a) Microbiological Tests

Enumeration of the bacteria is accomplished by growing them, after suitable dilution, in either a solid or
a liquid media

i) Bacterial count using a solid media

The Plate Count Method – first step is to prepare a 10-fold dilutions of the sample to be analyzed ( I mL
of sample into 9mL of dilution water, then 1 mL of this sample into 9 mL of dilution water, then 1mL of
this into 9 ml of dilution water and so forth). Then 1-mL quantities of each dilution, into separate sterile
petri dishes. Replicate samples should always be run. Then 12 to 20 mL of liquefied culture medium is
poured into each petri dish and mixed. The mixture is allowed to solidify. Then the petri dishes are
inverted and incubated at 35 oC (± 0.5) for 48 hrs (±3) hr.

Then the bacterial colonies that develop are counted. Dishes where number of colonies is between 30
and 300 are considered significant. The bacterial count per milliliter is obtained by multiplying the
average count (obtained from replicate samples), by the appropriate dilution factor. The assumption for
this test is that each colony counted originated from a single bacterial cell. Dishes that have too many
colonies or have colonies that are grown together are discarded (colonies may have resulted from more
than one cell)

1
Adapted from George Tchobanoglous and E. Schroeder , 1987

ii) Bacterial Count using a Liquid Medium

2
The coliform group of organisms including Escherichia coli is capable of fermenting lactose with
production of an abundance gas, lactose is relatively uncommon sugar only found in milk. To enumerate
the number of gas producing organisms, a test using liquid lactose medium has been developed. The
test involves observing whether gas has been formed in an inverted gas-collection tube in a large test
tube containing culture medium.

The principle of the test is based on dilution to extinction. For example if a dilution is made and growth
is measured by gas production is observed in the 10-n dilution and not in 10-(n+1) dilution then it can be
concluded that the sample contains at least 10n cells per milliliter but less than 10n+1 cells per milliliter.

The test in which multiple tubes are made for each dilution is known as Multiple-fermentation-tube
technique. The test is conducted as follows: a series of dilutions are made and then the 1-mL sample
from each dilution to each of the 5-test tubes containing a suitable lactose culture medium and inverted
gas-collection tubes. The inoculated tubes are incubated in a water bath at 44.5oC (± 0.2o) for 24 (± 2)hr.
the accumulation of gas in the inverted gas-collection tubes is considered to be a positive reaction. The
results for each dilution are reported as a fraction, with the number of positive tubes over the total
number of tubes.

The concentrations are reported as the MPN (most probable number) per 100ml. Typically the MPN
value is determined from the number of positive (lactose-fermenting) tests in a set of five replicates
made at three different dilutions (15 samples altogether). Estimation of MPN is based on Poisson
distribution or more commonly using tables.

iii) Membrane-Filter Technique

The water to be tested is filtered through the membrane whose pore size is 0.45µm, so that essentially
all of the bacteria of interest will be retained on the filter. After known volume of water is filtered, the
filter is placed in a petri dish containing sterile absorbent pad saturated with suitable culture media.
After incubation in inverted position the bacterial colonies are counted. Thus the count per volume can
be determined.

iv) Escherichia coli as an Indicator Organism

The coliform group of bacteria includes all aerobic and facultative, anaerobic, gram-negative, nonspore-
forming, rod-shaped bacteria that ferment lactose with gas formation. Escherichia coli is the most
widely known member of the group because it is a commonly used organism for bacteriological
experiments. E. coli has come to be used as an indicator organism for human pollution. A series of three
tests –known as the presumptive, confirmed, and completed tests – are performed to confirm positively
the presence of the coliform group. The result of the presumptive test (in which multiple-fermentation

3
tubes are inoculated and incubated and gas production is noted) are used to determine the bacterial
density, expressed as MPN/100mL.

There are however problems associated with the use of E.coli as an indicator organism.

a) E.coli is not a single species as was thought originally

b) Certain genera of the coliform group such as Proteus and Aerobacter are
normally found outside the human intestine tract in soil,

c) Other organisms found in water that do not represent faecal pollution possess
some of the characteristics attributed to E.coli such as ability to ferment lactose

d) E.coli identical to that found in human is also found in the intestinal tract of
other warm blooded animals.

