashion boutique. The

two young men picked Cynthia up from the Murtala Muhammed International Airport, Ikeja,

and drove her to Cosmilla Hotel in Lakeview estate in Festac Town. At the hotel, they

entertained her and offered her a Ribena-brand drink which was pre-drugged with Rohypnol),

but the drug did not take have quick effect her. After that, they beat her and asked her to

reveal where she kept her money. They presumed she would hold a lot of money, but she said

she didn't have any money to spare. When they didn't get any money from her, they tied her

up, robbed her of all the money she brought to shop for her business, her three blackberry

phones, jewelleries, international passport, a drivers’ licence, then they raped her and finally

strangled her to death. Her lifeless body was found lying naked on the bed by the hotel
receptionist after the two men left without renewing the day’s payment. The door was forced

opened and she was lying horizontal with her legs touching the ground.

The release of Miss Anambra sex video in order to blackmail her is another form of cyber

violence. In 2019, March 21 to be specific, a man named Ifeanyi Azota who live in Amawbia

near Awka, Anambra state invited one Ogochukwu through Facebook into her matrimonial

home. The wife Tochukwu locked them both up, mobilized a friend and beat up the guest.

The lady was stripped naked and her nude video was sent on social media which went viral.

And despite general pieces of legislation that govern criminal matters in Nigeria, violence has

been on the increase. Some of the principal legislations are – The Criminal Code (Operative

in the South) and the Penal Code (operative in the North). Other specific legislation on

gender-based violence include: Cross River State Domestic Violence against Women and

Maltreatment of Widows; Ebonyi State – Protection Against Domestic Violence Law, 2006;

Lagos State – The Lagos State Protection Against Domestic Violence Law 2007; Ekiti State

Prohibition of Gender-Based Violence Law, 2011; Federal Capital Territory – the Violence

Against Persons (Prohibition) Act, 2015 (VAPP Act). The Child Rights Act, which is the

foremost legislation dealing with children in the Federal Capital Territory, and in the States

that have adopted it, makes provisions relating to use of children in pornography. Finally,

there is the Cyber Crimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act, 2015, which has specific

provisions on cyber-related criminal conduct. (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016, 2016; Bankole

& Urhere, 2021)

2.5. Types of Cyber Violence

In practice, acts of cyber violence may involve different types of harassment, violation of

privacy, sexual abuse and sexual exploitation and bias offences against social groups or
communities. Cyber violence may also involve direct threats or physical violence as well as

different forms of cybercrime. Many forms of cyber violence represent or are related to a

violation of victims’ privacy. This may include computer intrusions to obtain, steal, reveal or

manipulate intimate data, the researching and broadcasting of personal data (“doxing”), or

acts such as “cyberstalking” or “sextortion/revenge porn” (Council of Europe, 2018a).

According to the violence against women learning network, there are six broad categories

which are related to different forms of cyber violence. They are hacking, impersonation,

Surveillance/Tracking, harassing/spamming, recruitment, malicious distribution of intimate

photos and messages. (UNODC, 2015 Faith & Fraser, 2018). For the purpose of this study,

the predominant forms of Cyber VAWG will be considered below.

2.5.1. Cyber Harassment

Cyber harassment is perhaps the broadest form of cyber violence and involves a persistent

and repeated course of conduct targeted at a specific person that is designed to and that

causes severe emotional distress and often the fear of physical harm. Elsie Reed, founder of

Delta Women, an organization that aims to empower and fight for the rights of women in

Delta State, estimates that 80 per cent of Nigerian women have experienced some form of

sexual harassment.  (Africa Renewal online)

Cyber harassment describes unwanted sexual emails, texts or messages, inappropriate or

offensive advances on social media or online chat rooms. Also, threats of physical and/or

sexual violence per email, text or messages are included. Hate speech and content that insults,

threatens, or targets someone based on their gender or sexual orientation. (Abuse & Women,

2015; UNODC, 2015; Van Der Wilk, 2018)

Cyber harassment is often accomplished by a “storm of abuse”. Harassers terrorize victims by

threatening violence. Offenders impersonate victims in online ads, and suggest – falsely –

that their victims are interested in sex with strangers. Harassers can manipulate search

engines to ensure the prominence of the lies in searches of victims’ names they invade

victims’ privacy by posting their sensitive information, such as nude images or national

identity numbers (Council of Europe, 2018a). They can also use technology to knock people

offline. Cyber harassment in popular discourse may be described as or related to “revenge

porn” or “sextortion.” (Navarra et al., 2021; Van Der Wilk, 2018)

Cyber harassment is often targeted at women and girls and termed “cyber violence against

women and girls” (CVAWG or Cyber VAWG) involving(Council of Europe, 2018a):

 Unwanted sexually explicit emails or other messages;

 Offensive advances in social media and other platforms;

 Threat of physical or sexual violence;

Hate speech meaning language that denigrates, insults, threatens or targets an individual

based on her identity (gender) and/or other traits (such as sexual orientation or disability).

According to some scholars, (Adeyemo & Bamidele, 2016, 2016; Adikari, 2016;

Commission, 2015; Communications, 2017; Delhi, 2017; Hart & Klein, 2013; Jukić, 2016;

Michau et al., 2015; Navarra et al., 2021; Van Der Wilk, 2018) cyber Harassment includes

hate speech, social media posts and/or mail that is often targeted at women and girls. It is the

use of indecent or violent images to demean women. It also includes direct threats of

violence, such as threats of sexual and/or physical violence (e.g. threats like “I am going to

rape you”, ‘I will kill you’,’ I will upload your sex video’ etc.).
2.5.2. Cyber Bullying

Cyberbullying has been defined as the “process of using the internet, cell phones or other

devices to send or post text or images intended to hurt or embarrass another person.(Council

of Europe, 2018a; Navarra et al., 2021; Thun et al., 2021; Wolak et al., 2008). The word

“cyberbullying” is often used interchangeably with “cyber stalking”.

Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, etc.) Act 2015 of Nigeria says Cyberbullying is the

transmission of any communication through the means of a computer to bully, threaten or

harass another person where such communication places another person in fear of death,

violence or bodily harm amounts to cyber stalking (Thun et al., 2021). 

As more people engage in cyberbullying, particularly on social media platforms, it is

becoming a widespread occurrence in Nigeria. This is done in a variety of ways, but one

popular method is to humiliate people by uploading indecent material of them online, such as

naked pictures or videos. When a person posts something on social media, it is shared by

others, leading it to circulate. (Adediran, 2021)

Cyber bullying is often associated with on different social media platforms today. Such as

YouTube, Facebook, Tumblr, Twitter, Instagram, Snap Chat, Whatsapp and chatrooms.

Recently around February 2020 in Nigeria, Tboss, a celebrity who hid her baby for months

before showing her baby’s face. Some people whose identity were hidden went on social

media, relegated the baby to the background. Tboss was embarrassed, she went live on

Instagram, crying, raining curses and abusive words on the accuser though nothing was done

to it.

2.5.3. Cyber Stalking

Cyber-stalking is a form of harassment that takes place on the internet. Stalking involves

repeated incidents, which may or may not individually be innocuous acts, but combined

undermine the victim’s sense of safety and cause distress, fear or alarm . (Navarra et al.,

2021). It is the use of the internet to threaten or intimidate victims. This can occur in several

ways. Some of the ways this is done are through email, telephone calls, short message

service, and instant message apps etc. It can also include the use of social networking sites,

chat rooms, and other forums facilitated by technology. Practical ways by which people do

this on the internet include: locating personal information about a victim; communicating

with the victim; as a means of surveillance of the victim; identity theft against the victim by

subscribing to services, purchasing goods and services in their name; damaging the reputation

of the victim; electronic sabotage such as spamming and sending viruses and tricking other

internet users into threatening or harassing the victim.

