Introduction to EDC

Tuesday, August 17, 2021 1:50 PM

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Syllabus
Tuesday, August 17, 2021 1:56 PM

PN junction diode – Operation, VI characteristics – static and dynamic resistance – Diode current
equation: Drift and diffusion currents – temperature effects – Diode equivalent circuits – diode
junction capacitances – switching characteristics – Zener diode – VI characteristics, LED, Schottky
diode, varactor diode, photo diode and applications

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Semiconductor materials
Tuesday, August 17, 2021 1:58 PM

The construction of every discrete (individual) solid-state (hard crystal structure) electronic device or
integrated circuit begins with a semiconductor material of the highest quality.

Semiconductors are a special class of elements having a conductivity between that of a good
conductor and that of an insulator.

In general, semiconductor materials fall into one of two classes: single-crystal and compound.

Single-crystal semiconductors such as germanium (Ge) and silicon (Si) have a repetitive crystal
structure, whereas compound semiconductors such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), cadmium sulfide
(CdS), gallium nitride (GaN), and gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) are constructed of two or more
semiconductor materials of different atomic structures.

The three semiconductors used most frequently in the construction of electronic devices are Ge, Si,
and GaAs.

History

Covalent bonding and intrinsic materials

The fundamental components of an atom are the electron, proton, and neutron.

In the lattice structure, neutrons and protons form the nucleus and electrons appear in fixed orbits
around the nucleus.

The Bohr model for the three materials is provided in the following figure.

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Atomic structure

Electrons in the outermost shell are referred to as valence electrons.

Atoms that have four valence electrons are called tetravalent, those with three are called
trivalent, and those with five are called pentavalent.

The term valence is used to indicate that the potential (ionization potential) required to
remove any one of these electrons from the atomic structure is significantly lower than
that required for any other electron in the structure.

In a pure silicon or germanium crystal the four valence electrons of one atom form a
bonding arrangement with four adjoining atoms.

This bonding of atoms, strengthened by the sharing of electrons, is called covalent

bonding.

Because GaAs is a compound semiconductor, there is sharing between the two different atoms, as
shown in following figure.

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Each atom, gallium or arsenic, is surrounded by atoms of the complementary type. There is still a
sharing of electrons similar in structure to that of Ge and Si, but now five electrons are provided by
the As atom and three by the Ga atom.

Although the covalent bond will result in a stronger bond between the valence electrons and
their parent atom, it is still possible for the valence electrons to absorb sufficient kinetic energy
from external natural causes to break the covalent bond and assume the “free” state.

The term free is applied to any electron that has separated from the fixed lattice structure and is
very sensitive to any applied electric fields such as established by voltage sources or any
difference in potential.

The external causes include effects such as light energy in the form of photons and thermal
energy (heat) from the surrounding medium.
form
At room temperature there are approximately 1.5 x 1010 free carriers in 1 cm3 of intrinsic silicon of silicon
material, that is, 15,000,000,000 (15 billion) electrons in a space smaller than a small sugar
cube - an enormous number.
.

Intrinsic Semiconductor

The pure form of the semiconductor is known as the intrinsic semiconductor. It has low
electrical conductivity under room temperature and its conductivity depends temperature.

Intrinsic carrier Relative Mobility

The free electrons in a material only due to The relative mobility (µn) is the ability of the
external causes are referred to as intrinsic free carriers to move throughout the material.
carriers. Following table compares the number
of intrinsic carriers per cubic centimeter
(abbreviated ni) for Ge, Si, and GaAs.

Negative temperature coefficient

As the temperature rises, an increasing number of valence electrons absorb sufficient thermal
energy to break the covalent bond and to contribute to the number of free carriers. Therefore,
semiconductor materials have a negative temperature coefficient.

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 Energy levels
The farther an electron is from the nucleus, the
higher is the energy state, and any electron that
has left its parent atom has a higher energy state
than any electron in the atomic structure.

An electron in the valence band of silicon

must absorb more energy than one in the
valence band of germanium to become a
free carrier. Similarly, an electron in the
valence band of gallium arsenide must
gain more energy than one in silicon or
germanium to enter the conduction band.

This difference in energy gap requirements reveals the sensitivity of each type of semiconductor to
changes in temperature.

Usage
The design of photodetectors sensitive to light and security systems sensitive to heat would
appear to be an excellent area of application for Ge devices. However, for transistor networks,
where stability is a high priority, this sensitivity to temperature or light can be a disadvantage.