However, notwithstanding the above problems, E.coli is still used as an indicator organism, as there is no
suitable replacement.

E) Microbiological Standards

The presence of even very low concentrations of coliforms is indicative of unacceptable water for
human consumption. In essence water and wastewater quality standards entail development of criteria,
regulations and guidelines for the various parameters used to describe the water and wastewater
quality and their levels for acceptability of water and wastewater for various uses and or regulation for
discharge into receiving water bodies for wastewater. Water quality standards are established on the
basis of one or more of the following factors:

1) Ongoing practice (experience, criteria, etc)

2) Technical attainability

3) Economic attainability

4) Results of biological experiments (e.g bioassays)

5) Ability to measure parameters reliably

6) Evidence derived from accidental human exposure

7) Educated guess based on available information and judgement

8) Application of mathematical models (e.g simulation of health risks)

9) Legal enforceability

4
Thus considering the factors involved in establishing the Standards, its clear that they are dynamic in
nature. However, once established and accepted, standards are considered to be legal requirements
and are extremely difficult to change.

F) Water quality standards/Regulations

In large part most countries have developed water quality standards/regulations. For example in the US
the Environmental Pollution Agency (EPA) is the body vested with the development and monitoring of
environmental standards including those of water and wastewater. In the United Kingdom have
developed own standards applicable in their jurisdiction. The same can be said of China, India, Japan and
the European Union countries, etc. In developing countries the standards/regulations used are those
developed by the World Health Organization (WHO). Currently the WHO regulations in force is Fourth
Edition, Published in 2017. These regulations and others are available in the internet.

In addition in the Kenyan situation the WHO Regulations/Standards are applicable but also have own
regulations developed by the Water Services Regulatory Board (WASREB). Guidelines on Drinking Water
Quality and Effluent Monitoring, March 2008/2016. These too are available in the internet.

For example, these regulations stipulate that

(i) water entering the distribution system should contain no coliform

organisms and

(ii) that water at the tap should contain no coliforms in 95 per cent of
samples taken in any one year and it should never contain more than 10
coliforms /100mL or any Escherichia coli.

The regulations also cover the quality of raw water sources. for example where the coliforms are
between 0 – 50 counts/100ml water bacterial quality requiring disinfection only, and 50-5000 coliforms
/100ml water requiring full treatment : coagulation, sedimentation, filtration and disinfection; 5000-
50000 coliforms/100mL heavy pollution requiring extensive treatment, etc

G) Wastewater Quality

The composition of sewage is complex and variable. The most fundamental characteristics of sewage are
its suspended solids, its oxygen demand, its pathogenic organisms and toxic chemicals.

i) suspended solids

sewage solids some are in solution others in suspension. Suspended solids cause turbidity and indicate
presence of various chemical and microbiological pollutants. Suspended solids are determined by
filtering a measured volume of the wastewater and solids oven dried and weighed.

ii) Organic matter (om)

The om in sewage exerts oxygen demand. The oxygen demand for sewage is roughly the amount of
oxygen required to om.

The laboratory method used to measure organic matter are:

5
 a) Chemical oxygen demand (COD)

b) Total organic carbon (TOC)

c) Total oxygen demand (TOD)

d) Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)

The COD test is a chemical test, the TOC and TOD tests are instrumental test, and the BOD test is a
biochemical test involving the use of microorganisms.

The COD test is conducted on a sample of wastewater which involves use of a strong oxidizing agent
(dichromate) with the assistance of a catalyst at 100 oC conducted in a strong acid:

Ca Hb Oc + Cr2O7- + H+ --heat and catalyst--- Cr3+ + CO2 + H2O

The amount of dichromate remaining after the experiment is determined and the difference from the
initial dichromate is the amount of oxygen reported in terms of equivalent oxygen required to oxidize
the om to CO2, H2O, NH4+, PO43-, SO42-, etc.

The COD test is used extensively because it takes less time (about 3hrs) as compared to other tests such
as the BOD test, which takes several days.

Unfortunately the test cannot differentiate between biologically oxidizable and inert om. Also no
information is provided about the rate at which the om will be biologically oxidized. Besides certain
inorganic constituents such as chloride can interfere with the test.

The TOC test

For small quantities of om the instrumental TOC test is satisfactory. As only organic carbon is measured,
the sample to be tested is acidified and aerated to remove the inorganic forms of carbon. in some cases
certain organic compounds may not be oxidized completely.