In recent years, this phenomenon increasingly involved the use of mobile technologies (such

as smartphones) as well as computers, laptops, tablets, and digital cameras. Such stalking

predominantly takes the form of men victimizing women(Council of Europe, 2018a)

Cyber stalkers can send unwelcome, repetitive emails or instant messages, which can be

nasty and menacing. Cyber stalkers can also impersonate their victims online by stealing

login details for an email account or a social networking page and posting messages on the

accounts of their friends. Information and Communication Technology has grown so wide

that people carry out pleasant and unpleasant activities. Cyber stalking can be done both

online and offline. Cyber stalking results in fear, stress, anxiety or intimidation on the part of

the victim. Victims in some cases lose a sense of control not knowing the next line of action

that the aggressor might take. This is the actual cause of fear. This is mostly carried out on

Nairaland platform and other platforms used by Nigerians. Cyber stalking acts can include:
  Sending emails, text messages (SMS) or instant messages that are offensive or

threatening;

 Posting offensive comments about the respondent on the internet;

 Sharing intimate photos or videos of the respondent, on the internet or by mobile

phone.(Abuse & Women, 2015; Faith & Fraser, 2018; Navarra et al., 2021; Olusola et

al., 2016; Omodunbi et al., 2016; UNODC, 2015; Van Der Wilk, 2018)

2.5.4. Revenge Porn /Non-Consensual Pornography

Revenge porn” is a crime that has been recognized by several regulations at local and

national levels and has involved civil suits and criminal offences in various countries,

although not always in the same manner. One legal formulation criminalizes the unlawful

(meaning non-consensual) disclosure, distribution, dissemination or promotion of intimate

images or videos (Adediran, 2021; Boukemidja, 2018). According to Wikipedia, Revenge

Porn is the distribution of sexually explicit images or video of individuals without their

consent.

Another humiliating issue that has recently emerged in internet is the phenomena of revenge

pornography. Revenge porn also known as non-consensual pornography, is the distribution of

one or more sexually explicit photos of someone else, without the subject’s permission. The

sexually explicit images or video may be made by a partner of an intimate relationship with

the knowledge and consent of the subject, or it may be made without his or her knowledge.

(Bates, 2017; Lageson et al., 2019). The possession of the material may be used by the

perpetrators to blackmail the subjects into performing other sex acts, to coerce them into

continuing the relationship, to punish them for ending the relationship, or to silence them

(Adediran, 2021; Navarra et al., 2021; Ricci, 2017b; UNIFEM, 2010).

Revenge porn is referred to as cyber exploitation or non-consensual pornography which

involves the online distribution of sexually graphic photographs or videos without the consent

of the individual in the images. Revenge Porn is also known as non-consensual pornography

which involves the sharing of private, sexual materials, either photos or videos, of another

person without their consent and with the purpose of causing embarrassment of distress. The

images are sometimes accompanied by personal information about the subject, including their

full name, address and links to their social media profiles. The offence applies both online

and offline and to images which are shared electronically or in a more traditional way. This

includes uploading of images on the internet, sharing by text and e-mail, or showing someone

In Nigeria, a 300 level Babcock student whose name was not revealed has gone viral as a

viral as a victim of revenge porn. She visited her boyfriend who was also a student of

Babcock University in a rehabilitation center. They both had sex which was recorded on a

friend’s phone. The owner of the phone wanted the lady as well. The refusal made him send

the video online. This led to expulsion from the school. Recently, the Nigerian court

convicted a man of revenge porn. The accused person posted nude pictures of his former

lover on the Social network site Facebook. The accused had earlier threatened to post the

nude pictures in 2017 when the victim said she was no longer interested in the relationship

and he requested for payment in the sum of two hundred thousand naira, as inducement for

him to rescind his decision. Upon the failure of the victim to pay the sum, the accused posted

the pictures. The court sentenced the accused to two years imprisonment and payment of fine

in the sum of five hundred thousand naira.

2.5.6. Hacking

The use of technology to gain to achieve illegal or unauthorized access to systems or

resources for the purpose of gaining/acquiring personal information, altering or modifying

information, or slandering and denigrating the victim and/or VAWG organizations. e.g.,

violation of passwords and controlling computer functions, such as freezing the computer or

logging off the user. (Adikari, 2016).

2.5.7 Impersonation

Impersonation is the use of technology to assume the identity of the victim or someone else in

order to access private information, embarrass or shame the victim, contact the victim, or

create fraudulent identity documents. Calling victim from unknown number to avoid call

being blocked. An important aspect in this context is the illegal access of private information,

to embarrass, shame, contact the victim, send offensive emails from victim’s email account or

call the victim using unknown numbers (Adikari, 2016; Michau et al., 2015; Navarra et al.,

2021)

2.5.8. Surveillance/Tracking

This is the use of technology to stalk and monitor a victim’s activities and behaviours either

in real-time or historically e.g. GPS tracking via mobile phone; tracking keystrokes to

recreate victim/survivor’s activities on computer (Ryan et al., 2016).

2.5.9. Malicious Distribution

Malicious Distribution is the use of technology to manipulate and distribute defamatory and

illegal materials related to the victim and/or VAWG organizations e.g., threatening to or

leaking intimate photos/video; using technology as a propaganda tool to promote violence

against women.(Faith & Fraser, 2018)

2.6. Impacts of Cyber violence

Cyber violence victims can suffer long term consequences be it cyber stalking, cyber

harassment, malicious distribution, hacking, revenge porn or cyber bullying (Hinson et al.,

2018; Pawar & Sakure, 2019a, 2019b). “Women and girls are more likely than men to be

victims of severe forms of cyber violence and the impact on their lives is far more traumatic”

(European Institute for Gender Equality, 2017). Cyber violence affects privacy, trust and

integrity and makes them go through a devastating psychological cycle. The consequence of

Cyber violence can be either short-term effect or a long-lasting psychological, physical,

social, and economic impact for victims, their families and communities and cost society as a

whole (Van Der Wilk, 2018). The effects of cyber violence against women are

psychological, social, physical and economic. The most widespread are psychological

effects, which are felt by most women who experience cyber-violence

2.6.1. Psychological Impact

The effects of cyber violence against women are psychological, social, physical and

economic. The most widespread are psychological effects, which are felt by most women

who experience cyber-violence (Adikari, 2016, 2016). These impacts include experiences

such as panic attacks, experience of overwhelming fear, depression, mood swings,

depression, panic attacks, feelings of shame, substance abuse and thoughts of suicide

(Navarra et al., 2021).

UNSA (2019) states that “persistent threats cannot only diminish well-being and cause

psychological trauma, but can undercut career prospects and the ability to function effectively

in the marketplace and participate in the democracy.” The same results can also be drawn

from the IWMF study, where over a third of women who had been threatened said they often

or sometimes felt distant or cut-off from other people or suffered from repeated, disturbing
and unwanted memories of the stressful experience and physical reactions as a result. In some

cases, journalists also reported changing places or even leaving the country due to the

severity of the threat.

2.6.2. The Economic Impact

Cyber violence can have a long-term effect on women’s reputations and can damage the

livelihoods of women. Cyber violence has impact on the economic health of women and their

family, their communities and even societies at large. According to the 2014 Pew Research

Center report on cyber abuse, about a third of the people (men and women) who experienced

physical threats and sustained harassment felt their reputation had been damaged. Overall,

15% of those who have experienced online harassment said it impacted their reputation.

Cyber-violence against women can cause serious and detrimental economic impacts for

women as well, particularly nonconsensual distribution of images and revenge porn. Women

can lose their jobs over things that that are posted about them on the internet. The

impossibility of erasing things from the internet, revenge porn images and defamation can

haunt women forever, keeping them from being hired for new jobs or advancing in their

current job.

