F. Convertino et al.
Building and Environment 177 (2020) 106875
Fig. 1. Experimental set up: south facing wall with relevant dimensions (in meters) and sensors positions (red crosses). From left to right: bare wall, covered wall
with plants in pots and covered wall with plants rooted directly into the ground. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is
referred to the Web version of this article.)
Among the detailed models, the following were applied. Based on
these, εsky was evaluated and Rsky was calculated by Eq. (2):
Dilley and O’Brien model
A parametrization of the downward clear sky LWIR radiation in
terms of temperature and precipitable water was provided by Dilley and
O’Brien [46] (Eq. (A.6) - Appendix A). This model includes the dominant
emission processes by water vapour and carbon dioxide. Because the
dominant contribution to the irradiance comes from the water vapour
and with smaller and constant contributions from carbon dioxide and
ozone, the authors introduced the grey optical thickness (τ).
Prata model
A simple exponential model to calculate the clear εsky, depending on
the air temperature and on the water vapour pressure, was proposed by
Prata [47] (Eq. (A.9) – Appendix A). The formula (Eq. (A.9)) was
extensively tested using a set of long-wave observations gleaned from
the literature, considering a large range of environmental temperatures.
Prata [47] highlighted that it would be desirable a model taking into
consideration the absorption by the main gases in the long-wave band,
such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and ozone, and the effects of other
trace gases and aerosols. However, in order to obtain an expression easy
to use, he preferred that it relies only on conventional estimates of
temperature and humidity. It was also believed that assuming a constant
mixing ratio of carbon dioxide did not affect the accuracy of the
approach.
Brutsaert model
A simple equation to compute downward LWIR radiation under clear
skies was derived analytically by Brutsaert [48] (Eq. (A.10) - Appendix
A). This formulation was obtained by a direct solution of the governing
Schwarzschild transfer equation, under nearly standard atmospheric
conditions. It does not require empirical parameters to be applied and
can be simply adjusted to account for changes in climatic and atmo­
spheric conditions.
ISO 52016-1 model
When the sky temperature is not available from climatic data, EN ISO
52016–1 [36] suggests calculating it depending on the climatic area in
which the building is located. The Standard allows to distinguish be­
tween sub-polar, tropical and temperate or intermediate areas. For each
climatic area, the difference between the external air temperature and
the sky temperature is defined. Eq. (A.11) (Appendix A) is used in case of
temperate areas.
3. Materials and methods
LWIR energy exchange outside the building was studied by
considering two different envelope solutions: the green façade system
and the bare wall used as control. Three different layers were considered
for the radiative exchange: the bare wall (BW), the green layer (GL) and
the covered wall (CW) behind the plants in the GF system (Fig. 1). LWIR
radiation at the external surface of the BW and of the CW and on both the
surfaces of the GL were analysed. Incoming and outgoing energy fluxes
were evaluated. For the external surface of BW and GL the sources of
incoming LWIR radiation are the sky and the ground. The external
surface of the CW exchanges energy only with the internal surface of the
GL.
In this paper, attention was focused on the definition of each single
contribution to the LWIR exchanges occurring on the vertical surfaces.
The main difficulties in quantification of LWIR radiations on these
surfaces are the configuration factors calculation and the sky radiation
modelling.
Calculations were carried out to determine the configuration factor
related to the radiation from the ground to the vertical surfaces.
Nine sky models, which quantify LWIR sky radiation, were applied
and assessed. The calculated data were compared with the LWIR radi­
ation data measured by a pyrgeometer. Statistical indices were used to
find out the best fitting model.
3.1. Experimental set up
Experimental data concerning the bare and the covered wall were
collected and implemented in calculation and model assessment.
The experimental data were collected during a measurement
campaign started in 2018 and still in progress at the experimental centre
of the University of Bari, in Valenzano (Italy). The experimental site has
latitude 41� 010 N, longitude 16� 540 E and altitude 124 m a.s.l. The site
is characterized by a Mediterranean climate, classified as Cfa (mild
temperate with humid and hot summer) according to Ko €ppen-Geiger
climate classification. The experimental set up consists of a block, with a
4.20 m � 1.50 m rectangular plan, simulating a real building equipped
with a green façade. The energy behaviour of the south facing wall of the
block was studied. It was realized in order to simulate the most wide­
spread type of buildings external envelope in the Mediterranean region
[49]. It is 2.00 m high and was made of hollow bricks, arranged with
horizontal holes and held together with cement mortar. It was
completed with a white plaster external finishing.
The south-facing wall was divided into three parts with embedded
extruded polystyrene panels between the three wall sections; two of
these three parts were equipped with vertical greening, the third was left
bare as control (Fig. 1). The double-skin green façade was chosen as
technological green solution. It was realized by putting in front of the