iii

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NON-WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
NO\ -WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS ~
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Edible nuts

Food
and
Agriculture
Organization
of
the
United
Nations
 NON-WOOD FORESTPRODUCTS
0 \ -WOOD FOREST PRODUCTS
5

Edible nuts
by
G.E. Wickens
G.E.

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE

AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED
UNITED NATIONS
NATIONS
Rome,
Rome, 1995
1995
 The opinions expressed
expressed in
in this document areare those
those of the
the authors
authors
and reflect opinions
and do not necessarily reflect opinions on
on the
the part
part of
of FAO.
FAO.

The
The designations employed and the presentation of material in this
publication do
do not
notimply the expression
implythe expression of
ofany opinion whatsoever
anyopinion whatsoever on on
the part
the part of the
the Food
Food and
and Agriculture
Agriculture Organization
Organization of the UnitedUnited
Nations concerning the legal status of any country,
country, territory,
territory, city
city or
or
area or
or of
ofits
itsauthorities,
authorities,orconcerning thedelimitation
or concerningthe delimitationof
ofits
itsfrontiers
frontiers
boundaries.
or boundaries.

M-37
ISBN 92-5-103748-5
ISBN

All rights
All rights reserved.
reserved. No part of this publication may be
publication may be reproduced, stored in
reproduced , stored in aa
retrieval system,
retrieval system, or
or transmitted in any
transmitted in any form
form oror by
byany
anymeans,
means,electronic,
electronic,
mechanical,, photocopying
mechanical photocopying oror otherwise
otherwise,, without
without the
the prior
prior permission
permission of
of the
the
copyright owner.
copyright owner. Applications
Applications for
for such
such permission, with a statement
permission , with statement of thethe
purpose and
purpose and extent of the reproduction,
reproduction, should
should be addressed
addressed to the Director,
Director,
Publications Division, Food
Food and
and Agriculture
Agriculture Organization
Organization ofof the
the United
United Nations,
Nations,
Viale delle Terme di Caracalla, 00100
00100 Rome,
Rome, Italy.
Italy.

© FAO 1995
FAO 1995
 FOREWORD

Forests offer aa variety

variety of
of edible
edible products, of
of which
which edible nuts form a distinct group.

Nuts are among

Nuts among thethe most
most nutritionally
nutritionally concentrated of human
concentrated of human foods
foods and
and are
are an
important food
important food source for rural
rural communities
communities and forest dwellers.
dwellers . While some of the
the edible
edible
nuts support subsistence,
nuts subsistence, others
others are
are of
of considerable
considerable commercial
commercial importance.
importance.

the role
However, the role and
and importance of edible
importance of edible nuts
nuts as
as aa Non-Wood
Non-Wood Forest Product is is not
not
adequately recognized
adequately recognized or appreciated. An attempt is made here to to address
address this
this deficiency.
deficiency.

The document
The document deals with
with aa representative
representative selection
selection of major
major edible
edible nut
nut producing
producing
plants, minor edible
plants, edible nut
nut producing
producing plants,
plants, and
and potential
potential edible
edible nut
nut producing
producing plants.
plants. The
The
purpose is to bring the
the importance
importance of
of edible
edible nuts
nuts into
into sharp
sharp focus,
focus, to
to highlight
highlight their
their immense
immense
potential, to encourage
potential, encourage further studies
studies and research
research relating
relating to edible
edible nuts and to to promote
promote
their development.

The draft of this publication

publication was prepared by G.E. Wickens,
Wickens, previously
previously of
of the
the Royal
Royal
Botanic Gardens,
Botanic Gardens, KewKew (UK),
(UK), and itit benefitted
benefitted from
from the
the detailed
detailed comments
comments of G. G . Blaak,
Blaak,
E.H. Sène
Sene and
and P.
P. Vantomme.
Vantomme. LauraLauraRusso
Russo undertook
undertook light
light editing
editing of the text and organized
organized
the illustrations.
the illustrations . Format
Format editing
editing and
and proof
proof reading
reading was
was done
done byby Elisa
Elisa Rubini.
Rubini. Overall
Overall
guidance and supervision for the preparation
guidance preparation and publication of the document
document waswas provided
by C.
by C . Chandrasekharan,
Chandrasekharan, ChiefChief of
ofthe
the Non-Wood
Non-Wood Products
Products and
and Energy
Energy Branch.
Branch. I wish
wish to
to
express my thanks to all
express all of
of them.
them.

I have great
great pleasure
pleasure in
in releasing
releasing this
this valuable
valuable publication
publication and feel confident that itit
will provide necessary
necessary impetus
impetus for
for positive
positive action.
action.

Karl-Hermann Schmincke
Schmincke
Director
Forest Products Division
Division

iii
 CONTENTS

Page

FOREWORD 111

GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS

GLOSSARY vii
Vll

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1

2. MAJOR EDIBLE NUTS

NUTS 13

• Cashew or monkey
Cashew monkey nut 13
• Pistachio 16
• Sunflower seeds 18
• Filbert, cob or hazel
hazel 18
• Chestnut 21
• Pecan 23
• English, Persian, European, Royal, Italian, Madeira,
English, Madeira, French,
French, Chile,
Chile,
Manchurian, Caucasian
Caucasian or Circassian
Circassian walnut
walnut 26
• Brazil
Brazil nut 28
• Peanut or groundnut 33
• Macadamia or Queensland nut
Macadamia 33
• Almond 37
• Coconut 39

3. MINOR EDIBLE NUTS

NUTS 43

• Pili or Philippine
Philippine nut
nut 43
• Pumpkin, squash
squash or
or gourd
gourd seeds
seeds 44
• American beechnut
beechnut 45
• Shagbark hickory
Shagbark hickory nut 46
• Butternut or white walnut
Butternut 48
• Soy, soja or soya
Soy, soya bean
bean 49
• Water or horn
horn chestnut,
chestnut, jesuit
jesuit nut
nut or
or water
water calthrop
calthrop 49
• Stone or parasol pine nut
Stone nut or
or pignolia
pignolia 51
51

4. POTENTIAL EDIBLE NUTS

NUTS 55

• Manila or maroela
Marula maroela 56
• Guyana or malabar
malabar chestnut
chestnut or saba
saba nut
nut 57
• Java almond;
Java almond; kanari
kanari or ngali nut 59
• Pequi, piqui,
piqui, piquia-oil
piquia-oil plant
plant 60
60
• Castanha de galinha
galinha 62
62
• Indian or tropical
tropical almond
almond 64
64
• Okari nut
nut 65
65
• Cacay, inchi, tacay,
tacay, taccy,
taccy, nogal, arbol, arbol de nuez, pan de cada dia or
nogal, arbol,
orinoco nut 67
• Cream, paradise
paradise or
or sapucaia
sapucaia nut
nut 69
Yicib (new Somali orthography),
• Yicib orthography), ye-eb or yeheb
yeheb 71

v
V
 Page

• Tara
Tara 73
• Galo or promising nut
Galo 75
• Avellano,
A vellano, Chilean nut, Chilean hazel
hazel 76
• Quandong
Quandong or native peach
native peach 77
• Argan 79
• Shea butter tree
Shea 80
• Bitter cola, kola nut 84
• Sugar plum,
Sugar plum, areng palm, ejow, gomuti,
gomuti, kaong
kaong 86
• Tucuma 87
• Peach plum, palm chestnut, pupunha,
Peach pupunha, pejibay(e)
pejibay(e) or pejivalle 88
• Babassu,, babacu palm or aguassù
Babassu aguassu 91

REFERENCES 95

APPENDICES

Appendix A Species with edible "nuts"

Species "nuts" listed
listed by
by families
families 105
Appendix B
B Compositionofof nuts
Composition nuts per
per 100
100 gg edible
edible portion
portion (raw
(raw unless
unless
otherwise indicated)
indicated) 181
Appendix C
C Botanical names (bold)
Botanical names (bold) cited
cited inin the text
text and
and their
their synonyms
synonyms
(italics) used
(italics) used in the cited literature 185

vi
VI
 GLOSSARY
GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS
TERMS

abscision scar adhesion scar

accrescent inflated
achene 1-seeded, coriaceous
1-seeded, coriaceous (q. (q.v.)
v.) fruit
acuminate (of aa leaf)
leaf) apex tapering gradually or abruptly
tapering gradually abruptly into into a narrow point
acute pointed
adaxial (of a leaf)
adaxial leaf) upper surface
adventitious roots roots arising from an organ other than the
arising from the root
aflatoxins group of of secondary
secondary metabolites
metabolites produced by Aspergillus Aspergillus spp. spp.
commonly
commonly growing growing on stored stored food and often highly toxic
alternate (of leaves)
leaves) inserted at
inserted at different
different levels
levels along
along the the stem
stem or branch, i. e.,
or branch, e., not
opposite
androecium male component, i.i.e.,
male component, e., stamens
stamens (q.v.)(q . v.) ofof an
an angiosperm
angiosperm flower
flower
annual plant completing
completing its its life cycle within a year
apetalous petals
without petals
aril (of aa seed)
seed) appendage covering
an appendage covering or or partly enclosing
enclosing the the seed and arising
from the funicle
funicle (q.
(q.v.y.))
armed equipped with spines
equipped
axil the angle between the leaf and and branch
branch
axillary arising from the
arising the axil
axil (q.
(q .y.)
v. )
beaked terminating gradually
terminating gradually in in aa hard,
hard, long, straight
straight point
berry a juicy fruit with seeds immersed immersed in pulp
bipinnate (of a leaf)
bipinnate leaf) where the primary divisions
where divisions of a leaf (leaflets) (leaflets) of a pinnate leaf
(q. v.)
(q. y.) are
are themselves pinnate
bony hard and
hard and very close textured
textured and and only
only cut with difficulty
bract a small leaf subtending
subtending aa flower flower or flower stalk
bur, burr a rough, prickly
prickly or or spiny
spiny huskhusk (q. y.),
(q. v. ), also commonly applied to to
the entire
the entire fruit
buttress a plank-like outgrowth of the the lower
lower trunk
trunk andand providing support
caducous falling early
falling
calcifuge a plant that grows in in calcium
calcium deficient
deficient soils soils
calyx collective
collective term for the sepals (q. y.)
the sepals (q. v.)
carpel a simple
simple pistil
pistil formed
formed by aa fruit-leaffruit-leaf folded
folded lengthwise
lengthwise and
united by
united by its
its edges (suture, q.
edges (suture, q.v.),
v.), or one of of several
several such
such united
to form the ovary ovary
cartilaginous flexible but firm and tough
flexible
cathartic purgative
catkin a closely
closely packed,
packed, bracteate,
bracteate, pendulous
pendulous spike spike (q.v.),
(q . v.), usually
usually
composed
composed of small, inconspicuous
inconspicuous unisexual flowers
chartaceous papery
compound leaf leaf divided to the midrib or petiole petiole to to form
form leaflets
leaflets (q.
(q. y.)
v.)
coriaceous leathery
corm a short, swollen,
swollen, perennating,
perennating, underground stem
corolla collective term for the
collective the petals
petals (q.(q. y.)
v.)
cotyledon first leaf or leaves
leaves of of the
the angiosperm
angiosperm embryo embryo
cupule cup-shaped structure
cup-shaped structure partially
partially or completely
completely enclosing the fruit
in the Fagaceae formed from the fused extensions of the pedicel
(q.v.)
(q . v.)

vii
Vll
cyme aa type
type of inflorescence
inflorescence (q. (q.v.)
v.) inin which
which each each axis
axis ends
ends inin a
flower
cypsela a fruit similar to an acheneachene (q. (q.v.) develops from
v.) but develops from an inferior
ovary and consequently
consequently includes
includesnon-carpellary
non-carpellarytissue tissue.
. Typical
of the
the Compositae,
Compositae, where where the the fruit
fruit isis surrounded
surrounded by by hairs,
hairs,
pappus, (q.v.),
pappus, (q. v.), derived
derived from the the calyx
deciduous eventually falling;
eventually falling; not evergreen
dehiscent opening
opening spontaneously
spontaneously when ripe
determinate growth ending in a bud bud
dioecious with unisexual flowers (c.j
unisexual flowers (c.f monoecious)
monoecious)
disc enlargement of
a circular enlargement of the
the receptacle
receptacle (q. (q. y.)
v.)
dorsal lower
lower surface,
surface, side
side facing
facing awayaway fromfrom thethe main axis axis
drupe a fleshy,
fleshy, indehiscent
indehiscent fruit fruit inin which
which the the seed
seed or or seeds
seeds areare
surrounded by
surrounded by a hardened,
hardened, sclerochymatous
sclerochymatous endocarp endocarp (q.v.)
(q. v. )
dry not fleshy
ellipsoid an elliptic solid
solid
elliptic oval shaped,
oval shaped, broadest in the middle
endocarp innermost layer
innermost layer of the pericarp
pericarp (q. (q. y.)
v.)
endosperm the nutritive material stored within the seed seed
epicarp see exocarp
see
etiology the study of the the casual
casual agents
agents of of aa disease
disease
exocarp the outer layer of of the
the pericarp
pericarp (q. (q. y.)
v.)
exfoliate peeling off
peeling
fan palm palm with fan or or wedge-shaped
wedge-shaped leaves leaves
fastigiate aa tree in which
which the the branches
branches grow grow almost
almost vertically
vertically
feather palm palm with pinnate
pinnate leaves
leaves
FOB free on board
board
foliate leaves divided into leaflets
leaves leaflets (q.(q. y.)
v.)
follicle a pod (q. y.) consisting of a single
(q. v.) single carpel (q. (q. y.)
v.) usually opening
opening
along the inner suturesuture (q. y.) to which the seeds
(q. v.) seeds areare attached
attached
funicle the stalk attaching the the ovule
ovule andand later the seed to the ovary wall
gametophyte the haploid generation in the life-cycle of a plant plant
geocarpic where the fruit
fruit are
are pushed
pushed intointo the
the soil
soil by
by the
the gynophore
gynophore(q. (q.y.)
v.)
and mature
and
glabrescent becoming glabrous
becoming glabrous (q. y.) or nearly so
(q. v.)
glabrous devoid of hairs
devoid
gourd fruits of the
fruits the Curcurbitaceae
Curcurbitaceaewith withaahard hardrindrind(c.j
(cf pepo)
pepo)
gynoecium female component,
female component, i.e., i.e., carpels (q.(q.v.),
v.), of
of an
an angiosperm flower
gynophore an extension
an extension of the the receptacle
receptacle (q. y.) which
(q. v.) which bears
bears thethe ovary
ovary
y.)
(q. v.)
hapaxanthic (palms) flowers only
a plant which flowers only once
once and
and then
then dies
dies (c.j
(c.f. pleonanthic)
hastula a small
small flange
flange of tissue
tissue at
at the
the junction
junction ofof lamina
lamina (q.
(q. y.)
v.) and
and
petiole (q. v.)
y.) of most palm leaves
leaves
haustorium a nutrient absorbing organ, often produced
absorbing organ, produced by by a plant parasite
hermaphrodite mare and female
male and organs present
female organs present in the same
same flower
flower
herbaceous soft, not
not hard
hard oror woody
woody
hull lay term for
for skin
skin of
of kernel
kernel
husk lay term rather
rather loosely
loosely applied
applied for thethe fleshy
fleshy or
or fibrous
fibrous outer
outer
cover of aa fruit
fruit

viii
V III
hypanthium a flat
flat or
or cup-shaped
cup-shaped receptacle
receptacle (q. (q.v.)
v.) onon which
which the the ovary
ovary is is
either immersed
immersed or on the same level as the calyx calyx and
and corolla
corolla
imparipinnate
imparipinnate (of a leaf)
leaf) leaf pinnate (q. v.) with an odd terminal leaflet (c.f.
(q.v.) (c.! paripinnate)
paripinnate)
indehiscent (of a fruit)
indehiscent not opening when ripe
Indo-China region
region of Southeast
Southeast Asia which includes includes Myanmar,
Myanmar, Thailand,
Thailand,
Laos,
Laos, Cambodia and and Viet Nam and the Malay Peninsula
inflorescence the arrangement
the arrangement of the flowers flowers on a plant
infructescence fruiting inflorescence
inflorescence
involucre a number
number of bracts bracts (q. y.)) surrounding
(q. v. surrounding the the base
base of aa flower-
flower-
head, sometimes
sometimes persisting
persisting in fruit
kernel the inner, usually
the usually edible part of aa nut nut (q. y.) or stone
(q.v.) stone (q. y.)
(q.v.)
lamina leaf blade
lanceolate lance-shaped
leaf leaf blade plus plus petiole
petiole (q.(q. y.)
v. )
leaf sheath basal
basal part of a leaf leaf surrounding
surrounding the stem stem
leaflet a leaf-like unit of of aa compound
compound leaf leaf (q.
(q. y.)
v.)
legume the fruit-pod of the Leguminosae,
Leguminosae, consisting of a single carpel,
usually opening along both sutures (q.
usually y.) into two halves
(q. v.) halves
locule cavity
cavity of ovary
ovary or fruit
loculicidal opening into the cells, when a ripe capsule splits along the back
Malaysia Federation which includes Peninsular Malaysia, East Malaysia,
Sabah and Sarawak
Malesia bio-geographical region which includes Malaysia (q. v.), y.),
Indonesia,
Indonesia, the the Philippines, Singapore, Brunei
Philippines, Singapore, Brunei and and Papua New
Guinea
mastic resin
resm
mericarp one of the separate
separate halves
halves or parts parts of a fruit
fruit
mesocarp
mes ocarp the often fleshy or succulentsucculent middle layer of of the
the pericarp
pericarp (q.
(q. y.)
v.)
monoeclOUS
monoecious where the male and female flowers are separate but on on the
the same
same
(c.! dioecious)
plant (c.f. dioecious)
mucilaginous a substance
substance that that swells
swells withwith water
water toto form
form a slimy
slimy solution
solution
muricate with
with a surface
surface covered
covered by by sharp
sharp points
points or prickles
prickles oror hard,
hard,
sharp projections
mycoplasma small, parasitic
small, microorganisms that
parasitic microorganisms that lack
lack rigid
rigid cell
cell wall;
wall; they
are believed
are believed to to be responsible
responsible for for certain
certain yellow diseases of
yellow diseases of
plants
nut 1-seeded, indehiscent
1-seeded, indehiscent(q.(q.v.), fruit with
v.), fruit with aa hard,
hard, drydry pericarp
pericarp
(q.v.)
(q. v.)
nutlet a small nut nut (q.(q. y.)
v.)
oblong oval (q. v. y.)) with parallel sides
obovate ovate (q.v.)
ovate (q. v.) with the broadest
broadest part farthest
farthest from
from thethe petiole
petiole
oleaginous oily
operculum lid of aa pyxidium
lid pyxidium (q. (q. y.)
v.)
ovate egg-shaped
egg-shaped with with the
the broadest part nearest to the the petiole
petiole
ovoid solid form
solid form of oval
oval broadly elliptic
ovary the swollen,
the swollen, basalbasal part of aa carpel carpel (q.
(q. y.)
v.) containing
containing thethe ovule
(q. y.) or ovules
(q. v.)
ovule the immature seed before fertilization fertilization

ix
panicle inflorescence
inflorescence in which the axis is divided into branches branches bearing
bearing
flowers
several flowers
pappus rig of hairs
hairs or
or scales
scales round
round the the toptop ofof Compositae
Compositae fruit
paripinnate pinnate leaf (q.v.) (q. v.) without
without an an odd odd terminal
terminal leaflet (c.f. (c.f
imparipinnate)
pedicel the stalk attaching a flower to the the main
main axis
axis of
of anan inflorescence
inflorescence
peduncle general name for a flower stalk bearing either a solitary flower
or aa cluster
cluster ofof flowers
flowers
peltate leaf)
peltate (of a leaf) petiole attached
attached to the undersurface
undersurface instead of the margin margin
pepo a type
type of berry (q.v.)(q. v. ) with
with aa hardhard exterior
exterior derived
derived eithereither from
from
the epicarp (q. v.), y.), or, in the Cucurbitaceae, from from the the receptacle
receptacle
(q.
(q.v.)
v.)
perennial a plant that survives for several several yearsyears
perianth floral envelope consisting of sepals
floral sepals (q. y.) and petals
(q . v.) petals (q. (q. y.)
v.)
pericarp
pencarp fruit wall derived from the ovary; ovary ; in in fleshy
fleshy fruits
fruits thethe pericarp
pericarp
is divided
is divided intointo an outer,
outer, toughened
toughened epicarp epicarp (q (q.v.),
. v.), aa fleshy
fleshy
mesocarp (q.v.), (q. v. ), and an inner, variously thickened or or
membraneous endocarp endocarp (q. (q .y.)
v. )
petal an individual
an individual unit unit ofof the
the corolla
corolla (q. y.), interior
(q. v.), interior to to the calyx
calyx
y.), usually coloured
(q. v.),
(q.
petiole stalk attaching
stalk attaching the the leaf
leaf blade
blade to to the
the branch
branch or stem
pinnate a leaf divided along aa common common axis axis into
into leaflets
leaflets (q.(q. y.)
v.)
pinnatisect a leaf almost divided to
almost divided to the
the axis
axis into
into segments
segments(c.f (cf pinnate)
pinnate)
piscicide fish poison
pleonanthic (of palms) method
method of of flowering
flowering in in which
which the the stem
stem doesdoes not not die afterafter
flowering (c.!
flowering (c.f. hapaxanthic)
hapaxanthic)
pod a dry, indehiscent
indehiscent (q. (q.v.)
v.) fruit
pome fleshy fruit where the succulent tissues are developed from the
a fleshy the
receptacle (q. (q. y.)
v. )
pubescent covered with short hairs
covered
pyrene a nutlet (q.v.) or
nutlet (q.v.) or kernel (q.v.), the
kernel (q.v.), the stone
stone of of aa drupe
drupe (q (q.v.)
.v.) or
similar fruit
pyxidium seed capsule
seed having a circular lid
capsule having lid (operculum
(operculum q. q. y.)
v.) which falls falls
off to release the the seeds
seeds
raceme an inflorescence
an inflorescence (q. (q.v.)y.)inin which
which the the flowers
flowers are are borne
borne on on
pedicels along an individual
pedicels individual axis axis or or peduncle
peduncle (q. (q .y.)
v.)
rachis main axis axis of a compound
compound leaf leaf (q.v.)
(q.v.) or inflorescence
inflorescence (q (q.v.)
.v.)
receptacle the extremity of of a peduncle (q. v.) y.) or pedicel (q. v. y.)) on
on which the
floral parts are are borne
borne
reniform kidney -shaped
kidney-shaped
root tuber swollen root
a swollen root oror branch
branch of a root acting acting as a food food reserve
reserve
samara an indehiscent
indehiscent (q (q.v.), 1-seeded, winged
.v.), 1-seeded, winged fruit
samaroid like a samara (q.v.)
like (q. v.)
sarcotesta (of palms)
sarcotesta outer seed coat developed
developed as as a fleshy
fleshy layer surrounding the rest
of the seed
schizo carp
schizocarp aa dry
dry fruit derived
derived from two or more more 1-seeded
1-seeded carpels
carpels which
which
divided into
divided into 1-seeded
1-seeded units units at maturity
sclerenchymatous composed of strengthening tissues
composed
seed the product
the product of a fertilized ovule

x
sepal an individual
an individual unit unit ofof the
the calyx
calyx (q. v.y.) exterior to
) exterior to the
the corolla
corolla
y.), usually
(q. v.), usually green
septum (pl.
septum (pl. septa) dividing wall
dividing
septicidal
septicidal divided into compartments
divided
serrate
serrate with
with regular, saw-like, teeth
regular, saw-like,
sessile
sessile stalkless
shell
shell hard, dry
hard, dry pericarp
pericarp (q. (q.v.)
v. ) of a nut (q.v.)
(q. v. )
simple (of a leaf)
simple not divided into into leaflets
leaflets (q.(q. y.)
v. )
solitary palm stem not suckering
stem
spike inflorescence with
inflorescence with sessile (q. v. ) flowers
(q.v.) flowers alongalong a simple,
undivided rachis
undivided rachis (q.(q.v.)
v.)
stamen male reproductive
reproductive organ of aa flowering flowering plant plant
staminode sterile rudimentary stamen
sterile or rudimentary stamen (q. (q. y.)
v.)
stigma receptive
receptive tip tip of the
the style (q.v.)
style (q. v. ) or, where
where absent, carpel (q.v.)(q. v. )
where
where the the pollen is received at pollination
stipule leaf-like or scale-like
leaf-like scale-like appendages
appendages,, usually usually at at the base of the
the base the
petiole (q.(q. y.)
v. )
stolon a runner thatthat roots
roots
stoloniferous stolons (q.
with stolons (q.y.)
v. )
stone woody endocarp (q. y.)) of aa drupe
(q. v. drupe (q. (q. y.)
v. )
strobili pine cone
style sterile portion of the carpel between the ovary (q. v.) y.) and
and stigma
(q.v.)
(q. v.)
suture line of union (and (and eventual
eventual opening)
opening) of aa carpel carpel (q.
(q.y.)
v. )
subcordate
subcordate (of a leaf)
leaf) leaf base rounded
rounded and and slightly
slightly notched
notched
tendril modified plant organ used for
a coiling, modified for climbing
climbing
terminal at the end of
testa outer seed coat
tomentose densely covered with short, soft
densely covered soft hairs
hairs
ton long ton, equivalent
equivalent to 1.016 1.016 tonnes
tonnes
tonne metric
metric tonnetonne (one (one thousand
thousand kilogrammes),
kilogrammes), equivalent to
0.984 tons
tons
toothed
toothed (of a leaf)
leaf) variously
variously and and regularly indented (c.
regularly indented ! serrate)
(c.f serrate)
trigonous obtusely 3-angled
turgid swollen
unarmed spines
without spines
valve (of fruit)
fruit) segments produced
one of the segments produced by by the splitting
splitting of a ripe capsule
(q. v.)
y.)
ventral upper surface,
surface, side
side facing
facing the
the main
main axis
axis
vermifuge expels or destroys
destroys intestinal
intestinal worms
worms

xi
Xl
 INTRODUCTION 1

Edible nuts
Edible nuts are
are used
used by
by mankind
mankind for
for food,
food, edible
edibleoils,
oils,spices,
spices,condiments
condimentsororbeverages
beverages. They
. They
have
have been
been an
an important
important food
food source
source from
from prehistoric
prehistoric times
times and
and are
are among
among the
the most
most
nutritionally concentrated of of human foods, high in protein, oil, oil , energy, minerals
minerals and
and vitamins.
vitamins .
Nuts
Nuts that areare only
only rarely
rarely used
used as
asfamine
famine food
food have
have been
been excluded
excluded fromfrom this
this present
present study
study
partly because of of the
the paucity
paucity information
information available
available but mainly because
because they
they are not normally
norma!ly
considered edible. Nuts Nutsused
usedsolely
solelyfor
forspices
spicesororcondiments
condimentshave have also
also been
been largely
largely excluded
excluded
since they
since they are
are used
used sparingly,
sparingly, toto flavour
flavour food
food and
and not
not as
as aa food;
food; traditionally
traditionally they
they are
are
considered separately
considered separately from
from edible
edible nuts.
nuts. Nuts
Nuts that
that are
are largely
largely used
used as
as commercial
commercial sources of
edible oil are not
edible not discussed
discussed inin any
any great
great detail
detail since
since they
they are
are already
already adequately
adequately dealt with
in the
in the literature,
literature, e.g.,
e.g., Hartley
Hartley (1988)
(1988) regarding
regarding the oil palms Elaeis guienensis
palms Elaeis guienensis.. However,
However,
their local uses are
are briefly
briefly mentioned
mentioned inin Appendix
Appendix A. A.

Melville (1947) has, perhaps

perhaps not
not unexpectedly,
unexpectedly, noted
noted aa correlation
correlation inin nutritive
nutritive values
values between
between
species within
species within aa genus
genus or family. There are also
family. There also similarities
similarities to be be found
found between
between related
related
species in the
species the harvesting,
harvesting, storage and processing
processing techniques,
techniques, etcetc.. The
The arrangement
arrangement of of edible
edible
therefore, by
nut species in Appendix A is, therefore, by families
families in
in the
the expectation
expectation that users cancan compare
and possibly
related species and possibly improve
improve management
management techniques
techniques or deduce
deduce possible techniques
techniques
where none are known.
where known.

Botanical terminology
Botanical terminology has
has been
been used
used where
where known
known but,
but, in view
view of the uncritical use inin the
the
literature of layman terms, itit has
has not
not always
always been
been possible
possible to identify
identify the the
the true nature of the
organs without further research and this may have led to the wrong deduction
deduction being
being made
made in in
this
this paper. As far as research time has perrnitted, the currently accepted botanical name
As far as research time has permitted, the currently accepted botanical name is is
used within the text and these, together
together with
with their synonyms used in the consulted
consulted references,
are given in
in Appendix
Appendix C.
C.

The term "forest",

The "forest", as
as used
used in
inthe
thetitle
titleofofthis
thisreport,
report,embraces
embracesall allthe
thenatural
naturalecosystems
ecosystems
where
where trees andand shrubs
shrubs form
form aasignificant
significantcomponent.
component. As As such,
such, "forests"
"forests" range
range from
from
evergreen rainforest to desert, although
although in the latter habitat the the trees
trees and
and shrubs
shrubs are confined
primarily to oases and waterways
waterways (Wickens,
(Wickens, 1991).
1991). In
In certain areas, trees
trees and
and shrubs bearing
edible nuts are preserved on on farmlands
farmlands and constitute the
and homesteads after land clearance and constitute the
chief supplies available for household
household consumption
consumption or sale;
sale; as such
such they
they cancan be
be considered
considered
as
as relics
relics of
ofthe
thenatural
naturalecosystems.
ecosystems. There There isis also
also aa rather
rather grey
grey area
area where
where forestry,
forestry ,
horticulture and agricultural
horticulture and agricultural interests overlap. While
interests overlap. While nut
nut plantations
plantations are are included
included in this
this
report, certain
certain recognized
recognized nut
nut crops,
crops, such
such as
as peanuts,
peanuts, sunflower
sunflower seeds, pumpkin
pumpkin seeds
seeds and
soya beans
soya beans are definitely agricultural crops and are not considered in any great
agricultural crops great detail
detail here.
here.

WHAT ARE
ARE EDIBLE
EDIBLE NUTS
NUTS

The botanical use of the term "nut"

botanical use "nut" refers
refers toto an
anindehiscent
indehiscent fruit
fruit that
that isis usually
usually shed
shed as
as aa
1-seeded
I-seeded unit.
unit. It is
is formed
formed from
from more
more than
than one
one carpel
carpel but
but only
only one
one seed
seed develops,
develops , the
the rest
rest
abort. The pericarp is is usually
usually lignified
lignified and
and isis often
often partially
partially oror completely
completely surrounded
surrounded by by
a "cupule". True nuts
"cupule". True nuts include
include the hazelnuts,
hazelnuts, Corylus spp. (Corylaceae),
Corylus spp. (Corylaceae), and and from
from thethe
Fagaceae, beechnuts,
Fagaceae, beechnuts, Fagus
Fagus spp.
spp. and
and acorns,
acorns, Quercus
Quercus spp.
spp. The
The term
term isis also
also loosely
loosely applied
applied
to any woody fruit or or seed,
seed, such
such asas the
the walnut
walnut (drupe
(drupe ofof Juglans
Juglans spp.,
spp., Juglandaceae),
Juglandaceae), Brazil
Brazil
nut (seed
(seed of
of Bertholletia
Bertholletia excelsa,
excelsa, Lecythidaceae)
Lecythidaceae) or or peanut
peanut (indehiscent
(indehiscent legume
legume ofofArachis
Arachis
hypogea, Leguminosae
hypogea, Leguminosae subfamily
subfamily Papilionoideae).
Papilionoideae) . It It is even
even incorrectly
incorrectly applied
applied in thethe

1
1
vernacular names to
vernacular names to non-fruiting bodies, such
non-fruiting bodies, such as
as the
the root
root tubers
tubers of the pignut
pignut or earthnut
earthnut
Conopodium (Umbelliferae) and
majus (Umbelliferae)
Conopodiummajus and Cyperus
Cyperus esculentus although in
esculentus (Cyperaceae), although in the latter
case the
case the root tubers
tubers are eaten
eaten as aa form
form of
of dessert
dessert nut.
nut. AAfurther
furthercomplication
complication is
is that
that the
the
seeds of several
seeds several members
members of of the
the Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbitaceae andand the
the sunflower,
sunflower, Helianthus
Helianthus annuus
annuus
(Compositae) are
(Compositae) are eaten
eaten as
as dessert
dessert nuts
nuts and
and are included
included in the literature
literature on edible nuts yet yet
they are always
they always referred
referred to
to both
both botanically
botanically and
and in
in the
the vernacular
vernacular as as seeds.
seeds.

For the
the purpose
purpose ofof this
this work
work nuts
nuts are
are hard-shelled
hard-shelled fruits,
fruits, or
or the
the edible
edible kernels
kernels of offleshy
fleshy
drupes or berries, or
drupes or seeds
seeds that are traditionally referred to
traditionally referred to as
as nuts.
nuts. TheThe first
first two
two categories
categories
of nuts
nuts are the
the fruits
fruits of
of trees
trees or
or shrubs,
shrubs, the
the third
third include
include some
some herbs. Since the
herbs. Since the value
value of
some nuts as food is relative
some relative to
to what
what better
better alternatives
alternatives are available, there are are obvious
obvious grey
grey
areas regarding
areas regarding whether
whether the the nut
nut is to be regarded
regarded as as edible
edible or not and an arbitrary
arbitrary decision
decision
has been made as to whether
has whether a species
species should or should not be included.
included. SomeSome 542 542 species
species
edible "nuts" have
of edible have been
been listed in Appendix
Appendix A. A. More
Moredetailed
detailed information
information is is given
given inin the
the
text on the
text the major,
major, minor
minor and and potential
potential nut
nut species.
species. However,
However, researchers
researchers requiring
requiring even
more information should bear in mind that the information given given isis aa summary
summary of of information
information
obtained from a selection of the published literature,
obtained literature, the primary sources
sources of which have not
been consulted.

While a species may conform to the general description of "edible nut" it does not follow that
an allied species also bears acceptable
acceptable "edible nuts", as for example with the
"edible nuts", the almond,
almond, Prunus
dulcis, and plum, P.
P. domestica; althoughchildren
domestica; although children may
may very
very occasionally
occasionally eat the plum kernels
it has never been
been considered
considered other than as aa fruit
fruit crop.
crop.

It is
is possible
possible that
that aa number
number of
ofspecies
species have
have been
been omitted
omitted because
because the
the information is not
information is not
readily available or is
readily is too
too vague
vague while
while others
others should
should be
be eliminated
eliminated because
because the
the information
information
obtained has been misleading.
obtained

Previous authors have also

also had
had problems
problems in in defining an edible "nut"
"nut" andand have
have provided
provided their
their
own apparently arbitrary limits. Menninger
Menninger(1977)(1977) provides
provides the
the widest
widest definition
definition where a nut
nut
is defined
is defined "as any hard-shelled fruit or seed of which
hard-shelled fruit the kernel
which the kernel isis eaten
eaten by
by mankind".
mankind". This
This
definition is so broad that even grasses and a number of herb species species have
have been
been included,
included, the
the
former are generally regarded as as cereals
cereals while
while the latter would be more appropriately
appropriately listed
under edible
edible seeds.
seeds. However,
However, all thethe authors
authors consulted,
consulted, with thethe exception
exception of Verheij
Verheij and
and
Coronel (1991),
Coronel (1991), have accepted the popular
accepted the popular or everyday use of the
everyday use the term "nut",
"nut", including
including its
its
conservative use
conservative use by
by Howes
Howes (1948)
(1948) to to include "any seed
include "any seed or fruit consisting
consisting of anan edible,
edible,
usually
usually oleaginous kernel, surrounded
oleaginous kernel, surrounded by by a hard or brittle
brittle shell".
shell". Interestingly,
Interestingly, the major
authors consulted, Howes
authors Howes (1948),
(1948), Menninger
Menninger (1977) and Rosengarten (1984), have,
Rosengarten (1984), have, like the
present author, all
all made
made their
their own
own interpretation
interpretation as what to include
include or exclude as an edibleedible
nut, while Verheij
nut, Verheij and Coronel
Coronel (1991)
(1991) declare
declare "it is not
not possible
possible to define
define the edible fruits
and nuts in such a way
way that
that clearly
clearly sets
sets them
them apart
apart from
from species
species in
in other
other commodity
commodity groups"
groups" . .

NUTRITIONAL VALUE
VALUE

Most edible "nuts"

"nuts" contain
contain concentrated
concentrated food
food reserves for future
reserves for future generations
generations of plants and
provide
provide valuable
valuable sources
sources of energy,
energy, protein, oils, minerals
minerals and vitamins suitable for
vitamins suitable for human
Others have
consumption. Others have their
their food
food reserves
reserves inin the form
form ofof starch
starch instead
instead of
of protein,
protein,
including
including chestnuts
chestnuts -- Castanea
Castanea spp.,
spp., acorns
acorns -- Quercus
Quercus spp.,
spp., water
water chestnuts
chestnuts - Trapa
Trapa spp.
spp.,,
ye-eb - Cordeauxia
Cordeauxiaedulis,
edulis,Bambara
Bambaragroundnuts
groundnuts--Vigna
Vigna subterranea
subterraneaandandlotus
lotusseeds
seedsNelumbo
Nelumbo

22
spp. While
WhilePinus
Pinusspp.
spp.are
areprotein
proteinrich,
rich,some
somemembers
membersof ofthe
theGymnospermae
Gymnospermae suchsuch as
as Ginkgo
Ginkgo
biloba and Araucaria spp.
spp . also
also have
have starchy
starchy food
food reserves
reserves (Melville,
(Melville, 1947).
1947).

Nuts have a reputation for being

being indigestible,
indigestible, especially eaten in
especially if eaten in large
large quantities
quantities oror poorly
poorly
masticated. They
masticated. Theyare
aregenerally
generallyaahighly
highlyconcentrated
concentrated foodfood but
but low
low in
in water
water and
and fibre
fibre content
content
and consequently
and consequently require
require thorough mastication ifif they
thorough mastication they are
are to
to be
be properly
properly digested,
digested, and are
preferably eaten with other foods.
foods. They
They have
have the
the additional
additional value that their
value in that their fats
fats are,
are, in the
main, highly
main, highly unsaturated and are
unsaturated and are consequently beneficialininthat
consequently beneficial that they
they do
do not
not raise
raise blood
blood
cholesterol. Peanuts (Arachis
(Arachis hypogea),
hypogea), sunflower
sunflower seeds
seeds (Helianthus annuus), souari
(Helianthus annuus), souari nuts
nuts
(Caryocar nuciferum)
nuciferum) and soynut
soy nut (Glycine
(Glycine max)
max) areare specifically mentioned in
specifically mentioned in this
this context
(Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

The nutritional value of a number of nuts are given in Appendix B. ItIt isis difficult
Appendix B. difficult to
to draw
draw any
any
firm conclusions
firm from these
conclusions from these analyses because the
analyses because the majority
majority appear
appear toto be be based
based on aa single
single
analysis which
analysis which have
have been passed
passed down
down through
through aa number
number of
ofpublications.
publications. Ecotypic and and
seasonal variations,
seasonal variations, ·the
.the effects
effects of
of fertilizers,
fertilizers, drought,
drought, etc., have
have not
not been
been investigated.
investigated.

HARVESTING

The harvesting
The harvesting ofof nuts
nuts from
from arborescent speciesisisoften
arborescent species oftenofof fallen
fallen nuts
nuts and
and as
as such
such isis
generally a prolonged, laborious
laborious andand wasteful process since fruits do
since fruits do not
not necessarily
necessarily all
all ripen
within a short period.
within period. Picking
Picking fallen fruits is time consuming,
fallen fruits consuming, especially in rough terrain
especially in
and, depending
and, depending on thethe time
time lapse
lapse between
between consecutive harvestings,can
consecutive harvestings, can lead
lead to
to rapid
rapid
deterioration as well as losses
losses to predators. Plantations
Plantations can
can improve
improve efficiency
efficiency by providing
better accessibility and easier harvesting conditions
conditions and,
and, provided they
they are large enough, lead
to mechanized
to mechanized harvesting
harvesting by by the
the use
use of
ofground
groundharvesters
harvestersand/or
and/ortree
treeshakers.
shakers. Mechanization
is
is being increasingly important in NorthNorth America
America where labour
labour costs are particularly
particularly high.
high.

PROCESSING AND
PROCESSING AND STORAGE
STORAGE

This discussion is limited to the major nuts, where appropriate techniques and equipment have
been developed,
been developed, about which
which more
more detailed
detailed information can be obtained
information can obtained fromfrom Woodroof
Woodroof
(1979). By
(1979). By dealing
dealing with
withprocessing
processing and
and storage
storage in
in general
general terms
terms itit isis hoped
hoped that
that readers
readers will
will
obtain ideas for dealing with similar problems in the less-known and and little
little researched
researched species.
species.

Many dessert
Many dessert nuts loose their palatability
palatability or otherwise deteriorate if
otherwise deteriorate if not
not properly
properly dried
dried or
cured after collection or are badly
cured badly stored,
stored, especially those with
especially those with aa high
high oil
oil content.
content. Among
Among
the major nuts
the nuts walnuts
walnuts and
and chestnuts
chestnuts are
are among
among the
the more
more perishable
perishable while
while pistachios
pistachios and
almonds are among the
almonds the better
better keepers.
keepers.

In-shell nuts
In-shell nuts are best stored at low
low temperatures.
temperatures. While While rancidity
rancidity isis the
the main
main problem
problem with
with
shelled nuts, the
the kernels
kernels also
also have
have the
the ability
ability to
to acquire
acquire off-flavours
off-flavours from
from the
the environment,
environment,
such
such as tobacco
tobacco and
and paint. Apart from rancidity,
paint. Apart rancidity, deterioration
deterioration during
during long storage can can be
be
difficult to determine and
and aflatoxins
aflatoxins can
can be
be present
present even
even when
when there are are no
no obvious
obvious presence
presence
of moulds (Matz, 1984).
1984).

Dehusking
Debusking

Modern packaging and

and marketing
marketing is
is increasingly
increasingly demanding kernels ready for immediate use,
both in the home and confectionery
confectionery trade.
trade. Hand
Hand processing
processing is being replaced
replaced more
more and
and more
more

3
by mechanization for providing a marketable product, especially where large-scale production
is concerned.
is

Most tree nuts are enveloped

enveloped in in a fleshy or fibrous outer covering or husk which mayor may or may
not remain
not remain attached
attached toto the
the nut
nut as
as it ripens
ripens and falls to
and falls to the
the ground,
ground, asas is
is the case
case for such
such
important commercial
commercial nutsnuts as
as the
the walnut,
walnut, pecan,
pecan, almond
almond and
and macadamia.
macadamia. In In some
some varieties
varieties
of walnut and almond the ripe nut readily separates from the husk of their own accord; a few few
nuts, termed "sticktights"
nuts, "sticktights" remain attached to their husks,
attached to husks, the proportion
proportion depending
depending on the
cultivar. AApoor
poororordry
dryseason
seasonmaymayincrease
increasethe
thenumber
numberof ofsticktights.
sticktights.

The husk has to be removed

removed either
either mechanically
mechanically or by hand before nuts can be dried, shelled
shelled
or otherwise processed. Walnuts
Walnutsespecially
especially must
must be
be dehusked
dehusked as soon
soon as they are collected,
collected,
otherwise the
otherwise the colour and
and quality
quality of
of the
the kernel
kernel will
will be
be progressively
progressively adversely
adversely affected
affected the
the
longer the husks remain (Howes,
longer (Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Washing

Nuts gathered
Nuts gathered from
from the ground
ground are frequently
frequently soiled
soiled or dirty, especially after rain, so
especially after so that
that
washing is
washing is necessary
necessary in order to to make
make the
the product
product more
more attractive
attractive for the
the market.
market. Again,
hand washing
washing inin tubs
tubs or
or machine
machine washing
washing in in cylindrical
cylindrical drums
drums maymay be
be carried
carried out.
out. Any
staining or discoloration isis not
not affected
affected by
by the
the washing
washing and
and is
is removed
removed atat aa later
later stage
stage during
during
bleaching (Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Drying and dehydrating

Artificially produced heat and forced

forced draughts
draughts are
are now
now increasingly
increasingly replacing sun-drying for
the drying
drying oror "curing"
"curing" ofofnuts,
nuts,especially
especiallybybylarge-scale
large-scale commercial
commercial producers.
producers. Outputs
range from 1-71-7 tornes
tonnes for
for aa drying
drying time
time of
of 12-24
12-24 hours at, inin the
the case
case of walnuts,
walnuts, not more
than 43°C.
43 ·C. Such
Suchmechanical
mechanicaldryers
dryersare
arenot
notonly
onlyindependent
independent ofofthe
the weather
weather but
but also
also give
give
a more
more thorough
thorough and uniform drying the nuts and,
uniform drying of the nuts and, in the case walnuts,
case of walnuts, result in less
less
splitting. In
InAmerica
Americamechanical
mechanicaldrying
dryinghas
hasbeen
beenfound
foundtotoincrease
increasepacking-house
packing-houseefficiency
efficiency
by stabilizing the delivery rate from the growers and to aid marketing by providing an earlier
product. TheTheinvestment
investmentcosts
costsdid
didnot
notexceed
exceedthethehigh
highlabour
labourcost
costofofsun-drying.
sun-drying.

Sun-drying is
Sun-drying is still largely
largely practised
practised byby small
small producers,
producers, particularly
particularly with
with almonds
almonds in in the
the
producing
producing countries of Europe. It requires
of Europe. requires a high
high labour
labour input to spread
spread the nutsnuts out
out onon
sheets
sheets or in
in trays,
trays, stirring
stirring frequently
frequently toto ensure
ensure uniform
uniform drying,
drying, andand alsoalso to provide
provide
protection at night
protection at night or in the the event
event of rain. Drying is
rain. Drying is completed when the
completed when the kernels
kernels can
can be
heard to rattle in the shells
heard shells or can be broken rather
rather than
than bent
bent with
with the
the fingers.
fingers. Drying
Drying may
may
require only 2-3
require 2-3 days
days with
with continuous
continuous hothot sun
sun oror take
take 2-3
2-3 weeks
weeks inininclement
inclement weather.
weather.
Similarly, chestnuts in in southern Europe were traditionally sun-dried or dried over a wood fire
in a specially constructed
constructed kiln.kiln. AAslow
slow process,
process, ititmay
may take
take several
several weeks
weeks andand aa heavy
heavy fuel
fuel
input
input to achieve,
achieve, although
although the smoke smoke is reputed
reputed to havehave aa beneficial
beneficial effect
effect in
in inhibiting
inhibiting
subsequent fungal
fungal infestation but the process
process results
results in the loss of of the
the fresh
fresh chestnut
chestnut flavour
flavour
and the chestnuts
chestnuts maymay even
even acquire
acquire aadisagreeable
disagreeable one.one. The curing is is complete
complete when
when thethe
shells
shells may bebe easily
easily separated
separated from
from the kernels. Modern, mobile
the kernels. mobile mechanical
mechanical dryers now now
provide
provide a faster
faster and
and more
more uniform
uniform drying
drying with
with aa greater
greater economy
economy in in fuel
fuel (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948;
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

4
Bleaching

Some nuts intended for

for marketing
marketing in-shell
in-shell may
may have
have their
their appearance
appearance enhanced
enhanced byby bleaching
bleaching
to remove
to remove stains
stains due
due toto sun
sun scorch
scorch and
and disease;
disease; walnuts
walnuts are
are frequently
frequently thus
thus treated
treated by
by
immersion for 1-2
1-2 minutes
minutes inin aableaching
bleaching solution.
solution.

Sulphur dioxide
Sulphur dioxide or burning
burning sulphur
sulphur may be used,
used, particularly
particularly for almonds
almonds that
that have
have been
been
blemished during
blemished during harvesting
harvestingoror drying,
drying, but
but this
this is
is practised
practised less
less soso now
now than
than in the past.
past.
Good quality almonds that have been quickly
quickly sun dried
dried are
are already
already of an an attractive
attractive appearance
appearance
and require no bleaching.
and bleaching. Over
Overbleaching
bleachingcan
cangive
give the
the shells
shells aa sickly
sickly white
white appearance
appearance and
and
is liable to soften
soften them
them and
and flavour
flavour the
the kernels;
kernels; too
too little
little causes
causes irregular
irregular bleaching.
bleaching.

Pecans can be considerably

Pecans considerably improved
improved by by removing the outer
removing the outer rough
rough layer
layer and
and polishing,
polishing , a
process which,
process which, if
if required,
required, makes
makes the
the nuts
nuts more
more responsive
responsive to bleaching
bleaching and drying.
drying . The
outer
outer layer may be removed by steel brushes by the use of revolving drums containing
be removed by steel brushes or by the use of revolving drums containing
coarse sand. Bleaching
Bleaching isis effected
effected by
by dipping
dipping the nuts for 4 minutes
minutes in,
in, for example,
example, sodium
hypochlorite containing 2%2 % active chlorine.
chlorine . Various
Variousdyes
dyes may
may be
be used
used to
to colour
colour the
the polished
polished
and bleached
and bleached nuts
nuts an attractive
attractive brown or reddish
reddish brown
brown (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977 ;
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Grading

Mechanical graders, such

such as
as aa perforated
perforated revolving
revolving cylinder,
cylinder, are
are commonly
commonly used
used to
to sort
sort nuts
nuts
into various sizes, the
into various the smaller
smaller nuts
nuts being fall. Pecan
being the first to fall. nuts, due
Pecan nuts, due to
to their ovoid or
oblong shape, require
oblong require special
special graders
graders consisting
consisting of variously
variously spaced rollers..
spaced rollers

Imperfect, faulty
faulty or
or broken
broken nuts
nuts may
may be
be removed
removed by by hand
hand as
as the
the nuts
nuts pass along a continuous
belt. AAsuction
belt. suctionmachine
machine may
may also
also be
be used
used to
to lift
lift blank
blank or
or imperfectly filled nuts
imperfectly filled nuts over
over aa trap
trap
while
while the
the heavier
heavier nuts
nuts pass
pass on.
on. TheThe low
low specific
specific gravity
gravity of Grade
Grade 11 macadamia
macadamia kernels
kernels
allows
allows them to be removed by floatation ordinary water.
floatation in ordinary water. Grade
Grade 22 may
may beberemoved
removed using
using
30
30 gg of salt
salt in
in 11 litre
litre of water,
water, with
with Grade
Grade 33 sinking
sinking to
to the
the bottom.
bottom. TheThe nuts
nuts are then
then
thoroughly
thoroughly dried (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Storage

Most nuts can be satisfactorily stored for several several months provided they are kept cool and dry.
Many nuts are stored
stored in
in the
the shell
shell for
for longer
longer periods
periods but
but there
there is
is now
now aa trend
trend towards
towards the
the cold
cold
storage
storage of shelled
shelled nuts
nuts or kernels. Although
or kernels. requiring more
Although requiring more space,
space, the
the best results
results are
are
obtained by storing in in moisture
moisture proof
proof containers
containers after thorough dehydration.
dehydration. Cold storage in
open receptacles can result in an uptake of odours such as ammonia, ammonia, a loss of colour, flavour
and texture and the possible development
development of of rancidity.
rancidity. Cold
Cold storage in vacuumized containers
or the use of
of inert
inert gases
gases appear
appear toto offer
offer little
little advantage
advantage over cold storage for a similar period.