2.6.3. The Social Impact

The social consequences for women can be very severe, particularly if their entire community

is involved with the cyber-violence. Women and girls that have fallen can decide to relocate

from the community or society. This will affect the family, school and work. Cyber violence

brings about a sense of fear and attack on their integrity. Amnesty International found that of

the women who experienced abuse or harassment online, 41% of responding women felt that

their physical safety was threatened (Navarra et al., 2021; UNIFEM, 2010; Van Der Wilk,
2018). In the same survey, 1 in 5 of women in the UK (20%) and over 1 in 4 (26%) in the

USA said they felt their family’s safety was at risk after experiencing abuse or harassment on

social media platforms (Abuse & Women, 2015; Adediran, 2021; Al-Nasrawi, 2021;

Boukemidja, 2018; Chiang et al., 2018; Communications, 2017, 2017; Council of Europe,

2018a, 2018b; Faith & Fraser, 2018; Jones et al., 2013; Navarra et al., 2021, 2021; Seam,

2015; Sharma et al., 2021; Van Der Wilk, 2018; Violence & Women, n.d.; Watch, 2017). 1 in

2 women experienced lower self-esteem or loss of self-confidence as well as stress, anxiety

or panic attacks as a result of cyber violence and hate speech online. Cyber violence can push

women to restrict themselves from the internet, due to the pervasiveness of the forms of

violence they can experiment online. (Navarra et al., 2021, 2021; Van Der Wilk, 2018)

The forms of cyber violence can cause can last long term and cause avoidance and control

behaviours, accompanied by anxio-depressive disorder, sleep disorder, and can damage

social, emotional and sexual life (Van Der Wilk, 2018).

In a study on Online Abuse published in 2014, the Pew Research Center recalls that 14% of

those who had experienced online harassment found their most recent incident extremely

upsetting, while 35% found it very or somewhat upsetting (Van Der Wilk, 2018).

2.6.4. Physical Impact

Cyber-violence has physical impact against women. This can be physical harm,

confrontations and abuse as a result of online violence. This can lead to health issues and the

end death. All these can begin a threat on any of the platforms online (Adikari, 2016; Navarra

et al., 2021, 2021; Van Der Wilk, 2018).

2.7. Theories of Cyber Violence against Women

Explanations of violence against women that focus on characteristics of individuals use a

micro-level or individual-level perspective. Theoretical explanations of violence against

women that reflect the micro perspective include social learning theory; psychopathology,

psychological, and physiological explanations; resource theory; and exchange theory.

(Renzetti et al,2001) Social learning theory, one of the most popular explanatory frameworks

for violence against women, suggests that individuals learn how to behave through both the

experience of and exposure to violence. Sociocultural theories address the influence of social

location (social class, education, and income) on violence against women and have attempted

to integrate both social structural and family processes. More recently, the trend in theory

development regarding violence against women has moved toward the development of

multidimensional theories of violence that take into account both social structural factors and

individual characteristics. (Renzetti et al,2001)

Previous Empirical studies of this theories had focused on domestic violence against women.

Recent theories adapted into cyber violence are the social norms theory, Social Learning

theory and the theory of space transition. social norms are the informal, mostly unwritten,

rules that define acceptable, appropriate, and obligatory actions in a given group or society.

Social learning theory explains that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social

context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of

motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. While the space transition theory explains the

nature of the behavior of the persons who brings out their conforming and non- conforming

behavior in the physical space and cyber space.

This current study adopts and discuss more of these three theories.

2.7.1. Social Norms Theory

The Social Norms to recognize the environment and interpersonal influences (such as peers)

in order to change behavior, which can be more effective than a focus on the individual to

change behavior. Peer influence, and the role it plays in individual decision-making around

behaviors, is the primary focus of Social Norms Theory. Peer influences and normative

beliefs are especially important when addressing behaviors in youth. Peer influences are

affected more by perceived norms (what we view as typical or standard in a group) rather

than on the actual norm (the real beliefs and actions of the group). The gap between

perceived and actual is a misperception, and this forms the foundation for the social norms

approach (Kuntsche, et al, 2021).

The Social Norms Theory posits that our behavior is influenced by misperceptions of how

our peers think and act. Overestimations of problem behavior in our peers will cause us to

increase our own problem behaviors; underestimations of problem behavior in our peers will

discourage us from engaging in the problematic behavior. Accordingly, the theory states that

correcting misperceptions of perceived norms will most likely result in a decrease in the

problem behavior or an increase in the desired behavior.

Although these limitations exist, when used correctly Social Norms Theory can be very

effective in changing individual behavior by focusing on changing misperceptions at the

group level. The most effective social norms interventions are those that have messages

targeted to the at-risk population that are correct and influential. To target messages, a

substantial amount of research and data collection has to be invested to understand the norms

that exist in the group of interest. Social norms interventions are also most effective when

presented in interactive formats that actively engage the target audience.

Empirical literature on social norms exists in sociology, anthropology, social and moral

psychology, economics, law, political science, and health sciences. Researchers have
demonstrated the influence of social norms on several health-related practices, including:

alcohol consumption, food intake, and use of recreational drugs, smoking, water purification,

and hand washing.

2.7.2. Social learning theory

Proposed by Albert Bandura (1971) Social learning theory is a theory of learning process and

social behavior which proposes that new behaviors can be acquired by observing and

imitating others. It states that learning is a cognitive process that takes place in a social

context and can occur purely through observation or direct instruction, even in the absence of

motor reproduction or direct reinforcement. (Renzetti et, al 2003) In addition to the

observation of behavior, learning also occurs through the observation of rewards and

punishments, a process known as vicarious reinforcement. According to Renzetti et, al (2003)

When a particular behavior is rewarded regularly, it will most likely persist; conversely, if a

particular behavior is constantly punished, it will most likely desist. The theory expands on

traditional behavioral theories, in which behavior is governed solely by reinforcements, by

placing emphasis on the important roles of various internal processes in the learning

individual.

Social Learning Theory integrated behavioral and cognitive theories of learning in order to

provide a comprehensive model that could account for the wide range of learning experiences

that occur in the real world. As initially outlined by Bandura and Walters in 1963, the theory

was entirely behavioural in nature; the crucial element that made it innovative and

increasingly influential was its emphasis upon the role of imitation. Over the years, however,

Bandura shifted to a more cognitive perspective, and this led to a major revision of the theory

in 1977, According to Grusec (1992) the key tenets of Social Learning Theory were stated as

follows
 1. Learning is not purely behavioral; rather, it is a cognitive process that takes place in a

social context.

2. Learning can occur by observing a behavior and by observing the consequences of the

behavior (vicarious reinforcement).

3. Learning involves observation, extraction of information from those observations, and

making decisions about the performance of the behavior (observational learning or

modeling). Thus, learning can occur without an observable change in behavior.

4. Reinforcement plays a role in learning but is not entirely responsible for learning.

5. The learner is not a passive recipient of information. Cognition, environment, and

behavior all mutually influence each other (reciprocal determinism).

Social learning theory has been used to explain the emergence and maintenance of deviant

behavior, especially aggression. Criminologists Ronald Akers and Robert Burgess integrated

the principles of social learning theory and operant conditioning with Edwin Sutherland's

differential association theory to create a comprehensive theory of criminal behavior.[27][28]

Burgess and Akers (1966) emphasized that criminal behavior is learned in both social and

nonsocial situations through combinations of direct reinforcement, vicarious reinforcement,

explicit instruction, and observation. Both the probability of being exposed to certain

behaviors and the nature of the reinforcement are dependent on group norms.

A number of studies have applied the theory of social learning into cyber space criminology

studies such as (Ouytsel et al 2017; Kweilin 2018)

2.7.3. Space Transition Theory of Cyber Crimes

Propounded by K. Jaishankar in 2008, the space transition theory is one of the influential

theoretical formulations in cyber criminology. This theory views the emergence of cyber

space as a new locus of criminal activity and, explains the causation of crimes in the cyber

space (Jaishankar, 2008). The development of space transition model was of vital influence to

the evolution of cybercrime theories. Space transition theory explains the nature of the

behavior of the persons who brings out their conforming and non- conforming behavior in the

physical space and cyber space. Space transition involves the movement of the person from

one space to another (e.g., from physical space to cyber space and vice versa). Space

transition theory argues that, people behave differently when they move from one space to

another” (Jaishankar, 2008).

