Pedagogical Grammar

ASPECT

Simple Perfective Progressive

Present
TENSE Past
Future

Tense

Tense in verbs expresses the time that an action occurs in relation to the moment of speaking.
It has three dimensions-present,
present, past and future. These can be represented as in the diagram
below, some form of which is often used in English language teaching textbooks.

Aspect

Aspect expresses how the speaker views the action of the verb. For example, an action that is
seen as bounded and complete is perfect in aspect. If the action is seen as incomplete, it is
imperfect in aspect; if seen as repeated, it is iterative; if seen as occurring regularly, it is
habitual.. All of these aspects are represented in the verbs of different languages.

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Lexical aspect refers to semantic properties of verbs, for example, whether or not an action is
characterized by duration, an end point, or change. Thus, aspectual concepts are also
conveyed through lexical aspect. Verbs fall into four categories in terms of lexical aspect –
stative verbs and three types of dynamic verbs.

 Stative verbs describe states or situations rather than actions. States are continuous
and unchanging and can be emotional, physical, or cognitive.

He owns a large blue car.

She hates her boss.

 Activity verbs express actions that go on for a potentially indefinite period of time.
The actions are constant (e.g., run, swim, walk) or involve in inherent change (e.g.,
decline, develop, grow).

He is walking around the park.

This plant is really growing fast.

 Achievement verbs describe an action that occurs instantenously-either punctually

(e.g., bounce, hit, kick) or as a change of state (e.g., find). Change of state actions
involve a preliminary activity that is terminated by the achievement verb.
He bounced the ball several times. Punctual
She crossed the finish line. Change of state

 Accomplishment verbs have a termination that is logical in terms of their action, as is

the case, for example, with build (a house) or paint (a picture).

He wrote a book about language teaching.

She made a model of the house.
 A verb may fall into more than one category.
He ran in the hall. Activity verb
He ran to the post office. Accomplishment verb.

1. There are four types of sentences:

Gives a command or makes a request : Imperative
Makes a statement : Declarative
Asks a question : Interrogative
Expresses strong emotion : Exclamatory

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2. A finite verb (sometimes called main verb) is a verb that has a subject, this means it
can be the main verb.
I live in Turkey
On the contrary, Nonfinite verbs can be used in any other forms.
I like studying English

The proposal has been intensively examined today.

What did they want to have done about that?
Someone tried to refuse to accept the offer.
Coming downstairs, she saw the man running away.
I am trying to get the tickets.

 The sentences above each contain one finite verb (underlined) and
multiple nonfinite verbs (in bold)

3. When the auxiliary verb “do” has been used to make a negative or question sentence,
it is called “DUMMY OPERATOR”.
Does she help her mother?

4. Marginal Modal Auxiliaries are as follows;

Used to, ought to, dare and need.
I used to have breakfast every morning.
You ought to work very hard.
I dare not to go there alone.
I need to study for my KPSS exam.

5. Modal idioms; had better, would rather, have (got) to, be to.
You had better rent a car for your wedding.
I would rather lose money than people’s confidence.
I have got to study hard.
The president is to visit Japan next year.

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6. Semi-auxiliaries are the verbs which are combined with “have” and “be”. For
instance, “be able to”, “be about to”, “be bound to”, “be due to”, “be going to”, “be
likely to”, “be supposed to”.
Class is supposed to begin at 10 o’clock.
I’m going to visit England.

7. Catenatives ; denoting a verb that governs a non-finite form of another verb, for
example like in “I like swimming”.

She must start working hard in these days.

He got trapped in forest.

 Catenatives can directly be followed by another verb in the forms of “to infinitive”,
“bare infinitive” and “present participle/gerund forms”.

8. Transitive Verbs: Nesne alan fiillerdir. Fiiller birden fazla nesne alabilirler. Buna
göre tek nesne alan fiillere “monotransitive”(1) , iki nesne alan fiillere ise
“ditransitive”(2) denilir.

(1) Jove loves cats.

(2) I handed the manager [indirect object] the report [direct object]

 Direct object eylemden fayda sağlamayan ancak o eylemin gerekli bir parçası olan
sözcüktür. Yani cümlenin anlamlı olmasını sağlayan temel sözcüklerden biridir.
Yukarıdaki cümlede the report (direct object) verilen şey konumundadır ve cümleden
atıldığında anlamsızlık ortaya çıkar.