Commercial cold
Commercial cold storage is general
general practice
practice with
with the pecan. Better
the pecan. Better prices can bebe obtained
obtained
by holding the nuts in
by in store
store for
for some
some time
time after
after harvesting
harvesting and
and the
the higher
higher prices
prices more
more than
than
offset the cost of storage. It may alsoalso be
be profitable
profitable to
to hold
hold aa portion
portion of aa heavy
heavy crop
crop in store
in the expectation
expectation that the
the following
following crop will
will be
be smaller
smaller and
and the
the price
price higher.
higher.

Freshly gathered
gathered chestnuts
chestnuts have
have aa high
high moisture
moisture content
content and
and consequently
consequently prone
prone to
to fungal
fungal
Stored
attack. Stored in small heaps
heaps or shallow layers
shallow layers in an airy
airy store walled on three sides and
store walled on three sides and
periodically turned over, they will keep perfectly
perfectly for
for up
up to
to 33 months
months or
or longer.
longer. If
If stored
stored too
too

55
dry or in
dry in aa single
single layer
layer the
thekernels
kernels will
willshrivel
shrivel and
and become
become hard. The onset
hard . The onset of mould, as
as
well as harmful grubs
well grubs and
and insects,
insects, during
during storage
storage may
may be
be prevented
prevented by immersing the fresh
chestnuts
chestnuts in a solution
solution of aa fungicide
fungicide for 4848 hours.
hours. GasGas treatment
treatment in autoclaves
autoclaves has been
been
effectively used in France;
effectively used France; chestnuts
chestnuts have
have also
also been
been successfully held in cold
successfully held cold storage.
storage.
Chestnuts placed
Chestnuts placed in layers of sand and kept cool keep keep well and retain their germinability
well and germinability but
but
may become less palatable.
may palatable.

Cob nuts are sometimes

sometimes stored in
in sawdust,
sawdust, which
which helps to prevent shrivelling
shrivelling (Howes, 1948;
1948;
Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Cracking

The mechanical
The mechanical cracking
cracking of nuts
nuts isis becoming
becoming increasingly
increasingly important,
important, nevertheless,
nevertheless, large
quantities of some kernels
quantities kernels are still extracted laboriously by hand
laboriously by hand in some
some countries,
countries, such as
the cashew
the cashew in India and and the
the almond
almond in in the
the Middle
Middle East. Mechanical cracking
East. Mechanical cracking is
is faster but
usually results
usually results in aa higher
higher percentage
percentage of of broken
broken kernels
kernels which,
which, fortunately,
fortunately, usually finds a
ready outlet in
ready in the
the confectionery
confectionery trade.
trade.

Power-driven, self-feeding nut-cracking machines require

nut-cracking machines require grading
grading for
for size
size before being fed
to the cracking jaws oror rollers
rollers with
with special
special shaking
shaking devices
devices to separate
separate the kernels from
from the
the
broken shells.
shells . The
Thekernels
kernelsmay
maystill
stillhave
have to
to pass
pass along
along aa continuous
continuous belt for broken kernels
and other debris to
and to be
be removed
removed byby hand.
hand.

Individual pecan nuts are comtnonly

Individual commonly pickedpicked upup in cups on an endless chain passing through
a hoppere of graded
graded nuts. Each nut passes
nuts. Each passes toto a slot where a piston-like rod exerts pressure
at the end of
of the
the nut
nut and
and cracks
cracks it,
it, the
theshells
shellsand
and kernels
kernels then
then being
being released
released to
to aa receptacle
receptacle
below. Very
Verydry
drypecans
pecansoften
oftenshatter
shatter badly
badly with
with this
this treatment;
treatment; prior wetting
wetting can reduce thisthis
problem, the
the kernels
kernels being
being redried
redried after
after shelling.
shelling.

The varying
The varying differences
differences in thethe thickness
thickness and
and texture
texture of
of the
the macadamia
macadamia shell
shell has
has created
created
problems in the development
problems development of aa suitable
suitable machine for cracking the shell without
without damaging
the brittle kernel as there is
the is less
less than
than 0.4 mmmm clearance between
between the
the two.
two. The
The current
current vice-
vice-
like design employs thethe principle
principle of of the
the nut
nut being
being held
held between
between two
two blunt
blunt movable
movable wedges.
wedges.

Special
Special cracking machines
machines are also used for pine
pine nuts
nuts where
where the
the demand
demand isis almost
almost entirely
entirely
for kernels.
kernels.

The tough leathery

leathery shell
shell of
of the
the cashew
cashew isis overcome
overcome by preliminary roasting, thus thus making
making thethe
shell brittle and
and responsive
responsive to to cracking,
cracking, asas well
well asas lessening
lessening the
the danger
danger ofof blistering
blistering from
from the
the
caustic fruit. The roasting
oils in the fruit.
caustic oils roasting is usually
usually done
done by hand,
hand, placing
placing small
small quantities
quantities ofof
kernels
kernels in an open
open iron
iron pan
pan over
over aa small
small circular earthenware furnace. Care
earthenware furnace. Care is is required
required toto
avoid overcooking charring of the kernels, while with undercooking, the shell remains
avoid overcooking or charring of the kernels, while with undercooking, the shell remains
tough. Attempts
Attempts at using
using roasting
roasting ovens
ovens have
have been
been unsuccessful,
unsuccessful, resulting
resulting inin discoloured
discoloured
kernels.. Shelling
kernels Shellingisisbybyhand;
hand;ininsouthwestern
southwesternIndia India aawooden
wooden mallet
mallet and
and aa flat
flat stone
stone is
is used
used
to crack the
to the shell,
shell, after
after which
which thethe kernel
kernel isis sometimes
sometimes removed
removed with
with a wire
wire prong.
prong . The
kernels are
kernels are then
then spread
spread outout on on wire
wire gauze
gauze trays
trays inin aa hot-air
hot-air room
room under
under controlled
controlled
temperature in order to
temperature to loosen
loosen thethe pink
pink or
orreddish-brown
reddish-brown skin skin before
before removal
removal and also also toto
remove any excess
excess moisture.
moisture.

6
The oyster nut cannot be cracked in the ordinary way due
The due to
to its
its tough,
tough, leathery, fibrous shell.
However, the shell is easy to cut
However, cut and
and aa slit
slit isis made
made around
around the
the edge
edge of
of the
the disc-shaped
disc-shaped nut
with a knife.
with a knife.

A Chinese
A Chinese method
method of cracking
cracking hard-shelled nuts isis to
hard-shelled nuts to heat
heat them
them in
in burning
burning straw
straw and
and then
then
cool rapidly with cold
cool cold water.
water.

The shells,
The shells, which were formerly
formerly regarded
regarded asas a waste
waste product for fuel,
product for fuel, now have
have a number
of industrial usages.. Cleaned
industrial usages Cleaned and
and ground
ground toto aa fine
fine powder,
powder, the
the shells
shells of
of walnuts,
walnuts, coconuts,
coconuts,
Brazil nuts and almonds have been used used as
as an extender
extender or filler in the manufacture
manufacture of certain
plastics and
plastics and synthetic
synthetic adhesives
adhesives and and is often
often considered
considered superior to the
superior to the softwood
softwood flours
flours
commonly used.
commonly used. The
Thecoarser
coarsergrades
gradesofofwalnut
walnutshellshellpowder
powder have
have been
been utilized
utilized as
as cleaners
cleaners
and finishers
and finishers in the fur,
fur, metal,
metal, tinplate
tinplate and
and other
other industries;
industries; other
other uses
uses are inin linoleum,
linoleum,
jointless flooring,
jointless flooring, and
and asas aa carrier
carrier for
forhorticultural
horticultural insecticides
insecticides (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
1977; Rosengarten,
1977; Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Cooking and salting

Cooking

Some nuts are

Some are traditionally
traditionally eaten
eaten cooked
cooked and
and salted. Peanuts and
salted. Peanuts and chestnuts
chestnuts are normally
normally
cooked
cooked before eating, while almonds are preferred roasted or toasted and salted, likewise the
macadamia nut. Cooking
macadamia Cooking definitely
definitely reduces
reduces the
the terebinthine
terebinthine or turpentine
turpentine flavour in
in pine
pine
nuts.

The large, plump

The plump grades
grades are
are used
used for
for roasted
roasted or
or toasted
toasted almonds;
almonds; roasting
roasting or
or cooking
cooking inin oil
oil
is said to produce the best flavour. AAcommon
commonmethod
method ofof salting
salting is
is by
by immersion
immersion in
in aa strong
strong
brine solution before allowing the almonds
almonds to to drain and
and dry.

In Hawaii macadamia
macadamia nuts nuts are
are preferred
preferred cooked
cooked and
and salted,
salted, either
either by
by roasting
roasting inin an
an oven
oven or
immersion in a vat of hot oil, the latter method is the preferred commercial method method as as it gives
gives
the nut an attractive gold-brown
the gold-brown colour.
colour. Refined
Refined coconut oil is
coconut oil is generally
generally used
used and,
and, because
because
the hot oil tends to corrode manymany ofof the
the commoner
commoner metals, the the vats
vats are
are made
made of of monel
monel metal,
metal,
stainless steel or glass.
stainless glass. Excess oil is removed
Excess oil centrifugally and
removed centrifugally and the
the nuts
nuts laid
laid out
out to
to coolon
cool on
wire mesh trays,
wire trays, being
being salted
salted while
while they
they are still luke
luke warm,
warm, using a 15% 15 % solution
solution ofof gum
gum
arabic or a special
arabic special oil
oil to
to enable
enable the
the salt
salt grains
grains to
to adhere
adhere more
more readily
readily to
to the
the nut.
nut. As the the
cooked nuts
cooked nuts tend
tend to be hygroscopic,
hygroscopic, they
they are vacuum packed as
vacuum packed as soon
soon asas they
they are
are cool.
cool.

Cashew nuts are always marketed cooked as

Cashew as the roasting procedure to
roasting procedure to render the shell more
easily removable
easily removable automatically
automatically cooks
cooksthe
thekernel.
kernel. The risk of
of contact
contact with the caustic sap in
the fresh fruit is
the is also
also removed
removed (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).

ECONOMICS AND
AND MARKETING
MARKETING

Successful marketing may

Successful marketing may be be defined
defined as as identifying what the
identifying what the consumer
consumer requires
requires or
or can be
educated to
educated to require
require and to to supply
supply that
that requirement
requirement at at a profit.
profit. The marketing
marketing process,
process,
however, isis customer
customer orientated
orientated in
in as
as much
much asas production
production isis designed
designed to meet the customer's
customer' s
Like other food
needs. Like food crops,
crops, nuts
nuts have
have aalimited
limited "marketing life". The production
"marketing life". production to to
marketing chain can be be extremely
extremely complex,
complex, ranging
ranging through
through harvesting
harvesting techniques,
techniques, grading
grading
and
and sorting,
sorting, packaging,
packaging, transport,
transport, storage,
storage, processing,
processing, curing,
curing, distribution
distribution and
and selling.
selling.
Furthermore,
Furthermore, as as markets
markets develop,
develop, from
from rural
rural markets
markets toto urban
urban chain
chain stores,
stores, the
the consumer
consumer
become
become more and and more
more demanding
demanding in in their
their requirements
requirements and, as as aaconsequence,
consequence, increase
increase
pressures upon the the various
various sectors
sectors in
in the
the marketing
marketing chain.
chain.

77
The local market
market inin aa rural
rural community
community may may initially
initially represent
represent the surplus
surplus in production
production to
requirements . Population
household requirements. Populationgrowth
growthand andurbanization
urbanizationaccompanied
accompanied by by aa proportionate
proportionate
decrease in agrarian
decrease agrarian activities
activities encourages increased production
encourages increased productionthat that has
has to
to be
be met either
either
through
through cultivation
cultivation or more more intensive
intensive harvesting
harvesting from from the
the wild.
wild. TheThe marketing
marketing process
process
develops further through regional
regional and national markets markets to to the
the international.
international. The
The further along
along
the chain the
the more
more stringent
stringent areare the
the consumer's
consumer's requirements,
requirements, withwith increasing
increasing emphasis
emphasis onon
quality and constancy
quality and supply. Local
constancy of supply. Local and
and regional
regional markets
markets areare less
less valuable
valuable and may may bebe
expected to handle cheaper
cheaper and and lower
lower quality
quality nutsnuts than
than would
would be be acceptable
acceptable by by international
international
markets.
markets . The
Themajority
majorityof oftropical
tropicaltreetreenuts
nuts are arenot
notyetyetwell
well represented
represented onon the
the international
international
market. OfOfthe
theten
tenmajor
majoredible
edibletreetreenuts
nutsititisisnoticeable
noticeable that
that only
only the
the Brazil nut, macadamia
macadamia
and
and coconut are from
coconut are from the tropics,
tropics, while
while only one out
only one out of six
six minor
minor tree nuts
nuts and
and all
all 22
22
potential
potential tree nuts are from
from the
the tropics
tropics or
or subtropics.
sUbtropics.

Nuts are largely

largely tree
tree crops
crops and
and as
as such
such the
the production
production schedule
schedule will
will be long term, requiring
requiring
careful selection ,?f cultivars
selection of cultivars and,
and, in
in some
some cases,
cases, root
root stocks.
stocks. Initial investment may be high,
with no return until the trees come into bearing.
bearing. Labour
Labour requirements
requirements may be high for short
periods in
in the
the year
year for
for pruning,
pruning, harvesting
harvesting and
and immediate
immediate post-harvest treatments and low for
the rest of
of the
the year.
year. High
Highlabour
labourcosts
costsmay
maybebeoffset
offsetbybyincreased
increased mechanization,
mechanization, as
as in
in the
the
North American
American nut nut plantations.
plantations.

Quality
Quality is
is obviously
obviously of prime
prime importance
importance and
and good
good quality
quality nuts
nuts can readily
readily be
be spoilt,
spoilt,
especially
especially during harvesting
harvesting and immediate post-harvest operations.
immediate post-harvest operations. The
The initial
initial processing
processing
can result in
in broken
broken or
or discoloured
discoloured nuts
nuts unsuitable
unsuitable for the trade . It is important,
the dessert nut trade. important,
therefore, that producers
producers should
should have
have ready access
access to other outlets, such as the food,
food, oil
oil and
and
other industries.
industries .

Regularity and
Regularity and continuity
continuity of supply
supply isis important,
important, especially
especially for
for the
the international
international markets.
markets .
Failure to comply will undoubtedly
Failure favour the
undoubtedly favour the importation
importationof ofalternatives
alternatives. . A buoyant
buoyant and
and
profitable
profitable market
market can
can quickly
quickly change
change through
through oversupply
oversupply or or aasub-standard
sub-standard produce.
produce.
Expansion in production must balance
balance the
the market
market if
if prices
prices are
are not
not to
to be
be depressed.
depressed. However,
However,
nuts are aa good
nuts goodcandidate
candidate for
formarketing
marketing as as"added
"addedvaluevalueproducts"
products" through
through processing,
processing,
roasting, salting,
salting, etc.,
etc .,and
andhave
haveananexcellent
excellent potential
potential inin the
the West
West for the the health
health food
food market
market
(Meadley,
(Meadley, 1989;
1989; Honess,
Honess, 1993).
1993).

The disposable world production of of dessert nuts is shown in Table 1. These figures obviously
do not show
show internal
internal consumption.
consumption. The Thegeneral
general trend
trend isis towards
towards increased production. In
increased production.
the league marketing tables almonds are the major product, pistachios have the
the league marketing tables almonds are the major product, pistachios have the fastest
fastest
expansion rate while the trend
expansion trend for
for the
the Brazil
Brazil nut
nut (although
(although notnot clearly
clearly shown
shown from
from Table
Table 11
but is
is discussed
discussed more
more fully
fully in
in the
the section
section dealing
dealing with
with that
that nut)
nut) shows
shows aa steadily
steadily declining
declining
production due to to deforestation
deforestation andand aa chaotic
chaotic marketing
marketing system.
system.

The world disposable

disposable production
production of nuts primarily grown as
primarily grown as a commercial source of edible
commercial source
oils is shown in Table 2. The
oils Theproportion
proportionused
used directly
directly for
for food
food isis not
not known.
known.

While
While the utilization
utilization of aa few
few selected
selected nuts
nuts by
by the
thedeveloped
developed world
world isis reasonably
reasonably well
well
documented, there are
are no
no figures
figures available
available for
for the
the remainder
remainder of
of the
the 520
520 edible
edible nut-producing
nut-producing
listed. Their
species listed.
species Their value
value within
within the
the rural
rural community
community isis largely
largely based
based on
on anecdotal
anecdotal
evidence.

88
 Table 1: Disposable World
1: Disposable World Production of In-Shell Dessert and Table Nuts
In-Shell Dessert
(tonnes)

1979-81 1991 1992 1993

Almonds 1 000
1 000457
457 11 232222
232 222 11 281 355 11 194497
194 497
Cashew nuts 446004
446 004 707 583 726418
726 418 479804
479 804
Chestnuts 484595
484 595 470
470979
979 492805
492 805 437403
437 403
Filberts/Hazel nuts 477 662 520428
520 428 721 622 565 157
Pistachios 109379
109 379 329804
329 804 313 256 345 305
Walnuts 788097
788 097 938998
938 998 931 697 11 006
006547
547
Brazil"
Brazila 53333
53 333 32000
32 000
Miscellaneous'b
Miscellaneous 3648000
3 648 000 44675000
675 000 44924000
924 000 4579000
4 579 000

Source: FAO, 1994

1994
a
Figures from LaFleur
LaFleur (1992)
(1992)
b
These include
include Brazil nuts,
nuts, macadamia
macadamia nuts,
nuts, pili
pili nuts
nuts and
and sapucaia
sapucaia nuts
nuts

Table 2: Disposable
Disposable World
World Production
Production of
of Oil
Oil Nuts and their
their Products
Products
('000 tonnes)

1979-81 1991 1992 1993

Coconuts
shell
in shell 35 062
35062 42 668
42668 43 768
43768 43 385
copra 4 439
4439 44829
829 44642
642 44569
569

Groundnuts (in shell) 18491

18 491 23531
23 531 24601
24 601 25 005
25005

Palm kernels
kernels 1 740 3574
3 574 3 800
3800 4 532
4532
oil'
oil" 5025
5 025 11
11 883 12775
12 775 14
14 317
babassu oil 14 70 62 68

Sunflower seeds 14413

14 413 22 947
22947 21 979 20489
20 489

Source: FAO, 1994

Source: 1994
a
Palm kernel
kernel oil
oil excluding
excluding babassu
babassu oil
oil

NUTS IN
IN THE
THE RURAL
RURAL ECONOMY
ECONOMY

The most obvious

obvious value
value of
of edible
edible nuts
nuts isis their
their contribution
contribution as
as aa concentrated
concentrated food
food to
to the
the diet
diet
and, in some
and, some cases, as
as aa source
source of
ofedible
edible oils.
oils . The major and minor nuts
nuts discussed in the
discussed in the
following sections
following sections also have an important
important commercial value value as dessert nuts.
nuts .

In many ofof the

the developing
developing countries, especially
especially in the tropics and subtropics, nuts are often often
available during the
the dry
dry season
season oror winter
winter months
months when
when fresh
fresh vegetables
vegetables are
are not
not always
always readily
readily
They can also have the additional
available. They advantage in
additional advantage in that
that they
they are
are not bulky
bulky and can
usually be readily stored. The
usually Thearborescent
arborescent nut
nut producers
producers may
may have
have other
other advantages
advantages too, as
providers of
of fuel, timber,
timber, fibre,
fibre, medicines,
medicines, browse,
browse, etc.,
etc.,plus
plustheir
theirrole
roleininconserving
conserving the
the soil
soil
against wind and water erosion, providing shade and shelter,
against wind and water erosion, providing shade and shelter, etc., as
as well
well as
as being
being

9
aesthetically
aesthetically pleasing. The nut-producing
pleasing. The nut-producing herbs,
herbs, i.e., groundnuts,
groundnuts, etc., taketake their place in the
agricultural rotation and, in
agricultural in the
the case
case of
oflegumes,
legumes, contribute
contribute to
to soil
soil fertility.
fertility.

The large-scale commercial production of nuts for the dessert and edible oil industries is well
documented. However,
documented. However, the the role
role ofofedible
edible nuts
nuts in
in the
the rural
rural economy
economy isis less
less clear. This is
clear. This
partly due the confusion in the literature in defining what is an edible nut and as
partly due to the confusion in the literature in defining what is an edible nut and as aa
consequence classing
consequence classing them
them with
with edible
edible fruits,
fruits, plus
plus a paucity of information regarding their
information regarding
utilization.
utilization. Like
Likeother
othereconomic
economic plants,
plants, the
the value
value of of edible
edible nuts, whether they are
whether they are used
used for
food or edible oil, isis relative
food relative toto what
what other
other alternatives
alternatives are available. This,
are available. This, in turn, creates
creates
a problem in in ordering
ordering thethe potential
potential for development.
development AAwell-written
well-written account
account of aa single
single
species by an enthusiastic
species enthusiastic author tendstends to mask
mask the
the value of other
value of other species,
species, including
including related
related
taxa. The broader the field field experience
experience of an author
author the greater the likelihood
likelihood of achieving
achieving
evaluation.
an acceptable evaluation.

The
The work
work by
by Okafor
Okafor and
and co-workers
co-workers in
in the
the Nigerian
Nigerian forests
forests on
on the
the utilization
utilization and
and
improvement
improvement ofof indigenous woodyfood
indigenous woody foodplants
plantsmay
maybe
be taken
taken as
as an example
example of how
how to
to
maximize this
maximize this forest resource
resource within
within the forest,
forest, homesteads
homesteads and farmland
farmland (Okafor,
(Okafor, 1977,
1977,
1980; Okafor and Lamb, 1994).
1980; Elite trees
1994). Elite trees favoured
favoured by local inhabitants were selected and
inhabitants were
various vegetative propagation techniques investigated, including
techniques investigated, includingbudding.
budding. Budded
Budded trees of of
Irvingia gabonensis
Irvingia gabonensis andand Treculia
Treculia africana
africana produced
produced viable fruits in
viable fruits in 3.5
3.5 and
and 44 years
years
respectively.
respectively. An
An additional
additional benefit in the
benefit in the case
case of
of the
the latter
latter species,
species, aa tree
tree up
up toto 35
35 m tall,
tall,
was that the reduction
reduction inin fruiting
fruiting height
height from
from budding
budding eliminated the serious danger from the the
globular fruits falling and injuring
injuring passers-by;
passers-by; the fruits can be up to 50 50 cm
cm inin diameter
diameter and
and
weigh up to 15 kg!
weigh up kg! Perhaps
Perhaps rather
rathersurprisingly,
surprisingly, the
the reduced
reduced risk resulted
resulted in an increase
increase in
popularity rating.

Taxonomic investigations into the range of variation within a species can also be rewarding.
of two
The recognition of two variants
variants within
within Irvingia gabonensis with different flowering seasons,
gabonensis with
var. gabonensis
gabonensis fruiting in the rainy season from April
season from April to
to September,
September, and
andvar.
var. excelsa
excelsa in the
dry
dry season
season from
from December
December to to March
March hashas encouraged
encouraged rational
rational selections to be made
selections to made for
for
availability.
extending seasonal availability.

CONSERVATION
CONSERVATION AND
AND UTILIZATION
UTILIZATION OF
OF GENETIC
GENETIC RESOURCES
RESOURCES

The requirements for

for the
the development,
development, improvement
improvement and conservation of of edible nut-producing
nut-producing
species
species are
are similar
similar to
to the
the requirements
requirements forfor other
other species. Information isis required
species. Information required on
distribution and reproductive
reproductive biology, including
including flowering and fruiting
flowering and fruiting patterns,
patterns, pollination
mechanisms
mechanisms and and pollinators, seed dispersal,
pollinators, seed dispersal, viability,
viability, predation,
predation, nature
nature of the
the breeding
breeding
system, breeding and
and propagation
propagation techniques,
techniques, pests and diseases,
pests and diseases, etc.
etc. (Okafor,
(Okafor, 1977).
1977).

There are
are two
two conflicting
conflicting interests involved. Efficient
interests involved. production resulting
Efficient production resulting inin aa low
low cost
product is mainly
mainly obtainable
obtainable from plantations where the
plantations where the emphasis
emphasis is is on selection
selection of genetic
of management and productivity.
uniformity for ease of productivity. Small-scale, usually peasant production,
Small-scale, usually
mainly makes use of wild resources
resources or less
less rigorously
rigorously selected cultivars
cultivars and
and may
may even prefer
an absence
absence of uniformity in, for example,
uniformity in, example, ripening
ripening inin order
order to obtain
obtain a better
better spread
spread in
in
availability fruit. Furthermore,
availability of mature fruit. Furthermore,peasant
peasantfarming
farming systems
systems often
often protect
protect useful
useful trees
trees
during any land
land clearance
clearance operation
operation while
while commercial farming systems
commercial farming systems tend
tend to
to favour total
land clearance with
with consequential
consequential loss
loss of
of any
any genetic
genetic variability.
variability.

Wild resources
resources often
often have
have the
the disadvantage
disadvantage in
in that
that the
the required
required species
species occurs
occurs sporadically
sporadically
in the
the surrounding vegetation. Whereas
surrounding vegetation. tree crops
Whereas tree crops provide
provide an excellent
excellent method
method of soil
soil

10
conservation, small-scale
conservation, production can
small-scale production can often
often have
have thethe additional
additional advantage
advantage of of making
making
use of difficult
efficient use difficult terrain.
terrain. However,
However, the the demand
demand forfor reliable
reliable quantities cheap,, high
quantities of a cheap
quality placing increasing
quality product is placing increasing pressure on the small-scale
small-scale producer and favouring
favouring the
development of large-scale plantations, especially especially of Old World
World temperate
temperate species
species introduced
introduced
to North America. The
to Theoften
oftensporadic
sporadic occurrence
occurrence of ofaa desirable
desirable edible
edible nut-producing species
species
in, for example,
example, the the rain
rain forest,
forest, means
means that
thatititcan
canhave
have aadisproportionately
disproportionately low
low value
value as
as an
an
economic species in any any land
land clearance
clearance or or reafforestation
reafforestation schemes
schemes.. The Brazil nut population
is an example of such a threatened species. Problems
is Problemsininmaintaining
maintaining an
an environment
environment outside
outside
the rain forest
forest that
that isis suitable
suitable for
for its
its pollinator
pollinator makes
makes the
the establishment
establishment of
of ex situ conservation
and commercial plantations
plantations difficult.
difficult.

Although not strictly the result

result of
of selection,
selection, the
the canker-forming
canker-forming bark disease disease caused
caused by the
fungus
fungus Cryphonectria parasitica syn.
Cryphonectria parasitica syn. Endothia
Endothia parasitica whichwhich first appeared
appeared in the New New
York in
in the
the 1890s
1890s was
was probably
probably introduced
introduced from
from Orient
Orient with
withsome
some Asiatic
Asiatic chestnut
chestnut planting
planting
stock. TheThe American
American chestnut,
chestnut, Castanea
Castanea dentata,
dentata, was
wassubsequently
subsequently almost
almost completely
completely
destroyed
destroyed over its
its entire
entire natural
natural range
range ininthe
theAppalachian
Appalachianmountains
mountains (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Holliday,
Holliday, 1989). The Themoral
moralofofthe
theabove
aboveexample
example isis that
that there
there isis always
always the
the possibility
possibility of
a devastating fungal oror virus infestation
infestation affecting plantation crops through poor crop sanitation
coupled
coupled with
with uniform
uniform genetic
genetic susceptibility,
susceptibility, and
and places
places increasing
increasing emphasis
emphasis on the
the
preservation of
of genetic
genetic diversity.
diversity.

Plant conservation may

may be
be in
in situ
situ or
or ex
ex situ,
situ, the
the latter
latter in
in gene
geneor
or seed
seedbanks
banksororininvitro.
vitro. The
simplest method
simplest method is situ, by
is in situ, by maintaining
maintaining breeding
breeding populations
populations within
within their natural
natural
environment
environment through the the establishment
establishment of reserves. Several
of reserves. Several reserves
reserves will obviously
obviously be be
required
required for
for widely
widely distributed
distributed species. Pressures on
species . Pressures on land
land use,
use, especially
especially ifif only
only a few
few
conserved species are
conserved species are involved
involved within
within a reserve
reserve can
can make
make suchsuch reserves
reserves politically
politically
undesirable. Ex Ex situ
situ conservation
conservation in genegene banks,
banks, involving
involving either
either botanical
botanical gardens
gardens or or
research establishments,
establishments, depending
depending on on the
the land
land available,
available, enables
enables small
small numbers
numbers of ofaa species
species
to be grown
grown under
under cultivation.
cultivation. They
They are
are expensive
expensive to maintain,
maintain, do not not offer
offer safe
safe long-term
long-term
storage and there
storage there can
can bebe problems
problems ininpreventing
preventing cross
cross fertilization
fertilization and
and maintaining
maintaining genetic
genetic
purity. Several
Several fruits,
fruits, including
including Prunus
Prunus are
are normally
normally conserved
conserved vegetatively
vegetatively in the form
form ofof
clones, thereby
thereby conserving
conserving genegene combinations
combinations that
that would be lost through sexual reproduction.

Seed banks areare widely

widely used
used for
for the
the long-term
long-term storage
storage of
oforthodox
orthodox seeds.
seeds. However, many many
woody species that
woody species that produce
produce large
large seeds,
seeds, e.g.
e.g.,, Castanea
Castanea spp.
spp.,, Theobroma spp.spp.,, Artocarpus
spp. ,, Nephe/ium
spp. Nephelium lappaceum,
lappaceum, etc. are recalcitrant
etc . , are and any
recalcitrant and any drying
drying increases their rate
increases their rate of
of
deterioration. Furthermore,
Furthermore,mostmosttropical
tropicalrecalcitrant
recalcitrantspecies
species will
will suffer
suffer from
from chilling
chilling injury
injury
if the temperature
temperature of the seed
seed bank fallsfalls below
below 10-15
10-15 C. Even
0 Evenunder
underoptimum
optimumconditions,
conditions ,
longevity of recalcitrant seeds seldom
longevity seldom exceed
exceed aa few
few weeks
weeksor or months
months.. Unsuitable for storage
in seed banks, they
they require
require in
in vitro
vitro conservation.
conservation. The The latter primarily
primarily involves the use
involves the use of
slow growth and
slow and cryopreservation
cryopreservation in liquid liquid nitrogen
nitrogen to store
store germplasm
germplasm (Hawkes,
(Hawkes , 1991;
1991;
Roberts, 1991; Withers, 1991; Tompsett, 1994).
Roberts, 1991; Withers, 1991; Tompsett, 1994).

11
11
 MAJOR NUTS 2
EDIBLENUTS
MAJOR EDIBLE

There are twelve

There twelve major
major edible
edible nuts
nuts that
thatare
aremarketed
marketedcommercially
commercially (Woodroof,
(Woodroof, 1979;
1979;
Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984). They
They are:
are:

cashew nuts Anacardium occidentale, Anacardiaceae

Anacardiaceae
pistachios Pistacia vera,
vera, Anacardiaceae
sunflower seeds Helianthus annuus, Compositae
Helianthus annuus, Compositae
filberts Corylus avellana, Corylaceae
Corylus
chestnuts Castanea dentata, Fagaceae
Castanea
pécans
pecans Carya illinoinensis,
illinoinensis, Juglandaceae
Persian walnuts Juglans regia,
regia, Juglandaceae
Brazil nuts
Brazil excelsa, Lecythidaceae
Bertholletia excelsa,
peanuts or groundnuts
peanuts Arachis hypogea,
hypogea, Leguminosae
Leguminosae
macadamia nuts Macadamia integrifolia,
integrijolia, Proteaceae
almonds Prunus dulcis,
dulcis, Rosaceae
coconuts Cocos nucijera,
Cocos nucifera, Palmae
Palmae

Sunflower seeds and peanuts are here regarded

regarded as
as agricultural
agricultural crops
crops and
and are
are consequently
consequently not
not
dealt with in detail. However,
However,their
theirmarketing
marketingprospects
prospects are
are discussed
discussed because
because they do have
an impact on the prospects ofof other
other nut
nut crops.
crops. Coconut,
Coconut, although
although being an agricultural crop,
is
is included
included here
here since
since it
it is aa major
major component
component of of agroforestry
agroforestry systems
systems in many
many tropical
tropical
countries.

CAS.
CAS: -W OR
OR MONKEY NUT:Anacardium
MONKEY NUT: Anacardiumoccidentale,
occidentale, Anacardiaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Native
Native of tropical
tropical America,
America, probably
probably originating
originating in equatorial
equatorial northeastern Brazil. Widely
northeastern Brazil. Widely
cultivated
cultivated in the tropics
tropics with
with commercial
commercial production concentrated in
production concentrated in India,
India, Brazil
Brazil and
and East
Africa. High
Highpotential
potentialfor
fordevelopment
developmentin inWest
West Africa,
Africa, where
where plantations
plantations have
have been quickly
developing recently. ItIt occurs
occurs in in warm
warm andand humid
humid climates with 1 000-2 000 plusplus mm
mm annual
annual
rainfall, from sea
sea level
level to
to 11 000
000 m m altitude
altitude (FAO,
(FAO, 1982;
1982; ITC,
lTC, 1993).
1993).

Description

Evergreen shrub or tree

Evergreen shrub tree to
to 15
15 m
mtall;
tall; leaves
leaves simple,
simple, oblong-ovate, 6-20 cm
oblong-ovate, 6-20 cm x 4-15
4-15 cm,
cm,
Inflorescence polygamous,
leathery. Inflorescence polygamous, withwith ca.
ca. 60 hermaphrodite and ca.
hermaphrodite and ca. 10
10 male
male flowers.
flowers .
Pedicel and receptacle swollen
swollen and fleshy in fruit (cashew apple), thin-skinned, bright
bright yellow,
red
red or scarlet,
scarlet, eventually
eventually larger
larger than
than fruit,
fruit, 10-20
10-20 cm xx 4-4
4-4 cm.
cm. Fruit obliquely
obliquely kidney-
kidney-
shaped, 2-3 cm
shaped, cm xx1.5-2.5
1.5-2.5cm,
cm,compressed,
compressed,greyish-brown;
greyish-brown; mesocarp
mesocarp oleaginous;
oleaginous; seeds
seeds

13
kidney-shaped with thick cotyledons
(Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Kokwaro,
Kokwaro , 1986).
1986) .

Cultivation

Fast growing, drought-resistant

drought-resistant and easy
to grow
grow under cultivation by
under cultivation by direct
direct
seeding
seeding of germinated
genninated seeds
seeds -- seedlings
seedlings
do not
not transplant
transplant readily.
readily . Well-drained
friable soils at low altitudes
recommended,
recommended, frost-free
frost-free with
with anan annual
annual
rainfall of 11000-3
rainfall 000-3 000
000 mm,
mm, preferably
preferably
with a pronounced
with pronounced dry dry season
season of 3-4 3-4
Cashews can
months . Cashews
months. can also
also be grown
grown
satisfactorily in
satisfactorily in semi-arid areas but can
semi-arid areas can
show erratic production
show erratic production as as aa result
result of
relative small variations in rainfall.
Trees with
with aa productive
productive life
life span
span of of 30-
30-
40 years,
years, normally
nonnally bearing
bearing in in fruit
fruit in
in
third or fourth year and, under
favourable conditions, attaining
maximum production in
maximum production in ca.
ca. 7 years.
years .
The effectiveness
The effectiveness of insect pollination
pollination Figure
Figure 11
variable, for example,
variable, for example, satisfactory in Anacardium occidentale.
occidentale . 1: fruiting branch.
branch. 2: bisexual
bisexual flower.
flower. 3:
3: male
male
Tanzania, artificial pollination
pollination required
required in flower. 4: fruit. 5: leaves.
in flower. 4 : fruit . 5: leaves.
Tanzania, artificial
India. Fruits mature
Fruits mature in 2-3 2-3 months
months
(Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977; FAO, 1982; 1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987; 1987; ITC,
lTC, 1993),
1993) .

Harvesting

Fruits harvested
Fruits ripe. In Tanzania
harvested when fully ripe. Tanzania thethe nuts
nuts are collected after falling
collected after falling to the
the
ground. In dry weather
weather they
they can
can be
be left
left on
on the
the ground
ground until
until the
the apple
apple dries
dries but
but should
should be
be
collected daily
collected daily in
in wet
wet weather.
weather. The
The nuts
nuts are then
then removed
removed from
from the
the apples
apples and
and dried
dried
(Rosengarten, 1987).
1987) .

Post-harvest treatments

After drying and

and roasting
roasting the
the kernels
kernels are
are separated
separated from
from the
the shells
shells and
and graded.
graded . Care must
be taken when
when shelling
shelling to
to avoid
avoid the
the caustic
caustic juice
juice that
that squirts
squirts out
out on
on roasting.
roasting . Shelling is
is
usually done manually,
usually manually, using
using cheap
cheap labour
labour inin India,
India, elsewhere
elsewhere mechanical
mechanical processing
processing has
has
been introduced.
introduced. Stored
Storedininvacuum
vacuumpacked,
packed, hermetically
hennetically sealed
sealed tins
tins where
where cashews
cashews remain
stable at room temperatures;
temperatures; under
under refrigeration
refrigeration a shelf
shelf life of one
one year
year (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Matz, 1984;
1984; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; ITC,
lTC, 1993).
1993) .

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Approximately 60%
Approximately 60% of
of cashew
cashew kernels
kernels are
are marketed
marketedasas salted
saltednuts;
nuts; they
they are
are also
also used
used in
in
confectionery and
confectionery and bakery
bakery products.
products . Un-shelled,
Un-shelled, un-roasted cashew nuts
un-roasted cashew nuts should
should not
not be
be eaten
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

14
Nutritional value
value

Cashew
Cashew nuts
nuts contain
contain approximately 12.8% protein,
approximately 12.8% protein, 46.7%
46.7% digestible fat or oil
digestible fat oil and
and 18%
18%
carbohydrates (Melville, 1946);
1946); vitamin
vitamin content
content high
high (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977).
1977).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Seeds yield
Seeds yield an
an edible
edible oil oil but,
but, due
due to to the
the high
high value
value of of the
the kernels,
kernels, this
this isis not
notusually
usually
extracted. The
Theshells
shellsor orpericarp
pericarpyield
yieldcashew
cashew nutnut shell
shell liquid
liquid (CNSL),
(CNSL), which contains toxic toxic
cardol and anacardic
anacardic acid and and acts as a vesicant.
acts as vesicant. CNSL
CNSL has has high
high polymerizing
polymerizing and friction-
reducing properties
reducing properties and
and is is used
used as
as aawaterproofing
waterproofing agent agent andand preservative.
preservative. Distilled
Distilled and
and
polymerized, thethe oil
oil isis also
also used
used in
in insulating
insulating varnishes
varnishes and in the manufacture of typewriter
rolls, oil-
oil- and
and acid-proof
acid-proof cements
cements and
and tiles,
tiles, friction-modifying
friction-modifying material for brake linings, linings, as
as
a component of space-rocket
space-rocket lubricants,
lubricants, inks,
inks, etc. It is alsoalso used
used in
in tropical
tropical medicine
medicine forfor
treating scurvy, leprous sores, warts,warts, ringworms,
ringworms, etc. etc. (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;1984;
Purseglove, 1987).
1987) .

The cashew apple (swollen

(swollen pedicel)
pedicel) is juicy, astringent
astringent and edible;
edible; the juice may
may be be drunk
drunk
fresh or fermented for wine; the pulp may be made
fresh into preserves,
made into preserves, jellies,
jellies, syrups,
syrups, etc., or,or,
in Brazil, fermented
fermented into
into wine
wine resembling Madeira. With
resembling Madeira. With the
the emphasis
emphasis on on nut
nut production
production
about 95
about 95%% of the
the world
world cashew
cashew apple
apple crop is allowed
allowed to rot, about
about 1.25
1.25 million
million tonnes
tonnes in in
are wasted each year.
India are year. The
The sap
sap from
from the
the bark
bark provides
provides an indelible ink. Timber
indelible ink. Timber is is used
used
for construction and general carpentry but subject
subject to termite attack;
attack; also used for firewood
firewood
and charcoal.
and charcoal. Grown
Grown as
as aashade
shade tree,
tree, hedges
hedges and
and for
for dune
dune stabilization.
stabilization. Flowers
Flowers attractive
attractive
to honey bees (FAO,
(FAO, 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Anthony
Anthony et al.al.,, 1993).
1993) .

Marketing

World production
World has risen from
production has from 446
446 000
000 tonnes
tonnes in 1979-81
1979-81 to 726
726 000 tonnes
tonnes in 1992,
1992,
falling dramatically
falling dramaticallytoto 479
479 000
000tonnes
tonnesinin 1993,
1993, largely
largely due
due to
to an
an unexplained
unexplained fall
fall in
in
production in India from 35
35 000
000 tonnes
tonnes to
to 15
15 000
000 tonnes
tonnes (FAO,
(FAO, 1994).
1994) .

India is the
India is the largest
largest exporter
exporter with
with ca.
ca. 50%
50% of
of the
the market
market (also
(also with
with aalarge
large internal
internal
consumption),
consumption), Brazil
Brazil isis second
second with
with ca.
ca. 25%
25% of ofthe
theworld
worldmarket,
market, followed
followed byby Indonesia,
Indonesia,
Mozambique
Mozambique and and Viet Nam, the the two
two latter
latter plus
plus Tanzania
Tanzania mainly
mainly export
export raw,
raw, unprocessed
unprocessed
seed to India for processing.
processing. The TheUSA
USA isis by
byfar
farthe
thelargest
largest importer
importer (about
(about 59
59 000
000 tonnes
tonnes
in 1992) with the UK the largest market in Europe for raw cashew. cashew. Most
Most ofofthe
the international
international
trade
trade is in
in raw
raw nuts,
nuts, with
with less
less than
than 25%
25 % of
ofthe
the trade
trade ininprocessed
processed nuts,
nuts, which
which are are salted
salted
and/or roasted
roasted (Purseglove,
(Purseglove, 1987;
1987; ITC,
lTC, 1993).
1993).

Discussion

Cashew is regarded as aa good

good crop for
for the
the Andean
Andean countries for which North America should
the main
be the main target market. Despite
target market. ca. 20%
Despite ca. 20 % decline
decline in
in import
import prices
prices during
during the
the period
period
1987-91 demand has increased and has been met by increased
increased imports
imports (ITC,
(lTC, 1993).
1993) .

The
The appalling waste of cashew
appalling waste cashew apple
apple each
each year
year is
is intolerable,
intolerable, however,
however, there
there is
is almost
almost
certainly limit to the
certainly limit the quantity
quantity of
of cashew
cashew drinks
drinks and
and jams
jams that
that can
canbe
beconsumed.
consumed. The
possibility of fermenting the cashew apple for the production of an industrial
industrial alcohol should
be investigated.
investigated.

15
PISTACHIO:Pistacia
PISTACHIO: Pistacia vera,
vera, Anacardiaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Native of Iran, Afghanistan

Native Afghanistan andand central
central Asia
Asia from
from Turkmenia
Turkmenia to Pamir-Alai and Tien Shan.
Now cultivated
Now cultivated andand perhaps
perhaps naturalized
naturalized inin Spain,
Spain, France,
France, Italy,
Italy, Greece,
Greece, Cyprus,
Cyprus, Syria,
Syria,
Lebanon, Israel
Lebanon, Israel,, Turkey and Iran. Grows
Growsininsubtropical,
subtropical, warm
warm andand Mediterranean
Mediterranean climates
climates
with a hot dry season
with season with
with aa daily
daily mean
mean temperature
temperature of 30°C
30· C for
for 33 months
months (Townsend
(Townsend and
Guest, 1980;
1980; Macrae al., 1993).
Macrae et ai., 1993).

Description

deciduous, dioecious
Winter deciduous, tree to
dioecious tree to 10
10 m tall;
tall; leaves
leaves pinnate,
pinnate, leathery,
leathery, leaflets
leaflets 3-7
3-7.. Flowers
Flowers
in panicles, appearing
appearing before
before the
the leaves.
leaves. Fruit a
narrowly ovoid
narrowly ovoid toto oblong
oblong or orsubglobose,
subglobose, 1-
seeded, drupe, 1-2
seeded, drupe, 1-2 cm
cm xx 0.6-1.2
0.6-1.2 cm;cm; mesocarp
mesocarp
fleshy, endocarp bony, dehiscent or semi-
dehiscent; kernel
dehiscent; kernel light green,
green, agreeable
agreeable flavour
flavour
(Menninger, 1977;
(Menninger, 1977; Townsend
Townsend and and Guest,
Guest, 1980;
1980;
Matz, 1984; Macrae
Macrae et al.,
ai., 1993).
1993).

Cultivation

Pistachio requires well-drained soils, is tolerant of

drought and
drought and poor soils,
soils, itit prefers
prefers cool
cool winters
winters
with 1 000 hours
with hours below
below 7.5°C
7.5· C enough
enough to break
break
bud dormancy
bud dormancy (temperatures
(temperatures can can fall
fall as
as low
low as -
10 ·°C).
C). A frost-free
frost -free period
period of of 200
200days
days is
necessary to ensure that the inflorescence develops 1
undamaged
undamaged and and long
long hot
hot summers
summers (to (to 45°C
45· C oror
more) to
more) to ensure
ensure ripening
ripening of the fruit.
fruit. Cold andand
Figure
Figure 22
wind resistant but intolerant of excessive Pistada
Pistacia vera.
vera. Branch
Branch with
with leaves
leaves and
and fruits.
dampness and high humidity
humidity (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Macrae et
Macrae et at.,
al., 1993).
1993).

Introduced from
Introduced from Iran to California
California in 1930,
1930, California
California is now
now the
the second
second largest
largest producer
worldwide.. Commercial
worldwide Commercial crop
crop after
after 7-10 years
years with peak production
with peak productionatat ca.
ca. 20
20 years;
years; trees
with a life span of ca.
with ca. 700
700 years.
years. Yields
Yields alternating
alternating with
with aa heavy
heavy crop
crop followed
followed by aa lighter
lighter
crop in the
the next
next year
year (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Paramount
Paramount Farms Pistachios,
Pistachios, 1991).
1991).

Harvesting

The correct stage of maturity is critical when

The harvesting.. The
when harvesting The outer
outer skin
skin or
or hull
hull turns
turns from
from
translucent to opaque rosy when
translucent when ripe,
ripe, the
the husk
husk splitting
splitting naturally
naturally toto expose
expose the
the kernel
kernel when
when
ready to harvest.
ready to harvest. The
Themature
maturenuts nuts hang
hang on
on the
the tree
tree and
and may
may bebe left
left until nearly all are ripe.
However, ifif the
the harvest
harvest isis unduly
unduly delayed
delayed the husk may dry onto the nut and cause staining. staining.
Primitive methods
methods of harvesting
harvesting involves
involves either picking
picking byby hand or knocking
knocking thethe nuts
nuts from
from
the tree with long poles onto sacking spread on
sacking spread on the
the ground.
ground. The
The enveloping
enveloping husk is manually
removed
removed by squeezing
squeezing and empty
empty shells
shells are removed
removed by by flotation
flotation with
with the
the full
full nuts
nuts sinking
sinking
to the bottom of the tank.
tank. The Thenuts
nuts are
arethen
thensun-dried.
sun-dried.

16
In USA a machine is
is used to shake the pistachios from their grape-like clusters while another,
another ,
equipped with a catching frame encircling the tree, collects the falling
falling nuts
nuts before
before they
they touch
touch
the ground (Menninger,
the (Menninger, 1977;
1977; Paramount Farms Pistachios, 1991;
Farms Pistachios, 1991; Macrae
Macrae et
et al., 1993).
1993).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

To prevent the tannic acid in the

To the rosy
rosy hull
hull from
from staining
staining the nuts,
nuts, the
the pistachios are either
pistachios are
hand or mechanically
mechanically peeled
peeled within hours of harvesting,
within hours harvesting, after which
which they
they are washed
washed and
and
rapidly dried before storing.
rapidly storing . Humid
Humidororshowery
showeryweather,
weather, especially
especially favours
favours staining
staining as
as well
well
as aflatoxin.

Any blank shells can be removed by flotation

flotation.. Freshly
Freshly harvested
harvested nuts
nuts can
can contain
contain up to 45 %
to 45%
moisture, which
which small
small producers
producers may
may reduce
reduce by sundrying
sundrying and any stained nuts removed
stained nuts removed by by
hand. InInlarge
largecommercial
commercialplantations
plantationsthe
thepistachios
pistachiosareareartificially
artificiallydried
driedininsilos
silosatat65-72
65-720 C,
° C,
which can reduce the moisture content to to 5%
5% in 10 hours.
hours. Mechanical prickers are used
Mechanical pin prickers
to separate naturally
naturally split
split pistachios
pistachios from the
the closed shell product. The in-shell
closed shell in-shell pistachios
pistachios
are then passed through an electronic
electronic colour
colour sorter
sorter to
to remove
removeanyanystained
stainednuts . They
nuts. They are
are then
then
graded for size and quality where they are shelled and stored (Rya11
graded for size and quality where they are shelled and stored (Ryall et al., 1974
1974;;
Rosengarten, 1984; Paramount Farms
Rosengarten, Farms Pistachios, 1991; Macrae
Pistachios, 1991; Macrae et et al., 1993).
1993).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Marketed locally in Middle East either in-shell

Marketed as roasted
in-shell or as roasted and
and salted
salted kernels.
kernels. Because
Because of of
the antiquated harvesting techniques in the Middle East which yielded
yielded stained
stained shells,
shells, the early
imports
imports to the North
North American
American market
market werewere dyed red in order
dyed red order to
to cover
cover the
the blemishes
blemishes and
and
make them more
make more appealing.
appealing. Roasted
Roasted nuts
nuts are hygroscopic
hygroscopic and require
require moisture
moisture resistant
resistant
packaging, which
packaging, which gives
gives a shelf
shelf life
life in
in excess
excess ofof 24
24 months
months (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Paramount
Paramount
Farms Pistachios,
Pistachios, 1991; Macrae
Macrae et al., 1993).
1993).

Nutritional value
value

High in
in carbohydrates,
carbohydrates, especially
especially sucrose
sucrose (16%), oil
oil consisting
consisting largely
largely of
of unsaturated
unsaturated fats
fats
(55%)
(55%) and essential
essential amino
amino acids
acids (25%)
(25%) (Macrae
(Macrae et
et al., 1993). See also
1993) . See also Table
Table 66 for
for
comparison with macadamia
macadamia nuts.
nuts.