Propositions of Space Transition are;

 Persons, with repressed criminal behavior (in the physical space) have a propensity to

commit crime in cyberspace, which, otherwise they would not commit in physical

space, due to their status and position. Identity Flexibility, Dissociative Anonymity

and lack of deterrence factor in the cyberspace provides the offenders the choice to

commit cybercrime.

 Criminal behavior of offenders in cyberspace is likely to be imported to Physical

space which, in physical space may be exported to cyberspace as well.

 Intermittent ventures of offenders in to the cyberspace and the dynamic

spatiotemporal nature of cyberspace provide the chance to escape.

 Strangers are likely to unite together in cyberspace to commit crime in the physical

space. (b) Associates of physical space are likely to unite to commit crime in

cyberspace.
  Persons from closed society are more likely to commit crimes in cyberspace than

persons from open society.

 The conflict of Norms and Values of Physical Space with the Norms and Values of

cyberspace may lead to cybercrimes.

2.8 Empirical Literatures on Cyber Violence and Crimes

Studies such as Ouytsel et al (2017) and Kweilin (2018) has empirically assessed causation of

cyber violence. Ouytsel et al (2017) investigate the extent to which perceived social norms

about cyber dating abuse, witnessing controlling behaviors among parents, and endorsing

gender stereotypes are linked with adolescents’ engagement in digital monitoring behaviors.

Linear regression analysis indicates that being female, being older, the perceived social

norms of peers, the endorsement of gender stereotypes, and having observed intrusive

controlling behaviors by the father are significantly and positively related to adolescents’

perpetration of digital monitoring behaviors. The findings have implications for practice and

underscore the need for prevention efforts to address and lower the influence of these

perceived social norms. In another study Kweilin (2018) examined the extent of cyber-

bullying among college students and how well the Learning Theory predicted cyber-bullying

perpetration. His study revealed that social learning variables were not associated with cyber-

bullying perpetration or observation; however, the theory provided some support for the

prediction of cyber-bullying victimization. Additionally, socioeconomic status and race were

statistically related to cyber-bullying perpetration, while age and prior victimization were

associated with cyber-bullying victimization. Implications for Social Learning Theory, future

research, and policy are discussed.

In a Nigerian study Adedayo and Aborisade (2018) research leaned heavily on Bandura’s

Social Learning Theory in explaining how young people learn to behave aggressively by

watching the aggressive behavior of others over various social media platforms. The study

revealed that while some forms of online violence are limited to internet-based interactions,

others are directly related to face-to-face acts of violence. The study conclude that electronic

youth violence needs to be accorded attention of researchers in the criminal, sociological,

psychological, medical, and public health domain.

Other Nigeria studies such as Odumesi, (2014); Tade (2013); and Ndubuez (2016) had

focused on cybercrimes and online fraud. Odumesi, (2014) assessed Nigeria approach in

combating the menace of cybercrime. The study establishes that, the state of legal protection

against cybercrime in Nigeria is weak and inadequate to combat cybercrime. In a different

study, Tade (2013) examines the factors underlying this spiritual dimension (cyber

spiritualism) to cybercrime, and discusses some of the strategies employed in

perpetuating Cyber Crime. The study found that the clampdown on Internet fraudsters by

the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission (EFCC), in-group conflict among

yahoo boys over social recognition, reduced victimization and delayed success, and mass

media enlightenment were reported factors influencing the fusion of spiritual elements in

cybercrime. In Another study, Ndubuez (2016) examines the emergence of cyber criminology

as a twenty-first century field of criminology and argues that its growth is a fall-out of

concerns about the increasing rate of crime and disorder in the cyberspace. Cyber

criminology seeks to offer explanation to the causation of deviance, crime and terrorism in

the cyberspace. The paper which is anchored on Jaishankar’s Space Transition Theory and

Cohen and Felson’s Routine Activity Theory highlights the challenges, prospects and future

direction of the evolving field of cyber criminology and its relevance to the quest for order in

the Nigerian cyberspace. In another study, Okorie (2015) draws from a prominent
criminology theory – routine activities theory to analyse the necessary conditions under

which sexual predators select potential targets or victims. These conditions include the

availability of three essential factors: existence of a motivated offender (sexual predator), an

attractive target, and that the target must lack capable guidance or protection. It argues further

that in Nigeria, hotels and cyberspace have become ‘sexual violence infrastructures, and

essentially veritable instruments used in carrying out sexual violence. In the end, it

recommends enhanced surveillance in hotels as a means of curbing their continued use as

spaces for sexual crimes.

2.9 Gap in the Literature

While there are various studies that have worked on cybercrimes, many studies in Nigeria

only focused on cyber frauds as a form of cybercrimes, not many studies have focused on

other forms of cyber violence such as bullying, cyber stalking etc. Also, there limited studies

that empirically examined specific issues relating to cyber violence against women and girls,

majority of the studies reviewed examined cyber violence from the general perspective.

Lastly, it was observed that there is an observed incoherence/conflict in different authors’

findings with respect to the definition, trend and factors influencing cyber violence.

Given the dominant role technology plays in Nigeria and the exponential increase in the

usage of social media among young women and girls in Nigeria, there is need to assess the

level of exposure to cyber violence, and determine factors that influences this phenomenon.

2.9 Conceptual Framework

The conceptual framework adopted for this study largely draws space transition theory and

the theories of social learning to define the factors that influence or cybercrime among

women and girls in Nigeria. Based on existing literatures, some of the factors we considered
are internet usage of women and girls, educational background, level of awareness and the

age factor. The aforementioned factors will measure the independent variable, while

dependent variables will be the level of occurrence of cyber violence. The consequences of

cyber is further expressed,

The relationship above is presented in figure 2.7 below

Figure 2.8: Conceptual Framework

Independent Variable Dependent Variable (Cyber Violence

Psychological Factors Cyber Stalking

Cyber Bullying
Internet Usage
Cyber Harassment
Security Awareness
Hacking

Educational Level
Impersonation

Age Revenge Porn /Non-

Consensual Pornography

Source: Author’s Computation

 CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

This section described the procedures adopted in carrying the empirical examination on the

consequences of cyber violence against women and girls in Nigeria. These includes; the

research design, the population of the study, sources of data, sampling technique/sample size,

data collection method, sampling procedure, method of data collection, administration,

method of data presentation and analysis.

3.1. Research Design

To achieve the empirical aims and objectives of this work, this study applied a descriptive

survey research design in order to depict a precise representation of individuals, event or

situations (Robson, 2002). This research design presented a variety of benefits like it gives

the ability to utilize fewer groups to make conclusions and assumptions about larger

populations that will be quite costly to study (Jetnikoff, 2015). Therefore, a study

incorporating a population that is large will be better studied using quantitative methods with

the use of questionnaire on a sample of the target population to facilitate generalizations of

the research findings. This research will made use of quantitative method to gather data due

to the nature of the topic. This method is concerned with the acquisition and interpretation of

data that is presented in the form of discrete units.

By means of a survey research design, the present study investigated the consequences of

cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria.

3.2 Population of the study

Population are all the elements that meet the criteria for inclusion in a study. It is the total

number of units from which data can be collected such as individuals, artefact, events or

organization. The population of the study consisted of 200 respondents drawn from different

location across Nigeria. E-survey was sent and shared via the social media and the link to the

survey was shared among university students in Afe Babalola University Ekiti; University of

Ibadan, Ibadan; University of Lagos, Lagos; Lagos State University, Ojoo, and Adekunle

Ajasin University Akoko.