The TOD test

It’s an instrumental test where organic and some inorganic compounds are converted to stable
products such as CO2 and H2O in a platinum-catalyzed combustion chamber. The TOC is determined by
the loss of oxygen in the nitrogen-carrier gas.

BOD Test

6
The BOD test measures the amount of oxygen utilized by microorganisms in the stabilization of organic
matter to stable end products such as CO2 and H2O. The amount of oxygen used in this process is called
the biochemical oxygen demand. it also, to some extent, represents the amount of oxygen which would
be required to stabilize the waste in natural environment such as a stream or lake.

The test is conducted using BOD bottles. The BOD of a water sample is determined by placing known
amounts of wastewater samples with appropriate dilution water in glass-stoppered 300mL BOD bottles,
incubating the bottles at a standard temperature (20oC) and measuring the change in oxygen
concentration with time up to 5-days or BOD5

For domestic sewage, the 5-day value BOD5 represents approximately 2/3 of the demand which would
be exerted if all the biologically oxidizable matter was oxidized. The BOD5 for domestic wastewater is
about 150-200 mg/L.

In conducing the test on domestic wastewater, it can be assumed that a suitable bacterium inoculum is
present. For industrial wastes, an inoculum may need to be added. Such an inoculum can be obtained by
culturing bacteria taken from domestic waste water.

The solubility of oxygen in water is quite limited (function of temperature and salinity) about 9.08 mg/l
at zero salinity and 760 mm mercury). Thus nearly requires that the sample is diluted. The dilution water
should added trace nutrients necessary for biological activity plus phosphate buffer to maintain neutral
pH. The water is aerated to saturate it with oxygen before mixing it with sewage.

5) Biological Oxidation of Organic matter

First-Order Rate Model for BOD

In the first-order rate model, it is assumed that oxygen uptake (BODexerted) is only a function of the BOD
remaining.
𝑑(𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟)
= − 𝑘 (𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟)
𝑑𝑡
where,

BODr = BOD remaining at time t, g/m3

k = reaction rate constant t-1

The temperature effect is incorporated in the rate constant.

Integrating between the initial BODu = BODu and BODu = BODr and t=0 and t=t,

𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑟
ln 𝐵𝑂𝐷𝑢 = -k t

7
BODr = BODu e-kt

where

BODu = ultimate Carbonaceous BOD, g/m3

The BOD exerted at time t --- BODt is the desired value

BODt = BODu - BODr

= BODu - BODue-kt

= BODu (1-e-kt)

k is a function of bacteria culture and temperature among other factors.

Temperature effects on BOD

In the BOD-exertion model, temperature effects are accounted for in the rate constant k, using the
modified van’t Hoff-Arrhenius relationship:

kT = Ae-E/RT

kT = rate constant at temperature T, d-1

A= van.t-Hoff-Arrhenius coefficient, d-1

E= Activation energy, J/mol

R= Universal gas constant, 8.314 J/mol.K

T= Tempertaure, K

kT1 = exp (E/RT2 –E/RT1)

𝐸
kT1 = kT2 exp[(𝑅𝑇1𝑇2) (T1-T2)]

In water temperature encountered vary between range 0 – 35oC. The term

exp(E/RT1T2) can be considered constant,

kT1 = kT2 𝜃 (T2-T1)

𝜃 = temperature coefficient

Commonly used values for, 𝜃 = 1.047.

use of 𝜃 = 1.135 for 4< 𝑇20𝑜𝐶 and 𝜃 = 1.056 for 𝑇 > 20 0𝐶

6. Nitrogenous Oxygen Demand

Nitrogen compounds (NH4+, NH3, NO2-) can be oxidized aerobically.

8
Oxidation of nitrite to nitrate is carried out by Nitrobacter. The nitrite oxidizing bacteria are facultative
autotrophs; that is if NO2- is absent, they will utilize carbon compounds such as volatile acids.