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Wood much prized in in Iran

Iran and
and Afghanistan
Afghanistan forfor agricultural
agricultural implements,
implements, spoons, etc.etc. Resin
yielded from tapped
tapped stems
stems and larger
larger branches
branches similar
similar to mastic from P. P. lentiscus
lentiscus and
and used
used
in local medicine, high
high quality
quality paints
paints and
and nitro-lacquers.
nitro-lacquers. GallsGalls and
and fruit pericarp employed
employed
in India to dye
dye silk,
silk, the
the fruit
fruit husks
husks used
used as
as aamordant
mordant and tan. Fruit
and tan. Fruit yields ca. 60%
yields ca. 60 % of a
greenish fatty oil, sweet
sweet flavoured
flavoured andand aromatic,
aromatic, which
which isis sometimes
sometimes extracted for medicinal
medicinal
use,
use, however,
however, because
because of the the high
high price
price obtainable for the
obtainable for the nuts
nuts the
the oil is
is not
not extracted
extracted
commercially (Townsend
commercially (Townsend and Guest, 1980; 1980; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Marketing
World production
production has soared from 109
109 000
000 tonnes
tonnes in
in 1979-81 345 000 tonnes in 1993 and,
1979-81 to 345 and ,
in North America particularly, production
production has
has increased
increased during those years from 8 800 tonnes
tonnes
to 69 000
000 tonnes
tonnes (FAO,
(FAD, 1994).
1994).

17
About
About 1 500
500 tonnes
tonnes of of pistachios
pistachiosareareconsumed
consumed annually
annually in
in USA
USA andand isis expected
expected toto reach
reach
23 000 tonnes
tonnes inin the
the next
next decade. Pistachios are
decade. Pistachios are exported
exported from
from California
California to Japan, Hong Hong
Kong,
Kong, China, Singapore,
Singapore, Germany
Germany and and UK.
UK. Other
Other major
major exporting
exporting countries
countries are Iran and and
Turkey, and
and to
to aa lesser
lesser extent, Syria,
Syria, Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, Italy, India, Greece, Pakistan
Pakistan and Tunisia.
Premium nuts made
made up 25% 25 % of
of the
the UK
UK snack
snack market
market in
in 1990
1990 and
and isis expected
expected to to reach 30 %
reach 30%
by 1995
1995 (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Paramount
Paramount Farms
Farms Pistachios,
Pistachios, 1991).
1991).

Discussion

There are 11
11 species
species of
of Pistacia
Pistacia but
but only
only P.
P. vera
vera has
has aadehiscent
dehiscent shell.
shell. Pistachios, like
like the
the
macadamia nut, are
macadamia nut, are expensive.
expensive. Although
Although future
future expansion may reduce
expansion may reduce prices,
prices, greater
greater
emphasis is still needed
needed on market
market development and promotion in order to compete with other
nut products. Unlike
nut Unlikelesser-known
lesser-knownnuts,
nuts,pistachios
pistachiosshould
should develop
develop beyond
beyond present
present regional
regional
boundaries
boundaries (Macrae al., 1993).
(Macrae et ai., Prospects for an expansion
1993). Prospects expansion in production
production would
would appear
appear
to be good.
good .

SUNFLOWER
SUNFLOWERSEEDS:
SEEDS:Helianthus
Helianthusannuus,
annuus, Compositae
Compositae

Discussion

Sunflower seed
Sunflower seed is currently
currently catering
catering for aa small
small and
and specialized
specialized market,
market, especially
especially in the
the
health-food, confectionery and snack
snack trade
trade in
in USA
USA (ca.
(ca. 33 500
500 tonnes
tonnes in
in 1977).
1977). It is relatively
little
little known elsewhere but, with its
elsewhere but, its high nutritional rating and
nutritional rating and low
low price
price compared
compared to to other
nuts,
nuts, there
there are
are good
goodprospects
prospects for
forproduction
production totoincrease,
increase, especially since itit has
especially since has been
been
recommended as
recommended as a major
major ingredient
ingredient in in concentrated
concentrated food
food for human
human consumption
consumption in the the
developing countries (Rosengarten, 1984).
developing 1984).

FILBERT,
FILBERT, COB
COB OR HAZEL:Coryius
OR HAZEL: Corylusspecies, Corylaceae
species, Corylaceae

Historically "filbert" refers

Historically refers to
to aa nut
nut where
where the
the enveloping
enveloping husk is longer than the nut, "cob"
"cob"
where the husk isis as
as long
long as
as the
the nut
nut and
and "hazel"
"hazel" where
where the
the husk
husk is
is much
much shorter
shorter than
than the
the nut
nut
(Menninger, 1977).
1977) .

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

European hazel: Corylus

European hazel: Corylus avellana,
avellana, throughout
throughout Europe
Europe and and eastward
eastward through West
West Asia
Asia to
Syria and
Syria and Iran; cultivated
cultivated in North
North America
America for its
its nuts.
nuts.
Turkish filbert:
filbert : Corylus
Cory ius maxima,
maxima, Balkan
Balkan peninsula;
peninsula; cultivated elsewhere for
cultivated elsewhere for its
its nuts.

Description

Deciduous trees
Deciduous trees or shrubs;
shrubs; leaves
leaves alternate,
alternate, simple,
simple, stipules
stipules soon
soon falling.
falling. Inflorescence
monoecious, male flowers in pendent catkins, female flowers in small, bud-like
inflorescences. Fruit a large
large nut
nut surrounded
surrounded by more or less tubular involucre (Tutin et
involucre (Tutin et ai.,
al.,
1964).

Cultivation

The European hazel is chiefly cultivated,

cultivated, the
the Turkish
Turkish filbert
filbert to
to aa lesser
lesserextent.
extent. Hybridization
between the two species
species and others,
others, both
both naturally
naturally and
and by
by breeders,
breeders, has has made
made identification
identification

18
difficult. Commercial production
limited to
limited to regions
regions with mild
mild winters,
winters ,
rather warm
rather warm spring,
spring, late
late frosts
frosts rare
rare
and summers cool.
and summers cool. Approximately
70%
70 % ofof world
world production
production isis from
from
Turkey along the southern coast of of the

~. ~.I,.n
Black Sea.
Black Sea. The coastal regions of Italy
and
and the Mediterranean coast of Spain
Spain
1.
~
supply a further 20% and and 7% 7%
respectively.. The
respectively The remaining
remaining 33% % isis
from the
from the coastal
coastal valleys
valleys of
of Oregon
Oregon
and Washington
and Washington in USA.

Turkish production
Turkish production isis based
based on rather
haphazard clumps·ofof four
haphazard clumps four or five
five
multi-stemmed bushes arranged in 1.5
m
m circles
circles on
on the
the rocky hillsides.
Stems grow
Stems grow to to 3-4.5
3-4.5 m and and are
removed after
after 3030 years
years to allow
younger stems to come into
Livestock are frequently
production. Livestock frequently
allowed to graze among
allowed among the
the bushes
bushes to
to
control the weeds.
weeds .

Bushes
Bushes are more regularly spaced spaced and
and
planted either
planted either along
along thethe contour
contour or
or in
rectangles in Italy although, like
Turkey,, the multi-stemmed
Turkey multi-stemmed clump clump
habit
habit isis usually
usually maintained.
maintained. Yields Figure
Figure 33
Corylus avellana.
Cory/us avellana . 11: branchwith
: branch withfruits
fruits.. 2:
2: Branch
Branch with
with catkins
catkins.. 33:: Shoot
are higher due to to the
the warmer
warmer climate,
climate, with male
male catkins developed.
developed . 4:
4 : Elementary male
male inflorescence
inflorescence and
and anther
anther..
better use
better use of
of fertilizers and more
fertilizers and more 5:
5 : Female flower with
Female flower with bract.
bract . 6:
6 : Fruit
Fruit and
and section
section of the fruit.

fertile soils.

In Tarragona, Spain,
Spain, single
single bushes
bushes are
are planted
planted out
out in
in regular
regular rows,
rows, although
although elsewhere
elsewhere clump
clump
planting is still
planting still practised.
practised. Irrigation is standard
Irrigation is practice in
standard practice in Tarragona
Tarragona as
as well
well as
as in other
other
areas where the soils
areas soils are poor
poor and
and rocky.
rocky.

In USA the filberts

filberts are
are planted
planted in
in regular
regular rows and trained
rows .and trained to form
form aa single-stemmed
single-stemmed tree in
order to
to permit
permit mechanical
mechanical cultivation.
cultivation. To facilitate
facilitate wind
wind pollination every sixth
pollination every sixth tree
tree in
in
every third row
every row isis aa pollinator.
pollinator. Average yield of dry
Average yield dry in-shell nuts from
in-shell nuts from good
good orchards
orchards is
2 250 kg/ha
kg/ha (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Harvesting

Nuts
Nuts tend toto drop
drop uniformly
uniformly when
when ripe,
ripe, hence
hence easy
easy harvesting
harvesting from the ground,ground , although
although
frequent pick-up
pick-up still necessary
necessary toto avoid
avoid fungal
fungal infections.
infections. InIn Turkey
Turkey the
the nuts
nuts are
are picked
picked byby
hand before thethe crop
crop drops
drops while
while in
in Italy
Italy the
the bushes
bushes are
are beaten
beaten and
and the
the fallen
fallen nuts
nuts picked
picked
from the ground. In USA
the ground. USA the
the nuts
nuts are
are also
also allowed
allowed toto fall
fall naturally
naturally and
and then
then swept
swept into
into
windrows
windrows andand picked
picked up byby aamechanical
mechanical harvester
harvester which
which alsoalso provides
provides aa preliminary
preliminary
cleaning (Rya11 and Pentzer,
(Ryall and Pentzer, 1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

19
Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Drying is
Drying is required
required to reduce
reduce moisture
moisture content
content of in-shell nuts to
in-shell nuts to 7-8
7-8%% and 3.5-4.5 % for
and 3.5-4.5% for
shelled
shelled nuts
nuts..

In Turkey
In Turkey the filberts
filberts are
are mainly
mainly sun-dried,
sun-dried, drying with the
drying with the use
use of artificial
artificial heat
heat is less
less
common. The
common. Thehusks
husks are
areusually
usually removed
removed by by husking
husking machines,
machines, less
less commonly
commonly by by hand-
hand-
beating with sticks.
sticks . The
Thenuts
nutsare
arethen
thencracked
crackedbetween
betweenrevolving
revolving millstones
millstones and
and blowers
blowers used
used
to remove
to remove the shells.
shells . The
Thekernels
kernels are
are finally
finally screened,
screened, graded
graded according
according to size, sorted
sorted and
and
bagged for export.
bagged export.

The harvested nuts in

The harvested in USA
USA are
are washed,
washed, further
further cleaned
cleaned and
and then
then dried
dried to
to 8-10%
8-10% moisture
moisture
content for marketing or processing.
content processing .

Production and
and cQnsumption/utilization
cQnsumption/utilization

Nuts are sold

Nuts sold to
to consumers
consumers either
either in-shell
in-shell or shelled as kernels
shelled as kernels for salted kernels
kernels or use in
in
the food trade
trade,, especially
especially in
in confectionery for nut chocolate;
chocolate; kernels may
may bebe ground to a flour
and baked as filbert bread,
bread, which
which is
is reputed
reputed to
to be
be delicious
delicious (Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten,
1984)
1984)..

Nutritional value

On a moisture-free
moisture-free basis
basis hazel
hazel nuts
nuts contain
contain approximately 16.3%
approximately 16.3 protein, 61.
% protein, 61.2%
2 % fat
fat and
and
11 .5 % carbohydrates (Melville,
11.5% (Melville, 1947).
1947).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Broken but edible nuts are utilized

utilized for the
the extraction
extraction of
of edible filbert oil, rancid
rancid and
and inferior
inferior
nuts are used for industrial
nuts industrial filbert oil. The
Thecombustible
combustible trash
trash from
from bushes,
bushes, husks
husks and shells
shells
are used for fuel
are fuel (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Wood formerly a principal source of charcoal

charcoal for
for gunpowder.
gunpowder. Coppice
Coppice growth formerly used
for hurdles, wattle
wattle and
and daub,
daub , legume
legume poles,
poles, firewood
firewood (Mabberley,
(Mabberley, 1987).
1987) .

Marketing

Up to 65%
65 % ofofTurkish
Turkish filberts
filberts are
aresold
soldthrough
throughthethe government
government financed
financed FKB
FKB (Fiskobirlik)
(Fiskobirlik)
cooperative, which stabilizes the market and and prices
prices paid
paid to
to the
thefarmers.
farmers. The government also
has a strict
strict system
system of
of inspection
inspection and certification before export.
certification before export. TheThe plantations
plantations in
in Oregon
Oregon
and Washington yield larger nuts nuts than
than found in the Mediterranean countries and are becoming
increasingly popular (Menninger,
increasingly (Menninger, 1977; 1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Discussion

As USA imports
imports ca. 45%45 % of
ofthe
thefilberts
filbertsititconsumes
consumesannually,
annually, there
there isisaapromising
promising future
future
for expansion
expansion in in Oregon
Oregon and
and Washington,
Washington, especially since they
especially since they are
are able
able to
to produce
produce the
the
desired larger nut
nut (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) . The
TheEuropean
European nut
nut producing
producing countries
countries will
will have
have to
to
increase
increase quality
quality and productivity
productivity if they are to to compete
compete with America. The
with America. The fact
fact that the
the
filbert was introduced
filbert introduced to America
America suggests
suggests the larger nut may be due to management
management rather
than breeding.
breeding .

20
CHESTNUT:Castanea
CHESTNUT: Castanea species,
species, Fagaceae

Ecology and
Ecology and distribution

American chestnut:
American chestnut: Castanea dentata, native
native to USA,
USA, east
east of
of the
the Mississippi
Mississippi River.
European chestnut:
European chestnut: Castanea
Castanea sativa,
sativa, native
native to to southern Europe from
southern Europe from Italy
Italy to
to Iran
Iran and
and
extending northwards to Hungary, also
extending also in
in North
North Africa;
Africa; extensively
extensively planted
planted andand naturalized
naturalized
elsewhere
elsewhere in Europe.
Europe. Usually
Usuallyaacalcifuge,
calcifuge, ininwoods
woods ononwell-drained
well-drained soils.
soils .
Chinese chestnut:
Chinese chestnut: Castanea mollissima,
mollissima, from northern China, introducedintroduced into USA.
USA.
Japanese chestnut:
Japanese chestnut: Castanea
Castanea crenata, native
native toto Japan;
Japan; grown
grown for
for timber
timber in
in southern
southern Europe
Europe
1984).
(Rosengarten, 1984).

Description

Deciduous
Deciduous trees or shrubs;
shrubs; leaves
leaves simple. Catkins erect,
simple. Catkins erect, flowers monoecious with
flowers monoecious with male
male in
upper and female
female in lower portion
portion of the
the same
same catkin.
catkin. Fruit 1-3
1-3 nuts, brown, coriaceous, in
a swollen, spiny cupule which
irregularly by
dehisces irregularly by 2-3
2-3 valves
valves
(Tutin
(Tutin et al., 1964).
1964).

Cultivation

Populations of American
American chestnut
were devastated by the mid-20th
century by chestnut blight,
Cryphonectria parasitica,
paraSltlca, syn.
parasitica; Chinese
Endothia parasitica; Chinese chestnut
chestnut
and
and Japanese
Japanese chestnut
chestnut are
are relatively
relatively
Devastation was
Immune. Devastation
immune. was such that
that
American chestnuts are
American chestnuts are nono longer
longer
commercially The European
viable. The
commercially viable. European
chestnut is
chestnut is also
also susceptible
susceptible and
and hashas
been attacked by blight since 1938
1938 and
production
production is consequently decreasing.
Attempts are being
Attempts are being made
made to
to develop
develop
benign strains of the fungus to
inoculate trees against chestnut
inoculate chestnut blight
as well as hybridizing American
chestnut with blight resistant
introductions. Japanese
Japanese chestnut
chestnut is is
less
less hardy
hardy and
and more
more susceptible
susceptible toto
blight than the Chinese chestnut
(Payne et and Pentzer, 1983;
Rosengarten, 1984).
Rosengarten, 1984).

The average
The average yields
yields of the
the European
European
Figure 4
Figure
chestnut grown in California are 2 220 1: shoot
Castanea sativa. 1:
Castanea shoot with
with leaves
leaves and
and male
male and
and female
female catkins.
catkins .
However, recent
kg/ha. However, recent plantations
plantations 2: male flower.. 3: anther. 4: section
male flower section of female catkins. 5:
female catkins. 5 : female flower..
female flower
with high-yielding,
high-yielding, large nut,
nut, grafted
grafted 6: mature fruit. 7:
7: open
open cupuie.
cupule.

cultivars
cultivars are expected
expected to yield
yield 33 360-
360-

21
4 480 kg/ha. The
TheChinese
Chinesechestnut,
chestnut,which
whichare
areadaptable
adaptable to
to aa range
range of
ofedaphic
edaphic andand climatic
climatic
conditions apart from
conditions apart from frost
frost pockets, bear in 55 to
pockets, bear to 6 years
years andand are
are expected
expected to to yield
yield
3 000 kg/ha,
kg/ha, with
with yields
yields of
of experimental
experimental plantings as high
plantings as high as
as 44 400
400 kg.
kg. At
At least
least two cultivars
should be
should be grown
grown to to ensure
ensure cross-pollination
cross-pollination otherwise
otherwise the the kernels
kernels will
will notnot develop
develop
(Menninger, 1977;
(Menninger, Payne et
1977; Payne et ai.,
al., 1983).
1983).

Harvesting

Traditionally mature nuts

nuts are
are allowed
allowed to
to fall
fall from
from the
the tree
tree and
and may
may remain
remain on
on the
the ground
ground for for
several days
several days or longer before gathering by hand.
gathering by hand. ToToreduce
reduce hand
hand harvesting
harvesting costs,
costs, attempts
attempts
are being made to develop strains where the burrs drop to the groundground before
before the
the nuts
nuts fall
fall out.
out.
Since at dehiscence the undamaged nut contains an array of weakly parasitic organisms which
can cause serious
serious damage
damage under
under unfavourable
unfavourable storage conditions, daily gathering
conditions, daily gathering isis strongly
recommended. Tree
recommended. Tree shakers
shakers and
and catchers,
catchers, which can be
which can be used
used after
after 4-9%
4-9% of thethe ripe nuts
have fallen
have fallen naturally, are being
being developed,
developed, as well
well as
as the
the necessary
necessary means
means of removing
removing the
burr (Rya11 and Pentzer,
(Ryall and Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977; Payne et ai.,
1977; Payne al., 1993).
1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Commercially nuts
Commercially nuts may
may be
be held
held in
in refrigerated
refrigerated storage
storage at
at 0"
0°C to -1
C to -1°C
. C for several months in
ventilated polyethylene
ventilated polyethylene liners. Weevil damage
liners. Weevil damage maymay occur
occur during
during storage
storage and
and later;
later;
unfortunately it is not possible
unfortunately to remove
possible to remove infested
infested nuts
nuts by
by flotation
flotationbefore
beforestorage.
storage. The risk
of incipient fungal infection is increased
increased by the absence visible moulds
absence of visible moulds on on many
many infected
infected
kernels although no mycotoxins
kernels mycotoxins have yet beenbeen observed
observed on the the marketed
marketed product.
product. Unless
properly
properly handled,
handled , fresh
fresh nuts
nuts quickly
quickly dry outout and
and harden
harden andand cannot
cannot be be roasted
roasted or
or boiled
boiled
satisfactorily unless
satisfactorily unless regenerated
regenerated byby soaking
soaking (Rya11 and Pentzer,
(Ryall and Pentzer, 1974; Payne et
1974; Payne et al., 1983).
1983).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Chestnuts are
Chestnuts are starchy and a brief
brief curing
curing period
period (3-4
(3-4 days) is required
required to permit
pennit some
some starch
starch
to convert to sugar, especially
to after refrigeration.
especially after refrigeration. Eating
Eating quality is best
quality is best at
at harvest
harvest time.
time. In-
In-
shell nuts
shell nuts are roasted and sold as "hot
"hot chestnuts";
chestnuts"; shelled nuts can
shelled nuts can be
be ground
ground toto a flour and
eaten as chestnut bread or porridge,
porridge, roasted
roasted or
or boiled
boiled they
they can
can be eaten as a vegetable or used
for stuffing poultry.
poultry . In
InFrance
Francechestnuts
chestnuts are
are preserved
preserved inin syrup
syrup as
as marrons
marrons glacés
glaces and
and other
other
sweetmeats (Rya11 and Pentzer,
(Ryall and 1984).
Pentzer, 1974; Rosengarten, 1984).

Nutritional value

nutrient value
The nutrient value of
ofchestnuts
chestnuts varies
varies according
according to
to species. Respectively, raw
species. Respectively, raw American,
European and Chinese chestnuts contain approximately
approximately43.7%,54.9%
43.7%, 54.9% and 44%
44% water; 4.8%,
4.8%,
2%
2% and
and 4.2%
4.2% protein; 1.3%, 1.6%
protein; 1.3%, 1.6% and
and 1.1%
1.1 % fat; and 48.6%,
fat; and 48.6%, 40.3%
40.3% and
and 49.1%
49.1 %
carbohydrates
carbohydrates (McCarthy
(McCarthy and Meredith, 1988) . High
Meredith, 1988). High in in carbohydrates
carbohydrates they
they are
are readily
readily
digestible
digestible when roasted or boiled. They
or boiled. also have
They also have the
the lowest fat content
lowest fat content ofof all
all the major
major
edible nuts as well as being
being very low in
in calories with ca. 11 700
700 calories
calories per
per kg
kg (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten,
1984).

By-products and other uses

uses

Timber is durable and

and rot-resistant,
rot-resistant, used for fencing,
fencing, furniture,
furniture, ship
ship masts,
masts, telegraph
telegraph poles,
poles,
mine props, railway
railway sleepers.
sleepers. Bark
Barkand
andwood
woodextracts
extracts used
used for
for tanning
tanning leather
leather (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten,
1984).

22
Marketing

European chestnuts, whichwhich are larger

larger but
but less
less sweet than the American
American chestnut,
chestnut, are
are marketed
in-shell for roasting. Chinese
Chinesechestnuts
chestnuts areare smaller
smaller and
and less
less sweet
sweet than
than the American chestnut
but sweeter than the European chestnut. Japanese Japanese chestnuts
chestnuts are
are aa variable
variable product
product with
with some
some
trees producing
trees huge nuts
producing huge nuts up
up to
to 5 cm in in diameter
diameter andand weighing
weighing 30 30 gg or more while
while others
others
bear smaller
bear smaller nuts;
nuts; their
their nuts
nuts areare also
also less
less sweet
sweet than
than those
those from
from thetheChinese
Chinese chestnut.
chestnut.
Despite the strong
strong demand
demand forfor chestnuts
chestnuts andand chestnut
chestnut products,
products, thethe problems
problems outlined
outlined above
above
regarding
regarding harvesting
harvesting andand storage
storage andand the difficulties in obtaining
difficulties in obtaining aa good, clean nut nut make
make
chestnut production
chestnut production a difficult
difficult venture
venture (Payne
(Payne et et al.,
al., 1983;
1983; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).

PECAN:Carya
PECAN: Carya illinoinensis,
illinoinensis, Juglandaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Native
Native of the rich
rich bottom
bottom lands
lands of
of the
the Mississippi
Mississippi Valley
Valley from Indiana
Indiana and Illinois west
and Illinois west to
Kansas and Texas and at higher
Kansas higher altitudes
altitudes south
south into central Mexico, with
with local
local outliers
outliers to
to the
the
north
north and
and east. Cultivated in
east. Cultivated in USA,
USA, Mexico,
Mexico, Brazil,
Brazil, Australia,
Australia, South
South Africa
Africa and Israel
Israel
(Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Townsend
Townsend andand Guest,
Guest, 1980;
1980; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Prescott-Allen
Prescott-Allen and and
Prescott-Allen, 1986).
1986).

Description

Large deciduous
deciduous tree to
to 50
50 mm or
ormore
moretall
tallwith
withascending
ascending and
and outwardly
outwardly arching
arching branches.
branches .
Flowers monoecious
monoecious with slender male catkins
catkins and small erect clusters of
of female
female flowers.
flowers .
Fruit borne in clusters of 4-12, aaglobose
globose to
to
oblong
oblong drupe, angled and
drupe, angled and narrowly
narrowly 4-4-
winged the sutures,
winged at the sutures, 2.5-7 cm x 1.25-2.5
1.25-2.5
cm, exocarp
exocarp more
more or
or less
less separating
separating by 4-
valves; nut ovoid to ellipsoid, cylindrical or
valves;
faintly 4-angled; seed solitary, deeply
divided
divided longitudinally,
longitudinally, somewhat
somewhat grooved
grooved
and convoluted
and convoluted,, not closely adherent to the
the
1977; Townsend
shell (Menninger, 1977; Townsend andand
Guest, 1980;
Guest, 1980; Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Cultivation

Orchards largely
Orchards largely planted
planted out with
with grafted
grafted
and budded trees in in the
the southeast
southeast USA,
USA, andand
with seedling trees in the southwest,
although
although there
there is is now
now aa trend
trend towards
towards
selected cultivars. Over 300 cultivars have have
been recognized. Varietal
Varietaldifferences
differences range
range
from
from nuts less
less than
than 0.60.6 cm
cm in
in diameter
diameter to to
more than 2.52.5 cm
cm andand weighing
weighing from
from over
over
90 to 18
18 nuts
nuts per kg.kg. Production
Production begins
begins atat
6-10 years
6-10 years and can can continue
continue profitably
profitably for
up to 200
up 200 years
years -- somesome native
native trees
trees are
are
Figure 55
known to
known to be over 11 000 000 years
years old.
old. Yields Carya illinoinensis
Carya illinoinensis. Leaves and flowers
Leaves and flowers..
from 9-27 kg per tree at at 8-10
8-10 years rising to

23
45-68 kg at 16
16 years
years or
ormore
morewith
withexceptional
exceptionalindividuals
individuals attaining
attaining 360
360 kg
kg under
under unusually
unusually
favourable conditions
conditions (Rya11 and Pentzer,
(Ryall and Pentzer, 1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Trees prefer aa deep,

Trees deep, well-drained
well-drained soil,
soil, adequate
adequate rainfall
rainfall or supplementary irrigation and
supplementary irrigation and a
frost-free growing season of 140-210
frost-free days. AA cool
140-210 days. cool period
period isis also
also essential
essential in
in order
order to
to break
break
dormancy; the climatic
dormancy; climatic requirements
requirements vary with the variety (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1987).
1987) .

Harvesting

Fallen nuts
Fallen nuts formerly
formerly harvested
harvested byby hand. Hand harvesting
hand. Hand now largely
harvesting now largely replaced
replaced by
by
mechanization, including
mechanization, including tree
tree or limb
limb shakers,
shakers, shake
shake and
and catch
catch harvesters,
harvesters, windrowers,
windrowers,
sweepers, vacuum
sweepers, vacuum harvesters,
harvesters , conveyers
conveyers and
and trash
trash separators
separators (Rya11 and Pentzer,
(Ryall and Pentzer, 1974;
1974;
Rosengarten, 1984).
Rosengarten, 1984).

Post-harvest treatments

Pecans harvested
Pecans harvested mechanically
mechanically have have aa higher
higher moisture content than
moisture content than nuts
nuts that
that have fallen
fallen
naturally. Artificial
naturally. Artificial drying
drying isis essential
essential inin order
order toto reduce moisture toto 4.5
reduce moisture 4.5% % as soonsoon as as
possible in order to to prevent
prevent mould
mould and discoloration.
discoloration. MatzMatz (1984)
(1984) recommends
recommends dry dry storage
storage
for 3 weeks
for weeks at roomroom temperature
temperature to cure and reduce reduce moisture
moisture in in entire
entire nuts
nuts to
to 8.5-9%
8.5-9% and and
to 4.5%
4.5 %for
for kernels.
kernels. During
Duringcuring
curingthe
thefree
freefatty
fattyacids
acidsand
andperoxide
peroxide value
value of
oflipids
lipids increase
increase
and seed coat tannin
tannin oxidize
oxidize to pale or medium
medium brown, the the general
general effect of which
which is to givegive
the pecan its
its characteristic
characteristic appearance,
appearance, aroma,
aroma, flavour
flavour and
and texture. Pecans are
texture. Pecans are then stored
stored
until required forfor shelling
shelling at
at temperatures
temperatures below 2°C 2' C and
and less
less than
than 70%
70 % relative
relative humidity
humidity in in
order to
to prevent
prevent thethedevelopment
development of ofrancidity
rancidity and/or
and/orinsect
insectinfestation.
infestation. Long-term storav,e storage
should be
should be at
at ca.
ca. -8°C
-8' C in
in order
order toto maximize
maximize freshness and shelf
freshness and shelf life.
life. Any
Any traces of of ammonia
ammonia
during refrigeration,
refrigeration, not not detectable
detectable byby odour,
odour, cancan rapidly
rapidly and
and permanently
permanently blacken
blacken the seed
coat but not
not affect
affect the
the flavour. Storage facilities
flavour. Storage facilities not
not using
using ammonia
ammonia as as a refrigerant
refrigerant are are
essential.
essential. Nuts
Nutsare areshelled
shelledusing
using aarotary
rotarycracker
crackerwhich
which delivers
delivers aa shock
shock wave
wave toto the
the pecan
pecan
and explodes
explodes the the shell
shell without
without damaging
damaging the the kernel. Shell fragments
kernel. Shell fragments areare removed
removed using a
double
double flotation
flotation system
system in addition
addition to to air
air separation
separation systems
systems and and infrared
infrared colour
colour sorting
sorting
equipment (Rya11
(Ryall and andPentzer,
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984; Young Young Pecan Company,
Company, undated).
undated).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Approximately 85-90% of the crop is shelled

Approximately 85-90% shelled prior to marketing,
marketing, the balance
balance being
being sold
sold in-
Shelled pecans
shell. Shelled pecans are sold to bakeries (36%)
(36 %) and confectioners (20%),
confectioners (20 %), the remainder
remainder toto
retailers, grocery-wholesalers
grocery-wholesalers and dairies
dairies for ice
ice cream
cream production,
production, etc. Trade in in-shell
etc. Trade in-shell is
is
declining,
declining, sales being
being mainly
mainly toto Europe
Europe (Rya11
(Ryall and
and Pentzer,
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen,
Prescott-Allen, 1986).
1986).

Nutritional value
value

Nutritional analyses
Nutritional analyses of pecans
pecans are given in
in Table
Table 3.
3.

By-products and other uses

uses

Pecan shells are used for gravelling

gravelling paths, as as aa fuel
fuel and
and as a garden mulch,
mUlch, stock
stock and
and poultry
poultry
litter; ground to a flour
litter; flour for
for degreasing
degreasing aero engines,
engines, as an ingredient
ingredient of carpet cleaners
cleaners and
and
as a filler in
as in feeds,
feeds, insecticides
insecticides and
and fertilizers,
fertilizers, soft
soft abrasives
abrasives in hand soap, non-skid
non-skid paints
paints
and metal
and metal polishes,
polishes, as fillers
fillers in
in plastic
plastic wood,
wood, adhesives
adhesives and dynamite, also
and dynamite, also for
for veneer and

24
polyesters. An
polyesters. Anexcellent
excellent hardwood,
hardwood, the
the wood
wood and and veneer
veneer is
is in
in high
high demand
demand for
for decorative
decorative
panelling, fine furniture and
panelling, and flooring.
flooring. The
The tree
tree isis also
also grown
grown as as an
an ornamental
ornamental and for shade
shade
(Menninger, 1977;
(Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Table 3: Nutritional Analyses

Analyses per 100 g Sample of Raw Pecans and
Pecans Roasted
Pecans Roasted in
in Cotton Seed
Seed Oil
Oil with
with Butter
Butter and Salt

Raw Roasted
Calories 710.0 740.0
Calories from
Calories from fat
fat (Id)
(kJ) 630.0
630 .0 673.0
Protein (g) 10.0 9.3
Total fat
Total fat (g) 70.0 74.7
Saturated fat (g) 6.7 9.3
Cholesterol (mg) 0.0 0.0
Carbohydrates (g) 13.3 13 .7
13.7
Sugars (g) 3.3 3.0
Dietary fibre (g)
(g) 6.7 5.7
Ca (mg) 73.0 73.0
P (mg) 603.0 603.0
Fe (mg)
(mg) 2.4 2.4
K (mg) 603.0 603.0
(mg)
Na (mg) 0.0 128.0
Mg (mg) 142.0 142.0
Vitamin A (IU)
(IU) 130.0
130.0 120.0
Vitamin C (mg)
(mg) 2.0 0.0
Thiamin (mg)
(mg) 0.9 0.9
Riboflavin (mg)
(mg) 0.1 0.1
Niacin (mg)
(mg) 0.9 0.9

Source: Young Pecan Company,

Source: Company, undated.
undated.

Marketing

Undoubtedly North America's

Undoubtedly North America's most
most important
important native
native nut
nut tree
tree with
with an
an annual
annual average
average
production of over 90
90 million
million kg, of
of which 18 % is
which 18% is still
still obtained from wild sources (Prescott-
Allen and Prescott-Allen,
Prescott-Allen, 1986;
1986; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1987).
1987).

Discussion

The pecan
pecan is
is relatively
relatively little
little known
known outside
outside America
America and
and there
there isis certainly
certainly aa possibility
possibility for
for
developing a wider market.
developing market.

25
ENGLISH, PERSIAN, EUROPEAN, ROYAL, ITALIAN, MADEIRA, FRENCH, CHILE,
MANCHURIAN, CAUCASIANOR
MANCHURIAN, CAUCASIAN ORCIRCASSIAN
CIRCASSIAN WALNUT:
WALNUT: Juglans
Juglans regia,Juglandaceae
regia, Juglandaceae

Distribution
Distribution and
andecology
ecology

Balkan peninsula,
Balkan peninsula, Turkey
Turkey to
to the
the Himalayas
Himalayas at
at altitudes
altitudes up to 3 000 m;
m; widely
widely cultivated and
often naturalized (Menninger, 1977).
1977) .

Description

Monoecious, deciduous,
Monoecious, deciduous, aromatic tree to 30
aromatic tree 30 m
m tall;
tall; leaves
leaves alternate,
alternate, pinnate,
pinnate, leaflets
leaflets 7-9.
7-9.
Male catkins
Male catkins on twigs
twigs of previous
previous year's growth,
growth, female
female flowers few, on twigs
flowers few, twigs of current
year's growth.
growth. Fruit
Fruit aa large,
large, subglobose,
subglobose,
indehiscent drupe 4-5
indehiscent drupe 4-5 cm in in diameter;
diameter;
acu~e, wrinkled, easily
stone ovoid, acute,
splitting
splitting (Tutin
(Tutin et al.,
ai., 1964;
1964; Townsend
Townsend
and Guest, 1980).
1980).

Cultivation

Grown
Grown in orchards
orchards in
in California
California and
and
southern Europe, propagated
propagated by
by budding
budding
and grafting
and grafting of cultivars
cultivars on rootstock
rootstock of
various species
vanous species of Juglans
Jugians (Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977)
1977)..

Harvesting

Walnuts mature when hull easily

separable from the shell; the hull
normally opening while fruit still
attached
attached toto the
the tree.
tree. Harvesting
Harvesting by by hand
hand
or by machine. Older plantings
by machine. plantings tend
tend to
be
be ofof large
large trees
trees and
and harvesting
harvesting is by by
shaking of
mechanical shaking of the
the branches
branches using
using
slings attached
slings attached to to a cable
cable and
and tractor-
tractor-
driven eccentric.
driven eccentric. Approximately
Approximately 80% 80% of
the nuts
the nuts can thus
thus be
be removed
removed from from the
the
tree; with care, tree
tree; tree shakers
shakers maymay also be
used.. For smaller
used smaller trees
trees the
the shake
shake andand
method may
catch method may bebe used.
used. Nuts
Nuts maymay bebe
caught in sheets or mechanically
Figure
Figure 6
windrowed and
windrowed and collected
collected by by aa machine
machine Jug/ans regia . 11:: branchlet
Juglans regia. branchlet with
with leaves with female
leaves with flower.. 2:
female flower 2: male
male
with which
with which thethe leaves
leaves and and trash
trash areare catkin
catkin.. 3:
3: male
male flower.
flower. 4:
4: stamen.
stamen. 5:5 : female flower. 6: fruit
female flower. fruit showing
showing
separated, the harvested
separated, harvested crop endocarp.
consisting endocarp
crop consisting 7: seed
. 7: seedcovered
coveredby byone
onevalve
valveofofendocarp.
endocarp.8:8: section
section ofof
fruit.
of aa mixture
of mixture of ofhulled
hulled and andunhulled
unhulled
walnuts. Prior land preparation to
remove weeds
remove weeds and obstacles
obstacles will
will speed
speed up
up the the harvest
harvest operations.
operations. Average Average yield yield for
California range
California range from about 2.2 tonnes tonnes per ha to 6.7 tonnes;tonnes; in Italy the average yield from
average yield from
specialist orchards is also about 2.2 tonnes per ha while yields from other producing countries
are undoubtedly lower (Rya11
are (Ryall andandPentzer,
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984). 1984).

26
Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Walnuts
Walnuts contain as high as 35% 35% moisture
moisture when harvested.
harvested . They
They should
should be
be hulled,
hulled ,washed
washed
and dried as quickly
quickly as possible
possible to 8%
8 % moisture or less and graded
graded.. Shelled
Shelled walnuts
walnuts quickly
quickly
darken and
and develop
develop rancidity
rancidity under
under unfavourable
unfavourable conditions;
conditions; maximum
maximum stability
stability isis achieved
achieved
at ca. 3%
3 %moisture. Contamination by
moisture . Contamination by ammonia
ammonia during
during storage
storage can
can cause
cause severe damage
damage
(Rya11and
(Ryall andPentzer,
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Matz
Matz,, 1984; Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Immature walnuts
walnuts are
are pickled
pickled and
and the
the ripe
ripe walnuts
walnuts eaten
eaten as
as aa dessert
dessert nut;
nut ; they
they are
are also
also widely
widely
used in baking and confectionery.
confectionery . InInthe
theHimalayan
Himalayan region
region walnuts
walnuts are an an important
important item
item in
in
the diet.
diet. The
Thekernels
kernels yield
yield ca.
ca.50%
50%ofofaaclear
clearsweet
sweetoil,
oil,the
thefirst
first pressing,
pressing, known
known as as virgin
virgin
oil, is
is largely
largely used
used for
forculinary purposes. Expression
culinarypurposes. Expression isis carried
carried outout 22 to 33 months
months after
after
harvesting, earlier
earlier the
the kernel
kernel contains
contains aa sort
sort of
of emulsive
emulsive milk,
milk, ifif expressed
expressed later
later the
the oil
oil is
is less
less
sweet and possibly
sweet rancid. Pounded
possibly rancid. walnuts and
Pounded walnuts and walnut
walnut oil oil is
is the basis of of the
the delicious
delicious
Circassian dish "charkasiya"
"charkasiya" (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;1977; Townsend
Townsend and and Guest,
Guest, 1980;
1980; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten ,
1984)
1984)..

Nutritional value
value

On a dry
On dry weight
weight basis
basis walnuts
walnuts contain
contain approximately 17%
approximately 17 protein, 65
% protein, 65%% fat and
and 16.5%
16 .5 %
carbohydrates. Although
Although thethe vitamin
vitamin CC content
content ofof mature
mature walnut
walnut kernels
kernels isis low,
low, that
that of
immature green
immature green fruit
fruit is
is exceptionally
exceptionallyhigh,
high, as
as for
for walnuts
walnutsused
usedforforpickling
pickling.
. However, the
vitamin is destroyed where
where the
the method
method of of pickling
pickling turns the nuts black. They
They should
should remain
remain
green, or
or white
white ififthe
the centres
centres only
only are
are used
used (Melville,
(Melville, 1947).
1947) .

By-products

The second pressing of seed

second pressing seed oil,
oil, known
known as as fire
fire drawn,
drawn, isis used
used asas a salad oil or as aa drying
salad oil drying
oil for use
oil use inin paints,
paints, printing
printing ink,
ink, manufacture
manufacture of of soap. Residual cake
soap . Residual cake used
used for feeding
feeding
livestock. The
livestock. The husk
husk isis the
the source
source of
of aa dark
dark brown
brown dye usedused for
for darken
darken hair.
hair. The
The sap
sap isis the
the
source of sugar in the Caucasus.
source Caucasus. Large
Largeshells
shells are
are made
made into
into trinket
trinket boxes. Shells are also
boxes. Shells also
used
used as aa filler
filler for
forexternal
external plywood
plywood glue,
glue, plastics,
plastics, hard
hard rubber
rubber products,
products, asphalt
asphalt roofing
roofing
material, fire
material, fire bricks,
bricks, tiles,
tiles, and
and stuffing
stuffing in
in toys. Shells reduced
toys . Shells reducedtoto dust
dust are
are used
used as
as
insecticides and
insecticides and as
as an abrasive for cleaning
cleaning jet aircraft engines. The timber is highly valued
engines. The valued
for cabinet work and gunstocks.
gunstocks . Various
Various parts
parts are
are used
used medicinally
medicinally as an alternative laxative
and detergent (Menninger, 1977;
and 1977; Townsend
Townsend and Guest, 1980;1980; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Marketing

The USA is the largest producer with

with approximately
approximately 90% of the exports as in-shell.
in-shell . However
However
increasing competition
increasing competition may
may bebe expected
expected from
from India
India and
and China
China as their
their walnut
walnut industries
industries
expand. Walnut
expand. Walnutoil
oilfor
forsalads
saladsand
andcooking
cooking isis produced
produced by
by France
France while
while pickled
pickled walnuts
walnuts are
exported from the
the United
United Kingdom
Kingdom (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Discussion

A popular dessert
dessert nut
nut whose
whose production
production has
has increased
increased significantly
significantly since
since 1979-81
1979-81 to
to 1993
1993
from 79 000 tonnes to 11 million tonnes.
from tornes. The
Thegourmet
gourmettrade
trade in
insalad
salad oil
oil and
and pickled
pickled walnuts
walnuts

27
currently monopolized
currently by France
monopolized by France and
and the United
United Kingdom could be
Kingdom could be developed
developed in
in other
other
producing countries.

NUT:Bertholletia
BRAZILNUT:
BRAZIL Bertholletia excelsa,
excelsa, Lecythidaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Probably originated in southeastern Amazonia. Present

southeastern Amazonia. Present in natural stands
stands (castanhais)
(castanhais) of 50-
loo trees
100 trees at
at densities
densities ofof 5-20
5-20 trees
trees per
per ha,
ha, each
each stand
stand separated
separated from
from one another by up to
another by
1 kilometre as emergent trees in in rainforest
rainforest onon non-flooded
non-flooded ground in in the
the Guianas, Amazonian
Amazonian
Brazil, southeastern
Brazil, southeastern Colombia,
Colombia, southern
southern Venezuela, eastern Peru
Venezuela, eastern Peru and northern
northern Bolivia.
Bolivia.
Climatic
Climatic limits for itsits natural
natural distribution
distribution are a mean
mean annual
annual rainfall
rainfall of 11 400-2
400-2 800
800 mm,
nun, aa
mean
mean annual temperature of of 24-27
24-27°C and a mean annual relative
relative humidity
humidityof of79-86
79-86%.
% . In
0

annual temperature C and mean annual In

eastern Amazonia, in in the
the lower
lower limits
limits of
of its
its climatic
climatic range
range there
there can
can be
be 2-7
2-7 months
months where
where the
the
monthly
monthly rainfall is less
less than
than 100 rnm.
100 mm.

Cultivated in South
Cultivated America outside
South America outside its
its natural
naturalrange.
range. Nuts
Nuts from trees growing
growing on barium-
rich soils can accumulate up to 0.29% barium
barium and
and should
should be avoided due to danger of barium
toxicity (Prance and
toxicity (Prance and Mori, 1979;
1979; Mori
Mori and Prance, 1990;
1990; Clay and Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993). It
It has
has
been introduced to
Malaysia, Sri Lanka, Java,
Hawaii and the Caribbean
Caribbean
(FAO, 1982; Rosengarten,
1984).

Description

Large, deciduous
Large, tree to
deciduous tree
50 m tall;
50 tall; leaves
leaves simple,
simple,
leathery. Fruit
leathery. Fruit (pyxidium)
(pyxidium)
a globose,
globose, circumscissile,
circumscissile,
woody capsule
woody capsule 10-12.5(-
16) cm
16) cm xx 10-12.5(-14)
10-12.5(44) cm,
lined with hard fibres;
seeds acutely trigonoid,
10-25, ca.
10-25, ca. 3.5-5 cm x 2
3.5-5 cm
cm, packed in 2 concentric
rings around
rings around a core;
core; seed
seed
coat woody
coat woody (Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977; Prance
1977; Prance andand Mori,
Mori,
1979; Mori
1979; Mori andand Prance,
Prance,
1990).

Cultivation

There exist problems with

There with
pollination because the
natural bee pollinators
require
require natural
natural forest
forest for
for
Figure 7
Figure
their survival. Strip Bertholletia
Bertholletia excelsa. 1: leaves.
excelsa. 1: leaves 2: fruit.
fruit. 3:
3: open
open fruit
fruit showing
showing seeds.
seeds.
plantations within the

28
rainforest
rainforest may
may be thethe solution
solution (Mori
(Mori and
and Prance,
Prance, 1990).
1990). Nuts
Nuts mainly
mainly harvested
harvested from thethe
forest where they
they are managed
managed under a traditional system
system ofof swidden
swidden agroforestry.
agroforestry. Nuts
Nuts may
may
take
take 1-3
1-3 years
years to
to germinate,
germinate, 1-61-6 months
months ifif shelled.
shelled. Seedlings
Seedlings are transplanted into new
are transplanted new
swiddens and then
swiddens and then managed
managed during
during the
the succeeding
succeeding swidden
swidden fallow,
fallow, thereby
thereby creating
creating the
the
"castanhais". The
The seedlings quickly develop
seedlings quickly develop aa vigorous taproot and
vigorous taproot and need
need to be planted
planted out
out
when 40-60 cm tall.
tall. Attempts
Attempts areare now being made
made by the Agricultural
Agricultural Research
Research Centre of
the
the Humid
Humid Tropics
Tropics (CPATU-EMBRAPA)
(CPATU-EMBRAPA) in in Brazil
Brazil toto identify
identify elite
elite trees,
trees, create
create a clonal
clonal
germplasm collection and
germplasm collection and provide
provide grafted
grafted clones
clones for
for commercial
commercial plantations
plantations (Clay
(Clay and
and
Clement, 1993;
1993; Clement
Clement andand Villachica,
Villachica, 1994).
1994) .

Forest trees are

are 12-16
12-16 years
years old
old before
before fruiting,
fruiting, with
withmaximum
maximum production
production from
from 25-30
25-30 years;
years;
cultivated compact,
cultivated compact, grafted
grafted trees
trees may
may start
start production
productionafter
after88years.
years. The trees
trees grow best on
deep, well-drained,
deep, well-drained, alluvial
alluvial soils
soils on
on high
high ground
ground not
not subject
subject to flooding
flooding (Prance and Mori,
1979; Rosengarten,
1979; Rosengarten, 1984; ITC,
lTC, 1993).
1993).

Harvesting

High yielding mature

mature trees
trees may
may produce
produce 200-400
200-400 fruits
fruits yielding
yielding 100-120
100-120 kg
kg unshelled
unshelled seeds
seeds
(commercial nuts), however
however production
production variable with good yield often followed by a poor
variable with a good yield often followed by a
yield
yield in
in the
the following
following year.
year. Within the
Within the area
area ofof distribution
distribution mature
mature fruits
fruits fall
fall between
between
November and August.
August. TheTheseeds
seeds(Brazil
(Brazil nuts)
nuts) are
are retained
retained within
within the capsule because they
because they
are larger than
than the
the opening.
opening. Nuts
Nutsare
areharvested
harvestedregularly
regularlytotoavoid
avoiddamage
damage byby agoutis,
agoutis, insects
insects
and fungi. Harvesting
Harvestingisisaahazardous
hazardousoperation
operationandand usually
usually starts
starts after
after most of the fruits have
fallen because the danger
because of the danger of being
being hit
hit by
by the
the 0.5-0.75
0.5-0.75 kgkg fruit
fruit falling
fallingfrom
fromaaheight
heightof of up
to 50 mm (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Prance
Prance and
and Mori,
Mori, 1979;
1979; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993).

In Brazil the gatherers

gatherers are
are paid
paid inin advance
advance inin cash
cash or
or kind
kind and
and are
are contracted
contracted to
to deliver
deliver the
the
nuts to the shipper's agent
agent (the
(the trading
trading agent
agent is known asas the
the shipper).
shipper). InInBolivia
Bolivia the
the major
major
shippers own
own large
large estates
estates and
and largely
largely make
make use
use of
of bonded
bonded labour,
labour, exchanging
exchanging Brazil
Brazil nuts
nuts and
and
rubber for over-priced
over-priced goods from the
goods from the estate
estate shops.
shops. The
The nuts
nuts are
are then
then brought
brought by truck
truck or
or
barge to Belém
Belem for
for onward
onward shipment
shipment (Holt, 1991).
1991).

Post-harvest
Post -harvest treatments

After sufficient fruits

fruits have
have been harvested
harvested they
they are
are split
split open,
open, washed
washed and
and dried
dried before
before on-
on-
site storage
site storage under
under rather
rather primitive
primitive conditions;
conditions; thethe nuts
nuts then
then have
have a moisture
moisture content
content of
ca. 35 %.
35%. By the time the nuts have reached the collecting point moisture content would have
By the time the nuts have reached the collecting point moisture content would have
27%.
fallen to ca. 27 %. The
Thenuts
nutsare
arethen
thencleaned
cleaned and dried to ca. 16%
and dried 16 % moisture content or 12%
12 %
if they are to be sold in-shell. In InBrazil
Brazil giant
giant rotary
rotary driers
driers are
are used
used while
while in
in Bolivia and Peru
nuts are dried
dried on
on slatted
slatted floors
floors in
inthe
thewarehouses.
warehouses.

In Brazil and
and Bolivia
Bolivia the "autoclave"
"autoclave" process
process isis used for removing
used for removing thethe shell,
shell, using a brief
brief
burst of
of stem
stem to
to expand
expand the
the shell
shell and
and loosen
loosen the
the inner
inner skin
skin (testa),
(testa), thereby
thereby producing
producing aa whiter
whiter
kernel.
kernel. The
Theprocess
processproduces
producesaadry drynut
nutwith
withlittle
littleattached
attached testa.
testa. Those
Those from
from Brazil
Brazil have
have aa
4.5-5% moisture
moisture content,
content, those
those from
from Bolivia
Bolivia have
have slightly
slightly more
more skin
skin and
and 5-5.5%
5-5.5% moisture.
moisture.
In Peru the nuts are first
first soaked
soaked for
for 24
24 hours
hours toto expand
expand the shell; here the the testa remains
remains fixed
to the kernel, giving a darker kernel. The
to Theindividual
individual nuts
nuts are
are then
then manually
manually cracked in in small
small
vices
vices and roughly graded.
graded.