3.3. Sampling Technique / Sample Size

According to David (2005), sampling involves a system of selecting a population

representation from the general population depending on the objective of the study,

availability of resources such as money, effort and time in gathering data.  Basically,

sampling is the mechanism by which a sample of a particular population is used. It is almost

always achieved by analysing a portion of a population while performing primary research.

The distinction between a subset and a population is therefore important to understand. The

entire part of the population is to be examined – while the subset is a proportion of the

population being analysed – but there is a specific variable in both sections.

For this study, the non-probability sampling technique was adopted for the reasons that the

sampling frame is not available or known to the researcher. Convenience sampling which is a

subset of the non-probability sample was adopted because it affords the speed and

convenience of gathering a large number of data. In summary, convenience sampling is more

appropriate because it is cheaper and easier and also more suitable to investigate the

individual behaviour. For quality representation and robustness of the research, the researcher

deemed it appropriate to select a sample size of 200 female across various higher institutions
in Nigeria. These higher institutions are Afe Babalola University Ekiti; University of Ibadan,

Ibadan; University of Lagos, Lagos; Lagos State University, Ojoo; and Adekunle Ajasin

University Akoko.

3.4 Research Instrument

In this research, an online questionnaire was developed and adopted. Online survey was

adopted due to Covid 19 restrictions which has limited personal insteraction.

According to Evans and Mathur (2015) the strengths of online survey are global reach,

flexibility, convenience speed, low administration cost ease of data entry and analysis.

Online questionnaire is capable of gathering the data by letting the respondents read through

the questions and answer without any trained interviewer present. It allows the respondents

the space to answer the questions at their convenience.

Closed-ended / structured questions were adopted in order to construct the questions where

respondents had to respond according to a set of limited response choices. The closed-ended

type of questions facilitates data collection, as the reactions from a large number of samples

are uniform and not out of the box. It is also easier for them in the respondent’s context as

they can understand the questions more easily and choose the answers in the box. It is also a

time saving method. In summary, the closed-ended questions were employed for this

questionnaire since it is less stressful for respondents to complete.

The structured questionnaire contains a brief introduction to this research and its purpose.

Thereafter two sections of closed ended questions follow. The first section aimed to gather

the respondent's demographic information while the second section was channelled to obtain

research question-specific information. Issues were structured based on previous research

studies. In the second section the respondents were asked to rate a five-point Likert-type scale

questions to the extent of how they agree or disagree with statements relating consumer

perception and price skimming. Each question scaled from Number 5 with the statement

“Strongly Agree” to “Strongly disagree”. The weighted (values) are set in each level as

followed;

Strongly Agree=5 points

Agree=4 points

Neither Agree or Disagree=3 points

Disagree=2 points

Strongly Disagree=1 point

The Mean Value and Internal Class formulae was used to calculate the range of information

for questions related to the variables of interest;

Interval class = 0.8

Hence, the mean range or average mean interval can be interpreted as:

Mean scores within the range 4.21 – 5.00 implies Strongly Agree

Mean scores within the range 3.41 – 4.20 implies Strongly Agree

Mean scores within the range 2.61 – 3.40 implies Strongly Agree

Mean scores within the range 1.81 – 2.60 implies Strongly Agree

Mean scores within the range 1.00 – 1.80 implies Strongly Agree
3.5 Data Collection Method

The sources of data for the study were majorly from primary sources. The primary data was

gathered straight from the respondents (female students) by the use of well-structured online

questionnaires. The primary data collection tool in this study was the online surveys.

Evidently, due to the COVID-19 pandemic which has triggered social distancing measures,

online survey is ideal for data collection. The online survey was designed using the Likert

psychometric scale approach. This enabled the researcher to obtain participants’ preferences

or degree of agreement with a statement or set of statements.

In addition to primary data, this study made use of some secondary data sources that were

retrieved from credible online sources, high-ranking research publications, internet materials,

textbooks from seasoned authors and other related materials.

3.6 Reliability and Validity of the Instrument

Validity is defined as the degree at which the research instrument measures what it intends to

measure (Popoola, 2014). It is the degree to which the statements, questions, or indicators

constituting the instrument adequately represent the qualities measured. Popoola, (2014)

explains that this is done by pre-testing the measuring instrument on elements in the

population of study that are not reflected in the study sample. The reliability of the research

instrument in this study will be tested by Cronbach’s Alpha test using (SPSS) version 23.0.

3.7 Method of Data Analysis

The completed copies of the questionnaire was edited for completeness and consistency. The

data was then coded and checked for any errors and omissions. The data collected was

analysed with the aid of SPSS Version 25.

Descriptive statistics like percentages, frequency and mean were used to present the data to

answer the Research Objectives.

3.8 Ethical consideration

The researcher made sure that all ethical principles were adhered to. The researcher made

sure everything done was with the respondents’ consent or permission. No one was forced to

participate or manipulated into participating. The researcher made ensure that information

about each respondent was not disclosed except with permission or consent of the participant.

The data gotten from this research was accurate.

 CHAPTER FOUR

DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

4.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the empirical result and analysis, and of the survey based on the

methodology adopted for the study. The section begins with the report of a preliminary

analysis, in which the response rate and the reliability test were reported. Afterwards, the

descriptive statistics, correlation and ordinal regression results were reported.

4.2 Response Rate

The data collected for this research was retrieved through the online survey method. Based on

the research objectives, an e-Survey was created using the Google form tool. The web link to

the survey was sent to various women and girls and shared using the social media platforms

such as WhatsApp and Facebook between June and August, 2021. As shown in table 4.1, a

total of 175 respondents answered the survey questions, out of which 151 were valid, thus the

sample response rate was 100%.

Table 4.1 Response Rate

Valid Response 151 86.8

Invalid Response 23 13.2

Total 174 100

4.3 Respondents Demography

Table 4.2 shows the demographic profile of the respondents. As stated earlier, the target

population is women and girls in Nigeria. The Demographic characteristics considered are

location of the respondents, gender, marital status, occupation and educational background of

the respondents.

Table 4.2 revealed the location of the respondents. The result shows that 50% majority of the

respondents are based in Lagos State, 14% of the respondents are based in Oyo State, and

about 10% are from Ekiti State. A few others include Kwara State (4.7%), Ondo State (3.3%)

and Osun State (3.3). While the least representations are from Abuja (1.3%) Calabar (0.7%),

Delta ((0.7%), Enugu (0.7%), Edo (0.7%), and Taraba State (0.7%). Evidently the population

in this study majorly comprise of respondents from the south western parts of Nigeria.

Table 4.3 gives further insight about the demographic characteristic of the respondents. In

terms of gender, all the valid respondents captured for the analysis were female (100%).

Evidently, this is because the study focused on women and girls. In terms of the marital status

of the respondents, 87% Majority of the respondents are single, while 13% are married. In

terms of the age, about 39% majority of the respondents are between the ages of 21 - 25

years, 23.8% of the respondents comprises of teenagers between the ages 14-20 years, and

also 21% of the respondents comprises of youths between the ages of 26-30 years. A few

others comprises of respondents within the age bracket of 31 -40 years (13.2%) and above 40

years (2.6%). This suggests that majority of the respondents are youth and young. In terms of

the educational status of the respondents, the data revealed that more than 52% of the

respondents are undergraduates in the University, 24.5% of the respondents are still at

secondary level, 21% are at the master’s degree level, and a few others such as doctoral

degree and other qualification are less than 1%.