The yield of new cells are small for both steps (less than 0.05g cells/gram N oxidized. The stoichiometry
of the reactions are:

The reduced nitrogen compounds (NH4+, NH3, NO2-)

Nitrosomonas

NH4+ + 3/2O2 --------------------------------→ NO2- + H2O + 2H+

Nitrobacter

NO2- + 1/2O2 --------------------------------→ NO3-

------------------------------------------------------------------------

NH4+ + 2O2 ---------------→NO3- + 2H+ + H2O

14g of nitrogen requires 64 grams of oxygen = for 1 g N requires 4.6 grams oxygen. Domestic
wastewater typically contains 15 to 50 g/m3 total nitrogen, which corresponds to a potential oxygen
demand of 69 to 230 g/m3. The exertion of nitrogenous biochemical oxygen demand (NBOD) is slow and
typically not noted in the BOD test at times less than 5 to 8 days. When nitrification occurs it
complicates measurements of carbonaceous BOD and makes direct determination of BODu values very
difficult.

9
The kinetics of nitrification are not well documented, but nitrite is rarely observed in significant amounts
and nitrobacter growth rates are higher than those for nitrosomonas. Thus the first step appears to be
rate-limiting and affects the overall conversion of ammonia to nitrate.

Example 5

The 5-day BOD of a waste is 190 mg/L. Determine the ultimate oxygen demand BODu assuming that k =
0.25/day.

solution

The BOD at time t and BOD ultimate is given by:

10
BODt = BODu - BODr

= BODu - BODue-kt

= BODu (1-e-kt)

Thus BODu = BODt/(1-e-kt)

= 190/(1-e -0.25x5)

= 190/(1-e-1.25)

=190/0.713

= 266.5 mg/L

Example 6

A wastewater sample taken at a discharge point of a wastewater outfall has BOD ultimate and k20 are
estimated to be 30g/m3 and 0.22d-1 respectively. The wastewater discharge is 0.5m3/s and the receiving
stream has a minimum flow of 6m3/s. Determine the 5-d BOD value in the stream if the hot months
water temperature is 25 oC. Assume temperature coefficient is 1.056.

Solution

i) Determine the k25 value

k25 = 0.22d-1 (1.056)25-20

= 0.29d-1

ii) BOD 5 at 25oC

BODt = BODu - BODr

= BODu - BODue-kt

= BODu (1-e-kt)

= 30g/m3 (1-e-(0.29x5))

= 30g/m3 (0.765)

23g/m3 [23mg/L]

iii) BOD5 in the stream (Assume river water has zero BOD5 before discharge)

BOD5 of waste x Qwaste = BOD 5 stream (flow of stream + flow wastewater)

23x0.5 = BOD5 stream (6.5)

BOD 5 stream = 23x0.5/6.5

= 1.8 g/m3 [1.8 mg/L]

11
 discharge standard for wastewater into receiving water bodies 20/30 BOD5:SS

Labs: pH, colour, turbidity, calcium hardness, total hardness, iron, alkalinity, dissolved oxygen

chloride, solids, residual chlorine, plate count .

7. Quality of Water

Water which is absolutely pure is not found in nature. Rain water as it sweeps materials from air, still
becomes contaminated on reaching the ground, running over the surfaces and percolating through the
various strata. The materials found in water may be divided into living organisms and solid or dissolved
organic and inorganics. Not all of these are harmful and some may even be desirable for health, esthetic,
or technical reasons. A potable water is safe to drink, pleasant in taste, and suitable for domestic
purposes. A contaminated water is one that contains suspended or dissolved material which makes it
unsuitable for its intended use.

Surface waters may be more contaminated than ground water. The common contaminants include:
microorganisms which cause diseases such as bacteria, viruses, protozoa, worms, etc. Organisms which
cause infectious diseases are normally spread through the fecal and urinary discharges of sick persons
and carriers.

Other contaminants include inorganic constituents both suspended and dissolved materials. Suspended
materials are undesirable for aesthetic reasons, and their ability to shield microorganisms from
disinfectants. Dissolved inorganics which have health effects include aluminum, arsenic, barium,
cadmium, chromium, fluoride, lead, mercury, nitrate, selenium, etc. The water quality
standards/guidelines establish the maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for these inorganic
contaminants. Lead and mercury are usually associated with chronic effects on the nervous system.
Nitrates can interfere with oxygen transfer in the blood of infants. Selenium can cause gastrointestinal
and dental problems, while silver is toxic in large doses.

Organic Contaminants.