9. Complex Transitive Verbs: Nesnenin hemen ardından nesne ile ilişkili bir yapının
kullanılmasıdır.
We considered Joe [direct object] an honest person [object attribute]
 Cümlede Joe nesne konumumdadır ve an honest person nesne konumundaki Joe ile
ilişkilidir.

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10. Intransitive Verbs : Nesne almayan geçişsiz fiillerdir. Fiilin hemen ardından nesnesi
gelmemesi ve anlamsal bir boşluğun oluşmaması gerekir.

a. Jack fell from the horse.

b. Jack dropped the glass from his hand.

 b cümlesinde drop sözcüğü geçişlidir çünkü ardından noun phrase almış ancak a
cümlesinde fall fiilinden sonra noun phrase gelmemiş aksine prepositional phrase
gelmiştir. Dolayısıyla fall geçissiz bir fiil olarak gruplandırılır.

11. Ergative Verbs: Geçişli olan bazı fiiller de geçişli olarak kullanılabilir. Bu şekilde iki
farklı anlamı iki farklı cümle yapısında taşıyan fiillere ergative verbs denir.

Joe broke the window Geçişli fiil

The window broke Ergative fiil

 Etken haldeyken edilgen gibi olan fiillerdir.

12. Unaccusative Verbs: Genel olarak yön ve hareket fiileridir.

A letter arrived for you yesterday

The train departed from the station to Istanbul.
The disease spread to other villages.

Verb Mood

• Mood in verbs refers to one of five attitudes that a writer or speaker has to what is
being written or spoken.

13. The conditional mood expresses an action or an idea that is dependent upon a
condition.

•If you are careless with that knife, you might cut yourself.

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14. Indicative verbs (mood): Denoting a mood of verbs expressing simple statement of a
fact.

He is listening to me.

15. The interrogative verb (mood) is used to ask a question.

Do you understand the interrogative mood?

Are you going to study tonight?

16. The imperative mood is used to give a directive, strong suggestion, or order.

Get your homework done before you watch television tonight.

17. Subjunctive verbs (mood): Relating or denoting a mood of verbs expressing what is
imagined or wished or possible.

I demand that he listens to me.

 The subjunctive is used after the following verbs:

to advise (that) to propose (that)

to ask (that) to recommend (that)
to command (that) to request (that)
to demand (that) to suggest (that)
to desire (that) to urge (that)
to insist (that)
Examples:

 Dr. Smith asked that Mark submit his research paper before the end of the month.
 Donna requested Frank come to the party.
 The teacher insists that her students be on time.

 The Subjunctive is used after the following expressions:

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It is best (that)
It is crucial (that)
It is desirable (that)
It is essential (that)
It is imperative (that)
It is important (that)
It is recommended (that)
It is urgent (that)
It is vital (that)
It is a good idea (that)
It is a bad idea (that)

Examples:

 It is crucial that you be there before Tom arrives.

 It is important she attend the meeting.
 It is recommended that he take a gallon of water with him if he wants to hike to the
bottom of the Grand Canyon.

a. The mandative subjunctive: that clauselardaki önerme, talep etme, dikkat

çekme gibi ifadelerde kullanılır.

The employees demanded that he resign.

I suggest that he leave.
I beg that he return the money.

b. Sabit dilek kipi: Kesin ifadelerde kullanılır.

Long live the king.

God save the Queen.

18. Be (about) to + (mastar) resmi düzenlemeler, resmi bilgilendirmeler hakkında

konuşurken ve emir vermek için kullanılır. Bu kullanım özellikle gelecek olaylar
hakkındaki raporlarında yaygındır.

Children are not to be left unsupervised in the museum.

The medicine is to be taken after meals.

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19. Determiners (Belirteçler):

o Central Determiners: the , a, this
o Pre-determiners: half, all, double ; all the people
o Post-determiners: Seven, many, few
o Definite determiners: the book, the house, the music
o Indefinite determiners: a book, music
o Negative determiners: he has NO concentration.

 Sadece tekil isimlerle kullanılan belirteçler:

o Universal Determiners: every , each
Every child in the world deserves affection.
We need to interview each student separately.
o The Non-assertive dual determiner: either
There is no parking permitted either side of the street.
I can stay at either hotel, they are both good.
o The Negative Dual Determiner: neither
Neither of the hotels is good.
 Sadece sayılamayan ve çoğul sayılabilen isimlerle kullanılan belirteçler:
o The General Assertive Determiner: Some
I would like some bread, please.
o The General Non-Assertive Determiner: any
We haven’t any rolls left.
o The Quantitative Determiner: Enough
We have enough equipment for the job.