The energy gap also reveals which elements are useful in the construction of light-emitting
devices such as light-emitting diodes (LEDs). The wider the energy gap, the greater is the
possibility of energy being released in the form of visible or invisible (infrared) light waves.

Extrinsic Semiconductors - An extrinsic semiconductors are those semiconductors that come

into existence when a measured and small amount of impurity is added to intrinsic
semiconductors. It is also known as doped semiconductor or impurity semiconductors.

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 Extrinsic Semiconductors - An extrinsic semiconductors are those semiconductors that come
into existence when a measured and small amount of impurity is added to intrinsic
semiconductors. It is also known as doped semiconductor or impurity semiconductors.

The intrinsic semiconductor with small added impurity atoms (typically one part in 10 million) is
known as extrinsic semiconductor.

Doping:
The process of adding specific impurity atoms to the intrinsic semiconductor is known as doping.

The impurity atom is called as dopant. The dopants with five valence electrons are called donor
atoms. The dopants with three valence electrons are called acceptor atoms.

Intrinsic Semiconductors Extrinsic semiconductors

1. Intrinsic Semiconductors are 1. Extrinsic semiconductors are made by
always in pure form. doping some impurity in the pure
semiconductors.
2. They have low electrical 2. They have comparatively high electrical
conductivity at room temperature. conductivity.
3. The number of electrons are 3. The number of electrons is not equal to
equal to the number of holes. the number of holes.
4. Conductivity is dependent on 4. Conductivity is dependent on temperature
temperature only. as well as the amount of impurity.
5. Examples are Silicon, Germanium 5. Examples are Si, Ge and Gallium
and Gallium Arsenide. Arsenide doped with Al, B, In, P, As, etc.

n-type material

An n-type material is created by introducing impurity elements

that have five valence electrons ( pentavalent), such as
antimony, arsenic, and phosphorus.

The effect of such impurity elements is indicated in figure

(using antimony as the impurity in a silicon base). Note that the
four covalent bonds are still present. There is, however, an
additional fifth electron due to the impurity atom, which is
unassociated with any particular covalent bond. This remaining
electron, loosely bound to its parent (antimony) atom, is
relatively free to move within the newly formed n-type material.

It is important to realize that even though a large number of free carriers have been established in the
n-type material, it is still electrically neutral since ideally the number of positively charged protons in the
nuclei is still equal to the number of free and orbiting negatively charged electrons in the structure.

At room temperature in an intrinsic Si material there is about one free electron for every 1012 atoms. If
the dosage level is 1 in 10 million (107), the ratio 1012/107 = 105 indicates that the carrier concentration
has increased by a ratio of 100,000:1.

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 At room temperature in an intrinsic Si material there is about one free electron for every 1012 atoms. If
the dosage level is 1 in 10 million (107), the ratio 1012/107 = 105 indicates that the carrier concentration
has increased by a ratio of 100,000:1.

P-type

The p-type material is formed by doping a pure

germanium or silicon crystal with impurity atoms having
three valence electrons.

The elements most frequently used for this purpose are

boron, gallium, and indium.

Note that there is now an insufficient number of electrons

to complete the covalent bonds of the newly formed
lattice.

The resulting vacancy is called a hole and is represented

by a small circle or a plus sign, indicating the absence of
a negative charge.

Electron versus hole flow

The effect of the hole on conduction is shown in figure. If a valence electron acquires sufficient kinetic
energy to break its covalent bond and fills the void created by a hole, then a vacancy, or hole, will be
created in the covalent bond that released the electron. There is, therefore, a transfer of holes to the
left and electrons to the right, as shown in figure. The direction to be used in this text is that of
conventional flow, which is indicated by the direction of hole flow.

Majority and minority carriers

In the intrinsic state, the number of free electrons in Ge or Si is due only to those few electrons in
the valence band that have acquired sufficient energy from thermal or light sources to break the
covalent bond or to the few impurities that could not be removed. The vacancies left behind in the
covalent bonding structure represent very limited supply of holes.

In an n-type material, the number of holes has not changed significantly from this intrinsic level.
The net result, therefore, is that the number of electrons far outweighs the number of holes. For
this reason: In an n-type material (figure a) the electron is called the majority carrier and the hole
the minority carrier.
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the minority carrier.

