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To cite this article: Debasis Pradhan, Israel Duraipandian & Dhruv Sethi (2014): Celebrity
endorsement: How celebrity–brand–user personality congruence affects brand attitude and
purchase intention, Journal of Marketing Communications, DOI: 10.1080/13527266.2014.914561
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Journal of Marketing Communications, 2014
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13527266.2014.914561
The present study provides and tests a conceptual framework aimed at comparing the
relative effectiveness of celebrity– user, brand– celebrity, and user– brand personality
congruence on brand attitude and brand purchase intention (BPI) thereafter. The data
collection was done via an online survey of a representative group of consumers
(n ¼
431) located across India. Hypotheses were tested using regression analysis with
Downloaded by [UQ Library] at 02:07 14 October 2014
mediation approach. The results indicate that while user– brand and brand– celebrity
personality congruence have a significant impact on brand attitude and purchase
intention, celebrity– user congruence does not. Further, brand attitude is found to be a
partial mediator on the relationship between the pair-wise personality congruence on
BPI. The findings have major implications for marketers in understanding the
significance of personality congruence among celebrity– brand– user in the formation
of brand attitude and purchase intention that can be used in positioning and in
increasing the advertising effectiveness of brands using celebrity endorsement. The
present study is a pioneer in contributing to the celebrity endorsement literature by
investigating the relative impact of three pairs of personality congruence: celebrity–
brand, brand– user, and celebrity– user, on brand attitude and BPI, thereby supporting
the applicability of McCracken’s Meaning Transfer Model [McCracken (1989), The
Journal of Consumer Research, 16 (3) 310 – 321) and the Hierarchy-of-effects
model
(Lavidge and Steiner (1961), Journal of Marketing, 25 (6) 59 – 62].
Keywords: celebrity– brand personality congruence; celebrity– user personality
congruence; brand– user personality congruence; brand attitude; brand purchase
intention; India
1. Introduction
The celebrity endorser enjoys public recognition and uses this quality on behalf of a
consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement (McCracken 1989). The
popularity of celebrity endorsement among practitioners has been well documented for
its success in achieving major communication effects/objectives such as brand
recognition, brand recall (components of brand awareness), brand attitude and
purchase intention, as well as marketing objectives such as profit and sales (Agrawal and
Kamakura 1995; Elberse and Verleun 2012; Erdogan, Baker, and Tagg 2001; Erdogan
1999; Hung, Chan, and Tse 2011; Kaikati 1987; Mathur, Mathur, and Rangan 1997). In
recent years, celebrities have appeared in nearly 14% of advertisements aired in the USA,
while the number is as high as 24% in India and 45% in Taiwan (Creswell 2008). In such
a scenario, it is important for marketers and advertisers to understand how celebrity
endorsements work and what factors must be kept in mind to create successful ad
campaigns using celebrities.
attitudes and motivation to purchase the brand increases as the similarity or congruence
between one’s self-image and a brand’s image increases (Gould 1991; Graeff 1996; Sirgy
1986). Other studies covering a wide range of products and services have also shown
support for the self- brand congruity hypothesis. In addition, they have indicated that this
congruence also affects brand satisfaction (Achouri and Bouslama 2010; Jamal and Al-
Marri 2007), emotional attachment (Mala¨r et al. 2011), preference (Branaghan and
Hildebrand 2011; Dolich 1969), purchase intentions (Erickson 1996), and choice
(Malhotra 1988).
As the theories mentioned above suggest, the transfer of cultural meaning from the
celebrity to the user via the brand, as well as the significance of user– brand image
(personality) congruence, all three of these personality constructs – user, brand, and
celebrity – and the relationship between them seem to be important factors that affect
purchase intention and must be considered in determining advertising effectiveness.
2. Research objectives
Extant research has indicated the importance of the personality congruence between the
brand, its users, and the celebrity that endorses the brand in creating a positive brand
attitude and purchase preference. Yet, most of the work has focused on the congruence
between only two of these entities being considered separately: user– brand personality
(UP– BP) congruence (Govers and Schoormans 2005), brand– celebrity personality (BP–
CP) congruence (DeSarbo and Harshman 1985; Kamins and Gupta 1994), and CP– UP
congruence (Rossiter and Percy 1989). While a majority of the work has empirically
tested the impact of UP– BP and BP– CP congruence on the consumer purchase decision, the
role and importance of CP– UP is often overlooked and has evaded the attention it
deserves from the researchers. The present research recognizes this gap and thus aims at
testing the impact of all three pairs of personality congruence viz., UP– BP, BP– CP, CP–
UP on brand attitude (BA) and brand purchase intention (BPI), thereby expanding the
current literature on celebrity endorsement effectiveness. In doing so, the paper attempts
to contribute to the literature (Ladik and Stewart 2008) on celebrity endorsement by
shedding light on the neglected aspect of CP– UP congruence.