Both naturally occurring and artificial are found in water. The former are associated with colour, taste
or ordour, while the latter can be toxic or carcinogenic. Chlorinated hydrocarbons are used as pesticides
and herbicides. Trihalomethanes may enter water from industrial processes, but most commonly are
formed during chlorination of water containing naturally occurring organics such as humic acid. Volatile
organic chemicals (VOCs) are industrial chemicals which have been found to be widely distributed in
both surface waters and groundwaters.

12
Groundwater

Groundwater sources may be contaminated by surface water flooding and by percolating of waste
material through the soil. Leaking sewers, septic tanks, privies and pit latrines are potential points of
pollution, as well as landfill and old dumpsites. Fluoride can be of concern in groundwater sources. Thus
ground water sources can be contaminated with disease causing organisms and could in some cases
contain high levels of coliforms above the recommended guidelines.

Fluoride, for example, lower limit of 0.7 mg/l, optimum 1.2 mg/l and upper 1.7 mg/l . Ingestion of
excessive amounts may cause permanent discoloration of teeth and teeth mottling and embrittlement
of bones. High fluoride contents can be found in groundwater and are encountered in many borehole
waters in Kenya. Ingestion of optimum has health benefits to reducing tooth decay.

8. Water Demand

i) Population Estimation

In estimating the future population of the area to be served its necessary to consider the project design
period. It is necessary to predict in some manner what the future population will be. Elements of the
system which are relatively easy to expand have shorter design lives, hence population projection
periods may range from as low as 5 years to as many as 50 years or more.

Population can be obtained from national census data (in Kenya census is done after every 10 years).
Such data can be used to project future population of the areas the design is concerned with. However
one must also be aware that there could be external factors may affect the population growth as well.

1. Arithmetic Method

The assumption is that the rate of growth is constant. This can be compared with past census to validate
the method.

𝑑𝑃
=𝐾
𝑑𝑡
In which dP/dt is the rate of change of population and K is a constant. K is determined graphically or
from population in successive censuses.

K = ΔP/Δt

Population in the future, Pt = P0 + Kt

Where Pt = is the population at some time in the future. P0 is the present population and t is the period
of projection.

2. Geometric or Uniform Percentage

The hypothesis of the method assumes a rate of increase is proportional to population.

13
 𝑑𝑃
= 𝐾 ′𝑃
𝑑𝑡

which yields,

lnP= lnPo+ K’Δt

The plot recorded population growth on semilog paper. If a straight line can be fitted to the data, the
value of K’ can be determined from its slope.

3. Declining Growth Method

This technique assumes that that the area has some limiting saturation population, and that its rate of
growth is a function of its population deficit:

𝑑𝑃
= 𝐾 " (𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑃)
𝑑𝑡
Psat can be estimated according to some rational basis (available land, and existing population density),
K” may be determined from successive censuses and the equation;

𝑝𝑠𝑎𝑡−𝑃
K” = - 1/n ln 𝑃𝑠𝑎𝑡−𝑃0

where P and Po are population recorded n years apart. Future population can then be estimated from
this value and

P = Po + (Psat - Po) (1-eK”Δt)

4. Ratio method

The method is based on assumption that the ratio of the population of the area studied to that of the
larger group will continue to change in the future in the same manner that has occurred in the past. The
ratio is calculated from a series of censuses, the trend line is projected into the future, and the projected
ratio is multiplied by the forecast regional population to obtain area’s desired population in the year of
interest.

Good judgement in estimation is important. If the estimate is too low, the system will soon be
inadequate and redesign, reconstruction and refinancing will be necessary. On the other hand,
overestimation of population results in excess capacity which must be financed by a smaller population
at a higher cost and which may never be used as a result of deterioration or technological obsolescence.

14
The growth of a community with limited land area for future expansion might be modeled by the
declining growth, while another with large resources of land, power, and water and good transportation
might best be predicted by the geometric or uniform percentage growth model. In most cases
comparison is made to the recorded growth patterns of similar cities.

ii) Estimation of water uses

Water consumption is influenced by a number of factors chief among them the population. Other
factors include climate, economic level, population density, degree of industrialization, cost, pressure
and quality of supply. The analysis of future demand of a particular community should always begin by
considering present use; (domestic, commercial, industrial, public) area of the city, economic level of the
users, season of the year, etc. In Kenya different institutions have set criteria for various per capita
water consumption, city, towns, institutions, hotels, hospitals, rural areas, etc.