For the p-type material the number of holes far outweighs the number of electrons, as shown in
figure b. Therefore: In a p-type material the hole is the majority carrier and the electron is the
minority carrier.

When the fifth electron of a donor atom leaves the parent atom, the atom remaining acquires a net
positive charge: hence the plus sign in the donor-ion representation. For similar reasons, the
minus sign appears in the acceptor ion.

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Construction and operation of PN junction diode
Friday, August 20, 2021 9:04 AM

Depletion - reduction in the number or

quantity of something

Depletion region
The region of uncovered positive and negative
ions is called the depletion region due to the
“depletion” of free carriers in the region.

no bias, forward bias, and reverse bias.

The term bias refers to the application of an external voltage

across the two terminals of the device to extract a response.

Reverse-Bias condition (VD<0 v)

The current that exists under reverse-bias

conditions is called the reverse saturation
current and is represented by Is.

Forward-Bias condition (VD>0 v)

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 The actual reverse saturation current of a commercially
available diode will normally be measurably larger than
that appearing as the reverse saturation current in
Shockley’s equation.

– leakage currents
– generation of carriers in the depletion region
– higher doping levels
– sensitivity to the intrinsic level of carriers
– a direct relationship with the junction area
– temperature sensitivity
The drift current remains essentially unchanged since it depends on the
number of carriers generated within a diffusion length of the depletion
region or in the depletion region itself.

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Drift and diffusion currents
Tuesday, August 24, 2021 12:13 PM

Drift current arises from the movement of carriers in response to an applied electric field. Drift current is electrons and h oles
responding to an applied electric field. Holes move in the direction of the electric field while electrons move opposite the electric
field. This occurs as long as there are carriers available.

The movement of charge carriers from higher concentration to lower concentration generates diffusion current. Diffusion curre nt
is holes and electrons moving from areas of high concentration, where they are the majority carrier, to areas of low
concentration, where they become minority carriers. This occurs until they are uniformly distributed. Unlike drift, diffusion takes
place without an electric field being present.

When the diode is forward biased drift current is present, but because diffusion current grows exponentially, it dominates. The
total current flowing through the depletion region under forward biasing is made up of mostly majority carrier diffusion. When
the diode is reverse biased diffusion is negligible, but drift remains constant. The total current flowing through the depletion
region under reverse biasing is made up of mostly of minority carrier drift.

Current Flow:

Drift: charged particle motion in response to an electric field.

Diffusion: Particles tend to spread out or redistribute from areas of high concentration to areas of lower concentration

Recombination: Local annihilation of electron-hole pairs

Generation: Local creation of electron-hole pairs

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Diode current equation
Wednesday, August 25, 2021 11:40 AM

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Diode resistance
Wednesday, August 25, 2021 11:43 AM

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Diode equivalent circuit
Thursday, August 26, 2021 3:18 PM

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual terminal characteristics of a
device or system in a particular operating region.

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Temperature effects
Friday, August 27, 2021 9:01 AM

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Diode junction capacitances Transition - a change from one state or form to another.
Friday, August 27, 2021 9:01 AM Diffuse - to spread something or become spread widely in all directions.

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Switching characteristics
Friday, August 27, 2021 9:02 AM While changing the bias conditions, the diode undergoes
a transient response. The response of a system to any
sudden change from an equilibrium position is called as
transient response.

The sudden change from forward to reverse and from

reverse to forward bias, affects the circuit. The time taken
to respond to such sudden changes is the important
criterion to define the effectiveness of an electrical switch.

• The time taken before the diode recovers its steady

state is called as Recovery Time.
• The time interval taken by the diode to switch from
reverse biased state to forward biased state is called
as Forward Recovery Time. tfr
• The time interval taken by the diode to switch from
forward biased state to reverse biased state is called
as Reverse Recovery Time. trr

Carrier concentration No-bias

• No-bias
• Forward-bias
• Reverse-bias

Forward-bias

Reverse-bias

Switching characteristics - ON to OFF

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Storage time is the time required to remove the
excess minority carrier charge.

Transition time is the time taken for the diode to get

completely to open circuit condition.

After t3 diode will be in steady state reverse bias

condition. Before t1 diode is under steady state
forward bias condition.

So, the time taken to get completely to open circuit

condition is
Reverse recovery time (t3) = Storage time (Ts) +
Transition time (Tt)

To get to ON condition from OFF, it takes less time called as Forward recovery time.
Reverse recovery time is greater than Forward recovery time.
A diode works as a better switch if this Reverse recovery time is made less.