Grading is
Grading is by
by machine in Brazil
machine in Brazil and
and by
by hand
hand inin Bolivia
Boliviaand
andPeru.
Peru. The
The nuts are then oven
nuts are
dried,
dried, or, in
in Peru,
Peru,sun-dried,
sun-dried, resulting
resulting in
in aaskin-covered
skin-covered nut
nut with
with 6.5-8%
6.5-8 % moisture,
moisture, often
often

29
with pieces
with pieces of shell
shell still
still attached.
attached. The
The high moisture
moisture makes
makes mould
mould and aflatoxin
aflatoxin more
more
common (Holt,
common (Holt, 1991). Properly
Properlydried
dried and
and aerated
aerated intact
intact seeds
seeds can be stored for 1-1.5
1-1.5 years,
years ,
with seed
with seed coat
coat removed
removed theythey can
can be
be kept
kept for
for 2-3
2-3 years
years (Prance
(Prance and
and Mori, 1979).
1979) .

Attempts at freeze
Attempts freeze cracking has been tried in a few factories
factories in Bolivia where the
Bolivia where the frozen nut
is centrifugally thrown against a steel
is steel screen.
screen. Unfortunately
Unfortunately the
the process
process isis difficult
difficult to
to control
control
in order to
in to prevent
prevent broken
broken kernels
kernels oror excessive
excessive fragmenting
fragmenting of of the
the shell
shell,, resulting
resulting inin an
almost unmarketable
almost unmarketable product
product (Holt, 1991).
1991).

After drying in-shell nuts

nuts are graded as follows:
follows: Extra Large, 40-45
40-45 nuts
nuts per pound;
pound ; Large
Large
46-50; Weak Large 51-56; Medium "Tocs",
"Tocs", 57-62;
57-62; and
and Small,
Small, 63-110
63-110 nuts per pound
pound (ITC,
(lTC ,
1993)
1993)..

Production and consumption/utilization

consumption/utilization

Deforestation in
Deforestation in the
the Amazonian rainforest has
Amazonian rainforest has brought
brought about
about aa reduction
reduction in
in the
the harvest
harvest of
Brazil nuts
Brazil nuts from about 104
104 000 tonnes
tonnes in 1970
1970 to only about
about 50 000 tonnes
tonnes in 1980
1980 (Mori
(Mori
and Prance, 1990).
and In-shell Brazil
1990) . In-shell Brazil nuts
nuts are
are traditionally for the
traditionally for the Christmas
Christmas market
market inin UK,
UK,
Germany and
Germany and USA
USA asas "mixed nut in-shell
"mixed nut in-shell pack".
pack". Kernels
Kernels are used in USA for roasting
roasting and
and
salting for
salting for inclusion in mixed
mixed salted
salted kernel
kernel packs
packs.. Approximately
Approximately 60% 60% of the UK market is
in kernels for coating
coating with
with chocolate
chocolate (enrobing),
(enrobing), the remaining
remaining 40%40% are marketed
marketed as raw raw
packed
packed kernels.
kernels. The
Thekernels
kernels are
areused
usedfor
forrepacking
repacking in
in Continental
Continental Europe (Holt, 1991).
1991) .

Nutritional value
value

Brazil nuts
Brazil nuts are highly
highly nutritious,
nutritious, containing
containing approximately
approximately 14 14%% protein, 67 % digestible
protein, 67% digestible fat
or oil and 11%
11 % carbohydrates in addition to calcium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamin B
carbohydrates in addition to calcium, phosphorus, potassium, vitamin and
Band
the rare vitamin
vitamin excelsine (ITC, 1993).
excelsine (lTC, 1993). The
The oil
oil isis rich
rich ininunsaturated
unsaturated fatty
fatty acids
acids (Table 4);
4) ;
the nut is
is also
also rich
rich in
inthe
thesulphur
sulphur amino
amino acids
acids methionine
methionine and cysteine,
cysteine, which are deficient
deficient
in seeds
in seeds ofof Phaseolus
Phaseolus vulgaris
vulgaris (common
(common bean),
bean), a major major source
source of
of protein
protein inin developing
developing
countries (Clay andand Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Table 4: Percentage
PercentageFatty
FattyAcid
Acid Composition
Composition of Pressure Extracted
Brazil Nuts
Brazil Nuts Kernel
Kernel Fat

C14:0 C16:0 C16:1 C18:0 C18:1 C18:2 C18:3 %IS

0.05 13.85 0.45 10.25 30.50 44.90
44.90 - 75.85
0.48 13.74
13 .74 -- 5.45 42.79 26.54
26 .54 - 69.33
69 .33

C14:0
C14 :0 == myristic;
myristic; C18:1
C18: 1== oleic;
oleic;
C16:0 = palmitic
C16:0 palmitic acid;
acid; C18:2 = linoleic;
C18:2 linoleic;
C16:1
C16: 1 == palmitoleic;
palmitoleic; C18:3 = linolenic;
C18 :3 = linolenic;
C18:0
C18:0 = stearic;
stearic; %IS
%IS == insaturation
insaturation == C16:
C16:11+
+ C18:
C18:11 + C18:2 + C18:3
C18:2 + C18 :3

Source: Adams,
Adams, 1975
1975 cited
cited by
by Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993.
1993 .

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Seed oil is
Seed is bright
bright yellow,
yellow, nearly
nearly odourless
odourless and
and with
with aapleasant
pleasant nutty
nutty flavour.
flavour. TheThe first
first
extraction yields
yields an
an excellent
excellent cooking
cooking oil,
oil, the
the second
second extraction
extraction isis suitable
suitable for
for soap-making
soap-making

30
and as
and as an illuminant.
illuminant. The
Theseed
seedcake
cake may
may be
be used
used for
for feeding
feeding livestock
livestock (Prance
(Prance and Mori,
Mori,
1979).
1979).

The capsule
The (pyxidium)may
capsule (pyxidium) maybebeused
usedfor
for fuel
fuel, and isis a preferred
, and preferred source of smoke
source of smoke forfor
coagulating rubber
coagulating rubber latex. Variously
Variously used
used for
for local
local craft
craft work
work for
for ashtrays,
ashtrays, trinket
trinket cases,
cases,
candle holders
candle holders and
and ornaments; also used
ornaments; also used by the
the native
native tribes
tribes for
for containers
containers oror mortars.
mortars.
Timber is
Timber is excellent but little
excellent but used because
little used because of
of the
the high
high value
value of
of the
the nuts
nuts as
as well
well asas felling
felling
being prohibited
being prohibited by law in Brazil
Brazil (Mori and
and Prance, 1990;
1990; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Marketing

The world
The world supply
supply of Brazil
Brazil nuts
nuts has
has varied from as
varied from as high
high as
as 60
60 000
000 tons
tons to
to ca.
ca. 30
30 000
000 tons
tons
and over the past 22 years has decreased
and at the
decreased at the modest
modest rate
rate of
of ca.
ca. 820 tons a year (Table 5).
This decrease
This decrease can be attributed
attributed to the
the destruction
destruction of the rainforest (LaFleur, 1992).
1992).

Table 5:.
5:' World
World Production
Productionof
ofBrazil
BrazilNuts
Nutsby
byCountry,
Country,1970-1991
1970-1991

Year Brazil Bolivia Peru Total Approximate price FOB

('000 tons) f/ton or
£Iton or US$/lb
US$/lb
1970
1970 50 50 £378/ton
1971 30 30 £4871ton
£487/ton
1972 65 65 £466/ton
1973 65 65 0.63/lb
US$ 0.63/1b
1974 33 33 O.77/lb
US$ 0.77/1b
1975 50 50 0.59/lb
US$ 0.59/1b
1976 32 32
32 US$ 0.76/1b
1977 38 38
38 US$ 1.28/lb
US$
1978 32 88 22 42 1.33/1b
US$ 1.33/1b
1979 50 7 33 60 US$ 1.04/lb
US$
1980 60 60 0.98/lb
US$ 0.98/1b
1981 40 40 1.07/lb
US$ 1.07/1b
1982 28 28 US$ 1.63/lb
US$
1983 35 35
35 US$ l.4l1lb
US$ 1.41/lb
1984 35 10 6 51
51 US$ O.8111b
US$ 0.81/lb
1985 40 66 4 50 0.82/lb
US$ 0.82/1b
1986 35 88 55 48 US$ 0.90/1b
1987 33 10 7 50 US$ 1.09/lb
US$
1988 29 77 55 41 1. 18/lb
US$ 1.18/1b
1989 25 99 6.5 40.5 US$ 1.70/lb
1990 42 99 33 54 1.48/lb
US$ 1.48/1b
1991 24 5.5 2.5
2.5 32 1.36/lb
US$ 1.36/1b
Average 36.3 8.0 4.4 45.2 US$ 1.20/lb

Source:
Source: LaFleur, 1992.
1992.

31
It was formerly second
second only
only to
to rubber
rubber as
as an
an export
export crop
crop from
from Amazonian
Amazonian Brazil
Brazil and
and still
still isis
a major crop in the overall economy of the
the region. Nuts
Nuts are
are mainly
mainly exported
exported to USA,
USA , United
United
Kingdom and Germany (Prance and Mori, Mori, 1979).
1979) .

Export is mainly
Export mainly concentrated
concentrated in northwestern Amazonia, Acre State
northwestern Amazonia, State and
and the
the Pando/Beni
Pando/Beni
of Bolivia.
regions of Bolivia. The
The in-shell
in-shell nuts
nuts are from the generally larger and round nuts from central
and lower Amazonia
and Amazonia and
and Para
Pali and
and the kernels from Acre
kernels from Acre and
and PandolBeni
Pando/Beniregions
regions.. However,
over the past decade the demand for in-shell
in-shell has been decreasing worldwide as traditions have
changed and thethe Food
Food Authorities
Authorities have
have become
become more
more demanding;
demanding; the
the demand
demand forfor kernels,
kernels,
however,
however, has
has remained
remained relatively
relatively constant.
constant. Over
Over 80%
80% ofof the
the commercial supply
supply is from Acre
where the differences between the Cruzeiro "official" and the
"official" and the Cruzeiro
Cruzeiro "parallelo"
"parallelo" generally
favours a contraband traffic between
favours between Bolivia,
Bolivia, Peru and Brazil (Holt, 1991).
1991).

The three influencing

influencing factors between production
production and and final
final usage
usage are
are the out-turn
out-turn quality at
the shipper's
the shipper' s factory,
factory, the
the quality
quality received
received by
by the
the importer
importer atat the
the port
port of
ofdestination
destination and
and the
the
quality delivered
quality delivered toto the
the consumer,
consumer, resulting
resulting in
in aa rather
rather precarious
precarious market.
market. The
The situation
situation is
is
further complicated
further complicated by by three
three of
of the
themajor
majorprocessing/exporting
processing/exporting facilities
facilities in
in Brazil
Brazil being
being
owned by members of
owned of the
the same
same family
family and
and controlling
controlling over 50% 50 % of
of the
the market.
market.

The importer
The importer buys
buys a Fair
Fair Average
Average Quality
Quality (FAQ)
(FAQ) of the the crop,
crop, which
which isis determined
determined by by
Combined Edible Nut TradeTrade Association
Association (CENTA)
(CENTA) or or by
by the
the Association
Association ofof Food
Food Industries,
Industries ,
New York (AFI) from time
New time to
to time
time during
during the
the year.
year. This
This theoretically
theoretically allows
allows the
the market to
trade different qualities
qualities as determined by the state crop at the point or origin. Sale
state of the crop Sale byby
the importer
importer to
to the
thefinal
finalcustomer
customer will willinvariably
invariably include
include guarantees
guarantees andand conditions
conditions notnot
covered by the original purchase.
purchase . Manufacturers
Manufacturers have to conform to increasingly tighter legal
specifications, particularly
specifications, particularly with
with regard
regard to aflatoxin
aflatoxin and coli bacteria,
bacteria, especially
especially in
in Europe
Europe
where raw
where raw or enrobed
enrobed nuts
nuts are
are eaten.
eaten. Since
Since much
much of of USA
USA import
import is
is rendered
rendered sterile
sterile by
by
roasting or blanching
roasting blanching and detoxification processes, their
detoxification processes, their import
import regulations
regulations tend
tend to
to be
be less
less
strict (Holt, 1991;
1991; LaFleur,
LaFleur, 1992).
1992).

Blanched grades have been shown to be 99% lessless contaminated

contaminated than naturals (shelled
(shelled but not
not
processed) and are marketed
marketed as blanched
blanched whole,
whole, sliced, diced, slivered,
sliced, diced, slivered, balls, ovals,
ovals, broken
broken
and paste; natural
natural grades
grades are
are marketed
marketed as
as natural
natural wholes,
wholes, sliced
sliced and
and powder.
powder.

Discussion

The feudal contract

contract system
system by
by which
which the the disenfranchised
disenfranchised gatherers are bonded
bonded to
to harvest
harvest the
the
nuts means that any benefits of high prices are not passed onto the the gatherers.
gatherers. The destruction
of the rainforest
rainforest has
has resulted
resulted in
in aa steady
steady decrease
decrease inin both
both production and share of thethe edible
edible
nut trade,
trade , promising
promising aa bleak
bleak future
future for
for the
the Brazil
Brazil nut
nut trade
trade (LaFleur,
(LaFleur, 1992).
1992) .

However,
However, long-term
long-term prospects
prospects are
are considered
considered reasonably
reasonably promising.
promising. Producers
Producers from
from the
the
Andean region
Andean region can
can expect
expect little
little or no competition from other
competition from other parts
parts of the
the world.
world . However,
However.
their main concern should
should not
not bebe production
production and exports but quality
quality control (ITC,
(lTC, 1993).
1993).

Brazil nut trees

Brazil trees can
can continue
continue be be managed
managed under
under the
the present
present "castanhais"
"castanhais" system,
system, thereby
thereby
helping to conserve the
the tropical
tropical forest
forest and
and Amerindian
Amerindian cultures.
cultures . A
A second
second possibility
possibility isis one
one
of agroforestry/forest management
management to to restore
restore degraded
degraded forest
forest sites
sites with
with the
the Brazil
Brazil nut as aa
multipurpose species, yielding
mUltipurpose species, nuts after
yielding nuts after 15-20 years
years and
and timber
timber after 50-100 years, which which
could lead to the
the provision
provision ofof long-term
long-term capitalization for the Amazonian
capitalization for farmer. The third
Amazonian farmer. third
option is that of investment
of investment in a
a monoculture plantation crop but with the inherent risks of
monoculture plantation crop but with the inherent risks

32
pests and diseases. Clay
Clay and
and Clement
Clement (1993) prefer the second
second option.
option. However,
However, there is also
case for the Amerindians
a case Amerindians to be allowed
allowed to continue their traditional
traditional way
way of life
life in their own
territories and
and the
the second
second option
option to
to be
be used
used inindegraded
degraded areas.
areas.

PEANUT ORGROUNDNUT:
PEANUT OR GROUNDNUT:Arachis
Arachis hypogaea,Leguminosae
hypogaea, Leguminosae subfamily Papilionoideae
subfamily Papilionoideae

See Smartt (1994) for agronomic

See agronomic details,
details, etc.
etc.

Discussion

Peanuts are
Peanuts are the second largest
largest source,
source, after soya beans, of vegetable
soya beans, vegetable oil;
oil; the
the crops
crops from
from all
all
the major producing countries with the exception of USA is predominantly
the predominantly forfor oil extraction
(Purseglove, 1987).
1987).

As a dessert nut, peanuts

peanuts were
were first
first introduced
introduced in
in USA as roasted, in-shell
in-shell in 1870; packaged,
salted and roasted,
roasted, s'helled
shelled peanuts were introduced
introduced around 1906
1906 (Matz,
(Matz, 1984).
1984).

It is aa valuable,
valuable, high
high protein,
protein, legume
legume crop
crop widely
widely grown
grown throughout
throughout the tropics, especially
especially
in the lower
lower rainfall
rainfall areas.
areas. Where
Where other
other sources
sources of
of food
food protein
protein are
are not
not readily
readily available
available the
emphasis should be on peanuts
emphasis peanuts for
for local
local consumption
consumption rather than
than commercial
commercial oil extraction.
extraction.

MACADAMIAOR
MACADAMIA ORQUEENSLAND
QUEENSLAND Macadamia
NUT:
NUT: integrifolia,Proteaceae
Macadamiaintegrijolia, Proteaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Native of Queensland
Queensland and northern
northern New
New South
South Wales
Wales of Australia;
Australia; occurs along fringes ofof
subtropical
subtropical lowland
lowland rainforests.
rainforests. Introduced to Hawaii
Introduced to Hawaii in 1880s
1880s for growing
growing as
as windbreaks.
windbreaks .
The commercial potential as aa dessert
dessert nut
nut was
was developed
developed by
by the
the University
University of
of Hawaii
Hawaii in
in the
the
1930s although
1930s although aa plantation had been
plantation had been established
established inin Australia
Australia asas early
early as
as 1888;
1888; recent
recent
plantations
plantations in California, Florida,
Florida, Jamaica,
Jamaica, Mexico,
Mexico, Guatemala,
Guatemala, El EI Salvador,
Salvador, Costa
Costa Rica,
Rica,
Colombia, Venezuela,
Venezuela, Brazil, Peru, Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, Kenya,
Kenya, Tanzania,
Tanzania, Malawi,
Malawi, Zimbabwe,
Zimbabwe, South
South
Africa, Thailand,
Thailand, China,
China, Indonesia,
Indonesia, Tahiti,
Tahiti, Samoa,
Samoa, Fiji,
Fiji, New
New Caledonia,
Caledonia, New
New Zealand
Zealand and
and
Israel. Optimum
Optimum temperature
temperature is 25°C;
25· C; mature trees are frost tolerant for short periods
tolerant for periods down
down
to -6°C,
-6· C, longer
longer periods
periods or
orlower
lowertemperatures
temperatures areare fatal.
fatal. The
Thedeveloping
developing inflorescence
inflorescence is
susceptible to
susceptible to frost while
while the
the critical
critical temperature
temperature above
above which
which flowering
flowering is
is suppressed
suppressed isis
20°C
20· C (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; ITC,
lTC, 1993;
1993; Macrae
Macrae et al.,
aI., 1993).
1993).

Description

A spreading,
spreading, evergreen tree up to 10 10 m tall;
tall; leaves
leaves in whorls
whorls of 3, simple,
simple, entire
entire 10-28
10-28 cm
long, new leaves pale green (in (in whorls of 4 and margins serrate with
margins serrate with ca.
ca. 40 per margin, new new
leaves
leaves pink to red
red in
in the
the closely
closely related
related M.
M. tetraphylla).
tetraphylla). Inflorescence
Inflorescence 10-15
10-15 cmcm long
long with
with
up
up to
to 200
200 creamy
creamy white
white flowers
flowers (racemes
(racemes up up to 30 30 cm
cm long
long and
and bearing
bearing more
more than
than 500
500
reddish pink flowers in in M.
M. tetraphylla).
tetraphylla). Follicles
Follicles 1-sutured,
I-sutured, only
only 11 out
out of
of 22 ovules
ovules develops
develops
(rarely both, then whole
(rarely whole kernel difficult to extract).
difficult to extract). Fruit borne
borne in hanging
hanging clusters
clusters of
of 12
12 or
or
more,
more, globose,
globose, 2-3
2-3 cmcm inin diameter,
diameter, exocarp
exocarp fleshy,
fleshy, dehiscing
dehiscing on the
the tree;
tree; endocarp
endocarp very
very
hard, kernels
kernels globose
globose (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;1984; Macrae
Macrae etet aI.,
al., 1993).
1993) .

33
Cultivation

Macadamia prefers well-drained

well-drained
soils, sheltered from strong
winds and a mild,
winds and mild, frost-free,
subtropical climate with
subtropical climate with a well
well
distributed
distributed annual
annual rainfall
rainfall of atat
least 11 200
200 mm.mm. Plantations
from seed start profitable
bearing after 7 years years,, with
productivity
productivity peaking
peaking after
after 15
years; the economic
years; economic life of the the
being 50 years.
tree being years . AtAt full
full
production the yield
production the yield is from
from 2323
to
to 70 kg
kg in-shell
in-shell nuts
nuts per
per tree.
tree.
Desirable clones may be
developed by grafting. The
species is cross pollinated,
therefore desirable
therefore desirable that
that at least
least Figure 88
two cultivars are grown in Macadamia Macadamia integrifo/ia. 1: leaf.
integrifolia. 1: leaf. 2: branchlet.
branchlet . 3:
3 : nut
nut showing
showing dehiscence
dehiscence of
of husk.
husk .
4: cross-section.
cross-section. 5:
5 : longitudinal
longitudinal section.
section.
orchards, preferably
preferably inin alternate
alternate
rows. The
The presence
presence of of bees
bees
should be encouraged (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984; Macrae et
1984; Macrae et al.
al.,, 1993).
1993).

Harvesting

Mature trees bear

bear continuously
continuously and
and ripe
ripe fruits
fruits are
are difficult
difficult to distinguish from immature ones
on the tree
tree as
as the
the mature
mature fruits
fruits usually
usually abscise
abscise when the the fibrous husk is
fibrous husk is still
still green.
green. As the
husk dries it splits
splits along
along the suture
suture to release
release the nut with its thick,
with its thick, rough,
rough, strong, light
light tan
shell enclosing the kernel. Consequently the ripe nuts are usually
shell usually harvested
harvested fromfrom the ground.
A blower isis used
used to
to move
move leaves
leaves and
and nuts
nuts away
away from the base of of the
the tree
tree where
where they
they can
can be
be
swept into
swept into windrows and picked up by by aa mechanized
mechanized harvester, although
although some
some hand
hand labour
labour
is always
is always necessary.
necessary. Harvesting shouldbebe carried
Harvesting should carried outout every
every 6-8
6-8 weeks
weeks to to avoid
avoid any
any
deterioration (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Macrae
Macrae et al., 1993).
1993).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Freshly harvested
Freshly nuts contain
harvested nuts contain upup to 30%
30% moisture
moisture in the husk
husk andand 10-25%
10-25 % in the rest and and
it has to be removed
removed within 24 hours
hours if possible
possible toto prevent
prevent mould.
mould. The The husk
husk isis removed
removed by
husking machines
husking machines and
and initially
initially dried
dried to
to 10%
10% moisture
moisture before
before delivery
delivery toto the
the processor.
processor. The The
in-shell nuts
in-shell nuts are then reduced in
then reduced in stages to about
stages to about 1.5%
1.5% water
water content
content in drying
drying ovens
ovens for
for
long-term storage, efficient cracking and more complete removal removal of whole kernels. The dried
of whole kernels . The dried
nuts are then shelled
nuts shelled in
in stainless
stainless steel
steel drums andand the kernels
kernels separated by a combination
combination of
sieving and
sieving and air blasting before grading by air or water flotation.
blasting before grading by air or water flotation . The final
final product is either
lightly
lightly roasted
roasted and salted
salted or
or packaged
packaged rawraw inin vacuum-filled,
vacuum-filled, foil
foil laminate
laminate bags
bags (Ryall
(Ryall and
and
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Macrae
Macrae et al.,
al., 1993).
1993).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

The optimum requirements for eating

eating and
and processing
processing are kernels
kernels containing
containing at least 72 % oil,
least 72% oil,
specific gravity
i.e.,. , specific
i.e (SG) <
gravity (SG) <1.0);
1.0); second
second grade
grade kernels
kernels with
with SG 1.0-1.025
1.0-1.025 can be used for

34
low grade
low grade production, while third
production, while third grade
grade kernels with SG
kernels with SG >1.025
> 1.025 are
arecommercially
commercially
unacceptable.. The
unacceptable The bulk of the
the macadamia
macadamia nuts are traditionally
traditionally roasted
roasted in coconut oil and
and
salted although dry roasting isis increasing
increasing in
in popularity;
popularity; also
also used
used in
in confectionery
confectionery - chocolate
coated kernels
coated kernels andand nut chocolate,
chocolate, ice cream
cream andand baking
baking (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984; ITC, 1993;
1984; lTC, 1993 ;
Macrae et
Macrae et al., 1993).
1993).

Nutritional value

Kernels contain
Kernels contain more
more than
than 75
75%% of oil, the
the rest
rest being
being protein
protein and little sugar but no
no starch
starch
(Menninger, 1977). The
(Menninger, Thenutritional
nutritionalvalue
value of
ofroasted
roasted and
and salted
salted nuts
nuts compared
compared with
with shelled
shelled
pistachio nuts
pistachio nuts are
are shown in Table 6.

Table 6: Nutritional Value per 100

100 g of Roasted
Roasted in Oil and Salted Macadamia Nuts
and Dried and
and Shelled
Shelled Pistachio
Pistachio Nuts
Nuts
.
Macadamia Pistachio
Water (%) 2 4
Food energy (kJ)
Food 33064
064 2465
2 465
Protein (g)
(g) 7.1 21.4
Fat (g) 78.6 50
Fatty acids,
Fatty acids, saturated (g) 11.4 6.1
6.1
Fatty acids,
Fatty acids, monounsaturated 61.1 33.2
Fatty acids, polyunsaturated
polyunsaturated 0.14 7.5
Cholesterol (mg)
(mg) 0 0
Carbohydrates (g) (g) 14.3 25
Ca (mg)
(mg) 46.4 135.7
P (mg)
(mg) 203.6
203 .6 510.7
510.7
Fe (mg)
(mg) 1.8 6.8
6.8
K (mg) 332.1 11107.1
107.1
Na (mg)
(mg) 264.3 -
Mg (mg)
(mg) 0.12 -
Zn (mg)
(mg) 1.4 -
Mn (mg)
(mg) 0.38 -
Cu (mg)
(mg) 0.33 -
Vitamin
Vitamin A, iu trace 250
Vitamin A, RE RE (mg)
(mg) trace 25
Thiamin (mg)
(mg) 0.21 0.82
0.82
Riboflavin (mg)
(mg) 0.11 0.18
0.18
Nicotinic acid (mg)
(mg) 2.14 1.07
Ascorbic acid
acid (mg)
(mg) 0 trace

Source: Macrae et ai.,

Source: Macrae al., 1993.
1993.

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Macadamia shell may be be used

used as
as fuel,
fuel, generating
generating sufficient
sufficient energy to
to dry
dry wet,
wet, in-shell
in-shell nuts.
nuts.
Kernel
Kernel oil suitable
suitable for
for human
human consumption
consumption (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

35
35
 Macadamia tree. (Photo:
(Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak)

Macadamia in flower.
Macadamia flower. (Photo:
(Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak)

36
Marketing

World production
World production for
for 1991/1992 was approximately
199111992 was approximately11 11000 000tonnes
tornes of
of kernels
kernels per
per year of
which 50%
which 50% were
were consumed
consumed in in USA.
USA. The The major
major exporter
exporter is Hawaii,Hawaii, producing
producing about
about
55 700
700 tonnes
tonnes inin 1991,
1991, with
with over
over 50%
50% of of the
the world
world production
production and and aa projected
projected kernel
kernel
production of about
production about 13
13 600
600 tonnes
tonnes by
by the
the year
year 2000.
2000. Australia,
Australia, the the second
second largest producer
producer
in the world
in world has
has an
an annual
annual production
production ofof ca. 33 000
000 tonnes,
tonnes, or or near
near 30%
30% of of the
the world
world
(ITC, 1993).
production (lTC, 1993). Considered
Consideredaagourmet
gourmetdelicacy,
delicacy, itit is,
is, with
withpine
pine nuts
nuts and
and pistachios,
pistachios ,
one of
of the
the world's
world'smost
mostexpensive
expensive nuts
nuts (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Discussion

World production
production is
is increasing
increasing atat an
an alarming
alarming rate
rate and
and is
is expected to double by the beginning
of the next century. ThereThereisisstill
stillonly
onlyaasmall
small demand
demand for
for this
this expensive
expensive nut andand it is a crop
that requires
requires considerable
considerable initial
initial investment
investment (ITC,
(lTC, 1993).
1993). Nevertheless,
Nevertheless, the the market
market for
for
macadamia could be expanded considerably
considerably into
into Europe
Europe andand Asia,
Asia, where
where it is still
still relatively
relatively
little known.
known. TheTheincrease
increaseininproduction
production can
can be
be expected
expected to result
result in
in aa price
price reduction.
reduction.

With our present

present knowledge
knowledge there
there are
are only
only limited
limited areas
areas in
in the
the world
world where
where the
the trees
trees can
can be
be
grown successfully. To
To date
date there
there have
have been no successful plantations within
successful plantations within caca.. 15°N and SS
15· Nand
of the equator
equator and,
and, unlike
unlike coffee,
coffee, aasuitable
suitable altitude
altitude cannot
cannot be
be substituted
substituted for latitude
latitude when
seeking a favourable
seeking favourable environment (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984). Obviously
Obviously there
there is
is a need
need forfor further
exploration for and selection
exploration for selection of
of potential
potential genotypes and a better
genotypes and better understanding
understanding of the
the
environmental
environmental and management
management factors
factors involved
involved in
inestablishing
establishing productive
productive macadamia
macadamia
plantations.

ALMOND: Prunus duicis,

ALMOND: Prunus dulcis, Rosaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Naturally occurs in the oak

Naturally occurs oak forests
forests of
of Northern
Northern Syria,
Syria, Turkey,
Turkey, Caucasus,
Caucasus , Iran
Iran and
and Iraq.
Iraq.
Introduced and widely
Introduced and widely naturalized
naturalized inin North
North Africa,
Africa, Cyprus,
Cyprus, Crete,
Crete, southern
southern Europe,
Europe ,
Afghanistan,
Afghanistan, Kashmir, California,
California, etc.
etc. (Townsend
(Townsend and
and Guest,
Guest, 1966).
1966).

Description

Spreading tree up to
Spreading tree to 10
10 m
m tall;
tall; leaves
leaves deciduous,
deciduous, simple.
simple. Fruit ovoid-ellipsoid,
ovoid-ellipsoid, 3-4 cm xx
2-2.5
2-2.5 cmcm (larger
(larger inincultivated
cultivated varieties),
varieties), splitting
splitting at maturity,
maturity, stone 2.5-3 cm
stone 2.5-3 cm x 1.5-2
1.5-2 cm,
cm,
pitted, seed ovoid, compressed,
compressed, ca. 1.5-21.5-2 cm
cm xx 1-1.5
1-1.5 cm (Townsend
(Townsend andand Guest,
Guest, 1966).
1966). Two
Two
races recognized, sweetsweet almonds
almonds grown for their edible nuts nuts and the bitter almonds
almonds for oil
oil
of bitter almond. Hard
bitter almond. Hard and softsoft shelled
shelled forms
forms are
are recognized
recognized in thethe former
former (Ryall
(Ryall and
and
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Matz,
Matz, 1984;
1984;Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984);
1984);the
the latter
latter will
will not
not be considered further here.
here .

Cultivation

Most almond
Most almond cultivars
cultivars are
are soft
softshelled;
shelled; they
theyare
arealso self-incompatible,
also self-incompatible,consequently
consequently
plantations require
plantations require the interplanting
interplanting of two rows of self-incompatible with aa row of cross-
self-incompatible with cross-
compatible cultivars; the
the keeping
keeping of
of honey
honey bees
bees for
for pollination
pollination is
is considered an
an essential part
part
of almond
almond production. Trees in California
production. Trees begin toto bear
California begin bear after
after 3-4
3-4 years
years and
and reach
reach full
full
productivity
productivity in ca. 7-8
7-8 years. Irrigation is favoured
years. Irrigation favoured in California (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

37
Harvesting

Almonds ready for harvesting when when

the hulls start to split open.
Formerly harvested
Formerly harvested by beating
beating the
the
tree and collecting the fall falling
ing
almonds on canvas
almonds canvas sheets.
sheets. Now
harvested using mechanical shakers
which can deal
which can deal with
with 120 trees
trees per
hour; the fallen
fallen nuts
nuts are
are then
then swept
swept
into windrows and picked up
mechanically
mechanically for for transport
transport toto the
the
factory.. The
factory The use
use of shake
shake andand
catch machines
catch machines lessens
lessens the danger
danger
of fruits of the more
more open
open cultivars
cultivars
coming into
coming into contact with the the soil,
soil,
thereby lessening
thereby lessening thethe risk of mould
and aflatoxin
aflatoxin infestation
infestation(Rya11
(Ryall and
Pentzer, 1974;
1974; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;1984;
Paramount Farms
Fanns Almonds, 1991).1991).

Post-harvest treatments

At the
At the factory
factory the
the brown,
brown, outer,
outer,
leathery coat
leathery coat (hull)
(hUll) is
is removed
removed by by
blanching, which involves
blanching, involves placing
placing
the almonds
the almonds in contact with water water
at 82C
at 82· Cfor
for33minutes
minutes and and either
either
skinning by
skinning by hand
hand or by by aa special
special
machine. The The almonds
almonds are are then
then Figure
Figure 99
dried to less
dried less than
than 8% 8 % moisture
moisture Prunus clulcis.
dulcis. 1:1: branch
branch with
with flowers
flowers.. 2:
2: longitudinal section of
longitudinal section of flower.
flower. 3:
3:
Branchwith
with fruits.
fruits. 4:
4: fruits without
without pericarp.
content and stored. Air tight Branch pericarp .

containers must
containers must be used to prevent
prevent
moisture pick-up. Although relatively resistant
Although relatively resistant to to rancidity
rancidity the the almonds
almonds will will deteriorate in in
time. On
time. Ondelivery
delivery toto the
the packing
packing company,
company, the almonds
almonds are are shelled
shelledand andgraded.
graded. The grading
process uses ultraviolet
ultraviolet scanners
scanners for
for high-tech
high-tech colour
colour sorting
sorting to to separate
separate damaged and foreign foreign
matter before mechanical
mechanical grading (Matz, 1984;
grading- (Matz, 1984; Paramount Farms Almonds,
Fanns Almonds, 1991). 1991).

Production and consumption/

consumption/ utilization
utilization

Approximately 98%98 % of
of the
the crop
crop isis sold
sold shelled
shelled either as
as natural
natural and
and retaining
retaining the
the brown
brown skin
skin
or blanched,
blanched, with
with the
the skins
skins removed.
removed. Almonds
Almonds can can be
be eaten
eaten as
as a dessert
dessert nut either dry
dry
roasted or roasted in almond oil and then then salted
salted and
and seasoned.
seasoned. They are also used for baking,
confectionery, cereal, dairy
dairy ororsnack
snack formulations;
formulations; processing
processing may
may produce
produce blanched
blanched whole,
whole,
slivered, meal, diced,
diced, split,
split, sliced
sliced or
or flaked
flaked almonds;
almonds; almond
almond butter is a recent development
(Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Paramount
Paramount Farms Farms Almonds,
Almonds, 1991).
1991).

38
Nutritional value
value

Almonds
Almonds contain
contain approximately 22%
approximately 22 % protein,
protein, 57.7%
57 .7 %digestible fat or
digestible fat oil and
or oil and 15%
15 %
carbohydrates
carbohydrates (Melville, 1947).
1947).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

The gum exudate may be used as aa substitute

substitute for gum tragacanth and was
tragacanth and was formerly
formerly exported
exported
from Iran via
from via Bombay
Bombay to Europe.
Europe. Almond
Almond yields
yields both
both an
an essential
essential oil and
and fixed
fixed fatty acid
for use in
in perfumery
perfumery but
butfrequently
frequently adulterated
adulterated with
with other
other oils. The essential
oils. The essential oil
oil from the
the
bitter variety is
is highly
highly toxic
toxic due
due to
to presence
presence of HCN
HCN but
but with
with careful
careful preparation
preparation yields
yields an
agreeable essence
agreeable essence for use
use in
in perfumery
perfumery and
and confectionery.
confectionery. Both bitter and and sweet
sweet varieties
varieties
may be grown
grown as as ornamentals
ornamentals (Townsend
(Townsend and Guest, 1966).
1966) .

The hulls of sweet almonds

almonds can be be fed
fed to
to livestock.
livestock. The
The shells
shells can
can be
be used
used for
for roughage
roughage in
in
cattle feed or
or converted
converted into
into charcoal
charcoal briquettes
briquettes (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Marketing

Regarded as
Regarded as the
the most
most important
important and
and versatile
versatile of
of all
all edible
edible tree
tree nuts.
nuts. Almond
Almond producing
producing
countries
countries in current order
order of
of importance
importance are
are USA
USA (California),
(California), Spain,
Spain, Italy, Iran, Greece,
Greece ,
Morocco,
Morocco, Turkey,
Turkey, Tunisia,
Tunisia, Pakistan,
Pakistan, Libya,
Libya, Syria,
Syria, Portugal,
Portugal, China
China and
and Lebanon
Lebanon (FAO,
(FAO ,
1994).

World
World production
production rose steadily
sieadily from
from 11 million
million tonnes
tonnes in 1979-81
1979-81 to 1.31.3 million
million tonnes
tonnes in
in
1992 and
1992 and fell
fell to
to 1.2 million tonnes
tonnes in 1993.
1993. This
This trend
trend is
is reflected
reflected in
in North
North America
America byby 273,
273 ,
412 and 356 000 tonnes
tonnes for 1979-81,
1979-81, 1992 and 1993
1992 and 1993 respectively.
respectively. Production in Europe, the
largest
largest of the
the continental
continental scale
scale producers
producers has
has decreased
decreased steadily
steadily from
from 482
482 000
000 tonnes
tonnes in
in
1979-81 to 436
1979-81 436 000
000 tonnes
tonnes in in 1993. Spain, the
1993. Spain, the major
major producer
producer in in Europe
Europe increased
increased
production slightly from 243
243 000 tonnes
tonnes in 1979-81
1979-81 toto 251
251 000 tonnes 1993,, while
tonnes in 1993 while in Italy
Italy
production has declined markedly, from 174 000 tonnes tonnes in 1979-81
1979-81 toto 99900
99 900 tonnes in 1993
1993
(FAO, 1994).
(FAO, 1994).

Discussion

The world's
world's major
majoredible
edible nut,
nut, there
thereisisan
anobvious
obviousneed
need for
forimproving
improving Old
Old World
World production
production
if it is
is to
to compete
compete with
with the
the highly
highly mechanized
mechanized production
production in USA.

Cocoislur:
COCONUT: Cocos
Cocos nucifera,
nucijera, Palmae
Palmae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Origin unknown, possibly

possibly western
western Pacific;
Pacific; cultivated
cultivated throughout
throughout the
the lowland
lowland tropics.
tropics. Salt
tolerant, the
the coconut
coconut requires
requires an
an equable
equable climate, good
good drainage, adequate
adequate soil aeration and
constant supply
constant supply of ground
ground water (Purseglove,
(Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1986).
1986).

Description

Solitary, unarmed,
Solitary, unarmed, monoecious tree palm
monoecious tree palm ranging
ranging from
from "dwarfs"
"dwarfs" with
with trunks
trunks up
up to
to 22 m at
first flowering
first to tall
flowering to tall forms
forms with
with trunks to 30
trunks to 30 m oror more. Leaves pinnate,
more. Leaves pinnate, 4-5
4-5 m long.
long.
Inflorescence up
Inflorescence up to
to 1.5
1.5 mm long,
long, bisexual;
bisexual; male
male flowers distal. Fruit massive,
flowers distal. massive , obovoid,
obovoid ,

39
obscurely trigonous,
obscurely trigonous,up up toto 25
25 cm long
long andand
25 cm
25 cm or more
more in diameter, with with basal
basal
persistent calyx and corolla; usually
persistent usually with
with only
only
11 of
of the
the 3 carpels developing; mesocarp
massive, fibrous;
massive, fibrous; endocarp
endocarp toto 5 mm mm thick,
thick,
extremely hard and
extremely hard and woody,
woody, withwith 33 basal
"eyes", usually only 11 functional;
"eyes", functional; seed
seed filling
filling
the large endocarp cavity, 10-15 10-15 cm cm in in
diameter;
diameter; endosperm to 2 cm cm thick,
thick, lining
lining the
the
endocarp (Dransfield, 1986).
1986).

Cultivation

A number ofof rather

rather heterogeneous
heterogeneous cultivars
cultivars are
are
recognized including one where the endosperm
hypertrophies
hypertrophies to to fill
fill the entire
entire cavity
cavity with
with aa
thick, edible curd . Tall palms tend to be slow
edible curd. slow
maturing,
maturing, flowering
flowering 6-106-10 years
years after
after planting
planting
and with aa life-span
and life-span ofof 80-100
80-100 years.
years. Dwarf
palms
palms begin
begin bearing
bearing inin their third
third year
year and
and
have a productive
productive life
life of
of 30-35(-40)
30-35(-40) years.
years.

A satisfactory method of vegetative

propagation has
propagation has yet
yet to
to be
be found,
found, although
although some
some
success has
success has been reported
reported withwith tissue
tissue culture.
culture. Figure 10
Figure
is, therefore,
Propagation is, therefore, from seed.seed. TheThe seed
seed Cocos nucifera
nucifera..
has no
no dormancy
dormancy and and growth
growth maymay even
even begin
begin
while the fruit is still
still attached
attached toto the
the tree.
tree. Germination
Germination is is slow
slow and may take ca. 4 months.
take ca. months.
Transplanting into
Transplanting into the field is
field is from
from 6-96-9 months
months andand should
should be be accompanied
accompanied by by stringent
stringent
selection for
selection for early germination,
germination, vigour
vigour andand rapid
rapid growth.
growth. The The normal
normal spacing
spacing for tall palms
is for 120-175
is 120-175 palms per ha ha with
with square
square planting
planting and 140-200 palms per
140-200 palms per ha with triangular
planting . Palms
planting. Palms require
require careful
careful attention during their
attention during their initial 4-6 years
initial 4-6 years toto ensure
ensure good
good
development;
development; catch crops may may be be grown
grown until
until the
the palms
palms come
come into
into bearing.
bearing. Manuring is is
highly beneficial.
beneficial.

An inflorescence is produced every month and the fruit takes a year to mature (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten,
1984; Purseglove,
1984; Purseglove, 1987).
1987) .

Harvesting

Depending
Depending on the cultivar, the average
average weight of fruit from tall palms ranges
ranges from 1.2-2
1.2-2 kg
kg
with
with nuts from 0.7-1.2
0.7-1.2 kg
kg containing
containing 0.35-0.6
0.35-0.6 kg
kg endosperm
endosperm and yielding
yielding 0.2-0.29 kg ofof
copra. Dwarf
Dwarfpalins
palmsbear
bearfruits
fruitsweighing
weighing1.1
1.1kg
kgwith
withnuts
nuts weighing
weighing 0.6
0.6 kg
kg and
and yielding
yielding 0.2
0.2
kg of
of copra.
copra.

Harvesting
Harvesting usually
usually begins
begins when tall palms
palms areare 6-8
6-8 years
years old
old and
and continues
continues throughout
throughout the
the
year. Fully ripe fruits
fruits are
are required
required for
for copra
copra production
production and andmanufacture
manufacture ofofdesiccated
desiccated
The fruits
coconut. The fruits may be be harvested
harvested by skilled
skilled climbers or, in
climbers or, in Malaysia,
Malaysia, Thailand
Thailand and
Sumatra, by trained
Sumatra, trained pig-tailed
pig-tailed monkeys;
monkeys; coconuts
coconuts maymay also
also be
be cut
cut down
down using
using a knife fixed
fixed
to a long pole or
or the
the fallen
fallen fruit
fruit picked
picked up
up from
from the
the ground
ground (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Purseglove,
1987).

40
Post-harvest treatments

The endosperm
The endospenn is is the source
source of
of an
an edible/industrial oil which
edible/industrial oil which is either
either extracted
extracted by the the
producing countries
producing countries or dried and exported as copra for extraction
extraction elsewhere;
elsewhere; copra contains
60-68%
60-68 oil of which
% oil which ca. 64%
64 % is
is extractable.
extractable. The
The copra
copra isis extracted
extracted byby first
first removing
removing the the
husk by impaling and twisting
husk twisting the fruit on
on an
an erect
erect steel
steel bayonet
bayonet andand then
then splitting
splitting the
the nut
nut
with a cutlass and gouging out the endosperm.
endospenn. The copra is dried either in the sun sun or in
in kilns
kilns
immediately after breaking
immediately after breaking the
the nut
nut in
in order
order to
to avoid
avoid any
anydeterioration
deterioration (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948;
Purseglove, 1987).
Purseglove, 1987) .

Production and consumption/utilization

consumption/utilization

For domestic consumption in the countries of origin the endosperm macerated,

endospenn is grated and macerated,
the emulsion is boiled and the resulting
resulting scum
scum skimmed
skimmed offoffand
andthe
theoil
oilpoured
pouredoff.
off. Hydraulic
Hydraulic
presses are used industrially
industrially to
to extract
extract the
the oil;
oil; additional
additional oil is sometimes recovered from the
cake residue using
usinghy. drocarbon solvents.
hydrocarbon

The endocarp
The endocarp of green,
green, unripe fruits
fruits contain ca. 500 ml of
contain ca. of aa sweet
sweet and
and refreshing
refreshing liquid.
liquid .
The fresh
The fresh endosperm
endospenn is variously eaten in the East
variously eaten East and Pacific. Coconut
and Pacific. milk, which is
Coconut milk, is
widely used in curries and
widely and other
other cooking,
cooking, isis obtained
obtained by
by squeezing
squeezing freshly grated endosperm
endospenn
through a sieve.
sieve.

The dried endosperm

endospenn (copra) is an important commercial
commercial source
source of oil
oil for
for margarine
margarine andand soap
soap
production. The
The low content
content of unsaturated
unsaturated acids
acids present
present makes
makes coconut
coconut oil resistant
resistant to
oxidative rancidity,
oxidative rancidity, thereby adding to
thereby adding to the
the keeping
keeping quality
quality ininbaked
bakedfoods
foodsandandfillings.
fillings. With
a hi2her
higher melting
melting fraction,
fraction, coconut
coconut stearin
stearin isis valued
valued as
as aa confectionery
confectionery fat
fat and
and as
as aa substitute
substitute
for cocoa butter.
butter.

The shredded
The shredded and dried
dried fresh
fresh endosperm
endospenn is
is used
used in
in confectionery
confectionery and
and bakery
bakery products
products as
as
desiccated coconut
desiccated coconut and
and contains 68-72%
contains 68-72 % oil and less than 2%2 % water.
water.

The haustorial organ

organ or
or coconut
coconut apple genninating coconut is eaten in some
apple within a germinating some countries
(Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Johnson,
Johnson, 1983;
1983; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987).
1987).

Nutritive value

The endospenn
endosperm contains
contains 36.3%
36.3% water, 4.5% protein, 41.6% fat, 13.0%
13 .0% carbohydrates,
carbohydrates, 3.6%
3 .6%
fibre
fibre and 1.0% minerals, while copra
copra contains
contains 6.8%
6.8% water,
water, 7.6%
7.6% protein,
protein, 63.7%
63.7% fat,
fat, 16.1%
16.1 %
carbohydrates 3.8%
carbohydrates 3.8 % fibre
fibre and
and 2.0%
2.0 %minerals
minerals (Purseglove,
(Purseglove, 1987).
1987).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

The
The fibrous
fibrous mesocarp
mesocarp (husk)
(husk) yields
yields fibre
fibre coir for doormats,
doormats, matting,
matting, cordage,
cordage, while
while the
the
residual coir-dust is used as a peat substitute
residual substitute inin horticulture.
horticulture. The
The coconut
coconut liquid
liquid from unripe
fruit, which
which contains
contains plant growth
growth substances,
substances, is is used in plant physiology experiments
experiments;; it has
also been
also been used
used in the Pacific theatre during World
theatre during World War War IIII as
as a substitute for a glucose
substitute for drip
glucose drip
in surgery. In addition to the commercial importance coconut oil
importance of coconut oil for
for margarine it isis also
also
used in the soap
used soap and
and cosmetic
cosmetic industries
industries and in the manufacture detergents and
manufacture of detergents and resins,
resins, it
is also used for
for cooking
cooking and
and as
as an
an illuminant,
illuminant, and
and the
the coconut
coconut stearin
stearin used for candles.
candles. The
The
copra residue after
after extraction
extraction of oil
oil isis used
used in
in cattle
cattle and
and poultry
poultry foods;
foods; the
the stony
stony endocarp
endocarp

41
(shell) may
(shell) may bebe used
used for
for fuel,
fuel, also
also used
used for
for containers
containers andand craft
craft work,
work, buttons,
buttons, combs,
combs,
bangles, musical
musical instruments,
instruments, etc. The Thefinely
finelyground
groundshells
shells are
areused
used ininthe
theplastics
plastics industry
industry
as fillers, also
also in
in the
the manufacture
manufacture of gas gas absorbent charcoal for
absorbent charcoal for use
use inin gas
gas masks,
masks, etc.; the
distilled shells
shells yield
yield wood
wood tar
tar and,
and,although
althoughnot
notcurrently
currentlyeconomic,
economic,furfural
furfural(C511402),
(C5H 4 0 2), which
may be used
used as
as aa solvent
solvent for
for cellulose
cellulose nitrate
nitrate and
and in
in the
the manufacture
manufacture of dyes dyes and plastics.
plastics.

The apical
apical buds
buds from
from old trees are used for tinned palm hearts
tinned palm hearts.. The
The trunk
trunk isis tapped
tapped for
for the
the
sugary sap known as toddy which, when fresh,
sugary fresh, may be used as a bread bread yeast.
yeast. Evaporated,
toddy
toddy yields
yields jaggery
jaggery (palm
(palm sugar).
sugar). Toddy
Toddymay maybe befermented
fermented totoproduce
producecoconut
coconutvinegar.
vinegar.
The distillation
distillation of
of fermented
fermented toddy
toddy yields
yields aa strong
strong alcoholic
alcoholic liquor
liquor (arrack)
(arrack) containing
containing 30-
30-
40% alcohol. The leaves are used for basketry, thatch, etc., and the midribs for brooms,
40% alcohol. The leaves are used for basketry, thatch, etc., and the midribs for brooms,
baskets,
baskets, fish-traps,
fish-traps, fences, etc. The
fences, etc. The trunk is is used
used for
for building;
building; the
the closely
closely grained
grained outer
outer
wood
wood (porcupine wood) is
(porcupine wood) is used
used for
for furniture,
furniture, carving
carving and
and veneers.
veneers. TheThe roots
roots are
are used
used for
for
sticks. Almost all parts
tooth sticks. parts are
are used
used in
inlocal
local medicines
medicines andand various
various ceremonial
ceremonial customs.
customs.
Dwarf cultivars
cultivars serve as the the mother
mother palm
palm inin creating
creating productive hybrids, they
productive hybrids, they may
may also
also be
grown asas ornamenta.ls (Howes, 1948;
ornament<ils (Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson,
Johnson, 1983;
1983;
Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987).
1987).