Table 4.2. Location of the Respondents

States Frequency Percentage

Abuja 2 1.3
Calabar 1 0.7
Delta 1 0.7
Edo 1 0.7
Ekiti 15 9.9
Enugu 1 0.7
Kwara 7 4.6
Lagos 76 50.3
Ogun 10 6.6
Ondo 5 3.3
Osun 5 3.3
Oyo 22 14.6
Rivers 1 0.7
Taraba 1 0.7
Total 151 100.0
Source: Survey data (2021)
Table 4.3: Respondent’s demographics

Frequenc  Percentag
Characteristic Options
y e
Female 151 100
Female Male 0 0
151 0
Single 131 86.8
Marital Status Married 20 13.2
Total 151 100.0
14 – 20 Years 36 23.8
21 – 25 Years 59 39.1
26 – 30 Years 32 21.2
Age Range
31 – 40 Years 20 13.2
Above 40 Years 4 2.6
Total 151 100.0
Secondary Education 37 24.5
Bachelor’s Degree 79 52.3
Educational Master’s Degree 32 21.2
Doctoral Degree 1 0.7
Status
Others 1 0.7
Total 151 100
Source: Survey data (2021)

4.4 The Nature and the Trend of Cyber Violence against Women and Girls

The first research objective of the study is to examine the nature and the trend of violence

against women and girls. Hence, the respondents were asked questions related to the

occurrence of cyber based violence that they experienced in the past.

Figure 4.1: Occurrence of Cyber Abuse

45

31
Percent

22

Yes, on more than one Yes, on one occasion No, this has never Don't know
occasion happened to me
Have you ever experienced cyber abuse, attack or harassment on the internet?

Source: Survey data (2021)

Figure 4.1 reveals the occurrence of cyber violence among women and girls. The result

shows that about 75% have at least experienced cyber based violence. Specifically, the

survey shows that 31% have experienced cyber based violence on one occasion while 45%

experienced it on one occasion.

Fig 4.2 Nature of Cyber Violence

W h at ar e t h e fo r m s o f C y b e r vi o l e n c e yo u h ave e x p e r i e n c e d ?

I m p e r s o n a ti o n / H a c k i n g o f S o c i a l m e d i a 31.8

U n so l i c i t ed /u n w an t ed sex u al i m ag es 37.7

Th r eat an d h ar assm en t 5.3

Ab u se an d b o d y sh am m i n g 13.9

C y b er st al k i n g 9.9
Source: Survey data (2021)

Figure 4.2 reveals the nature of cyber violence among women and girls in Nigeria. The result

shows that about 38% majority indicated that they received unsolicited/unwanted sexual

images as a form of cyber based violence. Further, the survey shows that 31% have

experienced online impersonation and infringement of privacy through cyber hacking of their

social media account. About 14% indicated that they experience body shaming from

perpetrators of cyber based violence, 10% once experienced cyber stalking, and a few of

about 5% experienced threat and harassment.

Figure 4.3. Internet Platforms where Cyber violence occurred.

Source: Survey data (2021)

Fig 4.3 explains the internet platforms by which cyber violence against women and girls are

perpetrated. The result shows that about 96% majority of the respondents experienced cyber

violence on social media platforms, while a very few percentage (4%) of the respondents

experienced cyber violence on web platforms which are non-social media platforms.

Specifically the result shows that 42% majority of the respondents indicated that they

experienced cyber violence on Facebook, 33% indicated they experienced cyber violence on
WhatsApp platform, 10% of the respondents indicated that cyber violence happened on

Instagram while 7% indicated that they experienced cyber violence on twitter social media.

Figure 4.4 Intent of the Perpetrators

Source: Survey data (2021)

Fig 4.4 depicts what the victims thinks could be the major motivation or intent of

perpetrators. 32 % majority of the respondents indicated that sexual desires was the major

intention of perpetrators. 25% indicated that the intention of perpetrators was fuelled by

monetary needs or desires. About 20% of the respondents were of the opinion that

perpetrators of cyber violence are motivated by the need to maintain social status. 11%

indicated that it was fuelled by jealousy, others are about 10%.

4.5. Factors influencing Cyber-Violence against women and girls in Nigeria

The second objective of the study is to identify the major factors influencing Cyber-Violence

against women and girls in Nigeria. Some of the variables considered are age, educational

level, awareness, and internet usage. Both the age and educational variable have been
described in the demographics section, hence the description of the data was skipped, but was

however in use for the causal analysis using the regression statistical method.

Figure 4.5 Internet usage

Source: Survey data (2021)

In terms of internet usage, 85% majority uses the internet at least every day, more

specifically about 25% indicated that they use the internet many times in a day, a few of 12%

of the respondents indicated that they use the internet a few times in a week. And tiny

fraction of 1.35% indicated they use the internet few times in a month.
Figure 4.6 Reasons for using Internet

Source: Survey data (2021)

In terms of the reasons of using the internet. Fig 4.6 depicts that majority of the respondents

have at least 2 or more reasons why they use the internet. The most prominent reason why

they use the internet is for social media (about 94% of the respondents indicated that they use

internet for social media). About 82% indicated that they use the internet to aide their

work/studies. About 78% of the respondents indicated that they use the Internet for news and

updates while about 30% of the respondents indicated that they use the internet for other fun

activities such as games, reading novels etc.

Figure 4.6 Social Media Security Awareness

Source: Survey data (2021)

In terms of securing social media account. 69% Majority of the respondents reported that

they do not often change their password to secure their account. 9.7 % indicated that they

have never changed their password.

Figure 4.7 Social Media Security Consciousness

Source: Survey data (2021)

In terms of being security compliant on social media. 58% Majority of the respondents

reported that they do not often read up privacy statements and security compliance features

on their social media account. 21% of the respondents reported that they have never read up

privacy statements and security compliance features on their social media account. 11%

reported that they do read up on privacy statements on their social media account, and only

4% indicated that they very often, read up privacy statements and security compliance

features on their social media account.

4.6. Regression Analysis

Multiple regression was used to further examine the casual effect or relationship between the

factor variables and cyber violence. The regression model equation is as follows:

CV = IU + AW+ ED + AG

The dependent variable is Cyber Violence (CV). The explanatory variables are Internet

Usage (IU), Security Awareness (AW), Educational Level (ED) and Age (AG)

Table 4.10 below reveals the model diagnostic summary, ANOVA result and the regression

coefficient estimate. The model summary provides the R values, which explains the

proportion of the variance for the dependent variable that is explained by the independent

variables or factor variables. The result shows that 64% of the variability in the dependent

variable is explained by the independent variables identified in the model. The adjustment R

squared checks for overestimation in Square implies that 41.3% of the variability in the

dependent variable is explained by the independent variables identified in the model.

Furthermore, the second section of table 4.10 reveals the analysis of variance (ANOVA).

This section further reveals the information about the overall significance of the model being
fit. The p-value (0.00) of the F statistics implies that the model is fit, and the independent

variable is able to explain the dependent variability.

Table 4.4: OLS Regression-

Model Summary
Adjusted RStd. Error of

Model R R Square Square the Estimate

1 .643a .413 .379 .57282
a. Predictors: (Constant), Education, Age , Internet Usage,

Awareness

ANOVAa

Sum of

Model Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

1 Regression 15.920 4 3.980 12.130 .000b

Residual 22.640 69 .328

Total 38.560 73

a. Dependent Variable: Cyber Violence

b. Predictors: (Constant), Education, Age , Internet Usage, Awareness

Coefficientsa
 Unstandardized Standardized

Coefficients Coefficients

Model B Std. Error Beta t Sig.

1 (Constant) .545 .404 1.347 .182

Internet Usage -.104 .087 -.111 -1.191 .238

Awareness .215 .111 .187 1.941 .056

Age .226 .104 .206 2.165 .034

Education .347 .062 .523 5.569 .000

a. Dependent Variable: Cyber Violence

Source: Survey data (2021)

The last section of table further reveals the regression coefficient of the independent variables

that were significant in affecting cyber violence. For a variable to be significant, the P value

of the statistics of each independent variable should be less than 95% (0.05) significant level.

The result shows that the variable Internet Usage (p=0,123 > 0.5) is not significant in

influencing Cyber Violence, while the other variables such as Security Awareness, Age and

Education were found to be significant. Based on the forgoing, the findings revealed that age

of victims of cyber violence, Security Awareness and Educational level has a significant

relationship with cyber violence, but internet usage does not.