Summary

• Storage time − The time period for which the diode remains in the
conduction state even in the reverse biased state, is called as Storage time.

• Transition time − The time elapsed in returning back to the state of non-
conduction, i.e. steady state reverse bias, is called Transition time.

• Reverse recovery time − The time required for the diode to change from
forward bias to reverse bias is called as Reverse recovery time.

• Forward recovery time − The time required for the diode to change from
reverse bias to forward bias is called as Forward recovery time.

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Reading datasheet of a diode
Friday, August 27, 2021 9:21 AM

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Zener diode
Tuesday, September 7, 2021 2:23 PM

Zener diode is basically like an ordinary PN junction diode but normally operated in reverse biased condition. A Zener diode is a specially
designed, highly doped PN junction diode.

Working Principle of Zener Diode

When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes wider. If this reverse biased voltage across the diod e is increased
continually, the depletion layer becomes more and more wider. At the same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation c urrent due to
minority carriers.

After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers get sufficient kinetic energy due to the strong elec tric field. Free
electrons with sufficient kinetic energy collide with stationary ions of the depletion layer and knock out more free electron s. These newly
created free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due to the same electric field, and they create more free electrons by collision
cumulatively. Due to this commutative phenomenon, very soon, huge free electrons get created in the depletion layer, and the entire diode
will become conductive. This type of breakdown of the depletion layer is known as avalanche breakdown, but this breakdown is not quite
sharp. There is another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is sharper compared to avalanche breakdown, and this is ca lled Zener
breakdown. When a PN junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of impurity atoms will be high in the crystal. This higher
concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher concentration of ions in the depletion layer hence for same applied reverse biased
voltage, the width of the depletion layer becomes thinner than that in a normally doped diode.

Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field strength across the depletion layer is quite high. If the reverse voltage is
continued to increase, after a certain applied voltage, the electrons from the covalent bonds within the depletion region com e out and make
the depletion region conductive. This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. The voltage at which this breakdown occurs is call ed Zener
voltage. If the applied reverse voltage across the diode is more than Zener voltage, the diode provides a conductive path to the current
through it hence, there is no chance of further avalanche breakdown in it. Theoretically, Zener breakdown occurs at a lower v oltage level
then avalanche breakdown in a diode, especially doped for Zener breakdown. The Zener breakdown is much sharper than avalanche
breakdown. The Zener voltage of the diode gets adjusted during manufacturing with the help of required and proper doping. Whe n a zener
diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source voltage is more than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remain
fixed irrespective of the source voltage. Although at that condition current through the diode can be of any value depending on the load
connected with the diode. That is why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling voltage in different circuits.

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 Light Emitting Diode
Tuesday, September 7, 2021 3:17 PM

An LED is just like a normal pn junction diode, but with light-emitting properties. Its
construction and working can be explained as follows.

Working of LED
Like an ordinary diode, the LED diode works when it is forward biased. In this case, the n-
type semiconductor is heavily doped than the p-type forming the p-n junction. When it is
forward biased, the potential barrier gets reduced and the electrons and holes combine at
the depletion layer (or active layer), light or photons are emitted or radiated in all
directions. A typical figure blow showing light emission due electron-hole pair combining
on forward biasing.

The explanation behind the emission of photons in an LED diode lies in the energy band
theory of solids. According to this theory, whether the electron-hole combining will give out
photons or not depends on whether the material has a direct band gap or indirect band
gap. Those semiconductor materials which have a direct band gap are the ones that emit
photons. In a direct bandgap material, the bottom of the energy level of conduction band
lies directly above the topmost energy level of the valence band on the Energy vs
Momentum (wave vector ‘k’) diagram. When electrons and hole recombine, energy E = hν
corresponding to the energy gap △ (eV) is escaped in the form of light energy or photons
where h is the Planck’s constant and ν is the frequency of light.

Indirect Band Gap

While the indirect band gap is non-radiative in nature as the bottom of the conduction
band does not coincide with the top of the valence band and the energy corresponding to
the energy gap is mostly given in the form of heat. Examples are Si, Ge etc.