20. Anaphoric reference: Önce belirsiz olarak bahsedilen nesnenin daha sonra “the” ile
belirli duruma getirilmesidir.

She told me where I could get them, but the fruits were not fresh there.

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21. Cataphoric reference: “The” ile belirlenmiş bir nesneyi daha sonra nesne hakkında
açıklama yaparak dahada belirli hale getirilmesi durumudur.

When he entered the classroom, Jack noticed that there was a change in the seating
plan.
22. Pronouns (Zamirler) :
a. Personal Pronouns: I , We, You, They, etc.
b. Reflexive Pronouns: myself,yourself, himself, herself,itself, ourselves,etc.
c. Possessive Pronouns: Mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs.
d. Demonstrative Pronouns: This, that, these, those.
e. Interrogative Pronouns: Who, whom, whose, which ,where, what.
f. Indefinite Pronouns: -body , -one, -thing ; everybody, everyone, everything
g. Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other, one another. (Karşılıklı işteşlik gerekli)
h. Relative Pronouns: Who, which, that, etc

 “It” bazen kendisi dahil tüm bir cümleyi ima edebilir. Buna “Dummy it” denir.
It is said that you got married.

 “It” bazen taklit özne olarak kullanılabilir. Buna “weather it” denir.
When it snows, everywhere gets cold.

23. Adjectives :
a. Attribute Adjectives: Genelde, niteleyici olarak sınırlandırılan ya da niteliyici
durumda oluşan sıfatlar, ismin durumunu doğrudan tanımlamazlar. Örneğin,
old hem temel sıfat olabilir hem de niteleyici durumuyla sınırlandırılabilir.
 That old man  “old” temel sıfattır.
 The man is old  “old” tamamlayıcıda olabilir.

o Sıfat doğrudan ismi niteleyici olarak tanımlanırsa INHERENT (Temel

Anlam)
That old man.
My friend is old.

o Sıfat ismi doğrudan nitelemezse NONINHERENT (Yan Anlam)

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An old friend of mine.

The red face of him.

b. Intensifying Adjectives:
o Emphasizers: Niteledikleri isimleri vurgular
A true answer
A clear speech
o Amplifers: Nitelediği ismin, kabul edilen normun üstünde olduğunu
belirtir.
An absolute power
A complete success
o Downtoners: Nitelediği ismin, kabul edilen normun altında olduğunu
belirtir.
A slight injury
A feeble voice
c. Restrictive Adjectives: Restrictive adjectives ismin ifadesi temel olacak
şekilde, önemli ölçüde sınırlandırırlar.

An older person who dresses like a teenager is often an object of ridicule.

The owner of the computer was the same boy again.

d. Stative and Dynamic Adjectives

As their name suggests, STATIVE adjectives denote a state or condition,

which may generally be considered permanent, such as big, red, small. Stative
adjectives cannot normally be used in imperative constructions:

*Be big/red/small

Further, they cannot normally be used in progressive constructions:

*He is being big/red/small

In contrast, DYNAMIC adjectives denote attributes which are, to some extent

at least, under the control of the one who possesses them. For
instance, brave denotes an attribute which may not always be in evidence
(unlike red, for example), but which may be called upon as it is required. For this
reason, it is appropriate to use it in an imperative:

Be brave!
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Dynamic adjectives include:

calm mannerly
careful patient
cruel rude
disruptive shy
foolish suspicious
friendly tidy
good vacuous
impatient vain

All dynamic adjectives can be used in imperatives (Be careful!,Don’t be

cruel!), and they can also be used predicatively in progressive constructions:

Your son is being disruptive in class

My parents are being foolish again
We’re being very patient with you

The majority of adjectives are stative. The stative/dynamic contrast, as it

relates to adjectives, is largely a semantic one, though as we have seen it also
has syntactic implications.

24. Contingent Verbless Clauses: Eksiltili fiili cümlelerin bir çeşidi de bağlaç
kullanılarak yapılandır. Olasılık anlamını veren ve gerçekleşmesi bir şarta bağlı olan
cümlelerdir.
When fit, the Terrier is an excellent small house dog.
If wet, those shoes should never be placed too close to the heat.