Marketing

Coconut has been the major source

source ofof vegetable
vegetable oil in the twentieth
twentieth century, now surpassed
by the soya bean and oiloil palm.
palm. World
World production
production of
of coconuts is currently
currently 43.4 million tonnes
tonnes
(and
(and of copra
copra 4.6
4.6million
milliontonnes),
tonnes), ofofwhich
whichIndonesia
Indonesia is thethe largest
largest producer
producer with
with
14.2 million tonnes,
tonnes, followed
followed by the Philippines with 9.3 million tonnes;
Philippines with tonnes; the Philippines
Philippines is
also the largest
also largest producer
producer of of copra
copra with
with 1.8
1.8million
milliontonnes
tonnes followed
followed byby Indonesia
Indonesia with
with
1.1 million tonnes.
1.1 tonnes. Mozambique
Mozambique is is the
the largest
largest producer in Africa
Africa with
with 0.4
0.4 and
and 0.07
0.07 million
million
tonnes of coconuts and copra respectively with Mexico
respectively with Mexico the
the largest
largest producer
producer in
in America
America with
with
1.0 and 0.2
0.2 million
million tonnes
tonnes of
ofcoconuts
coconuts andand copra
coprarespectively
respectively (Purseglove,
(Purseglove, 1987;
1987; FAO,
FAO,
1994).

Discussion

uses the
Due to its multiplicity of uses the coconut
coconut isis known
known asas the
the "tree
"tree of
of life",
life", the
the tree
tree of heaven's
and mankind's greatest provider in the tropics.
tropics. New
New World
World production
production fromfrom tall
tall palms
palms has
has
been seriously
seriously threatened
threatened by palm lethal
lethal yellowing,
yellowing, a disease
disease of anan unknown
unknown etiology
etiology but
probably caused byby aa mycoplasma-like organism (MLO) (Holliday, 1989). Should Shouldthethe disease
disease
spread to
spread to the Old
Old World
World there
there would
would have
have to
to be
be aamassive
massive replanting
replanting with
with immune,
immune, highhigh
yielding cultivars
yielding cultivars for plantations
plantations to
to remain productive. Unfortunately
remain productive. Unfortunately 95 95%% of the coconut
coconut
producers are small
small holders
holders and
and may
may be be unable
unable to bear
bear the
the cost
cost of
of replanting.
replanting.

42
 NUTS 3
MINOR EDIBLE NUTS

Other relatively minor

minor edible
edible nuts
nuts and seeds, as listed below, are also marketed commercially
(Rosengarten, 1984);
1984); Sesamum
Sesamum indicum
indicum is
is not considered here as itit is
is regarded as
as an
an oil
oil seed.
seed.
They are:

pili or Philippine
Philippine nuts Canarium ovatum,
ovatum, Burseraceae
Burseraceae
pumpkin, squash
squash seeds
seeds and
and gourd
gourd seeds
seeds Cucurbita pepo,
Cucurbita pepo, Cucurbitaceae
American beechnuts
beechnuts Fagus grandifolia,
grandijolia, Fagaceae
Fagaceae
shagbark hickory nuts
shagbark Carya ovata, Juglandaceae
Carya Juglandaceae
butternuts or white
white walnuts
walnuts Juglans cinerea,
cinerea, Juglandaceae
Juglandaceae
soy, soja or soya
soy, soya beans Glycine max,
Glycine mas, Leguminosae
Leguminosae
water or horn
horn chestnuts,
chestnuts, Jesuit
Jesuit nuts
nuts or
or water
water calthrops
calthrops Trapa natans, Trapaceae
Trapaceae
stone pine
stone pine or parasol nuts or pignolias
pignolias Pinus pinea, Pinaceae
Pinaceae

Pumpkin seeds, although

although ranked as a minor nut, are are regarded
regarded as an an agricultural
agricultural crop and
and are
are
not included
included here apart
apart from
from the
the discussion
discussion regarding
regarding itsits effect
effect on the marketing
marketing of other
edible nuts. The
Theinclusion
inclusionofofsoybeans
soybeansas asaanut-producing
nut-producingplant plantmay
may be
be considered
considered somewhat
somewhat
surprising. However,
However,Rosengarten
Rosengarten(1984)
(1984) considers
considers thatthat the
the fairly
fairly recent
recent development of the
soynut in North
North America
America as as an
analternative
alternative to
to the
the peanut
peanut will
will offer
offer very
very strong
strong competition
competition to
to
traditional future. However,
nuts in the future.
traditional nuts since itit is regarded
However, since regarded as an an agricultural
agricultural crop,
crop, like
like
pumpkin is not described
seeds, itit is
pumpkin seeds, described in in detail here although
detail here althoughitit isis discussed
discussedinin asas far
far as
as its
marketing affect other edible
edible nuts.
nuts.

PILI OR
OR PHILIPPINE NUT:Canarium
PHILIPPINE NUT: Canarium ovatum,
ovatum, Burseraceae
Burseraceae

"The most important

"The important of all the nuts
nuts in the world to the millions people who
millions of people who depend
depend on
on itit
for food, is
is the
the PILI
PILI NUT
NUT of ofthe
the Philippines
Philippines and its relatives."
relatives . " (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977.)

Distribution
Distribution and
andecology
ecology

abundant in
Native of the Philippines, abundant in southern
southern Luzon;
Luzon; intolerant
intolerantof
offrost.
frost. Trial introductions
under investigation
investigation in
in Honduras
Honduras (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Description

Evergreen, dioecioustree
Evergreen, dioecious treetoto 25
25 m
m high
high with
with trunk ca. 40
trunk ca. 40 cm
cm inindiameter.
diameter. Leaves
imparipinnate. Fruit
Fruitoblong-ovoid,
oblong-ovoid,black;
black; pulp
pulpthin;
thin; nuts
nuts slender,
slender, ovoid-acute,
ovoid-acute, 6-7
6-7 cm
cm long,
long,
2-2.5 cm wide, triangular
triangular in
in cross-section; 1-seeded,
I-seeded, shell thick,
thick, very
very hard
hard (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977 ;
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Cultivation

Not widely cultivated on aa large-scale

large-scale commercial
commercial basis, production
production mainly from wild
wild trees
trees
and small plantings near coconut
plantings near coconut and
and hemp
hemp plantations.
plantations. Female trees
trees begin to yield in sixth
year with full
full production
production at
at 12-15
12-15 years
years (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

43
Harvesting

Yield
Yield 32 plus
plus kg
kg per
perannum
annum(Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Pericarp removed
Pericarp removed by dipping
dipping fruits
fruits in hot
hot
water (Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Kernels very
Kernels very popular
popular inin the
the Philippines,
Philippines,
eaten raw
eaten raw or
or roasted
roasted and
and salted
salted after
after first
first
removing
removing thethe seed
seed coat. Roasted, oily
coat. Roasted, oily
kernel
kernel have
have aa delicious
delicious flavour
flavour that
that is
claimed
claimed superior
superior to to almonds
almonds and and easily
easily
digested;
digested; used in in confectionery;
confectionery; nutritious
nutritious
emulsion of
of the kernels
kernels occasionally
occasionally used as
substitute milk for infants (Menninger,
1984) .
1977; Rosengarten, 1984).

Nutritional value
value

Kernel
Kernel contains 71.1%
contains 71.1 % fat,
fat, 11.4%
11. 4 % protein
protein Figure 11
Figure 11
% carbohydrates
8.4%
and 8.4 (Rosengarten, canarium °yaw m.. 11:: branch
Canarium ovatum with leaves
branch with and flowers.
leaves and flowers. 22:: fruit.
1984).

By-products and other uses

uses

Raw nuts
nuts purgative. Seeds are
purgative. Seeds are source
source of a sweet
sweet oil
oil suitable
suitable for
for culinary
culinary purposes.
purposes. Oil
extracted from pulp is is occasionally used for
occasionally used for cooking
cooking and
and as
as an
an illuminant.
illuminant. An odorous
odorous soft
soft
with the
resin with the texture
texture of
ofhoney
honey formerly
formerly exported
exported for
for the
the European
European pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical trade
trade as
as
Manila or Philippine
Philippine gum elemi for use use asas an
an ointment
ointment for healing
healing wounds and as a plaster;
plaster;
also used by Spaniards
also Spaniards for ship
ship repairs
repairs (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Marketing

Pili nuts
Pili nuts formerly
formerly exported to USA
exported to USA on aa fairly
fairly large
large scale
scale but
but trade
trade has
has now
nowdeclined;
declined;
1 186 173 kg exported
exported from
from Manila
Manila in
in 1913
1913 (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Discussion

A promising minor nut

promising minor nut but
but the
the thick,
thick, hard
hard shell is hard
shell is hard to crack
crack and
and is believed to be an
believed to
expansion. There
obstacle for expansion.
obstacle is a need
There is need to select
select for shells
shells that
that are thinner
thinner and
and easier
easier to
crack
crack and
and to
to consider
consider such
suchselections
selections for
forvegetative
vegetative establishment
establishment in future
future orchards
orchards
(Rosengarten, 1984). Other
(Rosengarten, Otherspecies
species(see
(seeAppendix
Appendix A) A) should
should also
also be
be investigated
investigated either for
development or as aa genetic
development genetic source
source for
for improving
improving C.C. ovatum.
ovatum.

44
PUMPKIN,
PUMPKIN,SQUASH
SQUASHOR
ORGOURD
GOURD Cucurbita
SEEDS:
SEEDS: Cucurbitapepo,
pepo, Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbitaceae

Discussion

Widely eaten
Widely eaten as
as aa dessert
dessert nut
nut in Asia either raw
Asia either raw or roasted,
roasted, fried
fried in deep fat and salted
salted or
made
made into
into a confection and becoming increasingly important as
increasingly important as a health
health food
food in the Western
World
World..

The seeds of other widely cultivated pumpkins and squashes

squashes are also eaten, including the cold
tolerant winter
tolerant winter Cucurbita maxima, the
Cucurbita maxima, the cold
cold intolerant C. mixta
intolerant C. mixta and
and the
the humid
humid tolerant
tolerant
C. maschata
C. moschata,, as well
well as
as the
the watermelon,
watermelon, Citrullus
Citrullus lanatus
lanatus (Purseglove,
(Purseglove, 1987).
1987).

According to FAO (1994)

According (1994) the
the world
world production
production ofof pumpkins
pumpkins and
and squashes
squashes has risen
risen steadily
steadily
from 5.7 million
from million tonnes
tonnes in
in 1979-81
1979-81 to 88 million
million tonnes in 1993,
1993, with
with the
the largest
largest production
production
from Asia with
from Asia with 3.5 million tonnes. The proportion
million tonnes. The proportion grown for their edible seed, however, is
edible seed, however, is
not known but is believed to be
not be increasing.
increasing.

AMERICAN BEECHNUT:
AMERICAN BEECHNUf: Fagus
Fagusgrandijalia,
grandifolia, Fagaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Eastern USA, from the

the Allegheny
Allegheny mountains south to
to Florida and
and Texas,
Texas, especially
especially at
at higher
elevations; calcareous soils preferred (Howes, 1948;
elevations; 1948; Menninger, 1977;
1977 ; Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Description

Slow-growingtree,
Slow-growing tree, with
with aa life
life span
span of
400 years oror more
more (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).
Deciduous, up
Deciduous, up to 25 m tall
tall and
and trunk
trunk up
to 11 mm in
in diameter.
diameter. Leaves
Leaves simple,
simple,
ovate-acute, around 7.5 cm long,
ovate-acute,around
serrated. Fruit a woody
margins serrated.
margins woody burr;
burr;
seeds 2-3,
seeds ca.0.75-3.7 cm
2-3, triangular, ca.0.75-3.7 cm
wide (Rosengarten, 1984) 1984).. Woody
capsules dehisce onon ripening
ripening and
and nuts
nuts fall
fall
to the ground in
to in autumn;
autumn; they
they soon
soon spoil
spoil
unless collected and dried (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948;
Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Cultivation

No information
information available.
available.

Harvesting

No information
information available.
available. Figure
Figure 1212
Fagus
Fagus grandifolia.
grandifolia . : branch
branch with leaves
lea v es and fruits.

Post-harvest treatments

None given apart from

None from drying.
drying.

45
Production and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Beechnuts
Beechnuts gathered
gathered from
from the wild eaten fresh, roasted, usually
fresh, dried or roasted, usually sweet
sweet but
but the flavour
flavour
varies from tree to
varies to tree;
tree; much
muchappreciated
appreciated by
by native
native Americans.
Americans.

Nutritional value

Beechnuts contain
Beechnuts contain ca.
ca. 15%
15% fat, 19.4%
19.4% protein,
protein, 20.3%
20.3% carbohydrates
carbohydrates and
and have
have an
an energy
energy
value of 11 169
169 calories
calories per
perkilogram
kilogram (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

By-products and other uses

uses

Timber is good, dark

dark to
to reddish
reddish brown,
brown, strong,
strong, heavy
heavy and
and hard;
hard; excellent
excellent for furniture and
flooring,
flooring, also used for
for clothpegs.
clothpegs. AAgood
goodornamental
ornamental tree
treefor
forlandscaping
landscaping (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten,
1984).
1984).

Marketing

Although liked, little

little potential
potential for food
food and
and feed;
feed; the
the oil
oil potential
potential has not
not been developed as
in Europe with F. sylvatica.
in sylvatica.

Discussion

Neglected as
Neglected as a source
source of
of edible
edible nuts,
nuts, with
with little
little attempt
attempt to
to develop
develop suitable
suitable cultivars.
cultivars. This
may be
may be due to thethe small
small size
size of
of the
the nut
nut and
and variability
variability in flavour,
flavour, the frequent
frequent presence
presence of
blind nuts, the
the irregularity
irregularity of
ofbearing
bearing and
and difficulty
difficulty ofofharvesting
harvesting (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

SHAGBARK HICKORYNUT:
SHAGBARK HICKORY NUT:Carya
Caryaovata,
ovata, Juglandaceae
Juglandaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Distribution covers southeastern Canada

Canada and
and eastern
eastern USA
USA west
west to
to the
the Mississippi
Mississippi except
except for
for
Florida and the coastal plains of the southern
southern states; prefers the upland plains (Howes, 1984;
1984;
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Description

Deciduoustree
Deciduous treeupup toto more
more than
than 3030 m
m tall
tall with
with trunk up to 60
trunk up 60 cmcm inin diameter,
diameter, bark
bark
exfoliating in long
exfoliating in long narrow
narrow plates
plates but remaining attached by
remaining attached by the
the middle,
middle, trunk
trunk clear of of
branches
branches to half its
its height,
height, with
with small,
small, open
open crown. LeavesLeavesimparipinnate,
imparipinnate, 55 leaflets.
leaflets. Nut
enveloped
enveloped inin an outer,
outer, green
green and
and fleshy
fleshy husk,
husk, becoming
becoming black,
black, dry and and splitting
splitting open at
maturity; nut ellipsoidal, somewhat
somewhat flattened laterally, with four prominent longitudinal ridges ridges
(sutures
(sutures of the valves),
valves), ca. 2.5
2.5 cmcm long,
long, shell
shell thin
thin but
but hard,
hard, light
light tan;
tan; kernel
kernel deeply
deeply divided
divided
into 2 halves,
halves, longitudinally
longitudinally ridged
ridged (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Cultivation

Occasional trees preserved

Occasional trees preserved when
when land
land isis cleared
cleared (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977).
1977). Trees difficult
Trees difficult to
to
transplant, slow-growing,
slow-growing, late-bearing
late-bearing and low-yielding.
low-yielding. Seedling
Seedling trees yield at ca. 15
15 years,
years,
grafted trees produce
produce much earlier. Interspecific
much earlier. hybrids readily
Interspecific hybrids readilyoccur.
occur. Those
Those between
between C. C.
ovata or C.
C. laciniosa
laciniosaand
andC.
C.illinoinensis
illinoinensisare
areknown
knownasashicans
hicans (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

46
Harvesting

Harvested largely
Harvested largely from
from the
the wild,
wild, from
from
hedgerows and
hedgerows and wood
wood margins
margins where
where the
branches are free
branches are free to
to spread.
spread. Solitary
trees tend
trees tend to
to have
have higher
higher yields
yields and
and
better developed nuts than
than trees
trees growing
growing
close together (Howes, 1948).
close 1948).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Nuts can be readily stored for 2-3

Nuts 2-3 years
years
with little
with little or
or no
no deterioration
deterioration (Howes,
(Howes,
1948).

consumption/utilization
Production and consumption/utilization Figure 13
Figure 13
Carya ovata. 1:
Carya ovata. 1: twig.
twig. 2:
2 : fruit
fruit and
and cross-section
cross-section of ·fruit.
fruit.

Nuts are delicious, considered the

sweetest of the hickories,
sweetest hickories, eaten
eaten by native
native Americans either dried
Americans either dried and
and pounded into flour,
pounded into flour,
boiled as aa soup;
soup; source
source of
ofaacooking
cooking oil
oil (also
(also used
used as
as aahair
hairdressing);
dressing); also
also pounded
pounded shells
shells
and
and kernels mixed in water for a nourishing beverage known as
beverage known as pawcohiccora
pawcohiccora or or hickory
hickory milk
milk
(Menninger, 1977;
(Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Nutritional value

On a moisture-free
On moisture-free basis
basis the
the kernels
kernels contain
contain 9.8% carbohydrates,
carbohydrates, 72.7%
72 .7% fat and
and 13.7%
13.7%
protein (Melville, 1947).
1947).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

The tough, elastic wood ideal

ideal for tool
tool handles
handles and agricultural implements, and
agricultural implements, and also
also a good
fuelwood. Hicans
fuelwood. Hicansoften
oftenare
areattractive
attractive ornamental
ornamental trees
trees (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Marketing

A neglected,
neglected, minor nut, notnot commercially
commercially important.
important. The
The relative
relative high
high proportion
proportion of
of shell
shell
compared with other
other better-known
better-known nuts
nuts probably
probably restricts
restricts long-distance
long-distance marketing
marketing prospects;
prospects;
sold in the local
local markets
markets and
and occasionally
occasionally sold in England (Howes, 1948;
England (Howes, 1948; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Discussion

A more marketable
marketable nut
nut with
with higher
higher proportion
proportion ofof kernel
kernel to
to shell
shell is
is required.
required. Considerable
research will be required before
before any
any hybrid
hybrid hican
hie an clones could be developed
developed forfor commercial
commercial
nut production (Howes, 1948; Rosengarten, 1984). Presumably
Presumably any
any commercial
commercial development
will follow
will follow that of the
the pecan.
pecan.

47
BUTTERNUTOR
BUTfERNUT ORWHITE
WHITE wALNur:Juglans
WALNUT: Juglanscinerea
cinerea,, Juglandaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Eastern North America,

Eastern America, from
from New
New Brunswick
Brunswick toto Manitoba
Manitoba south;
south; butternut
butternut represents
represents the
most northern and
and cold
cold resistant
resistant member
member of
ofthe
the family
family (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Description

A deciduous tree to
deciduous tree to 18 m tall, with a trunk up
to 1 m in diameter.
diameter. Leaves
Leaves imparipinnate
imparipinnate with
11-17
11-17,, glutinous leaflets. Fruits oblong-
6.5 cm
cylindrical, ca. 6.5 cm long
long and
and 3 cmcm inin
diameter, apex acute, surface
surface rough, shell
shell bony
and thick, 11 kernel (Howes, 1948;
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Cultivation

Superior cultivars available for grafting but not

commercialized (Howes, 1948).
commercialized 1948).
Figure 14
Figure 14
Harvesting Juglans cinerea.
cinerea . Pistillate
Pistillate flowers.
flowers .

No information given, presumably as for Juglans

Juglans regia.
regia.

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

No information given, presumably as for Juglans regia.

No regia.

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Immature fruit makes

makes anan excellent
excellent pickle.
pickle. Kernels
Kernels are highly esteemed and used by native
esteemed and native
Americans, eaten
Americans, eaten raw,
raw, ground
ground to flour for baking
baking or to thicken
thicken their pottage; seed oil also
pottage; seed
used for cooking, and
used and dressing
dressing hair
hair (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984) .

Nutritional value

Nuts
Nuts are
are highly
highly nutritious with 23.7%
nutritious with 23.7% protein,
protein, 61.2%
61.2% fat
fat and
and an energy
energy value
value of
of ca.
ca.
360 calories
1 360 calories per kg. The
Theprotein
proteinvalue
valueisisone
oneofofthe
thehighest
highestininedible
edible nuts
nuts (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten,
1984).

By-products and other uses

uses

Oil from nut used medicinally by by the

the Narragansett
Narragansett native
native Americans.
Americans. The boiled or distilled
hairy,
hairy , sticky
sticky indumentum
indumentum of young twigs,, leaves,
young twigs leaves, buds
buds and
and fruits
fruits are
are source
source of a light
light brown
Close-grained, satiny wood, known as white walnut, used for furniture, boats
dye. Close-grained, satiny wood, known as white walnut, used for furniture, boats and
and
carving.
carving . Grown
Grownasasaashade
shade.tree
tree(Menninger,
(Menninger,1977;1977;Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

48
Marketing

Butternuts are highly

Butternuts are highly regarded by those
regarded by those that know
know them
them but
but are
are largely
largely unknown
unknown by by the
the
present generation.
present generation. Market
Market is
is mainly
mainly limited
limited to
to home
home consumption,
consumption, primarily
primarily in
in southern
southern
Canada and New
New England
England (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Discussion

Despite the delectable flavour of the the nuts,

nuts, its
its reputation
reputation for
for being
being slow-growing
slow-growing and
and short-
short-
lived, its
its susceptibility
susceptibility to
to butternut
butternut dieback
dieback from
from thethe fungus
fungus Melanconis juglandis, difficulties
difficulties
with propagating cultivars plus the nut being hard to crack, limit limit the
the potential for commercial
expansion (Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

SOY,
SOY, SOJA OR SOYA
SOJA OR BEAN:Glycine
SOYABEAN: max,Leguminosae
Glycinemax, Leguminosae subfamily
subfamily Papilionoideae
Papilionoideae

Discussion

The
The soynut
soynut industry
industry is aa fairly
fairly recent
recent development
development in in USA.
USA. TheThe seeds
seeds are processed
processed to
resemble
resemble nuts in appearance,
appearance, flavour and utilization.
utilization. With
With aa crunchy
crunchy texture,
texture, low
low moisture
moisture
content, absence of
of cholesterol
cholesterol and
and twice
twice the
the protein
protein content
content of tree
tree nuts
nuts together
together with
with all-
all-
year round availability and low
low price,
price, they are an ideal
ideal health
health food
food.. With
With only 2% 2 % moisture,
moisture ,
they
they have a shelf life of
of 6-8
6-8 months.
months. Their
Theirprice
priceisiscompetitive
competitive with
with peanuts
peanuts and,and , since
since the
the
soynuts occupy ca. 30% more volume
soynuts occupy ca. 30% more volume than the same weight peanuts, their price
weight of peanuts , their price per unit
of volume is even more economical.
economical. Their
Theirmajor
majordisadvantages
disadvantages areare that
that their
their flavour
flavour isis not
not
to
to everyone's
everyone's taste
taste and,
and, unlike
unlike many
many other
other nuts,
nuts, they
they cannot
cannot bebe sliced
sliced for
for use in in the
the
confectionery
confectionery trade.
trade. TheThe less expensive,
expensive, readily
readily available
available and highly
highly nutritious
nutritious soynuts
soynuts
undoubtedly offer
undoubtedly offer strong
strong future
future competition
competition to to traditional
traditional tree
tree nuts
nuts and and peanuts.
peanuts . The
percentage of the crop
percentage crop used
used for
for soynuts
soynuts isis small
small but
but not
not known
known (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984). 1984) .

WATER OR HORN
WATER CHESTNUT,JESUIT
HORN CHESTNUT, JESUITNUT
NUTOR
ORWATER
WATER Trapa
CALTHROP:
CALTHROP: Trapa natans,Trapaceae
natans, Trapaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

A standing water, aquatic

aquatic species
species with
with a wide
wide and discontinuous range through Europe
discontinuous range Europe,, Asia
and Africa. ItIt isis naturalized
naturalized in
in northern
northern America
America and and Australia
Australia with
with var. natans
natans distributed
distributed
through Europe, Asia Asia and
and North
North Africa
Africa and
and var.
var. bispinosa
bispinosaranging
rangingfrom
fromIndia
Indiaeasti,vard
eastward to
to
China and Japan and widely widely scattered
scattered in
in tropical
tropicalAfrica.
Africa. A var. africana is
is endemic
endemic to Lake
(Br~nan, 1963).
Victoria (Brenan, 1963).

Description

with aa rosette
Annual aquatic herb with offloating
rosette of floating leaves
leaves and
and submerged,
submerged, paired
paired but
but not
not opposite,
opposite,
pinnatisect and leaf-like adventitious
adventitious roots.
roots. Fruit
Fruitaa 1-seeded,
I-seeded, top-shaped
top-shaped drupe; pericarp
pericarp soon
soon
disappearing; endocarp
disappearing; endocarp very
very hard,
hard, ca.
ca. 3-5
3-5 cm across, variously 2-4 homed,
variously 2-4 horned, the
the horns
horns 1-1.8
cm long, derived
derived from
from the
the persistent
persistent sepals
sepals (Brenan,
(Brenan, 1963).
1963).

Cultivation

In India
India fruit
fruit isis broadcast
broadcast in
in 30-69
30-69 cm
cm deep
deep nursery
nursery ponds
ponds and
and pressed
pressed into
into the
the mud,
mud ,
transplanted
transplanted at the 4-5-leaf
4-5-leaf stage
stage and
and replanted
replanted when 4-5 months old . Lateral
months old. Lateral pruning is
is

49
carried out to accelerate
flowering and fruiting.
flowering In
China, according
China, according to to Menninger
Menninger
(1977), the
(1977), the water
water chestnut
chestnut is
cultivated in
cultivated in running
running water.
water. A
soft, thin-skinned, sweeter
soft,
cultivar known
cultivar known as as Kota
Kota Sudhar
Sudhar
has been
has been selected
selected in
in Kashmir
Kashmir
ripens 20 days
which ripens days earlier and
and
yields up
yields up toto 6 200
200 kgkg per
per ha
ha
compared to
compared to 44 800 kg per ha for
other cultivars (CSIR, 1976).
1976).

Harvesting 4606,*.
onnoss,
Nuts are gathered or scooped up
Nuts oft no '6'

from the
from the depths
depths in small
small nets;
nets; in
China nuts are collected in
autumn by people
autumn people in boats 11/41.410Z,
seeking ripe
seeking ripe fruits
fruits as
as they
they pull
pull ' 1141-660
6.; gibe,
themselves through the surface
themselves through surface
Depending on
vegetation. Depending on the
weather harvesting in India
commences some
commences some timetime during
during
September to December
(-February), initially
initially harvesting
harvesting
every 15
every 15 days
days and
and eventually
eventually
daily. Average
Average yields
yields range
range
from 1 760 to 4 440 kg per ha,
from
with a good crop yielding
13 200 kg (Hedrick, 1972;
13
CSIR, 1976;
CSIR, 1976; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Figure
Figure 1515
Trapanatans
Trapa natans var.
var. africana.
africana. 1:1: part
part of
of plant
plant showing
showing floating
floatingleaves
leavesand
andsubmerged
submerged
Rosengarten, 1984).
Rosengarten, 1984). adventitious roots. 2:
adventitious roots. 2: floating leaf. 3: marginal
marginal partpart of leaf,
leaf, lower
lower side.
side. 4:
4: nodes
nodes
showing
showing stipules. 5: nodes
stipules. 5: showing first
nodes showing first stage
stage of adventitious
adventitious roots.
roots. 6: nodes
nodes
Post-harvest treatments showing
showing fully developed adventitiousroots.
developed adventitious roots.7:7: flowers.
flowers. 8:8: longitudinal
longitudinal section
section ofof
flower. 9:
9: two
two sepals.
sepals. 10:
10: petal.
petal. 11: stamen. 12: anther, two views. views. 13:
13: ovary
ovary and
and
disc. 14:
14: ovary
ovary and
and calyx
calyx enlarging
enlarging after anthesis:
anthesis: 15: endocarp.
endocarp. 16:16: apex
apex ofof one
one
Removal ofof the hard endocarp
endocarp to
to of the
the horns
horns of the
the fruit.
fruit.

yield
yield the
the edible,
edible, starchy,
starchy, white
white
seed (Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Production and
and consumption/
consumption/ utilization
utilization

Nuts are eaten raw, boiled,

boiled, fried,
fried. preserved
preserved inin honey
honey and sugar, candied or ground into flour
for making bread.
bread. AAstaple
staplefood
food for
for as
as much
much asas five
five months
months of
of the
the year inin Kashmir, where
the starchy
starchy kernels
kernels are
are eaten
eaten raw
raw (cv.
(cv. Kota
Kota Sudhar),
Sudhar), oror cooked
cooked as
as aa porridge
porridge (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948;
Hedrick, 1972; CSIR
1972; CSIR , 1976;
, 1976; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Nutritional value
value

Kernels are not particularly nutritious

nutritious compared to other nuts,
nuts, they contain ca.
ca. 70% moisture,
4.7% protein,
protein, 0.3%
0.3% fat,
fat, 0.6%
0.6%fibre
fibreand
and3%
3%protein
protein(CSIR,
(CSIR, 1976;
1976; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

50
50
By-products and other uses
By-products uses

Hard fruits (endocarp)

Hard (endocarp) are
are strung
strung into
into necklaces
necklaces (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977).
1977) .

Marketing

Formerly widely eaten in in southern

southern Europe
Europe but itsits use
use has
has declined
declined although still
still used
used in the
Loire region of France and
Loire and parts of of Italy;
Italy; still
still an
an important
important food
food in Asia where it is sold in
Asia where
the local markets.
the markets. It has has been
been introduced
introduced into
into North
North America
America and
and is
is naturalized
naturalized in
in some
some
areas, however,
areas, however, itit isisdoubtful
doubtful ififititwill
willbecome
becomecommercially
commercially important
important (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Rosengarten, 1984; Bianchini
Rosengarten, et al., 1988).
Bianchini et 1988).

Discussion

Little appreciated
Little appreciated in the western
western world
world but
but obviously
obviously an important crop in Asia and its
its use
use
should perhaps
should perhaps be encouraged in the lakes
lakes of
of East
East Africa.
Africa.

STONE OR
STONE OR PARASOL
PARASOLPINE
PINENUT
NUTOR
ORPIGNOLIA:
PIGNOLIA:Pinus
Pinuspinea,
pinea, Pinaceae
Pinaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Northern Mediterranean
Northern Mediterranean region
region and
and Portugal
Portugal;; altitudes
altitudes up
up to
to 1 000
000 m.
m. Locally
Locally cultivated
cultivated
(Tutin et al., 1964;
(Tutin 1964; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Description

Evergreen, needle-leaved
needle-leaved tree to
to 30
30 m, crown umbrella-shaped.
umbrella-shaped. Leaves Leaves borne
borne in
in pairs,
pairs, 10-20
10-20
cm long. Male and
long . Male and female
female reproductive structures, strobili,
reproductive structures, strobili, borne
borne separately on the
separately on the tree.
Seeds borne·
Seeds borne in cones
cones 8-14 cm x 10 10 cm,
cm, maturing
maturing in in the
the third
third year;
year; seeds
seeds 15-20
15-20 mm
mm xx 7-11
7-11
mm, wing
wing less
less than
than 11 mm,
mm, caducous
caducous (Tutin
(Tutin et al.,
al., 1964;
1964; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Cultivation

Grown in pine groves. Unlike

Unlikesome
somespecies
species of
ofPinus,
Pinus, ititdoes
doesnot
nothybridize
hybridize readily
readily with
with other
other
species. AAthin-shelled
thin-shelledform
formisisknown
knownininItaly
Italy where
where itit isis possible
possible to
to break
break the
the shell
shell with
with the
the
fingers (Howes, 1948;
1948; Merminger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

Harvesting

Green cones are are harvested

harvested by by pickers
pickers armed
armed with
with long
long hooked
hooked poles and piled into heaps to to
dry in
in the sun
sun in
in order
order that
that the
the cone
cone scales
scales may open
open and
and loosen
loosen the
the seeds
seeds.
. The
The harvest can
last
last from autumn to spring
spring without
without any problems as the
problems as the nuts
nuts store
store very well inin their
their cones
cones
on the
the tree
tree (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Post-harvest treatments

Nuts
Nuts are extracted
extracted by beating
beating the
the cones by hand
cones by hand or thrashed mechanically. The seeds
thrashed mechanically. seeds are
then dried before
before passing
passing through
through aa milling
milling machine
machine to separate the kernel from its hard outer
covering. The
Thekernels
kernelsand
andshells
shellsare
arethen
thensorted
sortedby
bysifting,
sifting,after
afterwhich
whichthe
thetesta
testaisisremoved
removed
from the kernel. Kernels
Kernels are
are graded
graded according
according to size (Menninger, 1977; Rosengarten, 1984).1984).

51
51
Production and consumption/
utilization

Pinus pinea
Pinus pinea is
is the
the largest producer of
largest producer of
pine nuts
pine nuts commercially;
commercially; knownknown as
pignolias
pignolias (English), pignons (France),
piñones (Spain)
pinones (Spain) or
or pinoli
pinoli (Italy).
(Italy). Both
the large and small, superior,
unblemished, shelled kernels are
packed for export. Pine
packed Pine nuts may be
eaten whole, either raw or roasted; the
shell cracked
shell cracked byby the teeth
teeth and
and spat
spat
out; usually
out; usually marketed
marketed without
without their
their
Nuts may
shells. Nuts may be made into flour
for cakes, pressed into
into sweetmeats and
used to garnisli
garnish pastries, etc.
(Menninger,
(Merminger, 1977;
1977; Rosengarten,
1984).

Nutritional value

Pine nuts
Pine nuts contain 47.4%
contain 47.4 % fat, 11.6%
11. 6 %
carbohydrates, 31.1
carbohydrates, 31.1%
% protein,
protein, 4.3%
4.3 %
ash, 0.9%
ash, 0.9 % fibre
fibre and
and an
an energy
energy value
value
of 556
of 556 Kcal.
Kcal. per
per 100
100 kg
kg (Farris,
(Farris,
1983).
Figure 16
Figure
By-products and other uses
uses Pinus pinea
Pinus pinea.. 1:
1: branch
branch with
with mature cones
cones.. 2: male
male inflorescence. 3: female
female
inflorescences.
inflorescences . 4: scale.
scale . 5: winged
winged seed.
seed.

Broken nuts are source ofof oil

oil used for
making soap. It is
making soap. is also
also aa source
source of
of timber.
timber. Cultivated
Cultivated as ornamental tree
as an ornamental tree (Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977; Rosengarten,
1977; Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Marketing

Figures for world

Figures world production
production are notnot available.
available. InIn USA,
USA, between
between 1976
1976 and
and 1980
1980 an
an armual
annual
average of ca. US$
US$ 800
800 000
000worth
worthofofpine
pine nuts
nuts were
were imported
imported of
of which
which 41%
41 % were pignolias
from
from Portugal
Portugal and
and 27%
27% from
from Spain
Spain while
while China
China supplied
supplied 26%
26% from
from P.
P. koraiensis.
koraiensis. The
imported nuts
imported nuts from P. pinea
pinea rank
rank second
second toto macadamia
macadamia nuts as being the the most
most costly,
costly, while
the
the Chinese
Chinese pine
pine nuts
nuts are
are less
less expensive
expensive and inferior
inferior to those
those from
from Europe.
Europe. They
They are
are
becoming increasingly important in the the American
American market. The unspecified
market. The unspecified uneven supply
supply of
indigenous
indigenous pine nuts in
in USA
USA certainly
certainly favours
favours the
the more
more reliable
reliable importations
importations (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten,
1984; Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen, 1986).
1984; 1986).

Discussion

The other species

species ofof Pinus withedible
Pinus with edible seeds
seeds have
have been
been largely
largely neglected
neglected due
due to
to establishment
establishment
of P. pinea
pinea as
as the
the prime
prime source
source of pine nuts
nuts for
for the
the past
past 22 000
000 or
or more
more years
years.. The Colorado
pine,
pine, P. edulis,
edulis, isisan
anadditional
additional important
important source
source of pine
pine nuts
nuts in USA,
USA, while
while those
those of P.
P.
sabiniana, aarelatively
sabiniana, relativelylittle
littleknown
knownspecies
species from
from California,
California, have
have been
been demonstrated
demonstrated as as having

52
very similar nutritional
very properties to
nutritional properties to pine
pine nuts
nuts from
from P.
P. pinea and, ifif developed,
developed, could be aa
strong contender
strong contender for the pine
pine nut
nut market
market (Farris,
(Farris, 1983;
1983;Prescott-Allen
Prescott-Allen andand Prescott-Allen,
Prescott-Allen,
1986). Doubtless further research
Doubtless further research will
will reveal
reveal other
other possible
possible species
species for
for commercial
commercial
plantations with high-yielding
high-yielding cultivars throughout North America and elsewhere.
elsewhere .

53
 NUTS 4
POTENTIAL EDIBLE NUTS

There are aa number

There number of ofspecies
species producing
producing edible
edible nuts
nuts that
that are
are relatively
relatively little
little known
known andand
appear to have a potential
potential for development.
development. From
Frompast pastexperience,
experience, an anin-depth
in-depth investigation
investigation
of a species
species requires a minimum
minimum of one month's
month ' s work spread
spread over several
several months
months in in order
to allow time
to time for
for exchange
exchange ofofcorrespondence,
correspondence, obtain
obtain obscure
obscure literature
literature references,
references , etc.;
etc .;
laboratory investigations
laboratory are not
investigations are not included
included in
in this
this estimate
estimate (Lucas
(Lucasand andWickens
Wickens, 1988). The
, 1988).
discussion that follows
discussion that follows on potential
potential nut species
species will
will therefore
therefore be be confined
confined toto the
the limited
limited
literature available and bearing in
literature in mind
mind that the
the primary
primary sources
sources have not been been consulted.
consulted .

The 'Bambara
The Bambara and
and Hausa
Hausa groundnuts,
groundnuts, Macrotyloma
Macrotyloma geocaipum
geocarpum andand Vigna
Vigna subterranea,
subterranea ,
although being
although being classified
classified with
with the
the groundnut,
groundnut, Arachis
Arachis hypogea,
hypogea, as
as nut-bearing
nut-bearing plants
plants are
are not
not
further considered
further considered here since they are regarded
regarded as agricultural
agricultural crops and their development
development
lies with agronomists
lies agronomists and
and not
not silviculturalists.
silviculturalists . However, they are entered in in Appendix
Appendix A. A.

The trees and shrubs bearing edible nuts listed below

The below are
are provisionally
provisionally considered
considered worthy
worthy of
of
investigation. The selection
further investigation.
further selection isis somewhat arbitrary and
somewhat arbitrary and is
is initially
initially based
based on the
the
available data
available data presented
presented in Appendix
Appendix A. Doubtless further
A. Doubtless further investigation
investigation could
could reveal
reveal
additional and possibly more
additional more suitable
suitable species.
species .

marula or maroela
maroela Sclerocarya
Sclerocarya birrea subsp.
subsp. caffra,
cajJra ,
Anacardiaceae
Guyana or Malabar
Malabar chestnuts
chestnuts or
or saba
saba nuts
nuts Pachira aquatica,
aquatica, Bombacaceae
Bombacaceae
Java almond, kanari or galipgalip nut
nut Canarium indicum,
indicum , Burseraceae
Burseraceae
pequi; piquf
piqui or piquia-oil
piquia-oil plant
plant Caryocar brasiliense,
brasiliense , Caryocaraceae
castanha de galinha
galinha Couepia Chrysobalanaceae
Couepia longipedula, Chrysobalanaceae
Indian or tropical
tropical almond
almond Terminalia catappa, Combretaceae
Terminalia Combretaceae
okari nut Terminalia kaernbachii,
Terminalia kaernbachii, Combretaceae
Combretaceae
cacay,
cacay , inchi, tacay,
tacay, taccy,
taccy, nogal,
nogal, etc.,
etc ., nuts Caryodendron orinocense,
nuts Caryodendron orinocense, Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
cream, paradise
paradise or
or sapucaia
sapucaia nut
nut Lecythis pisonis, Lecythidaceae
Lecythidaceae
yicib, ye-eb or yeheb
yeheb Cordeauxia edulis, Leguminosae
Cordeauxia Leguminosae
tara Lemuropisum edule,
eduie, Leguminosae
Leguminosae
galo or promising
promising nut
nut Anacolosa jrutescens,
frutescens, Olacaceae:
Olacaceae:
avellano
avellano or Chilean
Chilean nutnut or
or hazel
hazel Gevuina
Gevuina avellana, Proteaceae
Proteaceae
quandong or native
quandong native peach
peach Santalum acuminata, Santalaceae
Santalum Santalaceae
argan Argania spinosa, Sapotaceae:
Sapotaceae:
shea butter tree
shea Vitellaria paradoxa
Vitellaria paradoxa,, Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
bitter cola, kola
kola nut
nut Cola
Cola nitida, Sterculiaceae
Sterculiaceae
sugar
sugar plum, areng palm, ejow, ejow, gomuti,
gomuti , Arenga pinnata, Palmae
Palmae
kaong
tucurná
tucuma Astrocaryum
Astrocaryum vulgare,
vulgare , Palmae
Palmae
peach plum, palm
palm chestnuts,
chestnuts, pupunha,
pupunha, etc.etc. Bactris gasipaes, Palmae
Palmae
babassu, babacu palm
palm or or aguassú
aguassu Orbignya phalerata,
Orbignya phalerata, Palmae
Palmae

55
MARULAOR
MARULA ORMAROELA:
MAROELA:Sclerocarya birreasubsp.
Sclerocaryabirrea subsp.cajfra,
caffra, Anacardiaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Angola, Zaire
Angola, Zaire and Kenya
Kenya to Namibia,
Namibia, Transvaal
Transvaal and
and Natal,
Natal, also
also in
in Madagascar.
Madagascar. Mixed
woodland and wooded
deciduous woodland
grassland (Kokwaro, 1986).
grassland 1986).

Description

Dioecious, deciduous tree to 18

deciduous tree 18
m. Leaves alternate,
imparipinnate, leaflets 77-13(-17).
-13 (-17).
Inflorescence
Inflorescence appearing
appearing before
before
Fruit an
the leaves. Fruit an obovoid
obovoid
drupe
drupe 3.5 cm long, 3-3.5
3-3.5 cm in in
diameter,
diameter, yellow,
yellow, with
with strong
strong
odour when ripe; mesocarp very
juicy;
juicy; stone
stone obovoid,
obovoid, 2-32-3 cmcm
long, 2.5 cm in
long, in diameter,
diameter, hard;
hard;
seeds (1-)3(-4),
seeds (1-)3(-4), 1.5-2 cm long,
long,
0.4-0.8 cm wide
wide (Arnold
(Arnold et al.,
1985;
1985; Kokwaro, 1986).
1986) .

Cultivation

Seeds soaked
Seeds soaked overnight
overnight prior to
sowing. Propagated by
seedlings and cuttings,
gregarious root
gregarious root suckering
suckering (von
(von
Maydell, 1986 re subsp.
subsp. birrea)
birrea)..
Trees set
Trees set fruit
fruit after
after 3 years
years in
in
Israel (Cherfas, 1989).
Israel 1989) .

Harvesting

A single
single female
female tree cancan yield
yield
2 100-9 100 fruits
100-9 100 fruits in aa season,
season,
fruits falling
fruits falling while
while still
still green
green Figure 17
Figure
Sclerocarya birrea
Sclerocarya birrea subsp.
subsp. caffra.
caffra. 1:1: leaflet
leaflet showing
showing venation.
venation. 2:
2: habit.
habit. 3:
3: flower.
and
and ripening
ripening on the the ground
ground 4: cross
4: section of
cross section of ovary.
ovary. 5:
5: fruit.
fruit.
(Arnold et
(Arnold et al., 1985).
1985).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Fruits cannot
Fruits cannot be stored for more than a week,
week, they
they bruise easily and therefore
easily and are difficult
therefore are difficult
to
to transport. The
TheVenda
Vendamix
mix the
the kernels
kernels with
with lean
lean meat, shape
shape into cakes and dry
dry for storage
(FAD, 1988).
(FAO, 1988).

56
Production and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Fruit skin is hard and bitter, flesh

flesh has
has aa turpentine-mango flavour although
although flavour
flavour is
is reported
reported
to vary from tree
tree to
to tree,
tree, some
some sweet,
sweet, some
some dry,
dry, others
others aromatic;
aromatic; flesh
flesh is
is eaten fresh or dry,
dry ,
made into
made into jams
jams and jellies; itit isis source
source ofofan
analcoholic
alcoholic beverage,
beverage, also
also non-alcoholic
non-alcoholic fruit
juices; the juice sometimes
sometimes thick and grainy, others others more
more liquid
liquid depending
depending on the fruit; the the
juice is often
juice often source
source of 80%80% of of the
the vitamin
vitamin C in in the
the local
local diet;
diet; kernels
kernels difficult to extract,
difficult to extract,
with hazel-like flavour, eaten; seed seed oil
oil expressed and used by the Venda Venda to to preserve
preserve meat for
up to
to aayear;
year;fermented
fermented fruitfruitliked
likedby byelephants
elephants (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977 ; Arnold
Arnold et et al.
al. 1985
1985;;
Cherfas,, 1989).
Cherfas 1989) .

Subsp. birrea from

Subsp. from northern
northern tropical
tropical Africa
Africa bears fruits
fruits which are similarly
which are similarly utilized.
utilized. Unripe
Unripe
kernels reported to
kernels to be
be milky
milky and
and have
have flavour
flavour of
ofgroundnuts
groundnuts (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Nutritional value ..

Kernels are
Kernels are highly nutritious,
nutritious, with 28.3%
28.3% protein,
protein, 57.3%
57.3% oil,
oil, high
high ininminerals,
minerals, especially
especially
magnesium, iron,
magnesium, iron, copper,
copper, zinc and phosphorus,
phosphorus, with
with 462,4.87,2.81,5.19
462, 4.87, 2.81, 5.19 and 808 mg per
100 gg respectively
100 respectively and
and an
an energy
energy value
value of
of 22 703
703 kJ
kJ per
per 100
100 g (Arnold
(Arnold etet al.
al.,, 1985).
1985).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Timber is
Timber is soft,
soft, coarse
coarse grained,
grained, not
not very
very durable,
durable, used
used for
for pestles
pestles and
and mortars,
mortars, bowls,
bowls,
furniture, saddles
saddles and
and carvings; bark is
is a source of fibre, gum exudate is mixed for
mixed with soot for
a black ink. The
The species
species is
is grown
grown for shade
shade and as anan ornamental tree (FAO,
ornamental tree (FAO, 1988).
1988).

Marketing

Sold in the local

local markets.
markets.

Discussion

A high-yielding tree with

with nutritious
nutritious fruit,
fruit, but
but the
the small
small kernel
kernel and
and the difficult extraction from
the stone make
make itit an
an unlikely
unlikely commercial
commercial proposition as far as
proposition as as the
the kernels
kernels are
are concerned,
concerned,
although worthy of development
development for its its fleshy
fleshy fruits.

GUYANAOR
GUYANA ORMALABAR
MALABARCHESTNUT
CHESTNUTOROR SABA
SABA Pachira
NUT:
NUT: Pachira aquatica,Bombacaceae
aquatica, Bombacaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Probably originated
Probably originated in in the Amazon
Amazon estuary,
estuary, now
now widely distributed through
widely distributed through the
the whole
whole of
northern South America and the Antilles, either naturally or by man; widely cultivated in the
tropics. Occurs
tropics. Occursnaturally
naturally on onsparsely
sparsely vegetated,
vegetated, marshy
marshy riverine, clay soils; also grows well
on sandy
sandy or sandy-clay
sandy-clay soils
soils of terra
terra firma. Flowering and
firma. Flowering and fruiting
fruiting throughout
throughout the
the year.
Drought resistant, itit tolerates
tolerates aa wide
wide range
range of
of temperatures
temperatures and humidity (Menninger, 1977;
1977 ;
FAO, 1986).
1986).

Description

Evergreen tree
Evergreen tree up to
to 10(-23)
10(-23) m
m tall,
tall, trunk
trunk 25-60
25-60 (-90)
(-90) cm
cm inindiameter. Leaves pedately
diameter. Leaves pedately
palmate, clustered towards the ends of branches.
branches. Flowers
Flowers bisexual,
bisexual, solitary
solitary or 2-3, terminal.
terminal.

57
 an oblong-ellipsoid
Fruit an oblong-ellipsoid capsule, 12-30
12-30 cm
long,
long, 10-20
10-20 cm in in diameter,
diameter, woody,
woody , 5-
5-
pericarp rather
valved, dehiscent; pericarp rather thick,
thick,
spongy and
spongy and fibrous;
fibrous; seeds
seeds 10-25
10-25,, globular,
globular,
1.2-3 cm in
1.2-3 in diameter
diameter (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977;
FAO, 1986).
1986).
Cultivation

Grown from seed,

Grown seed, with
with germination
germination in 6-86-8
days with rapid
days rapid initial
initial growth;
growth; also
also grows
grows
readily from
readily from truncheons. First flowers
truncheons . First flowers
produced
produced in in 4-5
4-5 years.
years. Flowering
Flowering and
and
fruiting throughout
fruiting throughout the the year
year (FAO,
(FAO , 1986;
1986;
Arkoll and Clement, 1989).
Arkoll 1989) .

Harvesting

Nuts may be left on the ground

ground to
to dry
dry in
in the
the
sun but must be protected
protected from
from showers
showers as
they sprout readily
they readily (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977).
1977) .

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

No information.
information. Figure
Fig ure 1818
Pachira
Pachira aquatica. 1: leaf
aquatica. 1: leaf and
and fruit
fruit.. 22:: seed,
seed1;

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Only the
Only the seeds
seeds are
are edible,
edible, chestnut-flavoured; eatenraw
chestnut-flavoured; eaten raw, roasted or
, roasted or fried
fried in oil;
oil; after
after
roasting, seeds taste
roasting, taste like
like cocoa
cocoa and
and areare sometimes
sometimes used for
for the
the preparation
preparation ofof beverages.
beverages .
Regarded as a useful supplement
Regarded supplement to the diet in in many
many regions. Seeds yield
regions . Seeds yield 58%
58% of a white,
white,
refined , is
inodorous fat which, when refined, is suitable for cooking
cooking (Kedrick,
(Kedrick, 1972; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
Burkill, 1985;
Burkill, 1985; FAO,
FAO, 1986;
1986; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;1987; Arkoll
Arkoll and
and Clement,
Clement, 1989).
1989).

Nutritional value

Seed contains
contains 9%
9% water, 10%
10% starch,
starch, 16%
16% protein
protein and
and 40-50%
40-50% fat;
fat ; the
the yellow
yellow fat
fat possesses
possesses
physical
physical and chemical characteristics
characteristics resembling those of palm oil but
resembling those but containing
containing toxic
toxic and
and
possibly
possibly carcinogenic cyclopropenic fatty
carcinogenic cyclopropenic fatty acids
acids (Burkill,
(Burkill, 1985
1985;; Arkoll
Arkoll andand Clement,
Clement, 1989).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

oil with industrial potential for manufacturing

Seed oil manufacturing soap
soap.. Young
Young leaves
leaves and flowers are eaten
eaten
as aa vegetable.
vegetable. Wood
Woodisiswhite
whiteandandsoft,
soft,suitable
suitableforformanufacturing
manufacturing paper,
paper, yielding
yielding 36%
36%
cellulose paste.
paste. Bark
Barkisis used
used for
for caulking
caulking boats and cordage
cordage and
and yields
yieldsaadark
darkred
reddye.
dye. Bark
Bark
is also used medicinally to treat stomach
is stomach complaints
complaints and and headaches
headaches while
while aa tisane
tisane from
from the
the
boiled bark isis used
used for
for blood
blood tonic.
tonic . Suitable for live
Suitable for live fence
fence posts
posts and
and street
street trees,
trees, it is also
also
planted as
planted as an ornamental
ornamental species (Hedrick, 1972;
species (Hedrick, FAO, 1986;
1972; FAO, 1986; Arkoll and Clement, 1989; 1989;
Barrett, 1994).
Barrett, 1994) .