Direct Band Gap

Example of material which has direct band gap is Gallium Arsenide(GaAs), a compound
semiconductor which is the material used in LEDs. Dopant atoms are added to GaAs to
give out a wide range of colors. Some of the materials used in LEDs are:

• Aluminium Gallium Arsenide(AlGaAs) – infrared.

• Gallium Arsenic Phosphide(GaAsP) – red, orange, yellow.
• Aluminium Gallium Phosphide(AlGaP) – green.
• Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) – blue, blue-green, near UV.
• Zinc Selenide(ZnSe) – blue.
Physical Structure of LED
LED is structured in such a way so that light emitted does not get reabsorbed into the
material. So it is ensured that the electron-hole recombination takes place on the surface.

The above figure shows the two different ways of structuring LED p-n junction. The p-type
layer is made thin and is grown on the n-type substrate. Metal electrodes attached on
either side of the p-n junction serve as nodes for external electrical connection. The Light
emitting diode p-n junction is encased in a dome-shaped transparent case so that light is
emitted uniformly in all directions and minimum internal reflection to take place.

The larger leg of LED represents the positive electrode or anode.

Applications of LEDs
• Electronic displays such as OLEDs, micro-LEDs, quantum dots etc.
• As an LED indicator.
• In remote controls.
• Lightings.
• Opto-isolators.

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Schottky Diode
Tuesday, September 7, 2021 4:13 PM

What is Schottky Diode?

Schottky diode is a device, which comes under the type of a metal – semiconductor junction diode. Barrier diode and low voltage diodes are the other names for
Schottky diode. When compared to a PN junction diode, power drop is lower in Schottky diode. A scientist named Walter.H.Schottky first discovered Schottky
diode.

Generally, in a PN junction device, when positive type (p-type) and negative type (n-type) are joined together they form a PN junction. However, in a Schottky
diode, materials like aluminum or platinum are used instead of P type semiconductors.

Symbol of Schottky Diode

The following image shows the symbol of a Schottky Diode.

Working of Schottky Diode

Working of Schottky Diode
Metals have electrons as majority carrier, and N-type semiconductor also possesses electrons as majority charge carrier. Thus, when a metal-semiconductor
junction is unbiased, then current doesn’t flow in a diode. This is because electrons in N-type region do not possess sufficient energy to transit from N-type
junction to metal. But when the junction is forward biased then electrons acquire energy to cross the barrier.

Hot Carrier Diode

This barrier is called Schottky Barrier. The electrons which are moving from N-type to metals are termed as hot carriers. They are called so because when
the junction is forward biased electrons acquire a significant amount of energy. And they enter metal junction with this high magnitude of energy. That’s why
diode is also called hot-carrier diode.

The best thing about Schottky diode is its fast switching ability. There is no role of the depletion layer in the case of Schottky diode, that’s the reason it
possesses fast switching than P-N Junction diode. Metals and N-type semiconductor have electrons as majority charge carriers.

Thus, the entire current is due to bulk carriers. There are no holes, so there is no depletion layer. Thus, there is no charge storage at the junction.

Due to the absence of charge storage, the Schottky diode can be easily switched from forward biased to reverse biased. A p-n junction is bipolar because it
consists of both electrons as well as holes as majority carriers, but Schottky diode is unipolar because it involves only one charge carrier i.e. electron.

The barrier potential of Schottky diode lies in the range of 0.2-0.25V which is much lower than the barrier potential of Silicon 0.7 V. The reason behind this low

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The barrier potential of Schottky diode lies in the range of 0.2-0.25V which is much lower than the barrier potential of Silicon 0.7 V. The reason behind this low
barrier potential is, again the absence of depletion layer.

Thus, no significant current flows from metal to semiconductor when the diode is reverse biased. Thus, the current flows only in the case of forward biased of
the metal-semiconductor junction.

The most important physical parameter of this Schottky diode is their fast switching rate and less forward voltage drop. It is a metal – semiconductor junction that
does not have the capacity to store charges at their junction. The reason behind this is due to absence of depletion layer.

Usually, a voltage drop happens across the diode terminals, when current flows through a diode. Schottky diode voltage drop is usually between 0.15 and 0.45
volts when compared to a normal diode. A normal PN junction diode has a voltage drop ranging between 0.6 to 1.7 volts. For a better efficiency and output, voltage
drop should be low. When manufacturing the diode, N-type semiconductor acts as a cathode and the metal side acts an anode of the diode.