Domestic use

This is water furnished to houses, hotels, institutional facilities and recreational facilities. The water is
used for drinking, washing, bathing, waste removal, and yard watering. The quantity of domestic water
use depends many factors among them, socio-economic, level of development and vary greatly.
Experience has shown that, in most rural settings in Kenya the per capita water consumption can vary
between 20 -100 l/c/d. In many urban areas the per capita consumption may vary from 150 -250 l/c/d
for middle class developments and for high level income areas values are in the range of 400 l/ c/d. -

Commercial and industrial uses

Water furnished to industrial and commercial establishments such as factories, offices, etc. some
industries and commercial establishments have private water sources whereas others are supplied by
the municipal or county government. The amount of water required depends on the type and size of
establishment.

Public use

Water furnished for public buildings, for flushing and cleaning streets, for watering parks, and for fire
protection. On per capita basis, public uses of water amount to about 30 L/capita. The amount of water
used for fighting fires is only a small fraction of the total supplied on annual basis, the short-term
demand rates can be very high and often dictate the sizing of pipes in small water supply systems. The
National Board of Fire Underwriters has recommended the fire demand required as follows:

Q =3.8 √𝑃 (1-0.01√𝑃 )

Where

Q= flowrate m3/min

P = Population in thousands

15
More recently the following equation has been proposed as guide for estimating water demand for fire
fighting:

F = 320C√𝐴

where

F = required fire flow, m3/d

C = coefficient related to type of construction

A= the total floor area (including all stories, but excluding basements) in the building under
consideration, m2. For fire-resistive buildings the six largest successive floor areas are used if the vertical
openings are unprotected: if the vertical openings are protected properly, only the three largest
successive floor areas are considered.

Values for C are 1.5 for wood-framed construction, 1.0 for ordinary construction, 0.8 for noncombustible
construction, and 0.6 for fire-resistive construction.

Unaccounted System Losses and Leakages

This is attributable to errors in meter readings, unauthorized connections, and leaks in the distribution
system.

iii) Factors Affecting Water Use

The average per capita water consumption varies from place to place. The local use depends upon such
factors as the size of the community, industries, quality of life, its cost, its pressure, the climate,
characteristics of the population, metered and efficiency the system is maintained.

Size of supply area.

For example big cities with industries can result in high per capita water uses. In small communities say
in rural areas are inadequately served by both water and sewerage systems. IN such cases for example
in Kenya such homes seldom exceeds 50 l/c/d.

Industrial and commerce –

The current industries and commercial establishments and possibility of establishing any future
industries and commercial establishments may affect the municipal water supply.

16
Characteristics of the population:

The economic level can influence substantial variations. The housing density and type of houses can
influence the amount of water use.

Metering

Metering of water supplied to individual units can reduce water usage up to 50 per cent. The absence of
meters results in extravagant use of water.

Pressure in the system

High pressure in the system results in greater use of water and in addition it increases losses from leaks.

System Maintenance

A well-designed program of maintenance reduces loss and waste in the system. Leak surveys aid in
detection of leaks in pipes and illegal connections.

iv) Fluctuations in Water use

Demand for water vary greatly throughout the day and the year. Water usage is very low during
nighttime hours and increases sharply during the breakfast and morning and has a second peak in the
evening. The variation is greater in small communities than in large communities.

Typical values:

Daily average in maximum month (range) 110 – 140 typical 120

Daily average in maximum week (range) 120-170 typical (140)

Maximum daily (range) 160-220 typical (180)

Maximum hour (range) 225-320 typical 270

9. Quality of Wastewater

Physical characteristics-

17
Sewage is over 99.9 per cent water. Fresh domestic sewage has a slightly soapy or oily odour, is cloudy,
and contains recognizable solids, often of considerable size. AS the waste ages its characteristics change
as a result of biological and chemical phenomena. Stale sewage has odour of hydrogen sulphide, is dark
gray and contains solids. The change from fresh to stale is about 2 to 6 hours at 20oC time depending on
the organic matter content. The concentration varies with per capita water use, infiltration, and quantity
of industrial waste which enters the collection system. The quantity of domestic waste produced per
person is relatively invariant on dry solids basis, but the quantity of sewage water is not.