58
Marketing

No information, presumably
No presumably traded
traded locally.
locally.

Discussion

A potentially
potentially useful,
useful, easily cultivated
cultivated tree
tree producing
producing big
big fruits
fruits containing
containing large quantities of
large quantities of
nuts. However, toxicological
However, will be
toxicological studies will be required
required before
before this
this species can be
species can be
recommended
recommended for for wider
wider distribution
distribution and
and use.
use. Indeed,
Indeed, such
such studies
studies are required
required for
for all
all new
new
food plants.

JAVA ALMOND;
JAVA ALMOND;KANARI
KANARIOR
ORNGALI
NGALI NUT:
NUT: Canarium indicum, Burseraceae
Canariumindicum, Burseraceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

New Guinea,
Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Solomon
Solomon Islands
Islands and
and surrounding
surrounding islands; often
often cultivated in
in
Melanesia
Melanesia and elsewhere
elsewhere in the
the tropics,
tropics, especially
especially Java. Naturally found in low altitude rain
Java. Naturally
forests, but cultivated
forests, cultivated up to 600 m (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Description

Tall, buttressed,
Tall, deciduoustree
buttressed, deciduous tree toto 40
40 m m tall.
tall.
Leaves with 3-7 pairs
Leaves pairs of
of leaflets,
leaflets, leaflets
leaflets oblong-
oblong-
ovate to oblong-lanceolate,
ovate oblong-Ianceolate, 5.5-28 cm xx 2-11 2-11 cm,
herbaceous to coriaceous, base base oblique
oblique toto broadly
broadly
cuneate, apex
cuneate, apex bluntly
bluntly acuminate.
acuminate. Inflorescence
terminal, laxly
terminal, paniculate. Drupe
laxly paniculate. Drupe ovoid,
ovoid, slightly
slightly
triangular in
triangular in cross
cross section,
section, 3-63-6 cmcm x 2-32-3 cm,
cm,
green,
green, turning
turning black
black when
when ripe;
ripe; endocarp
endocarp hard,
hard,
thin and brittle, ca. 33 g,
and brittle, g, seeds
seeds 33 or
or 11byby abortion
abortion
in cultivated
in cultivated trees.
trees. (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;1948; Leenhouts,
Leenhouts,
1956; Verheij
1956; Verheij andand Coronel,
Coronel, 1991; Macrae et
1991; Macrae et al.,
1993).

Cultivation

Propagated by
Propagated by seed.
seed . Asexual
Asexual reproduction
reproduction by
by
Figure
Figure 19
patch-budding, as recommended
patch-budding, as recommended for C.C. ovatum
ovatum indicum . 1:
Canarium indicum. 1 : branch
branch with
with leaves
leaves and
and flowers.
flowers .
should also
should also be tried (see under Minor
Minor nuts).
nuts). 2: fruit.
fruit.

Harvesting

In Moluccas
Moluccas leaves
leaves shed when fruit ripe
ripe and
and bunches
bunches of
of fruit
fruit then
then clearly
clearly visible.
visible. Trees
climbed and fruit
fruit beaten
beaten down
down with
with sticks
sticks (Howes,
(Howes, 1948).
1948).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Treatment presumed
Treatment presumed toto be
be as described
described for C.C. ovatum
ovatum (see
(see under
under Minor
Minor nuts).
nuts). Pulp isis
removed by hand after soaking
removed by in water
soaking in water for
for 2-3
2-3 days,
days, less
less if water
water heated
heated to
to 40-50'C.
40-50°C. Nuts
Nuts
are thoroughly
thoroughly washed,
washed, any floating nuts are
floating nuts are discarded.
discarded. Nuts
Nuts are
are sun-dried
sun-dried and
and bagged
bagged for
for

59
 Kernels are
storage. Kernels are extracted
extracted by hand, washed
washed in warm
warm water
water to
to loosen
loosen the
the testa
testa before
before
removal by
removal by hand.

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

After removal
removal of testa the oily
testa the oily "pili" nuts (seeds)
"pili" nuts (seeds)eaten
eaten raw
raw or roasted,
roasted, may be used
may be used asas an
an
almond substitute, eaten
eaten in
in Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka asas aa dessert nut,
nut, made
made into
into bread inin the
the Celebes, highly
highly
esteemed
esteemed in Melanesia
Melanesia where several
several races
races are
are cultivated;
cultivated; aa strained
strained emulsion
emulsion ofof crushed,
crushed,
well-ripened seeds may be used as milkmilk substitute for infants.
substitute for infants. Seed oil is used as a substitute
Seed oil
for and usually preferred to
to coconut
coconut oil
oil for
for cooking;
cooking; fresh
fresh seed
seed oil mixed with food (Howes,
1948;
1948; Leenhauts,
Leenhauts, 1956;
1956; Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;1977; Verheij
Verheij and
and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991;
1991;
Macrae al., 1993).
Macrae et ai., 1993).

Nutritional value
value

Nut contains
Nut contains 70-80%
70-80% oil,
oil, 13% protein, 7%
13% protein, 7% starch
starch (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Macrae
Macrae etet ai.,
al., 1993).
1993).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Shells are
Shells are used
used for carvings.
carvings. Seed
Seed oil
oil also
also used
used as
as an
an illuminant.
illuminant. Wood
Wood isis soft,
soft, mainly
mainly used
used
for firewood, also for canoes. Grown
Grownas as aashade
shade tree,
tree, especially
especially for nutmeg groves, roadside
or street tree
tree (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Leenhauts,
Leenhauts, 1956;
1956; Verheij
Verheij and and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Marketing

Nuts do not keep

Nuts keep well,
well, consequently
consequently not
not suitable
suitable as
as an
an export
export crop.
crop.

Discussion

Highly esteemed
Highly esteemed for
for food
food in Melanesia
Melanesia (Verheij 1991). If the nut production
(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
is to be
is be expanded
expanded inin Southeast
Southeast Asia,
Asia, there
there is
is aa need
need totodevelop
develop mechanization for nut
mechanization for
extraction in addition to selecting
selecting elite trees.

PEQUi, PIQUi,
PEQuI, PIQuI, PIQUIA-OIL PLANT:Caryocar
PIQUIA-OIL PLANT: Caryocarbrasiliense,
brasiliense, Caryocaraceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Brazil, extending
. Brazil, extending westwards
westwards fromfrom the
the state
state ofof Maranhdo
Maranhao to Bolivia,
Bolivia, eastern
eastern Paraguay
Paraguay toto
northern Argentina, itit forms
forms pure
pure groves
groves in
in the
the plateaux
plateaux and valleys of the
the cerrado, elsewhere
usually
usually scattered
scattered individuals. Adapted to
individuals. Adapted to nutrient poor, heavy
nutrient poor, heavy clays, especially
especially iron and
and
aluminium rich soils in areas with an annual rainfall
rainfall of 1 000-1
000-1 500 mm and 3-5 months dry
season with a relative
relative humidity
humidity as low as 13%13 % (FAO,
(FAD, 1986;
1986; Dantas
Dantas de
de Araujo,
Araujo, 1995).
1995).

Description

A twisted, small
small tree or shrub
shrub or
or suffrutex
suffrutex to ca. 10
10 mm tall,
tall, trunk
trunk ca.
ca. 30
30 cm
cm in
indiameter
diameter andand
a deep taproot;
taproot; crown
crown spreading,
spreading, to 1010 mm in diameter. Leaves
indiameter. Leaves 3-foliate, leaflets
leaflets elliptic-
elliptic-
ovate, up to 18
ovate, 18 cm x 12
12 cm, apex
apex and base rounded. Inflorescence
base rounded. Inflorescence a terminal raceme_ Fruit
terminal raceme.
irregularly ovoid-globose,
irregularly 4-5 cm
ovoid-globose, 4-5 cm in
in diameter,
diameter, usually I-locular, 4-5
usually 1-locular, 4-5 cm
cm in in diameter,
diameter,
occasionally 2-locular
occasionally 2-locular and
and larger;
larger; exocarp
exocarp more
more or less
less smooth;
smooth; pericarp
pericarp thick,
thick, fleshy
fleshy and
and +±
attached
attached to the mesocarp,
mesocarp, the
the mesocarp
mesocarp and
and endocarp
endocarp enveloping
enveloping the the seed
seed to
to form an an oval
oval

60
stone ca. 2.5-3
2.5-3 cmcm in
diameter; mesocarp
mesoca rp
surface smooth, interior
with
with thin, hard, woody,
thin, hard, woody,
endocarp spines up to
2-3 cm
cm long; kernel \\
white,
white, oily
oily (FAO,
(FAG, 1986;
1986; \toot)
Dantas
Dantas de Araujo, 1995).
1995). ,
Cultivation

Seeds may take

Seeds may take one
one year
year
to germinate; stratification
stratification
of the endocarp with
mesocarp removed is
recommended. Good
results obtained from
grafting
grafting and
and marcottage.
marcottage .
Irrigation
Irrigation in the
the nursery
nursery
essential. Seedlings
Seedlings can
can
be planted out when Figure
Figure 20
25 cm tall.
25 cm tall . Growth is CaryocarCaryocar brasiliense.
brasiliense.1:1:longitudinal
longitudinalsection
sectionofoffruit.
fruit. 2:
2: fruiting
fruiting branchlet.
branchlet. 3:
3 : leaves
leaves and
and
inflorescence.
slow but
slow but the
the trees
trees show
show
good response from
fertilizers. After 5 years
irrigation and fertilizers.
irrigation years non-irrigated
non-irrigated plants plants are are 25 25 cm tall while while irrigated
irrigated
plants may attain
plants may attain 3 m (FAO,
(FAG,1986;
1986;Dantas
Dantas de de Araujo,
Araujo, 1995).
1995).

Harvesting

Despite
Despite their accessibility,
accessibility, the difficulty
difficulty in determining the ripeness
determining the ripeness of
of the
the fruit results
results in
in
fallen fruit being usually
usually gathered.
gathered. Large
Large trees
trees may
may yield up 2 000 fruit (FAO, 1986;
1986; Dantas
de Araujo, 1995).
1995).

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

No information.

Production and consumption/utilization

consumption/utilization

The oily,
The oily, mucilaginous fruit isis nutritious,
mucilaginous fruit nutritious, eaten
eatenasas aa famine
faminefood
food. . Mesocarp
Mesocarp isis oily,
oily, sweet
but acquired taste, eaten,
eaten,mainly
mainlyused usedasasaaflavouring,
flavouring, laxative;
laxative; source
source of
ofan
an edible
edible oil,
oil, used
used
to flavour the alcoholic liqueur, lico
lico de
de piqui; kernel
kernel rarely
rarely eaten
eaten because of endocarp spines;
source
source of an edible
edible oil
oil mainly
mainly used for flavouring
flavouring (Hedrick,
(Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAG ,
1986; Clay
1986; Clay and Clement, 1993;
1993; Dantas
Dantas dede Araujo,
Araujo, 1995).
1995).

Nutritional value
value

No information
information regarding
regarding nutritional
nutritional value of the kernels. Mesocarp
the kernels. Mesocarp contains
contains 81%
81 % water,
water,
2.7%
2.7% protein,
protein, 8%
8% fats
fats and
and oils
oils (dry
(dry pulp
pulp ca.
ca. 42%
42% oil),
oil), 1%
1 %ash,
ash,6.7%
6.7%carbohydrates;
carbohydrates;
120 mcg
120 mcg carotene,
carotene, also rich in
in vitamin
vitamin C, thiamin,
thiamin, riboflavin
riboflavin and niacin (FAO,
(FAO, 1986).
1986) .

61
By-products and other uses
uses

Kernel
Kernel oil used
used in
in the
thecosmetic
cosmetic industry
industry and
and locally
locally for making
making soap,
soap, as
as an
an illuminant,
illuminant,
lubricant. Wood
Woodusedusedfor
forconstruction,
construction,wooden
wooden machinery
machinery parts, furniture, fences,
fences, fuelwood
fuel wood
and charcoal. Flowers,
Flowers,fruits
fruitsand
andseeds
seeds used
used in
in local
local medicine.
medicine . Leaves,
Leaves, bark
barkand
and fruit
fruit pulp
pulp
a tannin source.
source. Tree
Treegrown
grownasasananornamental
ornamental (FAO,
(FAO, 1986;
1986; Dantas
Dantas de Araujo,
Araujo, 1995).
1995).

Marketing

Sold in the local

local markets
markets for
for local
local oil
oil and
and soap
soap making
making (Dantas de Araujo,
Araujo , 1995).
1995).

Discussion

Currently being over-exploited

over-exploited duedue to an
an increase
increase inin restaurants
restaurants serving
serving regional
regional food
food and
and
small-scale
small-scale oil production
production industries. Potential as
industries. Potential as an
an oil
oil crop
crop for
for the
the drier regions
regions of thethe
world, being
being well-adapted
well-adapted toto nutrient
nutrient poor
poor soils
soils and
and long
long dry
dry seasons. Local demand will
seasons. Local
have
have to bebe met
met by
bydeveloping
developing plantations
plantations of
of improved
improved stock,
stock, better
better management
management of wild wild
stock,
stock, including
including possible
possible improvement
improvement by grafting
grafting from
from elite trees. There
elite trees. is a need
There is need for
for
improved germplasm for for larger fruit, higher oil yields.
yields. The
The high
high melting
melting point
point of the kernel
kernel
oil may have aa potential
potential as
as aa cocoa
cocoa butter
butter substitute
substitute (FAO, 1986;1986; Dantas
Dantas de
de Araujo,
Araujo, 1995).
1995).

CASTANHA DEGALINHA:
CASTANHA DE GALINHA:Couepia
Couepialongipendula,
longipendula, Chrysobalanaceae
Chrysobalanaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Occurs throughout central

central and
and western
western Amazonia
Amazonia and
and the
the western
western Guiana
Guiana shield.
shield . Adapted
to
to heavy,
heavy, infertile,
infertile, clay
clay oxisols
oxisols of
oflowland
lowland rainforests,
rainforests, also
also occurring
occurring in
in periodically
periodically
inundated,
inundated, low lying areas (FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993;
1993 ; Prance,
Prance, 1972,
1972, 1994).
1994) .

Description

Large tree to 30
Large tree 30 m
m or
or more
more high,
high, trunk
trunk up
up to
to 1.8
1.8mminindiameter.
diameter. Leaves
Leaves simple, oblong
oblong
elliptic to lanceolate, up to 16
16 cm long and 7.5 cm wide.wide. Inflorescence
Inflorescence of
of pendulous
pendulous panicles
of bisexual, white flowers.
flowers. Fruit
Fruitobovoid
obovoid to
to ellipsoid
ellipsoid drupe,
drupe, 4-6
4-6 cm long, 4 cmcm in
in diameter,
diameter,
pubescent; epicarp peeling
pubescent; epicarp to reveal
peeling to hard, woody,
reveal hard, woody, fibrous,
fibrous , 6 mm
mm thick
thick pericarp;
pericarp; seed
seed with
with
white to light green kernel, 33 cm
cm long,
long, 22 cm
cm wide, testa
testa thin, pubescent, surrounded by a thin
membrane
membrane (FAO, 1986; 1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993;
1993; Prance,
Prance, 1972,
1972, 1994).
1994) .

Cultivation

especially around Manaus; more commonly protected when swidden

Occasionally cultivated, especially
is opened up.
is up. Seeds
Seedsgerminate
germinate within
within weeks
weeks ofof falling
falling from tree onto moist ground; viability
viability
is rapidly
is rapidly lost and
and seeds
seeds do
do not
not store
store easily.
easily. Early
Early growth
growth is rapid, later
later slowing
slowing and
and tree
tree
attaining 2-3
attaining 2-3 m in height
height when
when 4-5 years
years old
old and
and producing flowers. Trials are being
producing first flowers. being
carried out with fertilizers and
and shade in order to try and overcome slow slow early
early growth (Prance,
1971; FAO, 1986;
1971; 1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Harvesting

Fallen mature fruits must

must be
be quickly
quickly harvested before they can germinate,
germinate, rot or removed
removed byby
small rodents
small rodents and
and wild pigs;
pigs; sometimes
sometimes plucked
plucked from
fromsmall
smalltrees.
trees. Trees ca. 20
20 years
years old
old and
and

62
77 m high
high yield
yield over
over 11 000
000 nuts
nuts per
per year,
year,
mature trees will yield over 100
mature 100 kg; kernels
weigh 4-7
weigh 4-7 gg and
and represent ca. 30%
represent ca. 30% ofof the
the
whole nut (FAO, 1986;
whole 1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement,
1993; Prance, 1994).
1993; 1994) .

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

Seeds (nuts) easily extracted

extracted from
from the
the
mesocarp with
mesocarp with a knife. Dry nuts
knife. Dry nuts can be
be
stored for several months but rapidly
deteriorate under moist
moist conditions
conditions and high
temperatures
temperatures (FAO, 1986).
1986) .

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Kernels nut-like and eaten roasted or

pounded and
pounded and mixed with sugar and cassava
flour which has a pleasant flavour
resembling Brazil
resembling Brazil nuts
nuts and
and pomegranate
pomegranate
pips when fresh,
pips fresh , aa Brazil
Brazil nut-like
nut-like flavour
flavour
after short
after short storage,
storage, date-like after a few
date-like after few
weeks
weeks if stored
stored moist
moist or or months
months ifif stored
stored
dry, eventually
eventually becoming
becoming rancid.
rancid. Kernels
also utilized by local people to extract an oil
for use in cooking;
cooking ; seed
seed cake
cake slightly
slightly sweet,
sweet, Figure 21
Figure
used in local pastries (FAO,
(FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and Couepialongipendula
Couepia longipendula. 1: fruit
. 1: fruit.. 2: leaves and flowering branchlet.
leaves and branchlet .

Clement, 1993; Prance, 1994).

Clement, 1994).

Nutritional value
value

Kernels are aa rich

rich source
source of
ofenergy
energy and
and protein,
protein, containing 18 %moisture
containing 18% moisture when
when harvested
harvested and
and
75%
75 % of a light greenish-yellow semi-drying
semi-drying oil
oil that
that quickly
quickly turns
turns rancid.
rancid. Oil
Oil residues contain
32.5%
32.5 % protein, 10.6%
10.6% fibre
fibre and
and 8%
8% ash
ash (FAO,
(FAD, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clements,
Clements, 1993).
1993).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Seed oil also

Seed also used
used for
for soap-making. Timber heavy,
soap-making . Timber heavy, hard
hard and
and difficult
difficult to
to work,
work, used
used for
building,
building, carpentry
carpentry and
and roofing
roofing tiles.
tiles. Bark
Bark source
source of aa rough
rough fibre.
fibre . Bark and pericarp
pericarp
extracts used in
in local
local medicine
medicine (FAO,
(FAO, 1986;
1986; Prance,
Prance, 1994).
1994).

Marketing

Nuts collected from the wild

wild and
and used
used in
in rural
rural areas.
areas. Surprisingly
Surprisingly thethe nuts
nuts rarely found in
in
markets despite
the local markets despite their
their local
local abundance
abundance inin the
the forests,
forests, their
their high
high yields
yields and
and popularity.
popularity .
A market
market needs
needs to
to be
be created
created (FAO,
(FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Discussion

Considered worthy of future domestication (Prance, 1994).

domestication (Prance, 1994) . Possibility
Possibility being
being investigated
investigated of
of
growing the tree for
for nuts
nuts before
before cutting
cutting for
for hardwood
hardwood (FAO,
(FAD, 1986).
1986).

63
INDIANOR
INDIAN ORTROPICAL
TROPICALALMOND:
ALMOND:Terminalia
Terminaliacatappa,
catappa,Combretaceae
Combretaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Malesia and western

Malesia western Pacific
Pacific seashores;
seashores; cultivated
cultivated and
and sometimes
sometimes naturalized throughout the
tropics and
tropics and near-tropics
near-tropics.. AAgregarious
gregarious pioneer
pioneer species
species of sand
sand banks and shores
banks and shores.. Salt and
drought tolerant
drought tolerant but
but intolerant
intolerant of wind
wind and frost (Exell,
(Exell, 1954;
1954; FAO,
FAO , 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
1984; Morton, 1985).
1984; 1985).

Description

A deciduous or sometimes
sometimes
semi-evergreen tree to
15(-25)
15( -25) mm tall
tall with
with trunk
trunk
1.5 m
to 1.5 m in in diameter,
often buttressed.
buttressed. Leaves
alternate, obovate,
alternate, obovate , 15-36
15-36
cm long,
cm long, 8-24
8-24 cm cm wide,
wide,
subcordate at the base and
subcordate and
usually with 2 glands,
petiole short; leaves
turning red before
turning before falling
falling
and quickly replaced replaced..
Inflorescence spicate, male
flowers towards
flowers towards the apex apex
with hermaphrodite
flowers below; flowers
greenish, apetalous.
apetalous . Fruit
a somewhat
somewhat compressed-
compressed-
ellipsoid drupe,
drupe, 4-7 4-7 cm cm
long,
long, 2.5-3.8
2.5-3.8 cm cm wide,
wide,
prominently keeled along
prominently along
the margins;
the margins; epicarp
epicarp thin,
thin, Figure 22
Figure 22
Terminalia catappa. Branchlet
Terminalia Branchlet wwith
ith leaves and fruits
leaves and fruits..
green turning yellow
yellow with
with
a reddish
reddish blush;
blush; mesocarp
mesocarp
fleshy,
fleshy, 3-6 mm mm thick,
thick, adherent
adherent toto the
the fibrous
fibrous husk
husk of ofthethe hard-shelled
hard-shelled stone
stone containing
containing the
spindle-shaped seed;
spindle-shaped seed; seed
seed 3-4
3-4 cm
cm long,
long, 3-5
3-5 mm
mm thick,
thick, testa
testa very
very thin,
thin, brown,
brown, enveloping
enveloping the
the
coiled cotyledons
cotyledons or kernel (Exell, 1954; 1954; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984; Morton, 1985). 1985) .

Cultivation

Sweet fleshed
Sweet fleshed and more
more palatable
palatable fruits
fruits selected
selected for
for cultivation. Seeds have good viability
cultivation. Seeds viability
and germinate
and germinate readily
readily (25%
(25 % germination)
germination) when
when raised
raised in
in nurseries.
nurseries . Transplanted
Transplanted when
when
seedlings leafless. Fertilizers can be
leafless. Fertilizers beneficial. Growth
be beneficial. rate 11 m
Growth rate m or
or more in ca. 22 years
more in years
(Morton, 1985).
1985) .

Harvesting

Two
Two crops
crops a year possible
possible in some
some areas
areas or even more or
even more or less
less continuous
continuousfruiting.
fruiting. A
A tree
tree
may
may yield
yield ca. 55 kg
kg of
ofkernels
kernels per
per year
year (Morton,
(Morton, 1985).
1985) .

64
Post-harvest treatments

Fruit hard, difficult

difficult to
to crack,
crack, kernels
kernels extracted
extracted by
by cracking
cracking the
the defleshed
defleshed and
and sun-dried
sun-dried nuts
along the keel (Menninger,
along (Menninger, 1977;
1977; Morton,
Morton, 1985).
1985) .

Production and
and consumption/
consumption/ utilization
utilization

Outer flesh
Outer flesh commonly eaten by
commonly eaten by children.
children. Kernels
Kernels may be eaten
may be eaten raw
raw or roasted,
roasted , or used in
cooking as an almond substitute. Sun-dried
Sun-driedkernels
kernels yield
yield 38-54%
38-54 %ofof an
an edible,
edible , bland,
bland, yellow,
yellow,
semi-drying oil known as Indian
semi-drying Indian almond
almond oil,
oil, which
which becomes
becomes turbid andand rancid
rancid onon standing
standing
(Howes,, 1948;
(Howes 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Morton,
Morton, 1985).
1985).

Nutritional value

Air-dried kernels contain

Air-dried kernels contain 52.0%
52.0% fat fat,, 25.4%
25.4% protein,
protein, 14.6%
14.6% fibre,
fibre, 6% glucose
glucose and a small
small
percentage of ash. 'Indian almond
ash. "Indian almond oil oil contains
contains glycerides
glyceridesof of palmitic
palmiticacid
acid 34.4
34.4%,
%, oleic acid
32.1%,
32.1 %, linoleic
linoleic acid
acid 27.5%
27.5 %and
and stearic
stearic acid
acid 6%;
6 %; ititclosely
closely resembles
resembles sweet
sweet almond, cotton
seed, kapok
kapok and
and groundnut
groundnut oils
oils and
and could
could substitute
substitute for
for them
them for
for dietetic
dietetic and
and industrial
industrial uses
uses
(Morton, 1985).
1985) .

By-products
By-products and other uses
uses

Oilcake used as pig feed. Kernel Kerneloil

oilused
usedfor
formaking
making soap
soap but
butits
its industrial
industrial use
use isis limited
limited by
by
the difficulty in extracting
extracting thethe kernel.
kernel. Oil
Oil isis also
also used
used medicinally
medicinally as are also the leaves and
bark. Leaves
Leaves and barkbark astringent
astringent and variously
variously used used medicinally; leaves also
medicinally; leaves also sudorific
sudorific if
taken internally.
internally . Bark
Bark isis aasource
source of
ofdye;
dye; bark
bark (25%
(25 %tannin),
tannin), roots
roots and
and green
green fruits
fruits (known
(known
as
as myrobalans)
myrobalans) are used for tanning. Timber tough
tanning. Timber tough and fairly hard, durable in water although
not durable
not durable in the ground, susceptible
susceptible to drywood termites; used
drywood termites; used forfor construction,
construction, furniture,
furniture,
carts, boats,
carpentry, carts, boats, plywood
plywood andand pulp.
pulp. Cultivated
Cultivatedas as an
anornamental
ornamental and and shade
shade tree (Exell,
(Exell ,
1954; FAO,
1954; FAO, 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Burkill, 1985; 1985; Morton, 1985).
1985).

Marketing

Fruit marketed locally.

locally .

Discussion

mUlti-purpose tree suitable

A multi-purpose suitable for
for selection
selection and
and further development. If the kernel market is
further development. is
to expand an improved
improved method
method for
for defleshing
defleshing the
the fruits
fruits and
and extracting
extracting the kernel
kernel needs
needs to
to be
be
developed 1985). The
developed (Morton, 1985). The quality
quality of the
the nut needs
needs to be
be compared
compared with that ofof the
the
following,
following, T.
T. kaernbachii.
kaernbachii.

OKARINUT:
OKARI NUT:Terminalia
Terminaliakaernbachii,
kaernbachii, Combretaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

From New
From New Georgia
Georgia inin the
the Solomon
Solomon Islands through New
Islands through New Guinea
Guinea to
to the
the Aru Islands
Islands of
Indonesia; relatively common and frequently
Indonesia; frequently cultivated
cultivated tree
tree in
in the
the lowland
lowland rain
rain forests
forests up
up to
1 000 m altitude (Coode, 1969;
1969; Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

65
Description

Tree to
Tree to 45
45 m with trunk up to
trunk: up to 2.8
m in diameter, flange-buttressed
flange-buttressed up
to 33 m;
to m; crown
crown spreading;
spreading; leaves
leaves
clustered at at end of branches,
branches,
obovate-elliptic, narrowly
obovate-elliptic, narrowly obovate
obovate
to obovate-oblong,
elliptic to obovate-oblong, 12-35 12-35
cm x 5-12 cm, base
cm base cuneate
cuneate with 2
conspicuous black glands, apex
rounded to acuminate. Fruit
ellipsoid, more
ellipsoid, more or less less laterally
compressed, 6.3-18
compressed, 6.3-18 cm x 14.5-8.2
14.5-8.2
cm x 3.3-6.3 cm, apex
cm x 3.3-6.3 cm, apex slightly slightly
beaked, tomentose becoming
glabrescent, plum
glabrescent, plum redred when
when ripe,
ripe,
slightly succulent; endocarp in
cross-section with
cross-section with a broad band of
very hard
hard sclerenchymatous
sclerenchymatous tissue tissue
including within it some large
irregularly
irregularly shaped
shaped and spaced
spaced air-
air-
chambers and a large cell
containing the kernel; kernels
white, varying in size from spindle
in size from spindle
shaped,
shaped, 33 cm xx 11 cm cm toto size
size of
small
small hen's egg;egg; cotyledons
cotyledons 3-4, 3-4, Figure
Figure 23
wrapped around each other
wrapped other (Exell,
(Exell, Termina/ja kaembachii.
Terminalia kaernbachii. 1:
1: branchlet with leaves and inflorescence.
inflorescence .
2:: branchlet
2 with fruits.
branchlet with
1954; Coode, 1969; Macrae,
1993).

Cultivation

Easily raised from seed,

seed, but
but viability
viability soon
soon lost;
lost; attempts
attempts to introduce
introduce seed
seed into
into Hawaii failed.
Because of its value
Because value as
as food
food for
for the
the local
local inhabitants
inhabitants the
the species
species is
is usually
usually excluded
excluded from
from
timber agreements (Verheij
(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Harvesting

Fruits picked from the

the trees
trees or
or collected
collected from
from the
the ground
ground (Verheij
(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.
information.

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Kernels the largest

largest known
known in in the
the Combretaceae,
Combretaceae, 1.5-10
1.5-10 gg in
in weight,
weight, one
one of
ofthe
the best-flavoured
best-flavoured
of the tropical
tropical nuts
nuts and
and aa favourite
favourite article
article of
of diet
diet among
among thethe natives,
natives, almond
almond flavoured, mild mild
and pleasant,
pleasant, source of ca. ca.5050g gofofa asweet,
sweet,colourless,
colourless,non-drying,
non-drying,edible
edibleoil,
oil,considered
considered
less
less oily than
than Canarium
Canarium (Exell,
(Exell, 1964;
1964; Coode,
Coode, 1969;
1969; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;1977; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Verheij
Verheij and Corondel,
Corondel, 1991; MacraeMacrae et ai.,
al., 1993).
1993). Although
Although Macrae
Macrae et et al.
ai.(1993)
(1993) state
state that
that

66
66
it can be
be eaten
eaten raw
raw itit isisuncertain
uncertain as
as toto whether
whether ititmay
may be
beeaten
eaten raw
raw without
without preliminary
preliminary
treatment
treatment as Morton
Morton (1985)
(1985) states
states that,
that, unlike
unlike T. catappa,
catappa, all
all other
other species
species of
ofTerminalia
Terminalia
require preliminary washing
washing and and cooking.
cooking .

Nutritional value
value

12 .5 % protein
Kernel contains 12.5% protein and 70 % fat
and 70% fat (Morton,
(Morton, 1985).
1985) .

By-products and other uses

uses

Wood is used for furniture

furniture but
but not
not exploited
exploited due
due to value
value of the fruit
fru it (Exell, 1954;
1954 ; Verheij
Verheij
and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Marketing

Marketed locally during the

the fruiting
fruiting season
season (Verheij
(Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991).
1991) .

Discussion

A little
little known
known species
species of
of which
which T.T. okari
okari isis regarded
regarded as as aasynonym
synonym bybyMorton
Morton (1985).
(1985).
Further studies
studies are
are required
required regarding
regarding its
its value
value as as aa potential
potential nut crop.
crop . Other species
species (see
(see
Appendix 1)
1) also have edible kernels but this is said to be the
the best flavoured.
flavoured. Morton
Morton(1985)
(1985)
recommends the more
recommends, the more widely distributed and
widely distributed and mtroduced
introducedT.T. catappa
catappa as
as worthy
worthy of further
further
development. Verheij and Coronel
Verheij and (1991) consider
Coronel (1991) considerthe the species
specieshashas aa potential as a
potential as
multipurpose
mUltipurpose species, grown
grown for
for its
its edible
edible kernels
kernels and
and ultimately
ultimately for its
its timber.
timber.

CACAY, INCHI,
CACAY, TACAY, TACCY,
INCHI, TACAY, TACCY, NOGAL,
NOGAL, ARBOL,
ARBOL, ARBOL
ARBOL DE
DE NUEZ,
NUEZ, PAN
PAN DE CADA
CADA DIA
DIA OR
ORINOCO NUT:
ORINOCO NUT: Caryodendron
Caryodendron orinocense, Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Venezuela, Colombia and Ecuador in in the headwaters of the Orinoco; plantations in Colombia
and Ecuador. Thrives
Thrivesininareas
areaswith
withtemperatures
temperaturesranging
rangingbetween
between12 12 ° CC and
and 29
29°C
C and 800-
0 0

5 000 mm annual
annual rainfall and occurs
occurs on a wide
wide range of soils
soils at altitudes from sea
altitudes from sea level to
2 300 m. Tolerates
Toleratesaafew
fewmonths
monthsofofmild
milddrought
droughtand
and withstands
withstands brief
brief waterlogging
waterlogging (Reckin,
(Reckin,
1983; FAO, 1986).
1983; 1986).

Description

Tree to
to 20(-40)
20(-40) mm tall
tall with
with small,
small, dense
dense and
and flattened
flattened crown
crown inin wild
wild or,
or, under
under cultivation.
cultivation,
to 15
15 mm tall
tall with
with large,
large, rounded
rounded crown. Both monoecious
crown. Both monoecious andand dioecious
dioecious trees
trees reported.
reported .
Leaves
Leaves elliptic, ca. 25
25 cm
cm long,
long, 10
10 cm
cm broad,
broad, somewhat
somewhat leathery.
leathery . Male
Male flowers
flowers in
in terminal
terminal
racemes,
racemes, female
female flowers
flowers in
in terminal
terminal panicles,
panicles, wind
wind pollinated.
pollinated. Fruit
Fruit aa dehiscent
dehiscent or
or
sometimes semidehiscent,
sometimes semidehiscent, woody
woody capsule,
capsule, 3.7-6.5 cm long, 3.2-4.5
3.2-4 .5 cm
cm in
in diameter,
diameter , pericarp
pericarp
thin and brittle, seeds
seeds 3,
3, 3-sided
3-sided (Reckin,
(Reckin, 1983;
1983; FAO,
FAO, 1986).
1986) .

Cultivation

Seeds
Seeds should
should be preferably sown within 10 days days of harvesting,
harvesting, reputed
reputed to fail to germinate
germinate
after 35 days; distribution
distribution ofofplants
plants otherwise
otherwise by
by potted
potted seedlings
seedlings or
or vegetative
vegetative reproduction.
reproduction .
Shade is required inin the
the first
first year,
year, followed
followed by
by full
full exposure
exposure to
to the
the sun
sun on
on transplanting
transplanting when
when

67
 50 cm high at onset of
ca. 50 of the
the following
following
rainy season.
rainy season. Recommended spacing
Recommended spacing
6-10 m
6-10 m x 6-10
6- 10 m;
m;interplanting
interplanting with
with
Azadirachta indica and
Azadirachta and Derris
Derris spp.
spp. for
source of
source of ant-repellent
ant-repellent insecticides
insecticides is
recommended (Reckin, 1983). In
Colombia caterpillars
Colombia caterpillars are
are an
an extremely
extremely
serious pest causing complete defoliation
serious
of the
of the trees
trees several
several times
times in in a year
year
(Clement and
(Clement and Villachica, 1994).
1994).

Plant
Plant growth
growth is rapid, with fruiting
usually in
usually in the seventh
seventh yearyear when
when trees
trees
are ca. 7 m m tall,
tall, although
although fruiting
fruiting at
4-5 years
years has
has been
been reported.
reported. Average
weight
weight of nut
nut is 8.5
8.5 g, g, attaining
attaining 12.5
12.5 gg
or more
more inin superior
superior selections.
selections. A A 1010
year old tree
year tree can
can yield
yield 100-250
100-250 kg kg of
of

~.
r--
(,-.,- - :: ".'-" ':>
.• ."':-..• ....r .' .'..." .•... . . .
nuts
nuts per annum,
annum , an an old
old specimen
specimen hashas . ~. ~'; -. /' '-, -~ -~ ,>
given ca. 800 800 kg. Potential for
kg . Potential for an
an " .-,

annual production of 3 500-5

annual production 000 kg
500-5 000 kg of
2
2
oil per ha from trees bearing
bearing nuts
nuts with an 3 4
4

(Reckin, 1983;
oil content of 57% (Reckin, 1983; FAO, Figure
Fig ure 24
1986)
1986).. Caryodendron orinocense.
Caryodendron onnocense. 1: and fruit. 22:: female
leaves and
1: leaves female flower.
flower .
3:: male
3 flower. 4:
male flower. 4 : longitudinal section of
longitudinal section of fruit to show
show seed.
seed.

Harvesting

Nuts ripen at the onset of the rains and either fall

fall or are shaken off. They
shaken off. They tend
tend to
to ripen
ripenall
all
at once and must be gathered
gathered quickly
quickly before
beforethey
theygerminate,
germinate,rot
rotororare
areeaten
eatenbybyanimals.
animals. A
10-year old tree can yield 50-90 kg of capsules per tree and large trees produce over 200 kg, kg,
although yields may
although yields may vary
vary considerably
considerably from
from year
year to
to year.
year. AAcapsule
capsule consists
consists of
of 42%
42 %seed
seed
and 29-36% edible
edible kernel
kernel (Reckin,
(Reckin, 1983;
1983; FAO,
FAO, 1986).
1986).

Post-harvest
Post-harvest treatments

Under
Under dry conditions
conditions nuts
nuts keep
keep for 30 days
for ca. 30 days in the
the capsule;
capsule; shell
shell damage or a moist
damage or moist
environment can initiate enzyme reaction leading
leading to
to acidification
acidificationand
andrancidity
rancidityof
ofthe
theoil.
oil. The
nuts are easily
easily separated
separated from the thin shell and, when dried and roasted,
roasted, they can be safely
stored for a long
stored long time
time in
in sealed
sealed plastic
plastic bags
bags (Reckin,
(Reckin, 1983;
1983; FAO, 1986).
1986).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Crushed nuts and milk fed to weaned

weaned children. Nuts have
children. Nuts have aa pleasant
pleasant flavour resembling hazel
nuts.
nuts. After
Afterremoval
removal of
ofthe
theleathery
leathery testa
testa kernels
kernels are eaten raw,raw, roasted, fried or ground
roasted, fried for
ground for
a drink or sweets.
sweets. Nuts
Nutsarearesource
sourceof ofan
anedible
edible oil
oil rich
rich in
in linoleic
linoleic acid
acid (34.4%) and, once
once
extracted,
extncted, can be safely
safely stored
stored for
for aa long
long time
time without
without turning rancid (Reckin,
(Reckin, 1983; FAO,
1986).

68
Nutritional value
value

Kernel contains
Kernel (33.7-)37.4-54% edible
contains (33.7-)37.4-54% edible oil,
oil, 33.6%
33.6% starch,
starch, 2.6% glucose,
glucose, 20.0%
20.0% protein,
protein,
4.5% crude
crude fibre
fibre and
and 3.2%
3.2% ash
ash with
with aa calorific
calorific value
value of 585 kcal per 100100 g (Reckin, 1983).
1983) .
According to FAO (1986)
According (1986) the kernel contains 54-60% of a clear,
contains 54-60% clear, light, edible oil containing
73%
73% linoleic acid, 4%4% moisture
moisture and ca. 18%18% protein.
protein.

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Grown as a shade tree for coffee and

and cacao
cacao in
in Colombia.
Colombia. Oil from shells,
shells, nuts and
and bark latex
latex
used
used as
as an
an illuminant.
illuminant. Nuts
Nuts and
and oil
oilananexcellent
excellent cure
curefor
forpulmonary
pulmonary complaints
complaints and
and
dermatitis.. Wood
dermatitis Wood isisnot
notregarded
regarded as
as valuable
valuable or
or durable,
durable, used
used for
for furniture
furniture and
and excellent
excellent
charcoal (Reckin,
charcoal (Reckin, 1983;
1983; FAO, 1986).
1986).

Marketing

Nuts
Nuts are sufficiently
sufficiently attractive to be sold
attractive to sold in
in the
the local
local markets. Interest in Colombia
markets. Interest Colombia in in
developing the crop to
developing to overcome
overcome thethe shortfall
shortfall between
between existing production of edible oil and
existing production
domestic demand
domestic demand (Reckin,
(Reckin, 1983;
1983; FAO, 1986).
1986).

Discussion

The species is widely distributed and and plantations

plantations established
establishedwith
withlittle
littleselection.
selection. Provenance
surveys and trials are
surveys are required
required for
for improved
improved performance
performance and to establish
establish priority areas inin
the
the forest
forest for
for genetic
genetic conservation
conservation (Reckin,
(Reckin, 1983). Small germplasm
1983). Small collections exist
germplasm collections exist at
University
University of Naro and and byby Corporación
Corporaci6n Araracuara
Araracuara at San
San José
Jose dede Guaviare,
Guaviare, Colombia
Colombia
(Clement
(Clement and Villachica, 1994). The
Villachica, 1994). The reason
reason for the
the annual
annual variation
variation in in yield
yield requires
requires
investigation and solution if if the
the crop
crop isis to
to develop
develop commercially.
commercially .

CREAM, PARADISE
CREAM, OR SAPUCAIA
PARADISE OR SAPUCAIANUT:
NUT:Lecythis
Lecythispisonis,
pisonis, Lecythidaceae
Lecythidaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Throughout Brazilian Amazonia,

Amazonia, Colombia,
Colombia, Orinoco basin of Venezuela
Orinoco basin Venezuela and and the Guyanas;
Guyanas;
cultivated. It occurs
also cultivated. occurs in
in the
the rain
rain forest
forest on
on fertile
fertile flood
flood plains
plains and
and tolerating
tolerating several
several
months
months of waterlogging as well
waterlogging as well as
as growing
growing on on the
the drier
drier oxisols
oxisols ofof terra
terra firma,
firma, the
the latter at
densities between 0.2-11
densities between 0.2-11 trees per ha.ha. The minimum annual rainfall
minimum annual rainfall requirement
requirement isis 2 000
mm (Prance and Mori, 1979;
1979; FAO,
FAO, 1986;
1986; Macrae
Macrae et al.,al., 1993).
1993) .

Description

Tall deciduous
Tall tree, 30-40
deciduous tree, 30-40 m tall,
tall, trunk
trunk 60-80
60-80 cm
cm in
in diameter. Leaves petiolate,
diameter. Leaves petiolate, simple,
simple,
blade narrowly
blade ovate to
narrowly ovate to widely
widely elliptic,
elliptic, 2.5-12
2.5-12 cmcm long,
long, 1.5-5
1.5-5 cmcm wide,
wide, chartaceous
chartaceous toto
coriaceous. Flowers
coriaceous. Flowersbisexual
bisexualininsmall,
small,terminal racemes . Fruit a large,
terminalracemes. large, woody,
woody, dehiscent,
dehiscent,
bell-shaped, pendentcapsule
bell-shaped, pendent capsuleup uptoto 25
25 cm
cm long;
long; pericarp woody, 1-2
pericarp woody, 1-2 cm
cm thick;
thick; a large
large
operculum
operculum becomes detached at
becomes detached at maturity,
maturity, leaving
leaving the seeds
seeds (nuts)
(nuts) dangling
dangling by aa slender,
slender,
fleshy funicle
fleshy funicle until
until the funicle
funicle decays
decays andand allows the seeds
allows the seeds to fall;
fall; seeds
seeds 30-40,
30-40, irregularly
irregularly
oblong, resembling Brazil nuts but more rounded with thinner and softer shell, kernel kernel white,
white,
creamy texture
creamy texture (Prance
(Prance and and Mori,
Mori, 1979;
1979; Rosengarten, 1984; FAO,
Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986; Mori and
1986; Mori and Prance,
Prance,
1990; Macrae
1990; Macrae etet al.
al.,, 1993).
1993).

69
Cultivation

Seeds genninate
Seeds germinate within
within 7-10
7-10 days
days and and
growth is
growth is rapid,
rapid, attaining
attaining 60 cm after 11
year and
year and 4 m after 5 years.
years. Trees
Trees begin
to bear
to bear when
when 8-10
8-10 years
years old.
old. Flowering
Flowering
sporadic, some
is sporadic, some trees
trees bearing
bearing every
every
other year,
other year, others
others at 55 year
yearintervals.
intervals.
Yields may
Yields may bebe 12-20 fruits in
12-20 fruits in the
the first
first
fruiting year,
fruiting year, with
with 8181 fruits
fruits reported
reported 2
years later. Average
years Average seed weight 5.5 g,
trees may
mature . trees may yield
yield ca. 80 80 kg kg
annually
annually.. Average
Average yield
yield for mature trees trees
on terra firma
on finna is less
less than
than 5050 fruits
fruits per
year, probably more on the
year,
plains.
the fertile
fertile flood
There are no commercial
flood
~
6
plantations reported. Attempts at
grafting sapucaia onto the closely related related
Brazil nut
Brazil nut and
and vice
vice versa
versa have
have failed
failed
(Prance and Mori,
(Prance Mori, 1979;
1979; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
1984; FAO,
1984; FAO, 1985;
1985; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement,
1993).

Harvesting

Fruit mature
Fruit mature inin ca.
ca. 1818 months
months after
after Figure 25
Figure
flowering, when
flowering, when the
the capsule
capsule lid
lid drops
drops Lecythis pisonis. 11:: leaves.
Lecythis pisonis. leaves. 2: ovary.
ovary. 3-4:
3-4: stamens.
stamens. 5:
5 :androecium.
androecium.
off, eventually releasing the nuts after
off, eventually releasing the nuts after the the 6:
6: fruit
fruit and
and operculum.
operculum. 7:
7: transverse
transverse section
section of
of ovary.
ovary. 8:
8 : seed.
seed .

funicle has decayed.

funicle decayed. While suspended
suspended
from the capsule the nuts are liable to be eaten
from eaten by bats, parrots parrots and and monkeys,
monkeys, although less less
liable to
liable to predation around
around homesteads.
homesteads. The The capsules
capsules remain attached attached to to the
the tree
tree for
for a long
time
time before they too fall.fall. The
The nuts
nuts can,
can, with
with some
some difficulty,
difficulty, be cut cut down
down from from the the openopen
gathered up from
capsules or gathered from the
the ground,
ground, although
although in the latter case the majority of nuts are
especially monkeys and wild
eaten by animals, especially wild pigs. Average yield
pigs. Average yield of nutsnuts per tree is ca. 75 75
kg; fruit
fruit weigh
weigh 1-2.5
1-2.5 kgkg and
and contain
contain 30-50 nuts,
nuts, each weighingca.
each weighing ca. 4-14
4-14 g. g. (Howes,
(Howes, 1948; 1948;
Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; FAO,
FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993). 1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Seed coat thin and

and offers
offers little
little protection
protection to
to disease
disease and
and insects.
insects. Nuts laid on mats
mats to
to dry;
dry;
the kernels
kernels are
are rather
rather moist
moist and
and must
must be
be dried
dried quickly,
quickly, otherwise
otherwise they
they do not
not store
store well
well
(Howes,
(Howes, 1948; FAO, 1986).
1986).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Kernels
Kernels are delicious,
delicious, and
and considered
considered to have
have aa superior
superior sweet
sweet flavour
flavour to
to that
that of
ofthe
the Brazil
Brazil
nut, also
also more
more digestible;
digestible; eaten
eaten raw,
raw, roasted
roasted or
orininconfectionary,
confectionary, highly
highlynutritious.
nutritious. Kernel
yields
yields a light
light yellow,
yellow, almond
almond flavoured,
flavoured, edible
edible oil, the
the harmful
hannful seed
seed coat
coat being
being removed
removed
before extraction (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Prance and and Mori,
Mori, 1979;
1979; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; FAO,
FAO, 1986;
1986;
Macrae
Macrae et al., 1993).
1993).

70
Nutritional value

Nuts contain
Nuts contain 60%
60% kernel. Highly
Highly nutritious,
nutritious, kernel
kernel contains
contains 60%
60% dry consisting of
dry matter consisting
51-64% oil, 16% protein, 8% fibre, 4.2% ash.
51-64% oil, 16% protein, 8% fibre, 4.2% ash. Seeds Seeds likely
likely to
to contain
contain toxic
toxic quantities
quantities of
selenium when
selenium when grown
grown on
on soils
soils high
high inin selenium
selenium (Prance and Mori,
(Prance and Mori, 1979;
1979; FAO,
FAO, 1986).
1986).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Oil used
Oil used locally
locally for making soap andand as
as an illuminant.
illuminant. The
The capsules
capsules (monkey
(monkey pots)
pots) are used
for domestic
for utensils; when tethered
domestic utensils; and baited
tethered and with sugar
baited with sugar they
they are used to trap monkeys
monkeys
who, when disturbed,
who, disturbed, are
are unable
unable toto open
open and
and withdraw
withdraw their
their hands.
hands. Nuts
Nuts fed
fed locally
locally to
to
chickens (the
chickens (the vernacular "sapucaia" means chicken). The wood is not extensively used as it
"sapucaia" means chicken) . The wood is not extensively used as
is tough and difficult to work;
is work; used
used for
for railway
railway sleepers,
sleepers, roofing
roofing shingles,
shingles, construction
construction and
and
general carpentry. The tough and fibrous bark consists of a succession
general carpentry. The tough and fibrous bark consists of a succession of thin layers which
layers which
can be peeled off and used locally as as cigarette
cigarette wrappers.
wrappers. Infusions
Infusions of of bark
bark and
and pericarp
pericarp used
used
in local medicine
medicine for liver
liver complaints.
complaints. Cultivated as an ornamental (Howes,
Cultivated as an ornamental (Howes, 1948; 1948; Prance
and Mori, 1979;
and 1979; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; FAO,
FAO, 1986).
1986).

Marketing

Marketed locally (Howes, 1948).

1948).

Discussion

The enotmous
enormous loss of nuts
nuts to
to animals
animals has
has limited
limited the exploitation of nuts
exploitation of nuts from
from the
the wild
wild.. If
sufficient quantitieswere
sufficient quantities were available
availableatat the
the right
right price
price there
there would
would be
be a potential
potential in
in the
the
confectionery nut
nut industry.
industry. Shell
Shell of
offresh
fresh nuts
nuts reputed
reputed to
to contain
contain aa toxic
toxic substance
substance which
which may
may
affect its commercial exploitation
exploitation for extracting
extracting the edible
edible oil.
oil. There
There is a possibility
possibility of nut
and timber production from the the floodplains
floodplains but more information
information is is first
first required
required on growth
rates and production (Howes, 1948; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984; FAO, 1986).
1984; FAO, 1986). Selection
Selection for high
high and
and
consistent yields is required.
required.