4.7. Consequences of cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria

The third objective of the research is to examine the consequences of cyber-violence against

women and girls in Nigeria. To achieve this objective, the respondents were asked questions

related to the impact.

Figure 4.7 Impact of Cyber based Violence

Source: Survey Data

The findings as depicted in fig 4.8 reveals reaction or possible effect of cyber violence

against women and girls. 35% majority reported that they were angry, 27% reported that they

were seriously worried and disturbed, 8% were depressed, 4% felt powerless, but a few

proportion of about 21% of the respondents indicated that they were not bordered about the

incident.

4.8. Discussion of Result

As we are entering a period of increased scrutiny of social media platforms, the reach and use

of these platforms and the new technologies will continue to proliferate. Although women

have benefited from outstanding possibilities on the internet and via new technologies, both

in terms of power and visibility and in terms of access and opportunities. They are also at

threat of violence in dire ways in the digital world. Based on the forgoing the purpose of this

study was to examine the implication of cyber violence on women and girls in Nigeria. The

study focused on the nature and trend of cyber violence among women and girls as well as

the factors and implication of cyber violence among women and girls in Nigeria. Descriptive

methodology was adopted for the study. Online survey method was adopted to retrieve the

data analyzed in the study. Specifically, online survey questionnaire was created using google

form and were sent predominantly to women and girls across Nigeria. The research

objectives of the study are:

 To examine the nature and the trend of cyber violence against women and girls;

 To identify the major factors influencing Cyber-Violence against women and girls in

Nigeria; and

 To examine the consequences of cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria.

4.8.1. The Nature and Trend of Cyber Violence against Women and Girls

Findings from the study revealed the nature of cyber violence among women and girls in

Nigeria. The result showed that majority (75%) of women and girls in the population of the

study have at least experienced cyber based violence once. Specifically, the survey showed

that 31% have experienced cyber based violence on one occasion while 45% have

experienced cyber violence more than one occasion. The findings further revealed that major

forms of cyber violence are experienced through victims receiving unsolicited/unwanted

sexual images, online impersonation and infringement of privacy through hacking of social

media account. Others are in form of receiving derogatory comments, body shaming from

perpetrators (14%), cyber stalking (10%) and threat and harassment (5%). The result also

revealed that social media is the major platform (96%) where cyber violence are perpetrated.

Specifically the Facebook (42%) Whatsapp (33%) platforms are where majority of the

victims experienced cyber violence. According to the survey Instagram (10% and) only 4%

of cyber violence reportedly happened on non-social media platforms such as forums, and

other websites. Furthermore, the study revealed that the major motivation or intent of

perpetrators of cyber violence is for sexual (32%) and monetary desires (25%). Other intents

or motivation are fuelled by the need to maintain social status (20%), jealousy (11%) and

others (10%).

4.8.2. Factors Influencing Cyber Violence against Women and Girls in Nigeria.

The study made use of descriptive analysis using both bars and pie chart to describe the data.

In addition, it used the simple regression analyses to assess the relationship among the

variables in the study. The findings showed that majority (85%) uses the internet at least

every day, more specifically about 25% of the population in the survey use the internet many

times in a day, while a few fraction (12%) in the survey uses the internet a few times in a

week. The finding further reveals that the most prominent reason why victims use the

internet are for social media activities (94%), studies/work (82%) and news updates (78%). In

terms of security awareness, and compliance, majority (69%) of the respondents reported that

they do not often change their password to secure their account while 9.7% indicated that

they have never changed their password since they created their social media account.

Furthermore, the survey revealed that majority of women and girls do not often read up

privacy statements and update security compliance features on their social media account.
Only a few (15%) often read up privacy features and update security settings on their social

media account. As described in the demographic section, the ages of these respondents are

mostly between 21 -25 (5.2%).

In the second part of the factor analysis, the multiple regression method was used to further

examine the casual effect or relationship between the factor variables and Occurrence of

Cyber Violence. The shows that all the regression coefficient of the independent variables

were significant in affecting cyber violence, except for the Internet usage which was not

found to be a significant factor that affect cyber violence. In particular, Security Compliance,

Age and Education were found to be significant.

4.8.3 Consequences of Cyber Violence against Women and Girls in Nigeria.

Findings from the study revealed that majority of the respondents were impacted by the

incidents of cyber violence, only a few (21%) of the victims reportedly didn’t care nor

bothered about the occurrence. Specifically, Majority were reportedly angered and irritated

(34%) and were seriously worried and disturbed (27%). A few other were depressed (8%),

and felt powerless (4%).

 CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1. Introduction

This chapter provides an overview for the study, discusses the summary of findings, study

limitation and makes insightful recommendation based on the findings.

5.2. Summary

The study has so far examined cyber violence among women and girls in Nigeria. In the first

chapter, background of the study, problem statement, the research question, objectives of the

research, research hypothesis and the significance of the study were all explicitly discussed.

The second chapter detailed the review of various concepts relating to Cyber violence against

women and girls, 3 major theories of cyber violence were considered, the include the social

norm theory, social learning theory and the theory of space transition. Past empirical relation

to cyber violence were also reviewed.

Chapter three presents the research method and design adopted for this research. Information

on data collection, research design, research techniques and model specification were all

discussed adequately, the study adopt majorly the descriptive methodology, an e-

questionnaire was designed and sent to various girls and women on social media.

In the fourth chapter, data analysis and empirical findings were well presented based on the

methodology adopted for the study. The section begins with the report of a preliminary

analysis, in which the response rate and the reliability test were reported. Afterwards, the

descriptive statistics, correlation and ordinal regression results were reported.

5.2.1 Summary of Findings

The first stage of the analysis depicts the demography profile of the respondents. The

demographic statistics suggested that the respondents are mostly young people, between the

ages of 14 - 25 years.

To answer the first objective of the study, which is to examine the nature and the trend of

violence against women and girls in Nigeria, descriptive statistics was employed using bar

charts. The findings revealed the nature of cyber violence among women and girls in Nigeria.

The result showed that majority of women and girls in the population of the study have at

least experienced cyber based violence once. Specifically, the survey showed that 31% have

experienced cyber based violence on one occasion while 45% experienced on more than one

occasion. The findings further revealed that major forms of cyber violence were experienced

through victims receiving unsolicited/unwanted sexual images, online impersonation and

infringement of privacy through cyber hacking on social media account of victims. A few

others body were said it by receiving derogatory comments, body shaming from perpetrators

(14%), cyber stalking (10%) and threat and harassment(5%). The result also revealed that

social media is the major platform (96%) where cyber violence is being perpetrated.

Specifically, the Facebook (42%) and WhatsApp (33%) platform is where majority of the

victim experienced cyber violence, others include; Instagram (10%) According to the survey

only of cyber violence reportedly happened on non-social media (4%) platforms such as

forums, and other websites etc. Furthermore, the study revealed that the major motivation or

intent of the perpetrators of cyber violence is sexual (32%) and monetary desires (25%). A

fewer other intents or motivation were fuelled by the need to maintain social status (20%),

jealousy (11%) and others (10%).

To achieve the second objective of the study, which is to identify the major factors

influencing Cyber-Violence against women and girls in Nigeria, the study made use of

descriptive analysis using both bars and chart to describe the data and in addition used the

simple regression analyses to assess the relationship among the variables in the study. Some

of the variables considered were awareness, and internet usage, age, educational level. The

findings shows that Majority (85%) used the internet at least every day, more specifically

about 25% of the population in the survey used the internet many times in a day, while a few

fraction (12%) in the survey used the internet a few times in a week. The finding further

reveals that the most prominent reason why victims uses the internet are for social media

activities( 94%), studies/work (82%) and News Updates (78%). In terms of Security

Awareness and compliance, majority (69%) of the respondents reported that they do not often

change their password to secure their account. And even worse 9.7 % indicated that they have

never changed their password since they created their social media account. Furthermore, the

survey reveals that majority of women and girls do not often read up privacy statements and

update security compliance features on their social media account. Only a few (15%) often

read up privacy feature and update security settings on their social media account. As

described in the demographic section, the ages of the respondents are mostly between 21 -25

(5.2%).