 Superordinate cümlelerde olasılık eksiltili fiili sonda yer alarak nesneyi de

niteleyebilir.
You must drink it when fresh.
You can do it when suitable.

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25. Adverbs : Types of Adverbs

a) Adverbs of Manner
She moved slowly and spoke quietly.
b) Adverbs of Place
She has lived on the island all her life.
She still lives there now.
c) Adverbs of Frequency
She takes the boat to the mainland every day.
She often goes by herself.
d) Adverbs of Time
She tries to get back before dark.
It's starting to get dark now.
She finished her tea first.
She left early.
e) Adverbs of Purpose
She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks.
She shops in several stores to get the best buys.
26. Adverbial function :

a) Adjunct: Integrated in a sentence

Slowly they walked back home.
He spoke to me about it briefly.

 Predication adjuncts: Genellikle sonda yer alır , eğer dolaylı nesne (direct
object) uzun ve karışıksa sonun bir öncesinde kullanılır.

She placed on the sofa her clothes which she will wear at night.

 Sentence adjuncts: Eğer vurgu yapıyorsak sentence adjuncts cümlenin

başında yer alır.

In front of her father, Jack proposed to marry her.

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 The semantic roles of adjuncts

Time Adjuncts (Adverbs of Time)

The alarm went off again yesterday.

In the morning, he will veto the bill.

Manner Adjuncts (Adverbs of Manner)

Present your case carefully.

Simon drinks his pints like a demon.

Place Adjuncts (Adverbs of Place)

Here the situation is completely different.

She buries all her toys wherever Ollie buries his.

Frequency Adjuncts (Adverbs of Frequency)

She comes here often.

Every Tuesday, the shop opens at eight o'clock.

Reason Adjuncts (Adverbs of Reason)

As it's Friday, you can stay up another hour.

Expect the tent to leak because it's been in my garage for 30 years.

Degree Adjuncts (Adverbs of Degree)

You're not as poor as you could have been.

She is as smart as she is brilliant.

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b) Disjunct: not integrated and used to express an opinion about what is being
said.
i. Style Disjunct: Konuşmacının üslup hakkındaki yorumunu ve
söylenen şeyin şeklini ifade eden tutum bildiren bağlaçlardır.

From my personal observation, Mr. Foster neglects his children.

For fear of being suspicious, I told all I saw.
ii. Content Disjunct: Bir söylemin gerçek içeriğini ve onun gerçek
durumunu gözlemleyen, en geniş sınıflandırmasıdır.

To the disgust of his neighbors, Mr. Foster neglects his children.

To such unexpected news, everybody must have been in chaos.

c) Conjuncts: İki ifadeyi ya da bir ifadenin parçalarını birleştirmeye yardımcı

olurlar ve bunu aynı zamanda aralarındaki olasılık ve zaman gibi anlamsal bağı
vurgulayarak yaparlar.

Ahmed studied very hard in the final week. Similarly, most of the students
spent their days studying English literature, composition , and grammar.
d) Subjuncts:
 Wide Orientation:
1) View Point Subjuncts: Bir bakış açısı bildiren subjunct, semantic
açıdan “respect” ile alakalıdır. Bir zarf cümleciği ile birlikte yer alır ve
cümlenin başında yer alır.
Morally, they won a victory
Visually, it was a powerful team.
Politically, it is a successful meeting.

2) Courtesy Subjuncts: “-ly” ile biten zarfların küçük bir kısmı ve

“please” zarfı cümleye nezaket anlamı vermek için kullanılır.
Genellikle cümlenin ortalarında yer alır.

She cordially invited me to her birthday party

She kindly asked if I would please check her answers.
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 Narrow Orientation:
1) Item Subjuncts: Cümlede “subjuncts” ile en çok bağlantısı olan öğe
öznedir. Subjunct öznesinin tavrını, davranışını, bakış ve açısını
bildirir.

He is consistently opposed to the teachers’ arguments.

Intentionally, we did not go to her office.
Reluctantly, he began to tell his story.
With a great determination, she said that she leaves home.

2) Emphasizers: Cümlenin anlamını , cümledeki kipe etki ederek

pekiştiren ‘subjunct’ çeşitidir.

I just/really/simply cannot stand lying.

The lazy boy just/really/simply doesn’t like doing homework.