3. Hypothesis development
Celebrity endorsements and congruity theory have attracted extensive research by both
academicians and practitioners owing to the importance and managerial relevance of
these
concepts. The section below outlines the research conducted in this sphere, which also
forms the basis of the hypotheses that are laid out in this study to form the model
explaining the effect of personality congruence on BA and BPI.
3.1 Definitions
For the purpose of this study, UP is defined as certain persistent qualities in human
behavior that an individual (here the buyer) exhibits (Kassarjian 1971). BP is defined as
the set of human characteristics associated with a brand (Aaker 1997). CP is the set of
persistent qualities of human behavior exhibited by the celebrity. BA is defined as an
individual’s relatively lasting internal evaluation of the brand (Mitchell and Olson 1981).
BPI is defined as an individual’s conscious plan to make an effort to purchase a brand
(Spears and Singh 2004).
The ‘Hierarchy of Effects Model’ (Lavidge and Steiner 1961) or the standard
learning hierarchy, represented as the cognition– affection– behavior hierarchy, also
supports the paradigm of how the presence of congruence can lead to formation of
attitude toward the brand, which in turn affects subsequent purchase intention (Holbrook
1986). According to the hierarchy of effects, attitude or feelings are formed based on
cognitive information processing which subsequently leads to a response or behavior
from the consumer as feelings stimulate desires in the consumer. Hence, we can argue
that purchase intention arises as a result of the attitude formed toward the particular
brand. This is especially true for products that are neither low-involvement nor
experiential in nature, where alternate learning hierarchies may also be followed
(Holbrook and Hirschman 1982). This leads to the next hypothesis for our study:
H7: Favorable BA leads to a favorable BPI.
Combining the hypotheses listed above, a holistic model explaining the effect of
user– brand personality congruence, brand– celebrity personality congruence, and
celebrity– user personality congruence has been presented in Figure 1. It is hypothesized
that these individual congruence measures affect BPI through BA. Hence, the higher the
congruence
Figure 1. The effect of UP– BP, BP– CP, and CP– UP congruences on BPI with BA as a
mediator.
between each pair of the three constructs, the more favorable is the brand attitude which
in turn leads to a favorable purchase intention or brand preference.
4. Method
The present study employed survey research to compare the predictability and relative
impact of UP– BP, BP– CP, and CP– UP congruences in determining BPI, and in
addition, to establish the mediating influence of BA as per the model hypothesized.
celebrity personality congruity with user and brand personality could be easily studied,
and that respondents had a high level of familiarity with the brand. Preliminary research
was carried out to determine the set of brands which are popular among the target
segment and would, therefore, be relevant for the purpose of the study. This involved
carrying out a small survey of 42 post-graduate management students to determine their
preference for a sport shoes brand. The respondents chosen for the pretest were similar in
terms of their demographic profile to those who would be used in the final study. The four
brands of sport shoes which emerged from the preliminary research as popular choices (in
terms of response frequency) were Adidas, Nike, Puma, and Reebok.
4.2 Respondents
A sample of 447 adult consumers comprising full-time MBA students and participants of
various executive management programs offered by XLRI Jamshedpur, a well-known
Indian business school, were chosen for the purpose of the final survey, as they were
considered to be the main buyers of the product chosen for the study, namely, sport
shoes. An incentive in terms of providing credit toward the coursework was given to the
respondents for participating in the study; this resulted in a 100% response rate.