When voltage is given to the diode, the current flows in the forward direction. When this current flows through the diode, there will be a minimum voltage loss
across the terminals of the diode. This loss of voltage is called as Voltage drop.

Construction of Schottky Diode

It is made of a metal and semiconductor forming unilateral junction. Few metals like gold, silver, molybdenum, tungsten or platinum are utilized. Usually an N type
semiconductor, which includes Gallium, is used. Silicon is used for low frequency operation.

Schottky diode is related directly with temperature dropping. In N type semiconductor, decrease and increase of temperature doping concentration happens.
Between the semiconductors–metal junctions, a depletion layer is formed known as Schottky barrier.

This barrier is called as potential energy barrier. Two types of Schottky barriers are Rectifying and Non-rectifying type. When a metal and lightly doped
semiconductor meets each other, the Schottky barrier is formed. Sequentially when a metal encounters the heavily doped semiconductor, it forms a non-rectifying
barrier. The width of depletion layer rises when the semiconductor doping increases. At the same time, when width decreases charge carriers travels through
tunnel and reaches the depletion layer. When doping level increases, the junction does not act as rectifier and it becomes ohmic contact.

Under unbiased condition, electrons accumulated on the semiconductor side will have a lower energy level than electrons present on the metal region. Due to this
reason, electrons cannot flow across the Schottky Barrier. Under forward biased condition, an electron present in the N-side receives more energy to cross the
junction barrier and enters into the metal. Due to this, the electrons are also called as hot carrier. Hence, diode is called as hot carrier Diode.

Specialties of Schottky Diode

• Due to the absence of the current flow due to holes from metal to N-type semiconductor, it acts as a unipolar device. Whereas, a PN junction diode is a bipolar
device.
• The metal does not have any holes, it does not store any charge. Due to this reason, Schottky diode has the advantage to quickly switch with relatively low
noise.
• It has a low barrier potential compared to PN diode.
Operation of Schottky Diode
Unbiased Schottky Diode
The free electrons present inside the n – type semiconductor will move from n – type semiconductor to a metal during the combination between metal and n – type
semiconductor. This results in production of equilibrium state. When free electrons moves across the junction, it provides an extra electron to the atoms present in
the atom.

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Due to this, atoms present in the metal junction receive an extra electron. The atoms at the negative side junction lose electrons and become positive ions. On the
metal junction, atoms will gain extra electrons and tries to become negative ions.

Hence, this will result in production of positive ions at negative side and negative ions on the positive side at the metal junction. Depletion region will be formed
when these positive and negative ions comes together. In unbiased Schottky diode, only less number of electrons will flow from semiconductor to metal. Other
electron flow is stopped due to the built in voltage.

Forward Biased Schottky Diode

When positive terminal of the battery is connected to metal and negative terminal is connected to n-type conductor, it is called as Forward biased Schottky diode.
On the diode, when forward bias voltage is applied, more electrons are formed in the metal and conductor.

When a voltage greater than 0.2 volts are applied, free electrons cannot move through the junction barrier. Due to this current will flow through diode. When voltage
value increases, depletion region becomes thin and disappears.

Reverse Biased Schottky Diode

If the negative terminal of the battery is coupled to metal and positive terminal is connected to n-type conductor, it is called as Reverse biased Schottky diode. At
the same time, if a reverse bias voltage is applied, the width of depletion region increases.

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Therefore, the current flow stops. In the metal plate, there will be more number of excited electrons. Due to this, there will be flow of a small amount of leakage
current. When reverse biased voltage increases further, current also increases due to weak barrier. When abnormal increase in bias voltage takes place, electric
current also increases suddenly. A device will be damaged, when the depletion region breaks down.

V-I Characteristics of Schottky Barrier Diode

The V-I (Voltage-Current) characteristics of Schottky diode is shown in the below figure. Along the graph, the vertical line signifies the current flow and the
horizontal line denotes the voltage applied across the Schottky diode. The V-I characteristics of Schottky diode is almost similar to the P-N junction diode.

Nevertheless, the forward voltage drop of Schottky diode is very low when compared to the P-N junction diode. The forward voltage drop ranges from 0.3 volts to
0.5 volts. The barrier of forward voltage drop is made of silicon. The forward voltage drop is proportional to the doping concentration of N type semiconductor. Due
to high concentration of current carriers, the V-I characteristic of Schottky diode is steeper.