3) Intensifiers: Bu zarflar bir artış ya da azalış etkisi yaparak fiilin

yoğunluk derecesini bildirir. Genellikle cümlenin ortalarında yer alır.

She fully understands the subject told by the teacher.

My mother wholly cleaned the house.
I’m badly in need of money.

4) Focusing:
a) Restrictive
I’m not making criticism, merely suggestions.
You can only get to the lake with a four-wheel drive vehicle.
b) Additive:

We specialize in shoes, but we also sell handbags.

She cleaned even the stairs.

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EXAMPLES FROM SOME OF THE SUB-CLASSES OF SUBJUNCTS

• viewpoint: geographically, ethnically, morally, psychologically, politically

-“Jill was not injured in the attack, but psychologically it had a terrible effect on her.”
• courtesy: kindly, cordially, graciously, please
-“Will you kindly refrain from smoking in this room?”
• subject-oriented item subjuncts: sadly, bitterly, frankly, deliberately, reluctantly,
consistently, intentionally, on purpose
-“Reluctantly Jill agreed to meet Tom and talk things over.”
• time subjuncts: already, still, yet, just, ever, never
-“As far as Jill knows, Harry has not yet spoken to his lawyer.”
• emphasizers: actually, certainly, clearly, definitely, indeed, really, obviously, frankly,
honestly, simply, literally
-“Even Jane was surprised that Jill had actually spent the weekend with Harry.”
• intensifiers: absolutely, fully, thoroughly, deeply, bitterly, almost, nearly, practically,
rather, barely, hardly, enough, kind of, slightly, not at all
-“Dick could hardly stop himself from laughing when he heard the story.”

• focusing subjuncts: alone, exactly, just, only, purely, simply, mainly, particularly, at
least, specifically, again, also, even, further, too, as well
-“At the party only Dick was friendly to Jill.”

27. Co-referentiality: Zamir ve ondan önce gelen “antecedent” co-reference yani aynı
şeyi ifade eden iki farklı ifade arasındaki “cross-reference” bağıyla bağlantılı olabilir.
Buna co-referentiality denir.
Jason was the best boxer in our town, so everyone expected that he would win.

28. Ellipsis: The grammatically allowed omission of one or more words from a sentence,
where the words omitted can be precisely reconstructed. For example (^ shows the
point at which ellipsis occurs):

(a) That car is older than this ^.

(b) Have you seen Samantha? No, I haven’t ^.

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(c) Most children have travelled more widely than their parents ^.
(d) Boys will be boys, and girls ^ girls.

These examples show (a) ellipsis of a noun, (b) ellipsis of a predication, (c) ellipsis
of a predicate and (d) ellipsis of a verb phrase. Usually, as in these examples, the
words omitted can be reconstructed because the same words occur in the context. For
example, in (a) the ellipsis avoids the repetition of the word car. In avoiding
repetition, ellipsis is similar in its function to substitution (for example, the use of
pro-forms such as one and do so), and is sometimes referred to as ‘substitution by
zero’.

29. Coordination:
a) asyndeton (adjective: asyndetic) A grand word for a simple idea: it signifies the
omission of connectives. Asyndeton applies particularly to the habit of omitting
and, or or but. Alongside the normal coordination constructions:

men, women and children

I’m not afraid, but you are.
His speeches were long, boring and full of platitudes.

here are asyndetic constructions:

men, women, children

I’m not afraid – you are.
His speeches were long, boring, full of platitudes

b) Syndetic: Usage of connectives which are ‘and, or, but’ in a sentence.

c) Polysyndetic : Repeatedly usage of the same connectives in a sentence.

It’s a cheap restaurant, and the food is good, and we can eat here.
The man walked, and his child called him, and man looked at him.

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30. Sentence
a) Main Clause/ Independent Clause: Subordinate clause ile birlikte kullanılan
ve ona bir anlam yükleyen bölümdür.
b) Subordinate Clause: Ana cümleciğe bir bağlaçla bağlanan bölümdür.

31. Sentence Types:

a) Simple Sentence : A simple sentence is a sentence structure that contains one
independent clause and no dependent clauses.
I like English.
b) Compound Sentence: a compound sentence is composed of at least two
independent clauses.
clauses
It does not require a dependent clause.
The clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction (For, And, Nor, But, Or,
Yet, So), a correlative conjunction (both
( … and, (n)either … (n)or
(n)or, and not
(only) … but (also)....
(also)... ), or a semicolon that functions as a conjunction.