YICIB (new
YICIB (new Somali orthography),
orthography),YE-EB
YE-EBOR
ORYEHEB:
YEHEB: Cordeauxia
Cordeauxia edulis,
edulis, Leguminosae
Leguminosae
subfamily Caesalpinioideae
Caesalpinioideae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Central
Central Somalia
Somalia extending
extending into into the
the Ogaden
Ogaden of Ethiopia,
Ethiopia, in semi-arid
semi-arid scrub;
scrub; intolerant
intolerant of
waterlogging. Introduced
Introduced on on an experimental
experimental scale
scale to Israel,
Israel, Kenya,
Kenya, Tanzania,
Tanzania, Sudan.
Sudan ,
Yemen and USA for trials. trials. TheTheplantation
plantationestablished
established near
near Voi,
Voi, Kenya
Kenya isis largely
largely neglected
neglected
but, due
due toto the
the Somali
Somali political
political situation, is currently
situation, is currently the
the sole
sole source
source of
of germplasm.
germplasm. Grows Grows
in Somalia at 100-1
100-1 000 m altitude on coarse, deep red sands sands with
with a water
water table
table at
at 6.5-25.5
6.5-25 .5
m. The
Thedaily
dailytemperature
temperature isis in in excess
excess of 25°C and
of25·C and the mean annual temperature
mean annual temperature 26 26.3-30°C.
.3-30 · C.
The mean
mean annual
annual rainfall
rainfall isis 85-400
85-400 mm,mm, bimodal
bimodal with
with the
the two
two rainy
rainy seasons
seasons of ofvarying
varying
reliability (Baumer,
reliability (Baumer, 1983;1983; Wickens
Wickens and and Storey,
Storey, 1984;
1984; Booth
Booth andand Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO,
FAO.
1988).

Description

Many-stemmed, evergreen shrub

Many-stemmed, evergreen shrub to 2.5(-4) m
m tall
tall with
with deep
deep taproot.
taproot. Leaves paripinnate,
paripinnate.
leaflets (1-3)4(5-6) pairs, with numerous
(1-3)4(5-6) pairs, numerous red
red glands
glands below.
below. Flowers
Flowers bisexual,
bisexual, yellow.
yellow. Fruit
Fruit

71
 1-4-seeded indehiscent pod,
a 1-4-seeded

..• ·.~
4-6 cm long,
long, shell
shell fragile;
fragile; seeds
seeds

\j;
r~
(nuts) globose
(nuts) globose to ovoid, ca.
to ovoid, ca. 12
12 mm
in diameter (Baumer, 1983;
1983;
\ . 7
Wickens and
Wickens and Storey,
Storey, 1984;
1984; Booth
Booth 8 '.'
and Wickens,
and Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988). 1988).

Cultivation
Cultivation

Only recently subjected to

domestication. Early
domestication. Early aerial
aerial growth
slow until
slow until the massive
massive root system
system
is
IS established. Nodulation
observed on on young
young plants but
rhizobia not identified
identified.. Good
germination with
germination with fresh
fresh seed,
seed , low
low
viability if kept
viability kept for a fewfew months;
months;
however, seeds coated in in wood
wood ash
and stored
and stored in a sack are reputed
reputed to
remain viable
remain viable for
for at
at least
least a year.
year.
Vegetative propagation possible.
Direct seeding
Direct seeding is recommended
recommended as
problems exist with moving
seedlings from nursery due to rapid
seedlings
tap-root
tap-root development
development - in in Israel
Israel
roots
roots 15
15 cm
cm deep
deep developed
developed withwith
only 1 cm of of aerial
aerial growth.
growth.

Shrubs begin to
Shrubs begin to bear
bear well
well after
after
3-4
3- 4 years.
years . Water harvesting
techniques will increase yields yields,,
however
however humid
humid conditions
conditions will
result
result in
in only
only vegetative
vegetative growth.
growth.
Depending
Depending on on thethe rainfall,
rainfall, fruits Figure
Figure 26
26
Cordeauxiaedulis
Cordeauxia edulis.
. 1:1:f flowering branch.
lowering branch . 22:: flower.
flower, partly dissected.
dissected . 3: 3 : petal.
petal.
can develop
develop within 2 weeks from
weeks from 4: 4 : stamen.
stamen . 5:
5 : apex of style
apex of and stigmas
style and stigmas. . 66: fruit. 7:
: fruit. 7 : fruit
fruit (nut).
(nut) . 8:
8 :seed
seed with
with
the start of the rains; fruit outer outer coat
coat removed.
removed .

development
development is is arrested
arrested when
when the
the
rainfall
rainfall ceases
ceases and and isis completed
completed
4-5 months
months later
later when
when thethe rains
rains start
start again.
again. Note,
Note,these theseobservations
observations refer refer to to Somalia
Somalia where where
the rainfall is
is bimodal (Baumer, 1983; 1983; Wickens
Wickens and Storey, 1984; Booth and Wickens, Wickens, 1988;
FAO, 1988;
1988; Cherfas,
Cherfas , 1989;
1989; Aronson
Aronson et al., ai., 1990).
1990) .

Harvesting

Yield ca. 55 kg of
Yield ca. of seeds
seeds per shrub.
shrub. Such
Suchisisthe
thedemand
demand andand free
free access to all range plants that
the fruits often collected from
from the
theshrubs
shrubs before
before they
they are
are fully
fully mature
mature (Wickens
(Wickens and
and Storey,
Storey ,
1984; Booth
1984; Booth and Wickens, 1988;1988; FAO,
FAO, 1988).
1988) .

72
Post-harvest treatments

Pods are opened

opened and
and seeds
seeds roasted
roasted or
or boiled
boiled before
before storage
storage to kill
kill any
any insects
insects present and
and to
to
harden the shell
harden shell against
against further
further insect
insect attack
attack (Baumer,
(Baumer, 1983;
1983; Wickens
Wickens and Storey,
Storey, 1984;
1984;
Booth and
Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).1988).

Production and consumption/utilization

consumption/utilization

Can be the sole

sole sustenance
sustenance in times
times of dearth.
dearth. The
Thedelicious,
delicious, chestnut
chestnut flavoured
flavoured seeds
seeds may
be eaten raw, roasted
be roasted or
or boiled
boiled as
as aa vegetable;
vegetable; seeds
seeds may
may also
also be boiled for aa sweet
sweet liquor
liquor
(Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Wickens
Wickens and Storey,
Storey, 1984;
1984; FAO, 1988).
1988).

Nutritional value

Seeds nutritious, with

Seeds nutritious, with ca.ca. 13%
13% protein,
protein, 37%
37% carbohydrates,
carbohydrates, ca. ca. 11% fat, ca. 24%
11 % fat, 24% sugars;
sugars;
protein rich in
in lysine;
lysine; fat
fat aa mixture
mixture ofof the
the saturated
saturated acids:
acids: 26-32% palmitic, ca.
26-32 % palmitic, ca. 12%
12 % stearic
stearic
and the
the unsaturated
unsaturated acids
acids ca.
ca. 32%
32 %oleic
oleic and
and 25-30%
25-30% linoleic.
linoleic. AAtrypsin
trypsininhibitor
inhibitor isis present
present
which
which is inactivated
inactivated on on cooking.
cooking. The The energy
energy value,
value, 446
446 Kcal
Kcal per kg,
kg, is
is twice
twice that
that ofofthe
the
carob, Ceratonia
Ceratonia siliqua,
siliqua, andand as
as much
much as as that
that of
ofsoya,
soya, Glycine
Glycine max
max (National
(National Academy
Academy of
Sciences, 1979; Baumer, 1983;
Sciences, 1983; Wickens and Storey, 1984; 1984; Booth andand Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;
1988; FAO,
1988).

By-products and other uses

uses

A tea is brewed
brewed from
from the
the leaves. Browsed by
leaves. Browsed by sheep,
sheep, goats
goats and
and camels;
camels; when
when eaten as the
sole diet it is reputed
sole reputed to
to cause
cause intestinal disorders in
intestinal disorders in goats.
goats. The
The bones
bones of
ofbrowsing
browsing animals
animals
become pink caused
caused by cordeauxiaquinone,
cordeauxiaquinone, a brilliant red dye whichwhich is unknown elsewhere
the plant kingdom. Cordeauxiaquinone
in the Cordeauxiaquinone produces
produces fast,
fast, insoluble
insoluble dyes
dyes with
with some metals and
is used as aa mordant
is mordant in
in dyeing factories. The
dyeing factories. The wood
wood is usedused for
for firewood
firewood ((Wickens
«Wickens and
and
Storey, 1984;
Storey, 1984; Booth
Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;
1988; FAO, 1988).
1988).

Marketing

Marketed locally
Marketed locally with production
production less
less than demand. The
than demand. The yicib
yicib has
has the
the potential
potential for
development as
development as a food
food resource
resource for the
the semi-arid
semi-arid regions and a very
regions and very high
high potential
potential as aa
dessert crop (Booth
(Booth and
and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988).
1988).

Discussion

The agronomy
The agronomy is is little
little understood. There is
understood . There is an urgent
urgent need for a survey
need for survey of thethe genetic
genetic
potential and
potential and establishment
establishment of of gene
gene bank
bank and provenance trials of this
provenance trials this potentially
potentially very
very
desirable food species.
species. The Thelong
longterm
termeffect
effect of
ofcordeauxiaquinone
cordeauxiaquinone on human teeth and bones
requires investigation
investigation (Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988).
1988).

TARA: Lemuropisum
TARA: Lemuropisum edule, subfamily Caesalpinioideae
edule, Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpinioideae

Distribution
Distribution and
andecology
ecology

Native to south
south west
west Madagascar;
Madagascar; the
the precise
precise distribution
distribution is not
not known
known due toto difficulty
difficulty of
of
access but
access but apparently
apparently confined to two
confined to two disjunct
disjunct populations some 60
populations some 60 km
km apart,
apart , from
from near
near
Itampolo
Itampolo and around Lake Tsimanampetsotsa.
around Lake Tsimanampetsotsa. It appears
appears to be
be confined
confined to
to the
the exposed
exposed

73
seaward facing rocky
rocky limestone
limestone escarpment
escarpment and the sandy soils immediately below,, growing
immediately below
at altitudes between
between 15-100
15-100 m.
m.

The
The local rainfall
rainfall is
is bimodal,
bimodal , very
very erratic,
erratic, with
with an
an annual
annual average
average less
less than 400
400 m;m ; the
the
average
average temperatures
temperatures ofof 27.4°C
27.4 . C in
insummer
summer andand 19.9°C
19.9· C in
in winter.
winter. The
Thespecies
species isiscurrently
currently
under investigation
investigation as aa potential
potential nut
nut crop
crop in
in Western
Western Australia
Australia (Willing,1989).
(Willing , 1989).

Description

Unarmed,
Unarmed , multistemmed,
multistemmed , much branched,
branched, spreading shrub up
spreading shrub up to 4-6 m m tall,
tall , crown
crown dense,
dense ,
branchlets
branchlets sometimes spine-like.. Leaves
sometimes spine-like Leaves sparse,
sparse , semi-persistent,
semi-persistent, paripinnate,
paripinnate, with 1-4 pairs
of oval
oval to
to suborbicular
suborbicular leaflets,
leaflets, 3.5-6
3.5-6 mm
mm wide. Inflorescence a raceme;
wide . Inflorescence raceme; flowers bisexual,
bisexual ,
with 4 white petals
petals and
and 1 tinged
tinged yellow
yellow.. Fruit
Fruit pendent,
pendent, subcylindric, depressed between
subcylindric , depressed between the
seeds, 20-30 cm long,
seeds, long , 22 cm
cmwide,
wide,2-valved,
2-valved,valves
valvesmembraneous,
membraneous, dehiscent;
dehiscent; seeds
seeds 6-12,
6-12,
ovoid-reniform, 2.5
2 .5 cm
cm long,
long , 1.6
1.6cm
cmacross,
across, testa
testathin
thinand
and brittle
brittle (Willing,1989).
(Willing, 1989).

Cultivation

Not cultivated in Madagascar. SeedsSeedsrequire

requirestorage
storage under
underconditions
conditions ofof low
low temperature
temperature and
and
humidity. In Australia
low relative humidity.
low seed sown
Australia seed sown in in 20 cm long
long tubes;
tubes; germination rapid after
germination rapid
soaking for 10 hours. Aerial
soaking Aerialgrowth
growthcharacteristically
characteristically zigzag
zigzag with
with rapid
rapid development
development of
of side
side
branches requiring plants
plants toto be
be well
well spaced
spaced inin nursery
nursery to
to prevent
prevent entanglement;
entanglement; root
root growth
growth
rapid.. Plant at 4 m
rapid m xx 44 m
m spacing
spacing after
after 33 months.
months. Alkaline
Alkalinesoils
soils preferred.
preferred. After 11 year,
year,
two growth forms are noted,
two noted, aa spreading
spreading open
open bush
bush or the
the less
less common
common compact, somewhat
fastigiate bush (Willing, 1989).
fastigiate 1989).

Harvesting

Nuts (seeds) are harvested

harvested from
from the
the ground
ground following
following dehiscence
dehiscence (Willing,1989).
(Willing, 1989) .

Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

None required (Willing,

(Willing , 1989).
1989).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Nuts
Nuts (seeds)
(seeds) eaten raw, discarding
discarding the brittle
brittle testa,
testa, the
the cotyledons
cotyledons agreeably
agreeably sweet
sweet with
with a
cashew-like flavour, smooth consistency
smooth consistency and a flexible, rather plastic
plastic texture. Apparently
Apparently not
not
cooking;
used in cooking ; when
when eaten green the flavour
eaten green flavour reminiscent of fresh
reminiscent of fresh garden
garden peas
peas
(Willing,1989).
(Willing , 1989) .

Nutritional value
value

The nuts contain 38-43

38-43% % available carbohydrates, 26-32 % unavailable carbohydrates
carbohydrates, 26-32% 14-16 %
carbohydrates,, 14-16%
and 6-9
protein and 6-9%% fat,
fat , comparing favourably
favourably with
with those
thoseof
of Cordeauxia
Cordeauxiaedulis.
edulis. However, the
ingestion of 100 g kernels, ca.
ca. 84
84raw
rawseeds,
seeds,may
mayinhibit
inhibithuman
human production
production of
ofchymotrypsin
chymotrypsin
and cause digestive upsets,
upsets, although
although this could
could possibly be reduced
possibly be by cooking
reduced by cooking or roasting
roasting
the seeds (Willing,
(Willing, 1989).
1989) .

74
By-products and other uses
By-products uses

Browsed by goats
Browsed by goats when
when little
little else
else to eat,
eat, they
they also
also eat
eat the
the seeds.
seeds . Possible
Possible potential
potential for
windbreaks and hedges
hedges (Willing,1989).
(Willing,1989).

Marketing

Apparently
Apparently not sold
sold in
in the
the local
local markets
markets (Willing,1989).
(Willing,1989).

Discussion

Survey of extent of
Survey of natural
natural populations
populations and genetic variability,
variability, and applying
applying measures
measures for its
in situ
in situ and
and ex
ex situ
situconservation
conservation isis required
required as
as well
wellasasinvestigation
investigation of
ofits
itsautecology.
autecology .
Establish provenance
Establish trials; select
provenance trials; select high-yielding, toxin-free trees
high-yielding, toxin-free trees and
and evaluate the two life
evaluate the life
forms; investigate
forms; investigate potential
potential for
for micropropagation
micropropagation and agronomic
agronomic requirements;
requirements; investigate
investigate
possible potential
possible potential for
for Mediterranean regions in addition
Mediterranean regions to the
addition to the arid tropics (Willing,1989).
(Willing, 1989).

GALO OR
GALO OR PROMISING NUT:Anaco[osajrutescens,
PROMISINGNUf: Anacolosa frutescens, Olacaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Myanmar, ,Andaman
Andaman andand Nicobar
Nicobar Islands,
Islands, eastern Thailand, Peninsular
Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra,
Sumatra,
Java, Kalimantan,
Java, Kalimantan, north-eastern
north-eastern Sulawesi,
Sulawesi, Moluccas
Moluccas and
and the Philippines. Found
the Philippines. Found in low to
medium altitude forests,
medium altitude forests, occurrence rare (Sleumer,
occurrence rare (Sleumer, 1984; Verheij and
1984; Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Description

Erect
Erect shrub
shrub or tree
tree to
to 25(-30)
25(-30) m.
m. Leaves
Leaveselliptic
elliptictotoelliptic-oblong
elliptic-oblong or lanceolate,
lanceolate, (6.6-)7-
15(-22) cm x (3-)4-6.5(-12) cm. cm. Inflorescence
Inflorescence in leafaxils.
leaf axils. Fruit
Fruit aa drupe,
drupe, obovoid-ellipsoid
obovoid-ellipsoid
to oblongoid,
oblongoid, 1.5-2.5 cm long,
long, 1.2-2
1.2-2 cm
cm in
in diameter,
diameter, yellow
yellow or orange,
orange, thin
thin shelled;
shelled; pulp
3.5-5.9 mm thick;
3.5-5.9 thick; seed
seed 11 (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;1977; Sleumer,
Sleumer, 1984;
1984; Verheij
Verheij and
and
Coronel, 1991).
Coronel, 1991).

Cultivation

Not even grown experimentally

experimentally asas an
an orchard
orchard crop.
crop. Propagated
Propagated byby seed,
seed, germination
germination takes
takes
more than 100 days. Cleft
Cleftgrafting
grafting of
ofselected
selected parent
parent trees
trees highly
highly successful.
successful. Seedlings
Seedlings take
take
one year to reach
one reach grafting
grafting stage
stage (Howes,
(Howes, 1948;
1948; Verheij
Verheij and
and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Harvesting

Generally
Generally harvested when mature green (Verheij
(Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Nut resembling a filbert, kernel of good flavour and quality,

flavour and quality, eaten
eaten raw
raw or
or roasted.
roasted. Pulp eaten
raw or boiled (Howes,
raw (Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991).

75
Nutritional value

Highly
Highly nutritious,
nutritious, containing
containing 10-38.5%
10-38.5% water,
water, 2.9-3%
2.9-3% ash,
ash, 10.7-11.1
10.7-11.1% % protein,
protein, 7.5-8%
7.5-8% fat,
fat,
39.5-75.5%
39 .5-75.5% carbohydrates,
carbohydrates, 3.7%
3.7% fibre,
fibre, providing
providing 22 733
733 calories
calories per
per kilo
kilo (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991).
1991). .

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Timber heavy but not

not durable,
durable, used
used for
for house
house posts
posts (Sleumer,
(Sleumer, 1984;
1984; Verheij
Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel ,
1991) .
1991).

Marketing

Not known,
known, presumably
presumably marketed
marketed locally. Found locally
locally. Found locally in
in backyards and forests
backyards and forests as
volunteer trees (Verheij
(Verheij and
and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991).
1991).

Discussion

Species considered to have a potential for domestication (Mabberley,

Species (Mabberley, 1987). Its potential for
commercial cultivation
cultivation is
is only
only now
now being
being considered.
considered. There
There is
is no
no information
information regarding its
its
cultural requirements or
or yields.
yields . Trees highly variable
Trees appear to be highly variable but some
some high
high yielding
yielding
trees have been
been noted.(Verheij
noted.(Verheij and and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991).
1991).

AVELLANO, CHILEANNUT,
AVELLANO, CHILEAN NUT,CHILEAN
CHILEANHAZEL:
HAZEL:Gevuina
Gevuinaavellana,
avellana, Proteaceae
Proteaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Chile,
Chile, growing
growing in the
the shelter
shelter of
of taller
taller trees
trees from
from the
the snowline
snowline of the
the Pacific
Pacific slopes
slopes of the
the
Andes to the coast;
coast; introduced
introduced into
into Ireland,
Ireland, southwest
southwest England and California
California in areas with
mild, moist
moist climates. Due
Duetotothe
theweight
weightofoffoliage
foliageititrequires
requiresprotection
protection from
from strong
strong winds
winds
(Rosengarten, 1984; Benoit,
(Rosengarten, Benoit, 1989).
1989).

Description

An evergreen tree up to to more

more than
than 15
15 m. Leaves
Leavespinnate,
pinnate,leaflets
leaflets oval
oval with
with toothed
toothed margins.
margins.
Inflorescence racemose; flowers
Inflorescence racemose; snow- to
flowers snow- to ivory-white, appearing from
ivory-white, appearing from February
February to to May
May in
the late
late Chilean
Chilean summer
summer and and early
early autumn.
autumn. Fruit a drupe,
drupe, coral-red,
coral-red, the
the previous
previous year's
year' s
fruits ripening at flowering
fruits flowering time;
time; seeds
seeds 1,
1, globular,
globular, with
with smooth,
smooth, tough
tough shell
shell (Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977; Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Cultivation

Difficult to
Difficult to establish due to the
establish due the weak
weak root
root system
system making
making itit extremely
extremely sensitive
sensitive to
to
transplanting outside
outside its
its native
native habitat
hahitat (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Harvesting

Mainly from the wild. Yield ca. 4.5 kg

wild. Yield kg per
per tree
tree (Rosengarten,
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

76
Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest

No information.
infonnation.

Production and consumption/utilization

consumption/utilization

Kernel
Kernel similar to hazel
hazel in
in appearance
appearance and
and
flavour, eaten
flavour, eaten fresh
fresh or
or roasted
roasted (Howes,
(Howes,
1948; Mabberly, 1987).
1948; 1987) .

Nutritional value

No information.
infonnation.

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Timber pale brown, light,

light, strong
strong and
and easily
easily
worked,
worked, used
used locally
locally for
for picture
picture frames,
frames,
furniture,
furniture, oars and shingles.
shingles. Tree
Tree grown
grown asas
an ornamental (Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberly, 1987).
1987).

Marketing

Marketed locally, sold

sold roasted,
roasted, in
in bags
bags like
like
peanuts. Virtually unknown
Virtually unknown elsewhere
elsewhere Figure
Figure 27
(Rosengarten, 1984).
1984). Gevuina avellana. 1:
Gevuina avellana. 1: branch
branch with
with leaves
leaves and
andinflorescence
inflorescence.. 2:
2: fruit
fruit..
3: cross section of
cross section of fruit.

Discussion

An interesting
interesting tree with a wide
wide altitudinal
altitudinal range
range from
from which
which it should
should be possible
possible toto select
high yielding potential cultivars.
yielding potential cultivars. Both
Both pulp and kernel are edible
kernel are edible with
with only
only the
the thin
thin shell
shell of
of
no immediate
immediate use.
use. Verheij
Verheij and Coronel
Coronel (1991)
(1991) consider the species
species ripe
ripe for
for commercial
commercial
development.

QUANDONG ORNATIVE
QUANDONG OR NATIVEPEACH:
PEACH:Santaium
Santalumacuminata, Santalaceae
acuminata, Santalaceae

Distribution
Distribution and
andecology
ecology

Disjointed distribution throughout

Disjointed distribution throughout southwest
southwestand
andextending
extendingintointodesert
desert areas
areas of central
central
Australia;
Australia; salt tolerant, grows
grows in in areas
areas with
with an
an annual
annual rainfall
rainfall of
of 125-275
125-275 mm
mm (Brand
(Brand and
and
Cherikoff, 1985;
Cherikoff, 1985; Rivett al.,, 1989).
Rivett et ai. 1989).

Description
Description

Semi root parasite

Semi parasite shrub
shrub or small
small tree up to
to 10
10 mm tall.
tall. Leaves
Leaves opposite, grey-green, ends
ends
tapering, apex shortly hooked
hooked when
when young.
young. Fruit:
Fruit: outer
outer flesh red, pulpy, enveloping a large
large,,
wrinkled stone (Rivett,
wrinkled stone (Rivett, et
et al., 1989).
1989).

77
77
Cultivation

Seeds germinate within 2 months

Seeds months of removal
removal
from ripe
from ripe fruit.
fruit . Potential
Potential for
for grafting
grafting and
and
tissue
tissue culture as alternative means means of
Trees begin
propagation. Trees begin toto bear
bear in their
third year
third year with
with aa maximum
maximum production
production in
seventhyear
seventh year of
of 10
10 kg;
kg; yields
yields upup to
to 23
23 kg
kg
per tree are known. Kernel represents
known. Kernel represents 40 % 40%
of the
of fruit weight
the total fruit weight (Rivett
(Rivett et al.
al.,,
1989)
1989)..

Harvesting

Fruits rattle
Fruits rattle when
when ripe.
ripe. No
Noinformation
information as
to whether picked from the tree or collected
when fallen (Brand and Cherikoff, 1985).
1985) .

Post-harvest treatments
Figure 28
Figure
Unpleasant volatile methyl benzoate Santa/um Santalum acuminata.
acuminata. 1: branch
branch with leaves and
and fruits. 2 : branchlet
fruits. 2: branchlet
with flowers.
with flowers. 3:
3 : fruit.
fruit . 4:
4: open
open fruit
fruit showing
showing the
the seed.
seed .
contained in
contained in kernels
kernels will
will decrease
decrease during
during
storage; loss
storage; loss can
can bebe further
further reduced
reduced byby
placing kernels in aa vacuum
vacuum oven
oven (Rivett ai., 1989).
(Rivett et al., 1989).

Production and consumption/utilization

consumption/utilization

Fruit pulp may be

be eaten
eaten fresh
fresh but
but usually
usually cooked,
cooked, made
made into
into pies,
pies, jams
jams and
and chutneys;
chutneys; kernels
kernels
eaten mainly by Aborigines. Kernels eaten either raw and salted after roasting in coconut
Aborigines. Kernels eaten either raw and salted after roasting in coconut oil oil
not considered very palatable due to the somewhat unpleasant
unpleasant aroma
aroma from
from the
the volatile
volatile methyl
methyl
benzoate.
benzoate. (Rivett al., 1989).
(Rivett et ai., 1989).

Nutritional value

Kernels have an energy

Kernels have 'value of
energy'value of 33 000
000 kJ
Id and
and contain
contain ca.
ca. 67%
67% oil,
oil, ca.
ca. 15%
15% protein,
protein, fibre,
fibre,
free sugars,
free sugars, together
together with
with adequate
adequate quantities
quantities of essential
essential amino
amino acids
acids but
but some
some samples
samples
amino acids.
deficient in sulphur amino acids. High
Highlevels
levels of
ofsantalbic
santalbic acids,
acids, plus
plus doubts
doubts about the safety
of the acetylene
acetylene fatty
fatty acids
acids present,
present, suggest
suggest that
that considerable
considerable caution needs to be be exercised
exercised
before the quandong kernels
kernels can
can be
be safely
safely recommended
recommended for human
human consumption
consumption (Brand
(Brand and
and
Cherikoff, 1985;
Cherikoff, 1985; Rivett
Rivett etet al., 1989).
1989).

By-products and other uses

uses

1993).
Timber utilized by Aborigines; used for fuel (Maconochie, 1985; Lazarides and Hince, 1993).

Marketing

Not marketed
marketed and
and product
product currently
currently unsuitable
unsuitable for marketing
marketing without further
further selection for
edible kernels.

78
Discussion

Very few
Very few indigenous
indigenous Australian
Australian food
food plants
plants have
have been
been considered
considered for for cultivation.
cultivation. It is is
currently
currently being investigated
investigated byby CSIRO
CSIRO withwith aa view
view toto commercial
commercial cultivation.
cultivation. Considering
Considering
that
that the
the kernel
kernel accounts for 40%
accounts for 40% of of the
the fruit
fruit and
and that
that there
there are
areproblems
problems regarding
regarding its
its
palatability digestibility it is
palatability and digestibility is doubtful
doubtful whether
whether the the quandong has potential for
quandong has a potential for
unless improved
domestication unless improved strains
strains can
can bebe selected
selectedor or developed.
developed. Should suitable
suitable cultivars
cultivars
be developed there
be developed there would certainly
certainly be a potential
potential for introduction to
introduction to other arid regions.

ARGAN:Argania
ARGAN: Argania spinosa,
spinosa, Sapotaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Southwestern Morocco,
Southwestern Morocco, introduced
introduced in in other
other Mediterranean countries; locally
Mediterranean countries; locally dominant
dominant inin
almost pure
almost pure stands
stands in
in areas
areas receiving
receiving 100-300(-400
100-300(-400 max) max) mmmm annual
annual precipitation
precipitation and
and
growing on a wide range
growing range ofof soils,
soils, including
including slightly
slightly saline
saline but not drifting sands
sands and water-
logged soils;
logged soils; the
the altitude
altitude range
range isis from
from sea
sea level
level toto 11 500
500 m.
m. Drought
Drought resistant,
resistant, shedding
shedding
foliage and
foliage and remaining
remaining in in a state
state of
of dormancy
dormancy forfor several
several years
years during
during prolonged
prolonged drought
drought
(Baumer, 1983; Morton and
(Baumer, and Voss,
Voss, 1987;
1987; Bouachrine,
Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

Description

Spiny, normally
Spiny, normally evergreen
evergreen tree,
tree, 4-8(-10)
4-8(-10) tall,
tall,
occasionally attaining
occasionally attaining 21
21 mm with
with main
main trunk
trunk 1 m
in diameter. Leaves clustered, lanceolate.
Inflorescence axillary; flowers greenish, bisexual.
Fruit an
Fruit an ovoid
ovoid drupe,
drupe, greenish-yellow;
greenish-yellow; epicarp
epicarp
thick,
thick, bitter,
bitter, gummy;
gummy; mesocarp
mesocarp plus plus endocarp
endocarp
fleshy, containing
fleshy, containing an unpleasant
unpleasant (for(for humans)
humans)
milky latex;
milky latex; seeds
seeds 2-3,
2-3, ca.
ca. 22 cm
cm long,
long, united
united in a
pseudo-kernel (Baumer, 1983; 1983; Morton
Morton and
and Voss,
Voss,
1987;
1987; Bouachrine, 1994).1994).

Cultivation

Seed polyembryonic,
Seed polyembryonic, germinating
germinating readily
readily and
and
producing several shoots. Trees start to bear when
5-6 years
5-6 years old
old with
with maximum
maximum production
production at 60 60
years. Trees
years. Treeslong-lived,
long-lived,totoatatleast
least200-250
200-250 years
years
with
with some
some individuals believed to
individuals believed to be over
over 400
400
years old. Trees coppice readily readily when
when cutcut
(Baumer, 1983; Morton and Voss, 1987;
Bouachrine,
Bouachrine, 1994).
1994).

Harvesting
qarvesting

Fallen ripe fruits dehydrate

dehydrate and
and pericarp
pericarp becomes
becomes Figure
Figure 29
29
Argania spinosa
Argania spinosa. 1:fruiting
. 1: fruiting branch
branch.. 22: fruit..
: fruit
tough, wrinkled
wrinkled and
and difficult
difficult to
to remove.
remove . Fallen
fruits are eaten by goats,
fruits goats, who
who digest
digest the
the subacid
subacid
rind
rind and
and eject the
the hard seeds during rumination,
seeds during rumination, when
whenthey
theyarearegathered
gatheredup. up. Average
Average yield yield
of fruit is
is ca.
ca. 88kg
kgper
perannum
annum(Hedrick,
(Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Baumer,
Baumer, 1983;
1983; Morton
Morton and and Voss,
Voss, 1987). 1987).

79
Post-harvest treatments

None recorded.
recorded.

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Kernels are source

source of
of anan edible
edible argan
argan oil.
oil. After
After first
first roasting
roasting toto eliminate
eliminate saponins,
saponins , the
the seeds
seeds
are ground and mixed with tepid tepid water.
water. The The oil
oil floats
floats and
and is
is separated
separated byby decantation.
decantation. TheThe
resulting brownish, acrid
acrid andand unpleasant
unpleasant tasting
tasting oil
oil is
is allowed
allowed to stand for anyany residues
residues toto be
be
deposited. The oil isis then
deposited . The then lighter
lighter in
in colour,
colour, strong
strong flavoured.
flavoured . It may be further
further purified
purified
either by emulsion with water or by adding adding bread
bread to produce
produce an an oil
oil as sweet as walnut oil.
Approximately
Approximately 100 kg kg of seed yield 1-2 kg kg of oil andand 2 kg of press
press cake
cake plus
plus 25
25 kg
kg of dried
dried
"husk" (Baumer,
"husk" (Baumer, 1983;
1983 ; Morton and and Voss,
Voss, 1987).
1987) .

Nutritional value
value

Argan oil contains

contains ca.
ca. 80%
80% poly-unsaturated
poly-unsaturated fattyfatty acids of which 31.5% is is linoleic,
linoleic, making
making
it nutritionally interesting as itit is
is one
one of
ofthe
the most
most important
important essential
essential fatty
fatty acids
acids in
in the
the human
human
diet (Morton
(Morton andand Voss,
Voss, 1987;
1987; Bouachrine,
Bouachrine, 1994).
1994).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Argan oil is used as an illuminant

illuminant and
and for
for making
making aa hard,
hard, yellowish
yellowishsoapsoap.. The sun dried cake
residue after
residue after the
the oil has
has been
been expressed
expressed may may bebe fed
fed to livestock
livestock butbut it is
is not
not accepted
accepted byby
horses; itit contains
horses; contains the
the slightly
slightly toxic,
toxic, haemolytic
haemolytic saponin
saponin sapoarganine
sapoarganine which does not not harm
harm
ruminants and
ruminants and passes
passes out
out with
with the
the urine.
urine. However,
However, cakecake fed
fed to
to dairy
dairy cattle
cattle will contaminate
contaminate
the milk,
milk, which
which may
may cause
cause diarrhoea
diarrhoea in children. Foliage
in children. Foliage is a valuable
valuable dry season
season fodder
fodder
source for livestock;
source livestock; fruit
fruit also
also eaten
eaten byby livestock. Timber very
livestock. Timber very hard,
hard, heavy
heavy and
and durable,
durable ,
suitable for agricultural
suitable agricultural implements
implements and and building
building poles;
poles; the
the wood
wood makes
makes good
good charcoal.
charcoal.
Brushwood used
Brushwood used for
for fences
fences.. The
The species
species coppices
coppices well;
well; aa valuable
valuable shade tree, alsoalso used for
for
soil conservation
soil conservation and and windbreaks (Hedrick, 1972;
windbreaks (Hedrick, Göhl, 1981;
1972; G6hl, 1981; Baumer,
Baumer, 1983;
1983; Morton andand
Voss, 1987;
Voss, 1987; Bouachrine,
Bouachrine, 1994).
1994).

Marketing

Argan
Argan oil was
was imported
imported into
into Europe
Europe during
during the
the eighteenth
eighteenth century
century but,
but, being
being stronger
stronger
flavoured was unable to compete
flavoured compete with olive oil (Morton
(Morton and Voss, 1987).
1987) .

Discussion

Tree endangered due to exploitation for fuel and land clearance

Tree clearance for agriculture,
agriculture , with natural
natural
regeneration limited
regeneration limited due
due to herbivore pressure
pressure (Morton and
and Voss,
Voss, 1987).
1987).

SHEA BUITER
SHEA TREE:Vitellaria
BU'FTERTREE: Vitellariaparadoxa,
paradoxa, Sapotaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

From
From Senegal
Senegal to
to Cameroon
Cameroon through to the
through to the drier
drier parts
parts of
of equatorial
equatorial central
central Africa
Africa and
and
Uganda; in savannas,
Uganda; savannas, preferably
preferably with
with aa shallow
shallow water
water table,
table, generally
generally between
between 500-1
500-1 000
000
(-1 200)
200) m
m altitude.
altitude. Grows
Growsininareas
areaswith
withananannual
annual rainfall
rainfall 600-1
600-1 000
000 mm
mm and a marked dry
season of 6-8 months or 900-1
season 900-1 800 mm and a shorter dry season of 4-5 months months but subjected

80
to annual burning. AnAnannual
annual average
average temperature
temperature ofof 24-32°C,
24-32 ·C, with
with aa minimum
minimum ofof21·C and
21°C and
a maximum of 36°C36· C preferred.
preferred. Yields
Yields best
best on cultivated
cultivated lands
lands but occurs dry
occurs naturally on dry
lateritic slopes and stony soils, itit prefers
prefers dry
dry alluvial-sandy soils rich
alluvial-sandy soils rich in humus;
humus; intolerant of
alluvial
alluvial hollows and areas subjected
subjected to flooding (Booth and
flooding (Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;
1988; FAO,
FAO, 1988).
1988).

Description

Deciduous, spreading
Deciduous, spreading tree 15(-25)
15(-25) m
tall, trunk up to 22 m m in
in diameter, bark
bark
corky, fire
corky, fire resistant.
resistant. Leaves oblong,
oblong,
clustered at the the end
end ofofbranches.
branches.
Flowers bisexual, produced in the dry
season before
season before the leaves. Fruits
subglobose to ovoid, 4-5 4-5 cmcm in in
diameter, with fleshy
diameter, fleshy pericarp
pericarp ca. 11
mm thick, exuding
mm exuding latex
latex when
when green
green
and turning
and turning brown when when ripe;
ripe; seeds
seeds
(2- 4), shiny
11(2-4), shiny brown
brown with
with fragile husk;
kernel white (Menninger, 1977; 1977; Booth
Booth
Wickens, 1988; FAO, 1988).
and Wickens, 1988).

Cultivation

Natural populations are often left

when land
when land isis cleared
cleared for
for cultivation
cultivation
and relatively little
and little attention
attention has been
its cultivation.
paid to its cultivation. Propagation
Propagation by
direct sowing of of seed recommended as
nursery seedlings
nursery seedlings do do not
not transplant
transplant
well due to thethe development
development of of aa long
long
tap root.
growing due
growing
system.
Seedlings initially
due to development
system. Recommended
Recommended spacing
initially slow
development of root
spacing 22 m
slow

mx
(i"
;" "1
9 , "·
'-: ! 'f

88 mm to
to 15
15 mm x 15 15 mm or
or in an 88m
in an m Figure
Figure 30
triangular
triangular pattern with with final
final stocking
stocking Vitellaria paradoxa. 1:
Vitel/aria paradoxa, 1: leafy
leafy shoot.
shoot. 22:: inflorescence
inflorescence.. 33:: section of corolla.
corolla .
4: section
section of of corolla
corolla with
with stamens
stamens and and staminodes
staminodes removed.
removed . 5:
5 : corolla
corolla
thirmed to 30-50 trees per ha.
thinned ha. segment and and stamen
stamen.. 66:: staminode
staminodefromfrom another
anotherflower.
flower, showing variation
possibly beneficial.
Fertilizers possibly beneficial. Yield inin shape
shape. . 77:: ovary.
ovary. 88:: longitudinal
longitudinal section
section ofof ovary.
ovary. 99:: seeds.
seeds. 10:
10: fru
fruit.
it.

variable,
variable, 15-20(-45)
15-20(-45) kg kg per
per tree
tree ofof
fresh fruit. Annual
Annual yields
yields in aa range
range of
of9-17
9-17 tonnes tonnes per per'ha haoptimistically
optimistically predicted.
predicted . In
Nigeria only one
Nigeria only one tree
tree in three produces each year.
produces each year. Trees Trees start start to to fruit
fruit at at 10-15
10-15 years,
years, with with
full bearing by 20-25
20-25 years
years with individual yieldsranging
individual yields rangingfrom from20-20020-200kg kg. The fruit takes
. The
4-6 months to ripen (Booth(Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;
1988; FAO, 1982, 1982, 1988).
1988).

Harvesting

Harvest from
Harvest from the ground as soonsoon as fruits
fruits fall. One person
fall. One person can gather ca.
can gather ca. 45
45 kg in a day.
day.
fleshy pulp rots and splits
The fleshy splits to expose the nut, the process can be hastened
hastened byby burying the
freshly gathered
freshly gathered fruit
fruit for
for a few
few days
days in a pit. AsAs harvesting takes place
harvesting takes place during
during the
the rainy
season,
season, a period
period which
which favours
favours early germination,
germination, the
the nuts
nuts (in the shell)
shell) are often stored inin
huts
huts until the dry season
season or when
when required. The Theamount
amount harvested
harvested each
each year
year appears
appears to
to be
be
dependent
dependent on the price of of shea
shea butter
butter (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Booth
Booth and
and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988).
1988) .

81
Shea butter tree, Vitellaria
Shea Vitellaria paradoxa. (Photo:
(Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak)

Flowers of Vitellaria paradoxa.. (Photo:

Vitellaria paradoxa (Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak)

82
Post-harvest
Post-hanest treatments

Depulped nuts sun-dried for ca. 12

12 days
days or
or dried
dried in
in an
an earth
earth oven;
oven; the
the drying
drying process
process results
results
in 30-40%
30-40 % loss
loss of
of weight. Alternatively the fruits are fermented by being kept moist for
weight. Alternatively the fruits are fermented by being kept moist for
weeks
weeks or months
months in large
large earthenware jars, after
earthenware jars, after which the nuts
which the nuts are
are roasted.
roasted . The
The skin is
is
removed
removed to expose kernel.
kernel. Decorticated
Decorticated kernel
kernel contains
contains 40-60%
40-60 % by weight of the kernel oilcil
known as shea butter
known as butter (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO, 1988).
1988).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Shea butter usually extracted

Shea extracted by women,
women, who
who pound
pound the
the usually
usually roasted
roasted kernels
kernels and
and then
then
grind them to an an oily,
oily ,chocolate-coloured
chocolate-coloured paste.
paste . The
The paste
paste contains
contains tannins and is not edible
edible
until it has been boiled
until boiled and
and the
the oil
oil skimmed
skimmed off, thethe bulk
bulk of
of the
the impurities
impurities being
being removed
removed in in
the
the scum.
scum . About
About 50 kg kg ofof fresh
fresh nuts
nuts will
will give
give 1212 kg
kg of
of dry
dry kernels,
kernels, required
required to
to yield
yield 44 kg
kg
of shea butter.
butter.

Shea butter prepared

prepared from
from unroasted
unroasted kernels
kernels isis light
light yellow
yellow or
or sometimes
sometimes tinted
tinted with
with aa yellow
yellow
dye,
dye, with
with aa strong
strong odour,
odour,especially
especially when
when warmed.
warmed. Properly
Properly prepared
prepared shea
shea butter
butter keeps
keeps
perfectly unless
unless adulterated with water
adulterated with water oror yam
yam flour.
flour. The
The deeper
deeper the
the colour
colour the
the stronger
stronger the
the
odour and taste
taste resulting
resulting from
from decomposition
decomposition of proteins which occur
proteins which occur in proportion to the the
degree of fermentation of the nuts and to over-roasting.
over-roasting. Butter
Butter prepared
prepared from
from nuts
nuts subjected
subjected
to little
little fermentation,
fermentation, asas when
when nuts
nuts are
are lightly
lightly sun-dried
sun-dried without
without previous maceration of the
pulp, isis almost
almost tasteless
tasteless and
and odourless.
odourless.

shea butter
Purified shea butter isis edible,
edible, used
used in
in cooking,
cooking, also
also suitable
suitable as
as cocoa
cocoa butter
butter equivalent
equivalent (CBE)
(CBE)
for chocolate manufacture
manufacture (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO, 1988)).
1988» .

Fruit pulp
pulp is
is eaten
eaten raw,
raw , when
when slightly
slightly overripe,
overripe, or
or lightly
lightly cooked
cooked after removal
removal of seed and
husk (FAO, 1988).
1988) .

Nutritional value
value

Whole
Whole seed, including
including husk,
husk, contains
contains 34-44%
34-44% fat, the the kernel
kernel 45-60% fat. The main fatty
45-60% fat. fatty
acids
acids present
present in shea
shea butter
butter are are 5-9%
5-9% palmitic,
palmitic, 30-41%
30-41 % stearic,
stearic, 49-50%
49-50% oleic
oleic and
and 4-5%
4-5 %
linoleic. The
linoleic. The fruit
fruit pulp
pulp isis rich
rich in
incarbohydrates,
carbohydrates, isis aa good
good source
source of iron,
iron, and
and contains small
amounts of B vitamins (FAO, 1988).
amounts 1988).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Fruit
Fruit pulp
pulp sometimes
sometimes eaten,
eaten, but
but usually
usually eaten
eaten by by elephants,
elephants , etc. Shea Shea butter
butter used
used
commercially in in soap,
soap, cosmetics
cosmetics and
and candles
candles with
with aa potential
potential for pharmaceutical
pharmaceutical preparations.
preparations .
Used locally
Used locally in ointments,
ointments, hair dressing,
dressing, waterproofing
waterproofing hut hut walls
walls and
and as soap. Oil cake
as a soap.
residue is
residue is bitter and contains saponins but
contains saponins but can
can be
be used
usedasas aa filler
filler for
for feed
feed stuffs.
stuffs. Seed
Seed husk
husk
used as
used as mulch and fertiliser. Timber heavy,
fertiliser. Timber heavy, difficult to work,
difficult to work, takes a fine fine polish,
polish, termite
termite
resistant, used
resistant, used for
for stakes,
stakes , house
house posts,
posts, shipbuilding
shipbuilding and and tool
tool handles,
handles, also
also as
as source
source of
firewood and
firewood and charcoal
charcoal (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO, 1982;
1982; Booth
Booth and and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;
1988; FAO,
FAO,
1988)
1988). .

83
Marketing

Shea
Shea butter is used mainly
mainly for
for home
home consumption
consumption especially in rural communities
communities and is is sold
sold
in the
in the local
local markets
markets as
as balls
balls or
or pats
pats weighing
weighingca. ca.2.3-3.7
2.3-3.7 (-10)
(-10)kg.
kg. In urban areas
areas there is
there
increasing
increasing competition from alternative imported oils such as as sesame
sesame and
andgroundnut
groundnutoils.
oils. For
export shea
export shea butter
butter requires clarifying by
requires clarifying by steam
steam to to remove
remove volatile
volatileacids
acidsandandsome
some of thethe
odorous matter. Lightly
Lightlysun-dried
sun-driednuts
nutswithout
withoutprevious
previous maceration
maceration of
ofthe
the pulp
pulp are preferred
for export.
for export. Any
Anyvariation
variationininfree
freefatty
fattyacids
acidsininthe
thefat
fatisismostly
mostly due
due to
to faulty
faulty handling
handling after
after
leaving the
leaving the producer (Menninger, 1977;1977; Booth
Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988).
1988).

Discussion

Research is required
Research required onon methods
methods of of establishment
establishment and and general
general agronomy,
agronomy, especially
especially with
with
regard to plantations.
regard plantations. DueDue to changing agricultural practices
changing agricultural practicesthere
there isis aa danger
danger that with
increasing cultivatiop.
increasing cultivation and
and lack
lack of protection
protection thethe natural
natural regeneration
regeneration willwill bebe inhibited.
inhibited. With
With
present
present aging populations
populations of trees
trees there
there isis aa danger
danger ofof aafuture
future reduction
reduction of ofthis
this resource.
resource.
There is aa need
There need totoencourage
encourageprotection
protection andandtotoestablish
establishplantations.
plantations. Plantations
Plantations could
efficient, fuel-saving
encourage more efficient, fuel-saving methods
methods of of extraction. ItIt could
could lead
lead to the establishment
of large-scale oil mills
mills in
in Africa,
Africa, provided
provided thethe current
current unpredictability
unpredictability of of annual
annual yields
yields could
could
be overcome (Booth
(Booth and Wickens, 1988).1988).

Bi 1ER COLA,
BITTER COLA, KOLA NUT:Cola
KOLA NUT: Cola nitida,
nitida, Sterculiaceae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Native of Sierra Leone,

Leone, Côte
Cote d'Ivoire
d'Ivoire eastward
eastward toto Ghana,
Ghana, often
often cultivated
cultivated elsewhere in West
Africa and
and obscuring
obscuring the
the natural
natural distribution. Constituent of the lowland
distribution. Constituent lowland forest.
forest. Requires
a hot, humid
humid climate
climate although
although capable
capable of of withstanding
withstanding 3 or
or more
more months
months ofof dry
dry season.
season. It
may be cultivated in drier areas where ground water is
ground water is available.
available. Introduced
Introduced in Jamaica and
Brazil
Brazil (FAO, 1982;
1982; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987).
1987).

Description

Evergreen
Evergreen tree to to 15-20(-25)
15-20( -25) m tall,
tall, trunk
trunk 20-30
20-30 cmcm in
in diameter
diameter with
with narrow
narrow buttresses.
buttresses .
Leaves
Leaves simple, broadly oblong to broadly elliptic, elliptic, up to 33 cm xx 1313 cm,
cm, apex
apex abruptly
abruptly and
and
shortly
shortly acuminate. Inflorescence of
acuminate . Inflorescence of axillary
axillary cymes;
cymes; flowers
flowers male
male or
orhermaphrodite,
hermaphrodite,
apetalous, cream, usually
usually with
with dark reddish
reddish markings within.
within. Fruit
Fruitconsisting
consisting of
of 55 ellipsoid,
ellipsoid,
warty
warty follicles,
follicles, up toto ca.
ca. 13
13cmcmlong,
long,7 7cm cmwide,
wide,each
eachfollicle
folliclecontaining
containing4-8-(10)
4-8-(10) seeds
seeds
arranged
arranged in 2 rows; seeds ellipsoid,
rows; seeds ellipsoid, ca. 2.5 cm in diameter, red or white depending
2.5 cm in diameter, red or white depending on the
variety (Keay,
variety (Keay, 1958;
1958; FAO, 1982).1982).

Cultivation

Propagated byby seed

seed (germination
(germination is slow, taking 2-3 2-3 months)
months) or,
or, preferably
preferably by
by cuttings.
cuttings. Final
Final
spacing is 10
spacing is m. Initial
10 m. growth slow,
Initial growth slow, reaching
reaching only
only 33 m
m in 44 years.
years. Initial
Initial weeding
weeding isis
essential and
and interplanting
interplanting with
with aa shade
shade tree
tree recommended
recommended (FAO,
(FAG, 1982).
1982).

Harvesting

Ripe
Ripe fruits harvested
harvested before
before thethe follicles
follicles split
split open,
open, using
using knives
knives mounted
mounted on
on long
long poles.
poles.
Yields
Yields of 300 nuts
nuts per
per tree
tree are
are considered
considered good
good (FAO,
(FAO, 1982;
1982; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987).
1987).

84
Post-harvest treatments
Post-harvest treatments

Follicles split
Follicles split and
and seeds
seeds are
are removed.
removed.
Seeds are
Seeds are fermented
fermented in heaps
heaps for 5 days,
after which
after which the testa is removed
removed and thethe
nuts washed
nuts washed andand cleaned.
cleaned. Nuts are
Nuts are
stored in baskets
stored baskets lined
lined with green leaves,
leaves,
which are regularly
which regularly changed. Nuts may
changed. Nuts
be thus stored for several
several months
months without
spoiling but will require regular checking
checking
for weevil damage (Purseglove, 1987).
1987).

Production and consumption/utilization

Production consumption/utilization

The bitter tasting seeds are much

appreciatedby
appreciated by Moslems
Moslems in in the
the drier
drier
regions of West Africa,
regions Africa, especially
especially after
Ramadan. Used as a stimulating
masticatory, aa beverage
masticatory, beverage is prepared
prepared by
by
boiling powdered
boiling powdered seeds
seeds in
in water
water (FAO,
1982: Rosengarten,
1982; 1984; Purseglove,
Rosengarten, 1984; Purseglove,
1987).
Figure 31
Figure
:\'Nutritional
" utritional value Colanitida.
Cola nitida. 1:
1: leaves.
leaves. 2:
2: inflorescence.
inflorescence.3:3: fruit.
fruit. 4: seed.
seed .