Solids characteristics

Solids in sewage may either be suspended or dissolved. Total solids include both suspended and
dissolved. The solids are volatile suspended solids and dissolved solids.

Chemical Characteristics

Wastewater contains both inorganic and organic chemicals. Nitrogen maybe present in wastewater in
both inorganic and organic forms and in both reduced and oxidized states. In untreated wastewater it’s
present as ammonia or as a constituent of protein (organic nitrogen). Phosphorus is primarily present in
wastewater in the form of phosphates. The alkalinity of wastewater provides a buffer against acids
produced by bacterial action in anaerobic or nitrifying systems. As sewage ages, the pH tends to drop
because of the production of organic acids by bacterial metabolism. The organic constituents of
wastewater include carbohydrates, proteins and fats. The organic matter is measured by COD and BOD
determinations.

10. Wastewater flow

Wastewater is collected from all of the location where water is supplied, including residences,
commercial and industrial, facilities, institutional and recreational facilities., except some public use and
leakage.

i) Wastewater flow rate

In general wastewater flow rates are similar to water demand rates, except water used for irrigation (of
lawns and shrubs and gardens) generally does not enter the sanitary sewer and where infiltration into
sewers occurs (sewer are located below the water table) and where water enters the sewer through
joints and manholes during floods. The dry weather flow and the wet weather flow are quite different. It
can be assumed that 60 -80 per cent of water consumption enters into the sewer system.

ii) Types of Sewer systems

Separate sewer system is where the wastewater is separated from storm drainage system and combined
system is where the two are combined. In the combined system the wet-weather ratio to the dry-

18
weather is very pronounced. The treatment of the wet weather flow becomes not only very expensive
but a challenge to wastewater treatment plant.

iii) Fluctuations of wastewater flow

The wastewater flow rate mirrors the water flow fluctuations on an hourly, daily, weekly, monthly and
yearly basis.

Peak flow rates are important in the design of wastewater collection systems. The peak flow factor
varies more for a small community than for a larger community. The peak for a small community can
vary by a factor of 2 – 2.5 while that of a larger community by about 1.5

iv) The velocities in sewer are maintained between 0.6 – 1.5 m/s and they are designed to
flow half full at peak flow. The minimum velocity is to keep the solids in suspension and
the maximum velocity to minimize the scouring of the pipe materials by the solids eg
grits etc. The sewer pipe size that serve individual residences are typically 100mm in
diameter and those that collect waste water from house sewers are 225 mm in
diameter.

10 SETTLEMENT OF PARTICLES

i) Discrete settling

Consider a spherical particle in water

19
Force balance can be written for a discrete particle that is settling:
𝑑𝑣𝑠
mP 𝑑𝑡 = FG –FB-FD -----------Equation 1

where,

mp = mass of particle, kg

vs = velocity of particle, m/s

20
FG = gravitational force, N

FB = buoyant force, N

FD = drag firce, N

The net gravitational force is given by

FG-FB = (ρp - ρw)gVp ----------Equation 2

where,

ρp = density of particle, kg/m3

ρw = density of water, kg/m3

g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2

Vp = volume of particle, (πdp3/6), m3

dp = diameter of particle, m

The drag force is a function of the particle x-sectional area, the settling velocity of the particle, the
liquid density and the coefficient of drag.

FD = CD Apρwvs /2 -----------Equation 3

where,

C D = coefficient of drag

Ap = area of particle (πd2p/4), m2

ρw = density of water, kg/m3

vs = particle velocity, m/s

For spherical particle, the coefficient of drag is estimated using the following relationship:
24 3
CD = 𝑁𝑅 + + 0.34 --------------Equation 4
√𝑁𝑅

where,

NR = Reynolds number dimensionless

= vsdpρw/µ

µ = liquid viscosity, kg/m.s

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In ideal system, the terminal settling velocity is attained quickly and the acceleration term can be
assumed to be negligible. Thus Equation 1 can be rewritten