My friend invited me to a party, but I do not want to go.

He warned them so that they could be more careful next time.

c) Complex Sentence: A complex sentence is a sentence with an independent

clause and at least one dependent clause (subordinating clause).

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The dependent clause is introduced by either a subordinate conjunction such as

although, or because or a relative pronoun such as who or which.

When I saw what you had done, I was sad and mad at you.

 Independent clause:
 I was sad and mad at you
 Dependent clauses:
 “When I saw” and “what you had done”
d) Compound and Complex Sentence: In syntax, a sentence with at least two
independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses (which can also be
called subordinate clause) is referred to as a compound-complex sentence.

The cat lived in the backyard, but the dog, who knew he was superior, lived
inside the house.
Independent clauses: The cat lived in the backyard. & The dog lived inside the
house.
Dependent clause: who knew he was superior

32. Finite Clauses: Fiil ve zamana göre çekimlenmiş cümleciklerdir.

I can’t go out with you because I am studying this evening.
I can play the reed flute.
My father is a teacher.
33. Nonfinite Clauses: Fiil ve zamana göre çekimlenmemiş cümleciklerdir.
Having been thrown in the air, the cat caught the ball.
He avoided passing through the street in order not to be seen by many.
34. Verbless Clauses: Fiili olmayan ancak yan cümle vazifesi gören cümleciklerdir.
Happy to see the book, the students wanted to buy one.
If necessary, put comma in sentences.

35. Cleft Sentences: Cleft means divided. In a cleft sentence, information which could be
given in one clause is divided into two parts, each with its own verb:

Vanessa has made the greatest impact. (normal sentence: single clause, one verb)

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It was Vanessa who has made the greatest impact. (cleft sentence: two clauses, two
verbs)

Structure of a cleft sentence:

It + a form of be (+not and/ or adverb) + emphasized word/phrase + that/which/who clause

It was Mike who took Sally to the party on Saturday  Emphasising the subject
It was Sally (that) Mike took to the party on Saturday  Emphasising object
It was on Saturday (that) Mike took Sally to the party  Emphasising the adverbial
It was to the party (that) Mike took Sally on Saturday  Emphasising the prep. phrase.

 We can use wh- clauses with when, where, why and who to highlight a person, a place, a
time and a reason, but we usually use an introductory noun phrase (underlined below).
The wh- clause acts like an ordinary relative clause.

The one (who) we forgot to invite was John.

The guy who told me about the new club was Zack.  Person
The house where I used to live is near here.  Place
The day (when) we left was the saddest day of my life.  Time
The reason (why) they never told me is they don’t trust me.  Reason

 We can emphasize an item (described by a noun phrase or a verb phrase) with the
(only/last) thing or all:

The thing I most disliked about the movie was the scene in the graveyard.
The only thing we want is a chance to air our grievances.
The last thing we did was pack the kettle.
All we’re asking for is to be given a chance.

 We can also use the (only) thing with a negavite verb:

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The thing we won’t do is repair goods bought in other shops.

The only thing we didn’t find was the key to the cellar.

 We can reverse the order of the parts in wh- cleft sentences and put the emphasized part
at the beginning:

Taking Sandy to the match is what the boys are doing.

Zack was the guy who told me about the new club.

36. Fronting : In spoken English we sometimes want to make a strong contrast with
something in a previous statement. We can do this with objects and complements by
‘fronting’ them (moving them to the front of the clause), which makes them more
emphatic.
She may be friendly but she isn’t reliable Friendly she may be, but reliable she isn’t.

 We can also front demonstrative pronouns for emphasis:

I disagree with that.  That I disagree with.

 When we want to start a sentence with known information or we want to make an

emphatic comparison with information in a previous sentence, we can use a
comparative or superlative phrase at the beginning. We use a form of the verb be
followed by the subject.

The first band was dire. Much more exciting was Red Heat, the second group to play.
Many of the monuments are truly awesome. Best of all is the Colosseum.

 We can also use a similar pattern with also and such:

Members of the loyal family attended the funeral. Also at the service were several
ambassadors.