Although we obtained responses from all the respondents, data were collected from 431
usable responses (27.85% from full-time students and the remaining 72.15% from
executives employed in different cities across India) which were retained for the purpose
of the analysis, while 16 had to be discarded owing to non-familiarity of the respondent
with the celebrity endorser
¼ (n 5) or lack of purchase inclination for the product
category
¼ (n 11). This yielded a response rate of 96%. Adequate measures were taken to
ensure respondent seriousness during the survey process in terms of administering the
online survey questionnaire to the respondents in a classroom environment under the
supervision of the authors. Table 1 presents the profile of the respondents for the study.
to a recency bias could be avoided. Section 4 was used to collect information regarding
brand personality. Section 5 included a short social desirability bias scale to check for
bias in the responses. In Section 6, the respondent selected the endorser (s)he was
familiar with and rated the level of familiarity (s)he had with the celebrity. Information
regarding the celebrity personality was also recorded in this section. The final section
was used to collect information regarding BPI. A sample questionnaire used in the
survey is provided in the Appendix.
Other manipulation checks, to avoid respondent biases, were also taken while
designing the research survey. Dummy questions were included in the questionnaire so
as
delicate, excitable– calm, uncomfortable– comfortable) and has been used widely in
research for the purpose of determining user, celebrity, or brand personalities and
ascertaining the congruence between them (Ekinci and Riley 2003; Faircloth, Capella,
and Alford 2001; Goldsmith, Moore, and Beaudoin 1999; Lau and Lee 1999). Although
several scales are available for the measurement of user, brand, or celebrity personality
(Aaker 1997; Ohanian 1990; Sirgy et al. 1997), Malhotra’s scale was felt appropriate for
coordinating the person– product (brand)– celebrity image (Malhotra 1981; 463), and it
is this image that is often conceptualized in terms of personality traits ( Rekom, Jacobs,
and Verlegh 2006). Additionally, the brevity of Malhotra’s scale consisting of 15
personality traits against the 42-item personality scale of Aaker (1997) was considered
instrumental in its choice for use in the present study, as the respondents were needed to
rate the traits from three spheres, namely, celebrity, brand, and the self.
Xn
UP– BP congruity : 2
i¼1
UP ij 2 BP ;
Xn
BP– CP congruity :
2
i¼1 BP ij 2 CP ;
Xn
CP– UP congruity :
i¼1 2
CP ij 2 UP ;
where UPij represents the ith user personality item as rated by the jth respondent; BPij
represents the ith brand personality item as rated by the jth respondent; CPij represents
the ith celebrity personality item as rated by the jth respondent.
5.2 Brand attitude
The measurement of BA was carried out using a five item, 7-point semantic differential
scale (bad/good, unfavorable/favorable, unlikeable/likeable, poor quality/high quality,
and unpleasant/pleasant), developed by combining items from scales used for BA
measurement in existing literature (Berger and Mitchell 1989; Faircloth, Capella, and
Alford 2001; MacKenzie and Lutz 1989; MacKenzie, Lutz, and Belch 1986; Mitchell
and Olson 1981). Examination of the internal consistency of responses for the items used
in the BA scale, via Cronbach’s alpha reliability coefficient, showed high reliability (a ¼
0.91).
one-item purchase intention scale has been widely used in prior research (Friedman and
Friedman 1979; Kamins and Gupta 1994).
3. However, CP– UP congruence is not significant in explaining BA. This shows that CP–
UP congruence did not have a significant impact on either BA or BPI.
In the third stage, the mediation effect of BA was tested. BPI was regressed against
the independent variables UP– BP congruence, BP– CP congruence, CP– UP congruence, and
BA. The results are mentioned as per Equation (3) in Figure 2 (mentioned below the path
lines connecting the respective variables). The results indicate that UP– BP congruence,
BP– CP congruence, and BA are significant in explaining BPI. This provides support for
Hypothesis 7 as BA significantly explains BPI. However, the CP– UP congruence was not
seen to be significant in explaining BPI.
In addition, on comparison of the standardized beta scores of UP– BP and BP– CP
congruence on BPI in Equations (1) and (3) in Table 2, we found that the standard
coefficients were lesser in Equation (3) as compared to Equation (1) (i.e. 0.223 vs.0.113
for UP– BP congruence to BPI in Equations (1) and (3), respectively; and 0.196 vs. 0.102 for
BP– CP congruence to BPI in Equations (1) and (3), respectively). This indicates the
partial mediation effect of BA. The statistical significance of BA was also calculated
using Sobel’s z-statistic which indicated that it is significant at the 0.01 level for UP– BP
congruence to BPI and BP– CP congruence to BPI ¼ (z 2 2.41 and 2 2.68, respectively).