FG-FB = FD ------------ Equation 5

Substituting Equation 2 for Equation 5 and substituting Equation 3 for F D

(ρp - ρw)gVp = CD Apρwvs /2 ----------- Equation 6

solving for the settling velocity,

4 𝑔(𝜌𝑝−𝜌𝑤)𝑑𝑝
vs =√ -----Equation 7
3 𝐶𝐷𝜌𝑤

dp = diameter of the particle, m

When NR < 0.3 , the first term of equation 4 predominates and the discrete particle settling rate
becomes (Stokes Law)
𝑔(𝜌𝑝−𝜌𝑤)
VS = dp2 -------------------Equation 8
18µ

ρp = particle density, kg/m3

µ = liquid viscosity, kg/m.s

The viscosity of water is about 0.001 kg/m.s at 20oC, but varies considerably with temperature

The theoretical design of sedimentation processes is generally based on concept of the ideal settling
basin. a particle entering the basin will have a horizontal velocity equal to the velocity of the fluid,
𝑄 𝑄
V = 𝐴 = 𝑤𝑥ℎ -------------Equation 9

and a vertical velocity equal to its terminal settling velocity defined by Stoke’s or Newton Law. If a
particle is to be removed its settling velocity and horizontal velocity must be such that their resultant
will carry it to the bottom of the basin before the outlet zone is reached. Consider the figure below
𝑣𝑠 ℎ
= ------ Equation 10
𝑉 𝐿

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 =

𝑉ℎ ℎ 𝑄 𝑄
or vs = = 𝑥 𝑤ℎ = 𝑤𝐿 ------------ Equation 11
𝐿 𝐿

Equation 11 defines what is called Surface Overflow Rate (SOR). The particles which settle at velocities
equal to or greater than the SOR will entirely be removed, while those which settle at lower velocities
will be removed in direct proportion to the ratio of their settling velocities to v s.

The fraction of all particles removed is

𝑋𝑠 𝑣
F = (1-Xs) + ∫0 𝑑𝑥
𝑣𝑠

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In which (1-Xs) is the fraction of particles with v≥ 𝑣𝑠 and the integral is the fraction of the particle with
v< 𝑣𝑠 which is removed in the basin.
1
F = (1-Xs) + 𝑉𝑠 ⅀𝑣𝛥𝑥

The ideal sedimentation systems describe above have a number of major differences from actual
systems. First, the assumption that particles do not interact is not correct: several types of interaction
occur and flow patterns in real life situation cause considerable deviations from the ideal conditions.

Three types of interactions occur: 1. Flocculation in which particles collide and adhere and particles
growth results; 2) the particles are close together that flow is restricted and the particles move as a
block; and 3) mechanical, in which particles physically interact, particularly in a compressive mode,
water is squeezed out of the flocs and particle volume may decrease. These three interaction result in
three classes of sedimentation 9Type II, III and IV) other than discrete. They are often referred to by
class or as flocculant, hindered, and compression (or thickening), respectively.

ii) Flocculant Settling

The chemical precipitates which are formed in coagulation and other stabilization processes tend to
agglomerate while settling as a result of interparticle collisions. The settling velocities increase, and
removal efficiencies are better than predicted from discrete-particle analyses.

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Settling analysis of such suspensions are performed in columns at least 200 mm in diameter with depth
equal to that of the proposed clarifier. Samples are withdrawn at regular time intervals from multiple
ports along the column and are analysed to determine reduction in suspended solids. Per cent removals
are plotted as numerical values versus depth and time. From the plot the removal obtained at various
times may be predicted and a theoretical SOR can be established. The design SOR must be decreased by
a factor of about 1.5.

iii) Hindered Settling

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Hindered settling is characterized by formation of a sharp, clear water-solids-suspension interface that
settles at a characteristic rate. It is the interface settling rate that is used to determine the maximum
allowable Over Flow Rate (OFR). Hindered settling rates are lower than individual particle settling rates,
design for hindered conditions is generally unadvisable, except where solids thickening is desired.

Hindered settling occurs when high densities produce particle interactions and individual particles are
close to one another that the displacement of water produced by the settling of one affects the relative
velocities of its neighbors. Such conditions may occur in sludge thickeners in water treatment.

An estimate of the extent to which settling is hindered may be obtained from the equation:
𝑣ℎ
= (1-Cv) 4.65
𝑣

where vh is the hindered settling velocity, v is the free settling velocity, and Cv is the volume of the
particles divided by the total of the suspension. The equation is only valid if Reynolds number less than
0.2.

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