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They led a life of abject poverty. Such is the fate of most illegitimate children in
this province.
37. Extraposition : The Subject is sometimes postponed until the end of the sentence.
Here are some examples:

In first place is Red Rum

Inside the house were two detectives
More important is the question of compensation

Here, the typical declarative order has been disrupted for stylistic effect. In these
examples, the Subject comes after the verb, and is said to be EXTRAPOSED.
Compare them with the more usual pattern:

In first place is Red Rum

~Red Rum is in first place

Inside the house were two detectives

~Two detectives were inside the house

More important is the question of

compensation ~The question of compensation is more important

 The Subject is also extraposed when the sentence is introduced by anticipatory it:
It is a good idea to book early
It is not surprising that he failed his exams

 In the more typical pattern, these constructions may sound stylistically awkward:
To book early is a good idea
That he failed his exams is not surprising

 Extraposition is not always just a matter of style. In the following examples, it is

obligatory:

It seems that he'll be late again ~*That he'll be late againseems

It turned out that his secretary had stolen the ~*That his secretary had stolen the
money money turned out

 Direct Objects, too, can be extraposed. Recall that their typical position is after the
verb (Pattern 2). However, when anticipatory it is used, the Direct Object is
extraposed:

He made it very clear that he would not be coming back

Again, the canonical pattern is stylistically very awkward:
*He made that he would not be coming back very clear

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38. Nouns: Declining is the process of inflecting nouns; a set of declined forms of the
same word is called a declension. Most adjectives, pronouns, and participles indicate
the gender of the noun they refer to or modify.

The nominative case, which is used to express the subject of a statement or

following a copula verb:

The slave walks to the house.

The vocative case, which is used to address someone or something in direct speech.

Hurry, slave!

The accusative case, which expresses the direct object of a verb or direction or
extent of motion and may be the object of a preposition:

The master cursed the slaves because they were not working.

The genitive case, which expresses possession, measurement, or source. In English,

the preposition of is used to denote this case, or, in the case of possession, the
English possessive construction:

The slave works in the house of the master.

or
The slave works in the master's house.

The dative case, which expresses the recipient of an action, the indirect object of a
verb. It also is used to represent agency in a construction with a passive periphrastic.
In English, the prepositions to and for most commonly denote this case:

The slaves handed over the money to the masters.

The ablative case, (may or may not be preceded by a preposition) which expresses
separation, indirection, or the means by which an action is performed. In English, the
prepositions by, with, and from most commonly denote this case:

The master was sleeping in his bedroom

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The locative case, which is used to express the place in or on which, or the time at
which, an action is performed.
The slave was in Rome.

39. Deictic Word (Deixis): A word or phrase (such as this, that, these, those, now, then)
that points to the time, place, or situation in which the speaker is speaking. Also
known as deixis.

Deixis is expressed in English by way of personal pronouns,demonstratives, and tense.

"The term deixis applies to the use of expressions in which the meaning can be
traced directly to features of the act of utterance--when and where it takes place, and
who is involved as speaker and as addressee. In their primary meaning, for
example,now and here are used deictically to refer respectively to the time and place
of the utterance. Similarly, this country is likely to be interpreted deictically as the
country in which the utterance takes place. Several of the pronouns are predominantly
used deictically, withI and we referring to the speaker and a group including the
speaker, you to the addressee(s) or a set including the addressee(s)."

"What we've got here is a failure to communicate."

"Don't you sometimes wonder if it's worth all this? I mean what you're fighting for."

Three Types of Deictic Expressions

"Pronouns make up a system of personal deixis. All languages have a pronoun for the
speaker (the first person) and one for the addressee (the second person). [Unlike
English, some] languages lack a third person singular pronoun, so the absence of a
form for 'I' or 'you' is interpreted as referring to a third person. . . .

"Words like this and that and here and there belong to a system of spatial deixis.
Thehere/there distinction is also found in pairs of verbs such
as come/go and bring/take. . . .

"There is also temporal deixis found in words like now, then,

yesterday, and tomorrow, and in phrases such as last month and next year."

40. Dangling Modifiers is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is
meant because words are left out. The meaning of the sentence, therefore, is left
"dangling."

Incorrect: While driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to

fall toward Wendy's car.

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(It sounds like the tree was driving! This actually appeared in a newspaper article. An
alert reader wrote, "Is the Department of Motor Vehicles branching out and issuing
licenses to hardwoods? Have they taken leaf of their senses?")

Adding a word or two makes the sentence clear.

Correct: While Wendy was driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a

tree began to fall toward her car.

When a modifier "dangles" so that the sentence is meaningless (or means something
other than your intent), restate it and add the words it needs in order to make sense.

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