Table 2 provides a compendium of results of this model based on mediation testing.
Table 3 provides the correlation and descriptive statistics for the study variables.
Overall, it was established that BA mediates the relationship between UP– BP
congruence and BPI and also between BP– CP congruence and BPI. It was interesting to
observe that we did not find any statistical significance of the CP– UP congruence to either
BPI or BA, as was earlier hypothesized. To probe the possible existence of a spurious
relationship between UP– BP and BP– CP, we performed a partial correlation, controlling
for CP– UP congruence. A perusal of zero-order correlation among the pairs of congruity
measures indicated a moderate correlation (‘r’ ranging from 0.52 to 0.57) indicating no
threat of multicollinearity amongst the measures of UP– BP, BP– CP, and CP– UP pairs.
Having ensured that the measures were free from multicollinearity, we then proceeded to
assess the partial correlation coefficients between UP– BP and BP– CP. The partial
Table 2. Regression results for testing the mediating effect of BA between UP– BP, BP– CP, and
CP– UP congruence scores on BPI.
Independent variable Standardized b F-Statistic R 2 Values
Equation (1) (BPI as dependent variable) 27.28 0.352
UP– BP congruence (Hypothesis 2) 0.223*
BP– CP congruence (Hypothesis 4) 0.196*
CP– UP congruence (Hypothesis 6) 0.050
Equation (2) (BA as dependent variable) 12.85 0.083
UP– BP congruence (Hypothesis 1) 0.180*
BP– CP congruence (Hypothesis 3) 0.153*
CP– UP congruence (Hypothesis 5) 0.004
Equation (3) (BPI as dependent variable) 110.29 0.509
UP– BP congruence 0.113*
BP– CP congruence 0.102*
CP– UP congruence 0.053
BA (Hypothesis 7) 0.616*
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correlation results indicated that even after controlling for CP– UP congruence, the
correlation between UP– BP and BP– CP was found to be significant (rUP– BP,BP–CP.CP –
UP ¼ 0.284; p , 0.001), thus suggesting that the relationship between UP– BP and BP–
CP was not due to the confounding effect of CP– UP.
7. Discussion
According to the results obtained in the research, it was seen that the UP– BP congruence
influenced BA and BPI the most, and the BP– CP congruence also had considerable
influence on BA and BPI. However, the effect of the CP– UP congruence was not
significant on either BA or BPI. It was also clear that BA played a mediating role
between the user, brand, and celebrity personality congruence and the consumers’
purchase intention for the brand.
The observed insignificant influence of the CP– UP congruence may be explained as per
the implications of the ‘Meaning Transfer Model’ (McCracken 1989). According to the
theory, celebrities provide cultural meanings or associations to brands which are passed on
to the user through them. Hence, the celebrity helps in creating a desire or a sense of
aspiration for the user to achieve an ideal self-image that has a likeness to the personality
of the celebrity. It is important for the brand to create this sense of aspiration in the minds
of the consumers, so
already represented through the UP– BP and BP– CP scores, might have caused the CP–
UP congruence to insignificantly influence BA and BPI. However, a post hoc analysis of
interaction among the standardized scores of UP– BP, BP– CP, and CP– UP, did not reveal
any significant effect on the outcome variable of either BA or BPI.
would be the degree of difference in effect among these two groups (Grohmann 2009).
This would help in establishing whether customized communications are needed for
consumers based on their gender. As the current research had a skewed respondent base
with a higher proportion of males, it was difficult to establish a result which could be
generalized regarding such gender-based differences in this study.
Second, some of the often-tested variables in celebrity endorsement research that
would affect the model tested in the study, communication or source credibility (Kamins
1990; Ohanian 1991; Spry, Pappu, and Cornwell 2011), motivation or involvement in the
purchase (Mackenzie and Spreng 1992), familiarity with the brand (Miller, Mazis, and
Wright 1971; Paasovaara et al. 2012), familiarity with the endorser (Dubey and Agrawal
2011; McGuire 1985), and attitude toward the endorser (Silvera and Austad 2004), may
be built into the model as moderating variables and their effect may be tested in future
research. It would also be interesting to see how the results of the present model differ
across different time periods especially for celebrities who have had formerly positive and
then negative image/likability (e.g., Tiger Woods, Oscar Pistorious), involving a
longitudinal design.