In the second part of the factor analysis, the multiple regression method was used to further

examine the casual effect or relationship between the factor variables and the occurrence of

Cyber Violence, the R statistics showed that 64% of the variability in the dependent variable

is explained by the independent variables identified in the model. The ANOVA result further

reveals that the model is fit, and the independent variable is able to explain the dependent

variability. The result further shows that all the regression coefficient of the independent

variables were significant in affecting cyber violence, except Internet usage which was not
found to be significant factor that affect cyber violence. Specifically Security Compliance,

Age and Education were found to be significant.

To answer the third research question of the study, which is to assess the consequences of

cyber-violence against women and girls in Nigeria, the descriptive statistics was as well

employed using charts to explain the variables. The findings reveals that majority of the

respondents reacted and were impacted with the incidence of cyber violence, only a few 21%

of the victims reportedly didn’t care or not bordered about the incident. Specifically, majority

were reportedly angered and irritated (34%) and (27%) were seriously worried and disturbed.

A few others were depressed (8%), and felt powerless (4%).

5.3 Conclusion

The study has so far examined the nature, factors and implication of cyber based violence

against women and girls in Nigeria. Although there is no significant relationship between

cyber violence and internet usage, the study found significant relationship between level of

security awareness, education occurrence cyber violence, Age and occurrence cyber violence.

5.4 Recommendations

Based on the findings in the study, the study presents the following recommendations for

managers and business owners.

The survey findings suggest;

1. The study has identified youths within the ages of 14 - 25years to be the most victim

of cyber-crime, also security awareness level is low. The study therefore recommend

programs and cyber based awareness initiatives to increase the level of awareness of

this crimes.
 2. Government should continue to cooperate with Information and Communication

Technology industries to develop adequate strategies to fight cyber-crime.

3. There is proper need for legal framework and policies to build regulatory framework

guiding cyber activities. Laws that prohibit cyber violence should be well spelt out

and implemented accordingly.

4. Prevention of cyber violence requires the co-operation of all the citizens and not just

the law enforcement agencies. It is therefore, recommended that everyone should

watch and report to law enforcement agencies whosoever indulges in cyber-crime.

5.5 Limitations of the study and suggestions for future research

This study provides useful insight into trend, factors and impact of gender-based violence.

However, the population of the study was mostly limited to south western Nigeria, as

majority of respondents who filled the E-survey lived and schooled in the south western part

of Nigeria. While the location provides an interesting population, a further research

opportunity would be a cross-country study to gain more insight into how cyber violence

affects women and girls across other parts of the country. Finally, the concept of cyber

violence is largely opinion based and diverse, hence there is no definite approach to

understanding the issues, other study could further evaluate both external and internal factor

that influence cyber violence in Nigeria.

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APPENDIX

UNIVERSITY OF LAGOS

FACULTY OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES

 MASTERS IN PUBLIC AND INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

The purpose of this questionnaire is to gather data for research. The aim of the research is to

investigate some social issues within the country. Kindly respond as honestly as you can as

there are no right or wrong answers.

SECTION A: Socio Demographics

Tick √ the appropriate response

1. Sex: (a) Male ( ) (b) Female ( )

2. Marital Status: Single ( ) Married ( )

2. Age: (a) 14 – 20 Years ( ) (b) 21 – 25 Years ( ) (c) 26 – 30 Years ( )

(d) 31 – 40 Years ( )

(d ) Above 40 Years ( )

3. Educational Status:

4. Location:
SECTION B: Sources and Motivation of Cyber Violence

Tick √ the appropriate response

1. Have you ever experienced cyber abuse, attack or harassment on the internet?

Yes, on more than one occasion ( ) Yes, on one occasion ( )

No, this has never happened to me ( ) Don't know ( ) Prefer not to say ( )

2. On which, if any, of the following websites or social media platforms have you

experienced abuse or harassment online?

Facebook ( ) FacebookMessenger ( ) Twitter ( ) Snapchat ( ) Instagram

( ) Whatsapp ( ) YouTube ( ) SMS ( ) Other Platsforms ( )

3. What are the forms of Cyber violence you have experienced?

Cyber stalking ( ) Abuse and body shamming ( ) Threat and Harassment (

) Unsolicited/Unwanted Sexual images ( ) Impersonation/Hacking of Social

media ( )

4. What do you think is the cause of cyber violence you experienced or the intention of

the perpetrators of cyber violence?

Revenge ( ) Jealousy ( ) political motivation ( ) anger sexual desires ( )

monetary needs/desires ( ) maintain social status ( ) others ( )

SECTION C: Trends of Cyber Violence

Pick the response that is most appropriate for you.

1= Strongly Disagree (SD), 2= Disagree (D), 3= Neutral (N), 4= Agree (A), 5= Strongly

Agree (SA).

S/ SD D N A SA

N
1 I have experienced Cyber Violence (i.e. Cyber stalking, online

abuse and body shamming, harassment, Threats etc.) in the last

5 years
2 I have experienced Cyber Violence in the last 12 months
3 I experience Cyber Violence from Strangers
4 I experience Cyber Violence from ex boyfriends
5 I experience Cyber Violence from people who were once my

friend
6 I experience Cyber Violence from people I have close

relationship with (i.e. Friends and family)

SECTION D: Forms of Cyber Violence

In this section, the statements are about your feelings about wearing uniforms in the

university. Pick the response that is most appropriate for you.

1= Strongly Disagree (SD), 2= Disagree (D), 3= Neutral (N), 4= Agree (A), 5= Strongly

Agree (SA).

S/ SD D N A SA

N
1 I have once received inappropriate pictures and video

(unsolicited pornographic Contents) from someone over the

internet or online
2 I have received insulative, and derogatory comment from

someone over the internet before.

4 I have once received threat or threatened over internet/online
5 I have once been blackmailed over the internet
6 Somebody once wrote a false story about me on the internet or

online
7 My photographs have been once altered and posted online in an

offensive way.
8 My social media account has once been hacked and I was

impersonated
9 Someone constantly stalked me
SECTION E: Impact of Cyber Violence

How were you impacted when you experienced cyber violence?

Pick the response that is most appropriate for you.

1= Strongly Disagree (SD), 2= Disagree (D), 3= Neutral (N), 4= Agree (A), 5= Strongly

Agree (SA).
S/ S D N A S

N D A
1 2 3 4 5

1 I was worried
2 I was angry
3 I was stressed out
4 I was frightened
5 I felt powerless
6 I was embarrassed
7 I felt depressed
8 I felt lonely
5 It had no effect on me
6 I didn’t care
SECTION F: Internet Usage and Security Awareness

Pick the response that is most appropriate for you.

1. On average, how often do you use the Internet?

(a) A few times in a month ( ) (b) A few times in a week( ) (c) Everyday( )

(d)Many times a day( )

2. Why do you use the Internet (you can click more than one option)

(a) Social Media( ) (b) Studies( ) (c) Assignment ( ) (d) Games( )

(e) Reading novels( ) (f) News and update( )

3. How often do you make changes of social media Account password?

(a)Never( ) (b)Not often( ) (c)Often( ) (d)Quite often( ) (e)Very often (

4. How often do you read up privacy statements on websites and security compliance

feature on social media?

(a)Never( ) (b)Not often( ) (c)Often( ) (d)Quite often( ) (e)Very often (

5. How often do you attend training on how to protect yourself against cyber-crimes and

violence?

(a)Never( ) (b)Not often( ) (c)Often( ) (d)Quite often( ) (e)Very often (