Advantages of Schottky diode

1. It possesses high switching speed.
2. Due to high switching speed, its reverse recovery time is very less as compared to other bipolar diodes.
3. The value of forward voltage in the case of this diode is also minimal comparatively other bipolar diodes.
Disadvantages of Schottky Diode
1. It possesses a significant value of leakage current.

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 1. It possesses a significant value of leakage current.
2. The reverse breakdown voltage of these diodes is very small. Thus, even a small amount of reverse voltage can damage it.
Applications of Schottky Diode
1. It is used as Schottky TTL in digital devices as these devices need fast switching.
2. A Schottky diode is the most significant component for digital computers, as the performance of digital computers is determined by switching speed of
diodes.

Applications of Schottky Diode

Schottky diodes are used in electronics industry for many applications in diode rectifier because of its properties. They are used for voltage clamping applications,
to prevent transistor saturation. It is used as Schottky TTL in digital devices as these devices require fast switching. as the performance of digital computers is
determined by switching speed of diodes, Schottky diode is an important component for digital computers.

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Varactor Diode
Tuesday, September 7, 2021 4:18 PM

Definition: Varactor diode is the one which works on the principle of variation in capacitance by changing the width of the depletion region of P-N
junction. The P-N Junction diode creates capacitor effect. The capacitance is controlled by applied voltage. It works on reverse biased mode.

Varactor word is formed from words Variable reactance or variable resistor. Thus, it provides variable resistance or reactance or capacitance thus it is
named as a varactor diode. The symbol of the varactor diode is same as conventional diode except the symbol of the capacitor is merged with the symbol
of the diode to show the capacitance effect.

It is also called voltage-variable capacitor (VVC) or varicap diode.

Construction of Varactor Diode

It is formed of P-type and N-type semiconductor and reverse biasing is applied to it. The majority carriers in an N-type semiconductor are electrons and
the majority carriers in a P-type semiconductor are holes. At the junction, the electrons and holes recombine. Due to which immobile ions accumulate at
the junction. And no more current can flow due to majority carriers.

Thus, the depletion region is formed. The depletion region is called so because it is depleted of charge carriers i.e. the majority carriers are absent in
depletion region. This works as a dielectric layer and P and N-type semiconductor works as plates of a capacitor.

Working of Varactor Diode

When the reverse bias is applied to P-N junction, the width of depletion layer increases. And with the increase of reverse voltage gradually the depletion
layer increases even more. Thus, the depletion region creates Transition capacitance C T.

CT = ɛA/W

Here, CT is Transition capacitance, ɛ is dielectric constant, A is the area of plates of the capacitor and W is the width of the depletion layer.

It is evident from the above relation that transition capacitance is inversely proportional to width of the depletion layer. Thus, if we want the high
magnitude of capacitance the width should be small. And the width will be small if we will apply low reverse voltage.

Similarly, if we require low capacitance the width should be large and to increase the width the reverse voltage applied should be high.Thus, this width

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Similarly, if we require low capacitance the width should be large and to increase the width the reverse voltage applied should be high.Thus, this width
can be controlled with applied reverse voltage.

Volt-ampere Characteristics of Varactor Diode

It can be seen in the characteristic curve that as reverse voltage increase from 0 V the transition capacitance is decreasing exponentially.

The relation between the transition capacitance, VR and Vk .

CT = K/ (Vk + VR)n

Here, CT is junction capacitance, Vk is the knee voltage and VR is the reverse voltage and the value of n for alloyed junctions is 1/2 and diffused junctions
it is 1/3. Thus, the voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance.

The tuning range of the capacitor varies with the doping level of the diode. For abrupt doping junction the doping will be uniform, but for the hyper abrupt
junction, the doping profile will be non-uniform.

Advantages of Varactor Diode

1. Low Noise: It generates less noise as compared to the other P-N junction diode. Thus, the power loss due to noise is low in varactor diodes.
2. Portability: It is portable due to the small size and lightweight.
3. Reliability: It is more reliable than other P-N junction diodes.
4. Economical: It is a low-cost diode thus, it is economical to use in various applications.
Disadvantages of Varactor Diode
These are specially designed to work in the reverse biased mode, it possesses the least significance when operated in forward biasing.