Third, the present model may be expanded to incorporate brand trust (Bendapudi and
Berry 1997; Lau and Lee 1999) and brand loyalty (Achouri and Bouslama 2010). It
would be important for practitioners and academicians alike to understand how
congruence between the three personality constructs may lead to the subsequent
development of brand trust and brand loyalty and how these fit into the model presented
in terms of their respective positions in the chain from congruence to a positive attitude
formation to a favorable purchase intention.
Fourth, it may be established if the model described in this study shows similar
results across different brands, and product and service classes, which have different
consumer involvement (Krohmer, Mala¨r, and Nyffenegger 2007), so that the
findings and the implications of the study may be generalized and used in those domains
as well. Future research can test the model for different levels of purchase involvement
wherein alternate learning hierarchies may be applicable.
Fifth, the influencing power of celebrities can be studied further in the context of the
model tested in this study. The influencing power of male versus female celebrities and
the effect of celebrity background (Dubey and Agrawal 2011), in terms of being, say, a
sports personality or a movie star, can be studied as factors moderating the influence of
personality congruence on BA and BPI. This will help practitioners to select the celebrity
to endorse their products.
Sixth, although personality in the present study was measured using Malhotra’s
(1981) scale, future research should aim at determining the stability of the results of the
current model by using different measures of personality, say Aaker’s (1997) personality
dimensions, to assess the impact of the congruence between celebrity– user– brand on the
outcome variables of BA and BPI. Doing so will enable generalizing the results, thus
improving confidence about the validity of the findings on the impact of celebrity– user–
brand personality congruence on BA and BPI. This may be essential for certain product
categories where consumers may give more significance to some personality traits while
evaluating the brand and celebrity personalities, and hence the effect of these traits would
be higher in determining the overall congruity. For instance, attractiveness-related
personality attributes may be more important for cosmetics and beauty products (Kahle
and Homer 1985; Till and Busler 2000) while ruggedness-related traits may be
significant to consumers while evaluating sports and fitness products.
Seventh, the interaction effect of the UP– BP and BP– CP congruence scores can be
studied in future research to explore the possible explanation for the insignificant impact
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of the CP– UP congruence on BA and BPI. Although in the present study, the post hoc
analysis revealed no significant interactive effect among these variables, the mediating
effect of one of UP– BP or BP– CP on the outcome variables of BA and BPI is worth
examining by researchers in this field. In this context, we recommend the application of
Heider’s Balance Theory (Heider 1946) involving interaction effects among these pairs
of congruence; this may bring out more insights on the fit of the findings of the present
study.
Finally, future research may aim at generalizing the model presented in this study and
its implications across different cultures to reinforce and further substantiate its
predictive ability. In addition, such research may attempt to understand, how, if required,
the model may be tweaked by managers to incorporate consumer trends and variations
local to their markets.
Notes on contributors
Debasis Pradhan is an Associate Professor of Marketing at Xavier School of Management, XLRI
Jamshedpur. His academic interests include congruence research in celebrity endorsement, U&G
theory in social media, retail brand equity measurement and impulse buying. His papers and cases
have been published in Asian Case Research Journal, International Journal of Rural Management,
South Asian Journal of Management, among others. His award-winning business cases have been
published by London Business School. His Asia-centric Casebook, published by Cengage Learning
Pvt. Ltd., captures the essence of business practices of firms operating in different parts of Asia. He
has also presented papers at INFORMS Marketing Science Conferences held at Singapore
Management University, University of Michigan, University of Cologne in Germany, Rice
University at Houston, and Academy of Management [Philadelphia].
Israel Duraipandian is an Associate Professor of Marketing at Xavier School of Management,
XLRI Jamshedpur, India. He teaches research methods, consumer behavior, and marketing
research for the postgraduate and doctoral program students in management. He has authored/co-
authored the
following books: Data Analysis in Business Research (Sage: New Delhi, 2008) and Marketing
Research: A South Asian Perspective (Cengage: New Delhi, 2009). He has presented papers in the
national/international conferences. His research works are published/accepted in International
Journal of Mobile Marketing, Journal of Services Marketing and The Learning Organization
among others.
Dhruv Sethi is a Senior Associate, Boston Consulting Group (BCG), New Delhi, India. His research
interests include celebrity endorsement, social media, and other aspects of marketing
communications.
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