Applications of Varactor Diode

1. Television receivers: Varactor diodes are used as tuned capacitors and have replaced mechanically tuned capacitors in various applications. It is
used in television in the resonant tank circuit.
2. Radio receivers: Radio receivers also use this diode for tuning purposes.
3. Frequency Multiplier: It is also used as a frequency multiplier in various electronic circuits.
4. Phase Locked Loops: It is used in Phase locked loop for frequency modulation. Varactor diodes help in achieving frequency modulation. Thus, in
communication devices varactor diodes are significant.
5. Voltage controlled oscillators: Voltage control oscillators are used extensively in transmission and receiving circuits in communication. And
varactor diode plays a significant role in construction of voltage controlled oscillator.
6. Parametric Amplifiers: It is used in parametric amplifier as a significant component.

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Photodiode
Tuesday, September 7, 2021 4:29 PM

Definition: A special type of PN junction device that generates current

when exposed to light is known as Photodiode. It is also known as
photodetector or photosensor. It operates in reverse biased mode
and converts light energy into electrical energy.
The figure below shows the symbolic representation of a photodiode:

Principle of Photodiode
It works on the principle of Photoelectric effect.
The operating principle of the photodiode is such that when the junction of
this two-terminal semiconductor device is illuminated then the electric
current starts flowing through it. Only minority current flows through the
device when the certain reverse potential is applied to it.
Construction of Photodiode
The figure below shows the constructional detail of a photodiode:

The PN junction of the device placed inside a glass material. This is done to
order to allow the light energy to pass through it. As only the junction is
exposed to radiation, thus, the other portion of the glass material is painted
black or is metallised.
The overall unit is of very small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm.
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 The overall unit is of very small dimension nearly about 2.5 mm.
It is noteworthy that the current flowing through the device is in micro-
ampere and is measured through an ammeter.
Operational Modes of Photodiode
Photodiode basically operates in two modes:
• Photovoltaic mode: It is also known as zero-bias mode because no
external reverse potential is provided to the device. However, the flow of
minority carrier will take place when the device is exposed to light.
• Photoconductive mode: When a certain reverse potential is applied to the
device then it behaves as a photoconductive device. Here, an increase in
depletion width is seen with the corresponding change in reverse voltage.
Let us now understand the detailed circuit arrangement and working of the
photodiode.
Working of Photodiode
In the photodiode, a very small reverse current flows through the device
that is termed as dark current. It is called so because this current is totally
the result of the flow of minority carriers and is thus flows when the device
is not exposed to radiation.

The electrons present in the p side and holes present in n side are the
minority carriers. When a certain reverse-biased voltage is applied then
minority carrier, holes from n-side experiences repulsive force from the
positive potential of the battery.
Similarly, the electrons present in the p side experience repulsion from the
negative potential of the battery. Due to this movement electron and hole
recombine at the junction resultantly generating depletion region at the
junction.
Due to this movement, a very small reverse current flows through the
device known as dark current.

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device known as dark current.
The combination of electron and hole at the junction generates neutral atom
at the depletion. Due to which any further flow of current is restricted.
Now, the junction of the device is illuminated with light. As the light falls on
the surface of the junction, then the temperature of the junction gets
increased. This causes the electron and hole to get separated from each
other.
At the two gets separated then electrons from n side gets attracted towards
the positive potential of the battery. Similarly, holes present in the p side get
attracted to the negative potential of the battery.
This movement then generates high reverse current through the device.
With the rise in the light intensity, more charge carriers are generated and
flow through the device. Thereby, producing a large electric current through
the device.
This current is then used to drive other circuits of the system.
So, we can say the intensity of light energy is directly proportional to the
current through the device.
Only positive biased potential can put the device in no current condition in
case of the photodiode.
Characteristics of Photodiode

The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a photodiode:

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the
device and the horizontal line represents the reverse-biased potential.
The first curve represents the dark current that generates due to minority
carriers in the absence of light.
As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal
spacing in between them. This is so because current proportionally

Unit I Page 38
 spacing in between them. This is so because current proportionally
increases with the luminous flux.
The figure below shows the curve for current versus illumination:

It is noteworthy here that, the reverse current does not show a significant
increase with the increase in the reverse potential.

Applications of Photodiode
1. Photodiodes majorly find its use in counters and switching circuits.
2. Photodiodes are extensively used in an optical communication system.
3. Logic circuits and encoders also make use of photodiode.
4. It is widely used in burglar alarm systems. In such alarm systems, until
exposure to radiation is not interrupted, the current flows. As the light
energy fails to fall on the device, it sounds the alarm.

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