Seeds consist
Seeds consist of
of 13.5
13.5% water, 9.5
% water, 9.5%% crude protein, 1.4%
crude protein, 1.4 % fat, 45%
45 % sugar
sugar and
and starch, 7. a%
starch, 7.0%
cellulose, 3.8
cellulose, 3.8%% tannin,
tannin, 3.0%
3.0% ash,
ash, also
also rich
richininalkaloids,
alkaloids, caffeine
caffeine (2.8%),
(2.8 %),theobromine
theobromine
(0.05%)
(0.05 %) and kolatine
kolatine (FAO,
(FAO, 1982).
1982).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Widely used in West Africa for social

social ceremonies. AAnon-addictive
non-addictive stimulant
stimulant used
used medically
medically
for diarrhoea
for and to
diarrhoea and to prevent vomitinginin cases
prevent vomiting cases of
of high
high fever;
fever; reputed
reputedtoto act
act as
as a water
water
purifier. The
Thered
rednuts
nutsare
areaapotential
potentialsource
source of
offood
food colorant.
colorant. Wood
Woodisissusceptible
susceptible to
to borers;
borers;
suitable for
suitable for furniture, joinery and
and carvings
carvings (FAO,
(FAO, 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Marketing
:VIarketing

Seeds important
Seeds important in local
local and international commerce, the
international commerce, the white-seed
white-seed strain
strain preferred
preferred byby the
the
market. Industrial
Industrial exploitation
exploitation isis mainly
mainly for
for the
the caffeine,
caffeine, which
which is used in in decoctions
decoctions and
and
drinks. World
non-alcoholic drinks. World production
production ofof cola
cola nuts
nuts from
from ColaCola nitida
nitida and
and allied
allied species
species
estimated as ca. 180
180 000
000 tonnes
tonnes of
ofwhich
which ca.
ca. 120
120 000
000tonnes
tonnes isis produced
produced by
by Nigeria
Nigeria and
and used
either internally or
or in
in neighbouring
neighbouring countries
countries (FAO,
(FAO, 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten, 1984).
1984).

Discussion

Considering how
Considering how much
much cola
cola nuts
nuts are
are appreciated
appreciated in West
West Africa
Africa while
while being
being virtually
virtually
unknown elsewhere, there
unknown elsewhere, there would
would appear
appear to be
be reasonable
reasonable expectations for expanding
expectations for the
expanding the
market.

85
85
SUGARPLUM,
SUGAR PLUM,ARENG
ARENGPALM,
PALM,EJOW,
EJOW,GOMUTI,
GOMUTI,KAONG:
KAONG:Arenga
Arenga pinnata,Pal
pinnata, mae
Palmae

Distribution and ecology

ecology

Assam to
Assam to Malaysia, possibly
possibly introduced
introduced in
in the
the Philippines;
Philippines; widely
widely cultivated
cultivated (Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977; FAO,
1977; FAO, 1984;
1984; Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1987).
1987).

Description

solitary,, unarmed, pleonanthic,

A solitary
monoeciousfeather
monoecious featherpalm
palmtoto 1515 m tall,
tall,
40 cm
stem 40 cm in diameter.
diameter. Leaves
Leaves pirmate,
pinnate,
ascending, up
long, ascending, up to 8.5 m
to 8.5 m long.
long.
Inflorescences large, axillary, pendulous;
pendulous;
inflorescences appearing
inflorescences appearing in descending
descending
order from
order from the
the uppermost
uppermost leaf axil
axil and
and
continue
continue for ca. 22 years
years until
until the
the palm
palm is
exhausted
exhausted and dies. Fruit turn
dies. Fruit tum yellow
yellow
when mature,
when mature, ca.
ca. 55 cm
cm inindiameter;
diameter;
seeds 2-3
2-3 (FAO,
(FAO, 1984; Purseglove,
1985;; UhI
1985 Uhl and Dransfield, 1987).
1987).

Cultivation

information.
No information.

Harvesting

Propagated by seed or suckers.

Flowering at 7-10 years (FAO,
(FAO, 1984).
1984).

Post-harvest treatments

No information.
information.

Production
Production and consumption/utilization Figure
Figure 32
Arenga pinnata
pinnata.. 11:: part of pinnate leaf. 2·
pinnate leaf. 2-3:3: sections of inflorescence
inflorescence
bearing fruits
bearing fruits.. 44:: longitudinal
longitudinal section
section of
of fruit.
fruit. 5: transverse section of
transverse section of
Immature kernels cooked
cooked andand eaten
eaten in the fruit..
fruit

Philippines, or boiled
boiled in
in sugar
sugar and
and made
made
into a sweetmeat (Hedrick, 1972;
into 1972; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO, 1984).
1984).

Nutritional value
value

contain 6.8%
Fruits contain 6.8% moisture,
moisture, 7.9%
7.9% ash,
ash, 16.2% crude fibre,
16.2% crude fibre, 10.0% crude protein,
10.0% crude protein, 1.5% fat
(FAO, 1984).
1984).

By-products and other uses

By-products uses

Stem is a source of
of a form
form of
of sago,
sago, which
which isis converted
converted into
into sugar
sugar when the palm first begins
flower. The male spadix
to flower. spadix tapped daily for
tapped daily for 2-3
2-3 months
months for for its
its sugary sap (ca.
sugary sap (ca. 3.5
3.5 litres
litres
daily), of
of which
which 9 litres is evaporated to produce ca.ca. 11 kg of palm sugar (jaggery), palm wine

86
or toddy,
toddy, distilled
distilled for
for arrak;
arrak; palm
palm cabbage
cabbage eaten
eaten raw
raw as
as aa salad
salad or
orcooked.
cooked . Leaf sheath
source of aatough,
source tough, black
blackfibre
fibre (gomuti
(gomuti or
or yunot
yunot fibre)
fibre) used
used chiefly for
for a durable
durable rope
rope tolerant
tolerant
of both fresh and salt
salt water and
and fire, used
used for
for marine
marine work
work and thatching; fibre also
thatching ; fibre also used
used for
for
brushes. Leaves
brushes. Leavesused
usedforforthatching;
thatching; the
the split
splitpetioles
petioles for
for basketry
basketry and
and aa form
form of
of marquetry
marquetry
work (Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO, 1984;
1984; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1985;
1985 ; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987).
1987) .

Marketing

Sweetmeats
Sweetmeats marketed (Menninger, 1977).
1977).

Discussion

Regarded as
Regarded as the most
most useful
useful of
of all
all palms
palms (Hedrick,
(Hedrick, 1972),
1972), however,
however , its
its chief
chiefeconomic
economic
importance is
importance is for its fibre.

TUCUMA:Astrocaryum
TUCUMA: Astrocaryumvulgare,
vulgare, Palmae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Amazonia. Occurrence abundant,

Amazonia. Occurrence abundant, especially
especially in disturbed
disturbed sites
sites (Prance,
(Prance, 1994).
1994) .

Description

Tall, single-stemmed,
single-stemmed, spiny,
spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm.
palm . Fruit
Fruit more
more or
or less
less
globose (Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1987).
1987).

Cultivation

information.
No information.

Harvesting

Method presumably as for for A.

A. aculeatum
aculeatum (FAO,
(FAO, 1986).
1986). Bunches
Bunches pulled
pulled down
down with
with aa hooked
hooked
stick soon after first fruit
fruit ripens
ripens and
and falls.
falls.

Post-harvest treatments

Treatment presumably as for

presumably as for A.
A. aculeatum
aculeatum (FAO,
(FAO, 1986).
1986). Nuts
Nuts stored
stored for
for 33 days
days in
in sacks
sacks to
to
ripen and pulp soften
soften slightly.
slightly. They
Theymust
mustbe
beeaten
eatenwithin
within 3-4
3-4 days
days before
before they
they dry
dry and
and rot
rot
where bruised.

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Mesocarp edible, juice extracted from the

the pulp.
pulp. Kernel
Kernel produces
produces an
an excellent oil for cooking
and soap-making (FAO, 1986;
soap-making (FAO, 1986; Uhl
UhI and
and Dransfield,
Dransfield , 1987;
1987; Prance,
Prance, 1994).
1994).

Nutritional value
value

Mesocarp rich in vitamin;

Mesocarp rich vitamin; fresh pulp contains 31 mg
contains 31 mg of carotene
carotene per 100
100 gg (FAO,
(F AO, 1986:
1986:
Prance, 1994).
1994).

87
By-products and other
other uses
uses

Seed
Seed oil is
is used
used for
for making
making soap. Source of
soap. Source of fibre
fibre from
from leaf
leaf epidermis,
epidermis, the strongest
strongest in
in
Amazonia
Amazonia and and possibly
possibly commercially viable, used
commercially viable, used by
by the
the Amerindians for fishing
Amerindians for fishing lines
lines
(Mabberley,
(Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1987;
1987; Prance,
Prance, 1994).
1994).

Marketing

No information.
information.

Discussion

Because of its abundance in disturbed areas it could have a potential for easy domestication
Because
(Prance, 1994).
1994). AAgenus
genusofof5050species
speciesof
ofwhich
whichatatleast
least 40,
40, including
including A.
A. aculeatum,
aculeatum, A.A. ayri,
ayri,
A.
A. jauari
jauari and
andA.
A .m.urumuru
m.urumuru deserve
deserve further
further attention
attention by economic
economic botanists (FAO, 1986).
botanists (FAO, 1986).
See FAO (1986) for further
further information
information regarding
regarding A.
A. aculeatum, which
which is
is not
not discussed here
since
since its
its potential as an oil
potential as oil crop
crop depends
depends on the
the oily
oily mesocarp,
mesocarp, the kernel
kernel being
being hard
hard and
inedible.

PEACH
PEACH PLUM,
PLUM, PALM
PALM CHESTNUT, PUPUNHA,PEJIBAY(E)
CHESTNlIT, PUPUNHA, PEJIBAY(E)OR
ORPEJIVALLE:
PEJIVALLE:Bactris
Bactrisgasipaes,
gasipaes,
Palmae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Caribbean and Central America to Ecuador;

Ecuador; widely
widely cultivated,
cultivated, not truly known in the wild,
wild,
the
the inferred
inferred original
original distribution
distribution from thethe Colombian
Colombian Andes,
Andes, eastern
eastern Peru
Peru and
and northwest
northwest
Brazil
Brazil where
where it occurs
occurs on
on slopes
slopes too
too steep
steep for
for cultivation.
cultivation. Occurs
Occurs in tropical
tropical rain forest
forest to
to
elevations of 700 (-1 500) m in areas with 2 000-4 000 mm annual rainfall and and not more than
2-3
2-3 months dry season;
season; optimum
optimum temperature
temperature 18-24°C
18-24'C (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Johnson,
Johnson, 1983;
1983;
FAO, 1986;
1986; IBPGR,
IBPGR, 1986).
1986).

Description

Suckering, unarmed,
unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm to 20 20 m
m after
after 10-15
10-15 plus
plus years,
years,
often 4-5 stems are allowed
allowed from the the base;
base; flush
flush of
of suckers
suckers produced
produced from old old stems
stems after
after
felling;
felling; shallow rooted. Nodes
shallow rooted. Nodes densely
densely armed
armed with
with 5-10
5-10 cm
cm long
long black spines,
spines, leaf sheath
sheath
normally with spines;
spines; aa new
new leaf
leaf normally
normally produced
produced every
every 2-4
2-4 weeks,
weeks, typically
typically 10-13
10-13 fronds
fronds
per main stem.
stem. Flowers
Flowers insect
insect pollinated.
pollinated. Fruit
Fruit ca.
ca. 55cm
cm in
in diameter,
diameter, firm
firm textured, dry and
.mealy,
mealy, pale
pale orange
orange to yellow
yellow oror red
red when
when ripe,
ripe, skin
skinsoft;
soft; 1-seeded,
I-seeded, seed
seed conical
conical and
and
somewhat angUlar,
somewhat angular, ca.
ca. 2 cm
cm long;
long; mesocarp thin, dry, mealy;
mesocarp thin, mealy; endocarp thin, hard,
endocarp thin, hard, black;
black;
kernel white, hard (Menninger, 1977;1977; Johnson, 1983; Purseglove, 1985; FAO, 1986; 1986; IBPGR,
1986; Uhl
1986; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987).
1987).

Cultivation

Suited
Suited to the wet tropics . Propagation
wet tropics. Propagation by by seed
seed or
or from
from basal
basal suckers,
suckers, spacing
spacing at
at 5.5 m xx
55.5
.5 m.
m. Palms
Palms for
for palm
palm heart
heart production
production planted
planted at 1.5-2m spacing. It begins bearing at 3-4
1.5-2 mspacing.
(-8)
(-8) years and
and continues
continues production
production forfor 50-75 years. Usually
50-75 years. Usually only
only 2-4 basal
basal suckers
suckers are
are
allowed to develop,
allowed to develop, the others
others being removed. The
being removed. The palm,
palm, once
once established,
established, requires
requires little
care
care and yields
yields well, with
with up
up to
to five
five bunches
bunches of fruit per
per tree,
tree, each
each weighing
weighing ca. 14 14 kg.
kg.
Fruit takes about
about 6 months
months toto mature
mature and and will
will remain on the tree forfor long
long periods
periods in
in good
good

88
condition; individual
condition; fruits weigh
individual fruits weigh 29-100 nuts ca.
29-100 g,g, nuts ca. 3 g. Yield
Yield of edible fruit 3.4 tt dry
dry fruit
fruit
per ha per year.
year. Domesticated
Domesticatedseedless
seedless varieties
varieties exist,
exist, the
the fruits
fruits (pejibaye
(pejibaye macho) composed
composed
entirely of fibrous
entirely fibrous pulp (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Johnson,
Johnson, 1983;
1983; Purseglove,
Purseglove , 1985;
1985; FAO,
FAO , 1986;
1986 ;
IBPGR, 1986).
IBPGR, 1986). Palms
Palmsare
aregrown
grownasasshade
shade trees
trees for
for cocoa
cocoa and
and coffee
coffee (IBPGR,
(IBPGR, 1986).
1986).

Harvesting

Bunches of
Bunches of fruits
fruits are cut
cut using
using knives
knives on long
long poles
poles or by
by climbing
climbing up
up the
the spiny
spiny trunk.
trunk .
Yields can
Yields can be
be as
as high as 250 kg per tree
tree and
and 30
30 tonnes
tonnes per ha. Stems
Stems may
may bebe tapped
tapped for a
and suckers (ratoons) for palm hearts (FAO, 1986;
palm wine (coquillo) and 1986; IBPGR,
IBPGR, 1986;
1986; Duke,
Duke ,
1993).

Post-harvest treatments

Fruits can
Fruits can be stored
stored for
for 10-14
10-14 days
days in aa dry
dry room.
room . Fruit is
is sometimes
sometimes canned.
canned. Seed
separates readily from pulp after
separates after boiling
boiling (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; IBPGR,
IBPGR, 1986).
1986).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Staple food
Staple food for tribes inin lowlands
lowlands ofof Colombia,
Colombia, Venezuela
Venezuela and Ecuador.
Ecuador. Fruits are boiled
boiled
salty water for ca. 33 hours,
in salty hours, peeled
peeled and
and after
after removal
removal of the seeds, eaten, strongly
strongly resemble
chestnuts in appearance and flavour;
flavour; highly
highly nutritious
nutritious and an important item of diet for rural rural
people. Extracted
Extractedstarch
starchisisused
usedasasaasubstitute
substitute for
for maize
maize flour
flour for
for making
making tortillas, aa staple
staple
food in Central
food Central America;
America; cooked
cooked flesh
flesh may
may also
also be
be fermented
fermented to to produce
produce aa beer
beer (chicha).
(chicha).
Kernel is is starchy and oily, resembles
resembles coconut in flavour.
flavour. The
The oily
oily kernels
kernels may
may be
be eaten;
eaten; also
also
a commercial source of
commercial source of oil
oil on
on boiling.
boiling. Poor
Poor quality
quality fruits
fruits may
may be be fed
fed to
to pigs
pigs (Menninger,
(Menninger,
1977; Purseglove,
1977; Purseglove, 1985; IBPGR,
IBPGR, 1986; FAO, 1986; 1986; Mabberley,
Mabbedey, 1987; Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield ,
1987).

Nutritional value
value

The chestnut-like
The fruit is regarded
chestnut-like fruit regarded as as probably
probably thethe most
most nutritionally
nutritionally balanced
balanced of tropical
tropical
fruits; has twice
fruits; twice the
the protein
protein content
content ofof the banana and can produce
produce more
more carbohydrate
carbohydrate per ha
maize. The
than maize. Thecomposition
composition of of the
the fruit
fruit varies
varies enormously fromfrom 19-93% mesocarp, 18-66%
19-93 % mesocarp, 18-66 %
dry matter, 3.1-14.7% protein,
protein, 2.6-61.7%
2.6-61.7% oil, oil, 33.2-88.8%
33.2-88.8% starch,
starch, 1.8%
1.8% ash
ash and
and 1.6%
1.6% fibre.
fibre .
The boiled flesh contains
The contains ca. 48%
48 % water, 3% 3 % protein,
protein, 7%
7 % fat,
fat, 41%
41 %carbohydrate
carbohydrate and
and 0.8%
0.8 %
ash. Oil composition
composition isis similar to that
that of
of oil
oil palm
palm (Menninger,
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1985:
1985 :
FAO, 1986).
1986).

By-products and other

other uses
uses

Canned
Canned palm hearts exported
exported from
from Costa Rica.
Rica. Leaves
Leaves usedused for thatching. Fibre (palmiti)
for thatching. (palm it i)
is
is of commercial importance in Costa Rica.
importance in Costa Rica. Outer
Outer 2.5-5
2.5-5 cm
cm of stem
stem are
are a source of aa very
very
hard timber
timber used
used for
for carpentry
carpentry and
and building,
building, the
the split
split stems
stems used
used forfor reinforcing
reinforcing concrete;
concrete ;
hardened stems are used
used for
for long
long bows
bows and
and attractive
attractive black
black floor slabs. It has potential as
floor slabs.
an energy crop from developing combustible
combustible oil
oil and
and alcohol
alcohol from the starch (Johnson,
(Johnson, 1983;
1983 :
FAO, 1986;
1986; IBPGR,
IBPGR, 1986;
1986; Duke,
Duke, 1993).
1993).

89
A grove of Bactris gasipaes. (Photo: G. Blaak)

Fruits of Bactris gasipaes ready for market. (Photo: G. Blaak)

90
Marketing

Fruit marketed locally. The

marketed locally. The fresh
fresh fruit
fruit has
has aa shelf
shelf life
life of
of 11week,
week, suggesting
suggesting some
some form
form of
preservation necessary
necessary for longer storage (10-14 days in a dry room, IBPGR, 1986)
storage (10-14 days in a dry room, IBPGR, 1986). Canned . Canned
fruit introduced in Costa Rica, but a more desirable and improved improved product
product required
required if canning
canning
is to develop further (Johnson,
is (Johnson, 1983;
1983; FAO, 1986).1986).

Discussion

Despite
Despite its qualities,
qualities, pejibaye
pejibaye is
is aa minor
minor crop
crop cultivated
cultivated by
by the
the small-holder
small-holder rather
rather than
than on
on
a plantation
plantation scale;
scale; rarely
rarely grown
grown outside
outside Central
Central and
and northern
northern South
South America
America and
and the
the
Caribbean (IBPGR,
(lBPGR, 1986).
1986). ItsIts local
local importance
importance asas a staple
staple food
food suggests that it could be
suggests that be
introduced elsewhere in the humid tropics tropics (FAO, 1986). Fruit
(FAO, 1986). Fruitquality
quality and
and absence
absence ofofspines
spines
were characters selected
selected during
during domestication,
domestication, otherwise
otherwise very
very little work has been done done on
on
improvement. Priority
Priorityininany
anybreeding
breedingprogramme
programmeisissuggested
suggested for
forfibre
fibre production
productionbecause
because
it is
is already
already aacommercial
commercial proposition. Other programmes may consider
proposition. Other programmes may consider oil production,
production,
protein and carotene
protein carotene rich
rich pulp
pulp for
for human
human and
and animal
animal consumption,
consumption, and and flavour
flavour (IBPGR,
(IBPGR,
1986).

BABASSU,BABACU
BABASSU, BABACUPALM
PALM OR
OR AGUASSÚ:
AGUASSU: Orhignya phalerata,
Orbignya phalerata, Palmae
Palmae

Distribution and
and ecology
ecology

Babassu palm grows wild

wild in
in disturbed
disturbed areas
areas throughout
throughout more
more than
than 100-150
100-150 000 krn2 from
000km2 from the
the
Atlantic Ocean to Bolivia
Bolivia and especially in Maranhao, Bahia and northern Minas Gerais and and
Mato Grosso. The
The annual
annual rainfall
rainfall is
is 11200-2
200-2 500
500 mm
mm with
with aa 4-6
4-6 months
months dry
dry season.
season. Soils
range from well-drained
well-drained upland soils
soils to gallery
gallery forest,
forest, although
although in in severely
severely flooded
flooded areas
areas itit
occurs
occurs in elevated, non-flooded
non-flooded areas.
areas. A A high
high light
light demander,
demander, and therefore only dominant
in disturbed areas (Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO, 1986; 1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993)
1993)

Description

Solitary,
Solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm
monoecious, feather palm with
with trunk
trunk up
up to
to 30
30 plus
plus m tall.
tall.
Leaves
Leaves 10-25, pinnate,
pinnate, up to 99 m m long. Inflorescences variously
long. Inflorescences variously male,
male, female or bisexual.
bisexual.
Bunches
Bunches of fruit up up to
to 11mmlong,
long,weighing
weighing14-90
14-90kg
kgand
andcontaining
containing (100-)200(-600)
(100-)200( -600) fruits;
fruit ellipsoid, 5-15
5-15 cm
cm long,
long, 4-9
4-9 cm,
cm, in
in diameter
diameter resembling
resembling a small coconut, weighing 150-
200
200 g; epicarp
epicarp fibrous,
fibrous, 1-4
1-4 mm
mm thick;
thick; mesocarp
mesocarp mealy,
mealy, dry,
dry, 2-12
2-12 mm
mmthick;
thick; endocarp
endocarp
woody,
woody, 35-75
35-75 mm
mm inindiameter,
diameter, containing
containing (1-)3-6(-11)
(1-)3-6(-11) seeds;
seeds; seeds
seeds ellipsoid,
ellipsoid, flattened,
flattened,
2-6 cm
cm xx 1-2
1-2cm
cm(Menninger,
(Menninger, 1987;
1987; FAO,
FAO, 1986;
1986; Uhl
UhI and
and Dransfield,
Dransfield, 1987;
1987; Clay
Clay and
and
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Cultivation

Collected solely from

Collected solely from the
the wild.
wild. Groves
Groves thinned
thinned to ca. 100
100 trees
trees per
per ha
ha in
in order
order to to increase
increase
Seeds may remain dormant within the nut for years provided
yields. Seeds may remain dormant within the nut for years provided they they are not attacked
not attacked
larvae . Fire or
by Coleopteran larvae. or heat
heat may
may be be necessary
necessary to
to break
break dormancy;
dormancy; separate
separate kernels
kernels
may
may germinate within
within aa few months. Early
few months. Early growth is is slow,
slow, concentrating
concentrating initially
initially on anan
extensive root system
extensive root system and consequently requiring large
consequently requiring large bags
bags if grown inin aa nursery.
nursery. The
palms begin to bear
palms begin bear when
when 8-12
8-12 years old. Populations
years old. reduced to
Populations reduced to 80 juvenile and and young
young
fruiting
fruiting palms
palms considered suitable for
considered suitable for intercropping
intercropping andand grazing
grazing by
by livestock.
livestock. TheThe useuse of

91
fertilizers
fertilizers to increase
increase productivity is still
productivity is still at the trial stage
stage (FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement,
1993).

Harvesting

Fallen
Fallen nuts
nuts collected after drying
collected after drying for
for a few
few weeks;
weeks; they
they may
may also
also be dislodged
dislodged from
from the
bunches with sticks
bunches with sticks or
or the
the whole bunch cut
whole bunch cut down.
down. TheThe fine
fine silicate
silicate crystals
crystals falling
falling off the
fruit
fruit can cause serious eye damage
serious eye damage to to the
the collectors.
collectors. Wild
Wild groves
groves can yield
yield 1.5-2.5 tonnes
tonnes
per
per haha but,
but, where
where the
the groves
groves are
are thinned
thinned yields range from
yields range from 7-30
7-30 tonnes per ha
tonnes per ha with
with an
average of 16
16 tonnes. Individual
Individualtrees
treeswith
with77bunches,
bunches, each
eachbunch
bunch of
of600
600 nuts
nuts and
and weighing
weighing
up
up to 90 kg are
are known
known (FAO,
(FAO,1986;
1986;Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Present
Present harvesting practice results
harvesting practice results in
in only
only ca.
ca. 25%
25 % of aa potential
potential 88 million
million MT fruit
fruit crop
crop
being harvested.
harvested. More
Moreefficient
efficientharvesting
harvesting involves
involves cutting
cutting the
the mature
mature infructescences
infructescences just
after
after the
the fruits
fruits have
have begun
begun to fall,
fall, in addition
addition to
to the
the gathering
gathering of
of fallen
fallen fruit.
fruit. The
introduction of a more effective
introduction effective transport system involving transport to
involving transport to collecting
collecting points
points by
by
pack animals and
andonward
onwardbybytrucks
trucks totothe
thevillage
village processing
processing area
area isis necessary
necessary (Pinheiro
(Pinheiro and
and
Ferro Franzdo,
Franzao, 1995).
1995).

Post-harvest treatments

Nuts
Nuts extremely
extremely hard, difficult
difficult to
to crack. Skilled workers
crack. Skilled workers manually
manuallyplace
placenut
nutinin aa cleft
cleft of
stones and split open with a heavy hatchet, the operation
stones operation repeated several times to release all
kernels. In an alternative method nut is rested on an axe head heldheld between
between the
the feet
feet and
and hit
with heavy cudgel. A skilled worker can obtain 5-8 kg of whole kernels (Pinheiro and
with a heavy cudgel. A skilled worker can obtain 5-8 kg of whole kernels (Pinheiro and
Ferro Franz-do, 1995)or
Franzao, 1995) or 2.3
2.3 kg
kg of clean
clean kernels
kernels (Clay
(Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993)
1993) a day by by this
this
method (Menninger,
method (Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO, 1986).
1986).

A village scale
scale cooperative
cooperative industry
industry isis being
being developed
developed using simple dehusking machines to
dehusking machines to
separate the husk and
separate the and mesocarp
mesocarp from the the endocarp,
endocarp, andand aa breaking
breaking machine
machine to crack
crack the
the
endocarp to extract the
endocarp the seeds,
seeds, and
and aa machine
machine to to separate
separate broken
broken endocarp
endocarp from the
the kernels.
kernels.
Local presses are then
Local then used to
to extract
extract the
the oil
oil and
and small
small kilns to make charcoal and to extract
tars (Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993;
1993; Pinheiro
Pinheiro and
and Ferro
Ferro Franzdo,
Franzao, 1995).
1995).

Production and
and consumption/utilization
consumption/utilization

Whole kernels sometimes

Whole sometimes are chewed but usually usually pounded
pounded forfor the cold extraction of a milk
milk
substitute
substitute or hot extraction with boiling
boiling water
water forfor oil.
oil. Kernel
Kernel contains 60-70 % oil
contains 60-70% oil which
which is
is
rich in
in lauric
lauric acid,
acid, similar
similar inincomposition
composition to to that
that of
ofCocos
Cocos nucifera
nucifera (coconut)
(coconut) and Elaeis
Elaeis
guineensis (African oil
guineensis (African oil palm).
palm). Fresh
Fresh oil
oil is
is used
used for cooking,
cooking, refined oil for
refined oil for margarine
margarine.. The
The
starchy
starchy mesocarp
mesocarp is used
used locally
locally as
as an
an emergency
emergency flour flour substitute
substitute (FAO,
(FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay
Clay and
and
Clement, 1993).
1993).

Nutritional value
value

Kernels contain 1.1.2%

Kernels contain water, 66.1
2 % water, 66.1% oil, 7.2%
% oil, 7.2 % protein,
protein, 66%
% fibre,
fibre, 2%
2 % ash
ash and
and 14.5%
14.5 %
carbohydrates (FAO, 1986).
carbohydrates 1986).

92
 77,V677111111R
s
'

"

Babassu (Orbignya phalerata)

Babassu (Orbignya phalerata) palm in fruit.
fruit. (Photo:
(Photo: G. Blaak)
Blaak)

Crude process of
of making
making charcoal
charcoal from babassu shell. (Photo:
(Photo: G.
G. Blaak)
Blaak)

93
By-products and other
other uses
uses

Broken kernels
Broken kernels are
are fed to to pigs
pigs asas they
they are
are unsuitable
unsuitable for for oil
oil extraction
extraction by by the
the oil
oil factories
factories
because the
because the oil quickly becomes rancid.
quickly becomes rancid. Most
Most of ofthe
the industrial
industrial meal
meal is is exported
exported to to Europe
Europe
for dairy cake. Seed
Seedoiloilisisexcellent
excellentfor forsoap
soap production
production because
because of o( its high (45%)
(45 %) lauric acid
content. The epicarp
epicarp (ca. 15 15%% of the fruit)
fruit) isis aa primary
primary fuel fuel source.
source . The mesocarp
mesocarp
(ca.. 20%
(ca 20% ofof the
the fruit)
fruit) isis aapotential
potential source
source ofofindustrial
industrial starch,
starch, glucose
glucose or alcohol.
alcohol. The
The
endocarp (ca. 59%59% of the fruit)fruit) is
is an
an important
important source
source ofof high
high grade
grade charcoal
charcoal for
for the
the steel
steel
industry
industry as well as source
source of of distillation by-products such
distillation by-products such asas tar,
tar, acetic
acetic acid,
acid, methane,
methane, etc.
etc.;;
also has
also has a potential use as
potential use as a substrate
substrate forfor hydroponics.
hydroponics. Nut Nut waste
waste is is also
also used
used locally
locally as aa
fuel for cooking
fuel cooking andand to
to repel
repel insects.
insects. Palm
Palm hearts edible, the
hearts edible, the waste
waste being
being fed
fed to
to horses.
horses.
Peduncle can be
Peduncle be tapped
tapped forfor palm
palm wine.
wine. Trunks
Trunks used for construction purposes. Leaves
construction purposes. Leaves used
for thatch
for thatch and
and basketry;
basketry; leaf leaf petioles used for
petioles used for laths
laths for
for windows
windows and and adobe
adobe walls;
walls ;
unfortunately the
unfortunately the reduvid
reduvid or or kissing bug that
kissing bug that transmits
transmits the the vector
vector of Chagas
Chagas disease
disease that
normally shelter in the crevices of the leaf petioles petioles would
would move
movetotothe thehouse
housewalls.
walls. Decayed
stems
stems and
and leaves
leaves used
used forfor mulch. Leaves and
mulch. Leaves and liquid
liquid endosperm
endosperm used used in local
local medicine
medicine
(Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO, 1986;1986; Clay
Clay and
and Clement,
Clement, 1993;
1993; Pinheiro
Pinheiro andand Ferro
Ferro Franzdo,
Franzao, 1995).
1995) .

Marketing

Present kernel production

production is
is insufficient
insufficient for developing an efficient seed
seed oil industry
industry (Pinheiro
and Ferro Franzdo,
Franzao, 1995).
1995).

Discussion

An important source
source of oil for
for margarine
margarine andand cooking oil during
cooking oil the First World
during the World War and
again during the Second
Second World
World War,
War, when
when kernel
kernel exports
exports peaked
peaked at 40
40 000
000 tonnes
tonnes (26
(26 000
000
Exports fell to zero by the mid-1960s,
tonnes oil). Exports mid-1960s, although, depending
depending on the international
occasional exports are still
prices, occasional still processed. Since 1965, the Brazilian soap and cosmetic
processed. Since cosmetic
industries have
industries have absorbed
absorbed allall babassu
babassu oiloil production
production (ca. tonnes in 1985). It is also
(ca. 150 000 tonnes also
Brazil's major
major source
source ofof lauric
lauric acid.
acid. TheThe potential
potential for developing
developing babassu
babassu plantations
plantations to
provide charcoal for
for the
the pig-iron
pig-iron foundries
foundries requires
requires investigation;
investigation; the fine
fine grained
grained charcoal
charcoal
has the disadvantage of
has of requiring pressing
pressing andand gluing
gluing into
into briquettes
briquettes before
before shipping
shipping and
and use.
use.
It is an extremely important palm in the subsistence
subsistence economy,
economy, being
being aa source
source ofof income,
income, food
food
and oil, timber, fibre,
fibre, medicine,
medicine, etc.,
etc., for
for the
the indigenous
indigenous population.
population. Little
Little attention
attention has been
paid to developing the
the species
species because of of the availability of large, albeit low yielding, natural
populations. There
populations. Thereisisaaconsiderable
considerable potential
potential forfor improving
improving yields
yields by selection and develop
develop
appropriate agronomic practices, especially
especially in the drier areasareas that
that are
are unsuitable
unsuitable for other
other oil
oil
palms. The
producing palms. The labour intensive,
intensive, lowlow productivity
productivity kernel
kernel extraction
extraction isis the limiting
limiting
factor
factor in developing
developing aa commercial
commercial oiloil industry
industry (FAO,(FAO, 1986;
1986; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;1987; Clay and
and
Clement,
Clement, 1993;
1993; Pinheiro
Pinheiro and
and Ferro
Ferro Franzdo,
Franzao, 1995).
1995).

94
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104
104
 APPENDIX A

SPECIES WITH EDIBLE

EDIBLE "NUTS"
"NUTS" LISTED BY FAMILIES l
BY FAMILIES'

ANGIOSPERMS

DICOTYLEDONS

ANACARDIACEAE;fruit
ANACARDIACEAE; fruit drupaceous
drupaceous or
or dry, 1-plurilocular, 1-5
1-5 seeded
seeded stone

Species and distribution

Species Common namen a m e - - - · Details References
Anacardium giganteum cajui; cajuaçu;
cajuac;u; caju- forest tree; drupe with enlarged, edible peduncle
caju- forest and kernel, former FAO, 1986
peduncle and 1986
Amazonia da-mata; oloi fresh or for juice, latter
fresh latter roasted
.......
o Anacardium humile monkey-nut nut edible, conserves made
made of the fruit Hedrick, 1972
1972
VI
Brazil
Anacardium nanum nut edible, conserves made
made of the fruit Hedrick, 1972
1972
Brazil
Anacardium occidentale cashew nut kidney-shaped
kidney-shaped nutnut with
with hard,
hard, acrid pericarp around
around seedseed (promotion
(promotion Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
tropical America;
tropical America; widely nut, coffin
coffin nail);
nail); pedicel
pedicel swells
swells into
into edible,
edible, pear-shaped
pear-shaped bodybody 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
cultivated (cashew apple) used
(cashew apple) used in preserves, chutneys,
chutneys, etc.
etc. also
also cashew
cashew apple
apple FAO, 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
juice; roasted
roasted kernel
kernel eaten
eaten as aa dessert
dessert nut,
nut, also
also in
inconfectionery;
confectionery; 1984; FAO,
FAO , 1986;
1986;
pericarp yields the toxic cashew nut-shell liquid - caustic nut shell Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
liquid used
used in brake linings, clutches,
clutches , plastic resins, etc. Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
et al.,1988;
al. ,1988; Verheij
Verheij and
and
Coronel,, 1991
Coronel 1991
Anacardium rhinocarpus wild cashew fruit,, eaten
edible fruit eaten like
like cashew
cashew Hedrick, 1972
1972
South America

Some agricultural
Some agricultural crops
crops (e.g
(e.g.. some species of the
the Cucurbitaceae)
Cucurbitaceae) are included
included in
in this
this list
list for
for their
their potential
potential as
as agroforestry
agroforestry species.
species.
 Species
Species and distribution Conunon
Common name Details References

Antrocaryon micraster
Antrocaryon fruit pulp edible, may be made into into a fermented
fermented beverage; seeds Menninger, 1977;
1977;
West Africa difficult to extract,
difficult to extract, kernel
kernel edible,
edible, rich in oil; timber
timber for planks and Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987; Peters et et
furniture al., 1992
1992
Buchanania latifolia almondette; medium sized tree;
medium sized tree; fruit black, 1-seeded,
I-seeded, kernels pear-shaped, 11 cm cm Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
India, Myanmar, Laos,
Laos, cheronjee; long, oily, edible,
edible, delicious
delicious with
with aa combination
combination of of almond
almond andand 1977; Rosengarten,
1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Thailand, Vietnam,
Vietnam, Yunnan
Yunnan Cuddapah almond; pistachio flavours
flavours - known
known asas "almondettes"
"almondettes" occasionally
occasionally imported
imported Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
Hamilton mombin into Europe, eaten raw raw or
or roasted
roasted oror in
insweetmeats,
sweetmeats, pounded
pounded andand and Coronel, 1991;
1991; Macrae
Macrae
dried fruits made into bread in India, seed seed oil
oil aa substitute
substitute for
for et al., 1993
1993
almond
almond or or olive
olive oil;
oil; bark and fruit yield a varnish;
varnish; bark used in
tanning;
tanning; browsed; gum used in traditional medicine against leprosy;
in traditional medicine
wood for fuel;
fuel; trees grown for erosion
erosion control
control
kernel 51.8% oil, 12.1%
kernel 51.8% 12.1 % protein, 21.6%
21.6% starch,
starch, 5% 5% sugars
sugars
Gluta elegans rengas seeds edible; sap cancan cause
cause dermatitis
dermatitis Menninger, 1977
1977
>-'
Malaysia
o Gluta renghas rengas roasted seeds eaten; timber useful but sap
sap can
can cause
cause dermatitis
dermatitis Menninger, 1977;
1977;
0-.
Malesia Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
Purseglove, 1987
1987
Gluta velutina
velutina rengas seeds edible; sap can
can cause
cause dermatitis
dermatitis Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
Malaysia
Lannea schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii raw fruit eaten, seeds
seeds crushed,
crushed, boiled
boiled with
with salt
salt and eaten
eaten as a relish, Menninger, 1977;
relish, Menninger, 1977; Peters et
var. stuhlmannii
stuhlmannii bark made into a tisane
tisane al., 1992
1992
East Africa
Mangifera altissima
Mangifera medang evergreen tree;
tree; immature
immature fruit eaten raw, pickled or mixed
mixed with Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Solomon Islands toto vegetables; ripe fruit
vegetables; ripe fruit eaten or used in preserves; seeds
seeds salted
salted and
Philippines; cultivated pounded for an edible meal; wood
pounded for wood for
for general
general construction
construction and
and
indoor woodwork, not durable; locally
locally marketed
marketed
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Mangifera indica mango evergreen tree; drupe flesh eaten or made

evergreen made into
into chutney, pickles, Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
Hedrick,
Indo-Malesia; widely squashes, commercially
squashes, commercially marketed;
marketed; starchy
starchy kernels
kernels eaten roasted or 1977; FAO, 1982;
1977; 1982;
cultivated in the tropics and
cultivated dried and pickled,
pickled, aa source
source of
of flour
flour and
and famine
famine food;
food; seed
seed kernel
kernel Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
subtropics meal fed to cattle
cattle and
and poultry;
poultry; young
young leaves
leaves eaten
eaten as
as aavegetable;
vegetable; Purseglove, 1987;
Purseglove, 1987; Verheij
Verheij
timber for fuel
fuel (excellent
(excellent charcoal),
charcoal) , tea-chests
tea-chests and
and floor-boards
floor-boards and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Mangifera kemanga
kemanga kemang tree; ripe
ripe fruit
fruit eaten
eaten fresh,
fresh , pickled
pickled or
or made
made into
into aajuice.;
juice; fresh,
fresh, Verheij
Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Peninsular Malaysia,
Malaysia, grated seeds
seeds sometimes
sometimes eaten;
eaten; young
young leaves
leaves eaten
eaten
Sumatra, Borneo;
Borneo;
commercially cultivated
Mangifera odorata kuwini tree; fruit
fruit peeled
peeled to remove
remove acrid skin, eaten
eaten fresh or made
made into Verheij and
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
not known in wild; cultivated
cultivated chutneys
chutneys andand pickles;
pickles; seed
seed kernel
kernel made
made into
into a flour;
flour; bark used in
in
in Sumatra, Borneo and Java traditional medicine; thrives
traditional medicine; thrives in
in areas
areas too
too wet
wet for M. indica
Pistada mexicana
Pistacia mexicana seeds edible Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
...... S. Mexico
Mexico toto Guatemala
Guatemala 1977
0
-...l Pistacia terebinthus
terebinthus terebinth; Cyperus
Cyperus kernel sweet, edible; source of
of tan
tan galls;
galls; formerly
formerly source
source of
of Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Mediterranean turpentine turpentine 1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 1987
1987
Pistacia texana Texas pistacio dioecious
dioecious shrub or tree; with small
tree; with small,, nut-like drupe <
nut-like drupe <11 cm
cm long
long Krochmal,
Krochmal, 1982
1982
Texas to central
central Mexico
Mexico
Pistacia vera
vera pistachio seed as dessert nut, the pistachio nut of commerce,
seed eaten as commerce, used in Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Iran to central Asia;
Asia; widely
widely ice-cream and confectionery
confectionery 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
cultivated in Mediterranean Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
and USA Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
et al., 1988;
1988;
Pleiogynium timoriense Burdekin or sweet
sweet fruit used in jams and jellies; timber good; ornamental
ornamental street tree Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Queensland plum 1977; Mabberley
1977; Mabberley,, 1987
1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Sclerocarya
Sclerocarya birrea dioecious tree
subsp . birrea
subsp. fruit flesh used to make alcoholic beverage; kernel
alcoholic beverage; kernel oily, eaten Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N
N.. tropical Africa dioecious tree; fruit eaten, flesh rich in
dioecious tree; in vitamin
vitamin C,
C , stone
stone contains
contains 2-
2- 1977
subsp.
subsp. caffra 3 highly nutritious embryos
embryos Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
E. and
and southern
southern Africa
Africa marula 1977; Arnold
1977; Arnold etet ai.
al. 1985;
1985 ;
Peters et al. 1992
1992
Semecarpus
Semecarpus anacardium marking nut;
marking nut; varnish ripe fruit collected, acrid and astringent when fresh,
fresh , juice of
ofwhich
which Howes, 1948;
1948 ; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
India; cultivated in tropical
tropical tree; Australian a strong skin irritant, kernels
kernels eaten
eaten roasted
roasted flavour
flavour of
of roasted
roasted 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972;
Asia, Australia and Africa corkscrew; oriental apples,
apples , dried with taste like dates; roasted
roasted pedicel eaten; sap of of Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Tow,
Tow ,
cashew unripe fruit mixed with lime
lime used
used for
for marking
marking linen, hence 1989; Verheij
1989; Verheij and
and Coronel
Coronel,,
vernacular name;
vernacular name; pericarp contains ca.
pericarp contains 9 % of
ca. 9% of an
an irritating
irritating oil
oil used
used 1992
1992
in traditional medicine and industrially in lacquers, paints
medicine and paints and
and
insulating material;
material; wood used for charcoal
charcoal
..- Semecarpus vitiensis New
New kernel
kernel eaten, care required
required to
to avoid
avoid fruit
fruit blistering
blistering latex,
latex, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
o Caledonia, Fiji
Caledonia, 1977
00
Spondias mombin
mombin yellow Spanish or fresh fruit pulp eaten raw, cooked,
cooked, in
in confectionery
confectionery or fermented;
fermented ; Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical America;
America; yellow mombin; seed eaten; young leaves eaten as a vegetable; wood
wood used for
for boxes,
boxes , Mabberley, 1978;
1977; MabberJey, 1978;
occasionally cultivated jobo; hog
hog plum
plum pulp or fuel; browsed
browsed by cattle and pigs;
pigs ; melliferous;
melliferous; grown as FAO, 1982,
1982, 1986
1986 Verheij
Verheij
shade tree and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
longijolia
Trichoscypha longifolia oily kernel eaten Menninger, 1977; Peters et
Menninger, et
West Africa al., 1992
aI., 1992

ANISOPHYLLEACEAE;
ANISOPHYLLEACEAE; fruit indehiscent,
indehiscent, woody
woody to drupaceous

oleosa
Poga oleosa inoi nut, African
inoi nuts with hard
nuts with hard,, bony shell,, marketed
bony shell marketed locally;
locally ; seed
seed kernel
kernel eaten;
eaten; Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
W.
W . tropical
tropical Africa
Africa Brazil nut,
Brazil nut, m'poga seed oil used for cooking;
seed cooking ; formerly
formerly exported
exported to to Liverpool
Liverpool as
as 1987;
1987 ; Mabberley,
MabberJey, 1987;
1987 ;
oilseed Peters et al.,
al. , 1992
1992

ARALIACEAE; fruit usually

ARALIACEAE; fruit usually aa drupe
drupe or berry
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details--~ferences
Details References

Panax trifolius
trifolius groundnut herb with slightly pungent,
herb pungent , edible, subglobose
subglobose rootstock Howes, 1948
1948
E. North America
America

BIGNONIACEAE;
BIGNONIACEAE; fruit
fruit a 2-valved
2-valved capsule,
capsule, rarely fleshy
fleshy and indehiscent

Crescentia a/ata
Crescentia alata Mexican calabash ripe seeds a popular festival
festival food Menninger, 1972
1972
W. Central America
America
Crescentia cujete
cujete calabash tree young fruit
young fruit pickled, flesh not very
very palatable;
palatable; seeds
seeds cooked
cooked andand Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical
tropical America and eaten and
eaten and used
used to
to make
make a drink in Nicaragua,
Nicaragua, source
source of
of aa syrup
syrup 1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Caribbean; cultivated and oil; woody
and pericarp used for bowls,
woody pericarp bowls , etc. Purseglove, 1987
1987
Kige/ia
Kigelia africana sausage tree fruit pulp
fruit pulp and
and bark used for making beer; roasted
roasted seeds
seeds famine
famine Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
....... tropical
tropical Africa food
food;; fruit purgative 1977; Mabberley 1987;1987;
o
\0 Peters et al.,
aI. , 1992
1992
Oroxy/um
Oroxylum indicum midnight horror;
midnight seeds eaten;
seeds eaten; leaves
leaves cooked
cooked asas aa vegetable;
vegetable; bark
bark bitter,
bitter, used Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO ,
Philippines pinkapinkahan medicinally; bark
medicinally; bark and
and fruits
fruits source
source of dye
dye used
used in rattan 1986; Mabberley, 1987
1987
basketry, also
basketry, also for tanning; wood used for fuel
Parmentiera cereifera candle tree; fruit and
fruit and seeds
seeds eaten
eaten in Mexico;
Mexico; fodder
fodder source
source Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Panama; cultivated cuachilote Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Purseglove, 1987
1987

BOMBACACEAE; fruit
BOMBACACEAE; fruit a locucidal capsule, rarely fleshy
locucidal capsule, fleshy and
and indehiscent
indehiscent
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name-- -
Common name n_ - - - - - Details References
References

Adansonia digitata baobab Pulp

Pulp eaten
eaten raw, seed kernel
raw, seed kernel eaten
eaten raw, roasted or boiled; bark
raw, roasted Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical Africa; for cloth and
for and cordage;
cordage; all
all parts
parts of the
the tree utilised;
utilised; grown as
as an 1977; FAO, 1982; Wickens,
1977; FAO, 1982; Wickens,
occasionally cultivated avenue tree and ornamental
avenue ornamental 1982; Mabberley, 1987;
1982; Mabberley, 1987;
Purseglove, 1987; Verheij
Purseglove, 1987; Verheij
and
and Coronel, 1991; Peters
Coronel, 1991; Peters et
aI., 1992
al., 1992
Adansonia gregorii
Adansonia baobab seeds eaten
seeds eaten by
by Aborigines;
Aborigines; source of fibre 1977; Lazarides
Menninger, 1977; Lazarides
West Australia and lince, 1993
and Hince, 1993
Ceiba pentandra
Ceiba pentandra kapok or silk
kapok young fruit edible; seeds eaten pounded
pounded in
in soup
soup or roasted, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
tropical South America;
America; cotton tree source of edible
source edible oil;
oil; oil used as lubricant, illuminant,
illuminant, soap and 1987
Mabberley, 1987
widely cultivated paints; hairs from carpel walls the kapok of commerce;
commerce; wood
used for matches
matches
....... Durio ziberthinus durian; civet fruit
durian; malodorous
malodorous but highly esteemed fruit,
highly esteemed fruit, aril of
of unripe
unripe fruit
fruit eaten
eaten as
as Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
.......
o W. Malesia; widely
W. a vegetable;
vegetable; boiled or roasted seeds eaten;
eaten; rind used for fuel;
fuel; 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
cultivated in Malaysia
Malaysia wood light, used
wood light, used for cheap furniture, etc.; plant
cheap furniture, plant used in Purseglove, 1987
1987
traditional medicine
Pachira aquatica Guyana or delicious
delicious chestnut-flavoured
chestnut-flavoured seeds
seeds roasted
roasted and eaten, contain
contain ca.
ca. 1972; Menninger,
Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
tropical America, Malabar chestnut
chestnut 50%
50% oil; young
young leaves
leaves and
and flowers
flowers eaten
eaten as
as vegetable;
vegetable; bark
bark 1986;
1977; FAO, 1986;
estuaries; cultivated source of red dye, fibre
fibre for
for cordage;
cordage; wood
wood suitable
suitable for
for paper-
paper- 1987
Mabberley, 1987
making
Pachira insignis
insignis maranhao nut
nut seeds eaten;
seeds eaten; young leaves
leaves and flowers
flowers also eaten Hedrick, 1977;
1977; Menninger,
Menninger,
Central America 1977
Rhodognaphalon seeds cooked and eaten
seeds Peters
Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992
schumannianum
tropical Africa
 Species and distribution
Species and Conunon name Details References

BURSERACEAE;fruit
BURSERACEAE; fruit a drupe with
with 1-5
1-5 1-seeded stones or 1 stones
I-seeded stones stones with all seeds,
seeds, rarely aa capsule
capsule

Boswellia serrata
Boswellia serrata Indian olibanum tree; flowers
tree; flowers and seeds eaten; wood used to make paper and tea Menninger, 1977;
1977;
India; cultivated chests, fuel;
chests, fuel ; cultivated for its fragrant gum-resin
cultivated for Mabberley, 1987
1987
Canarium album canarium; Chinese
Chinese tree; fruit pulp and seeds edible, sold
tree; sold on
on the
the world
world market;
market; wood
wood Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
S. China,
China, Vietnam;
Vietnam; olive and resin sometimes
and used; grown as an ornamental
sometimes used; ornamental 1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
cultivated Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
Canarium harveyi Santa Cruz oily nut edible;
edible; oil used locally
locally for cosmetics;
cosmetics; potential
potential for Pelomo, 1993
1993
Solomon Islands Ngallinut development
Canarium indicum Java almond;
almond; tall buttressed
tall buttressed tree,
tree, drupe,
drupe, endocarp hard, thin and brittle,
endocarp hard, Hawes, 1948;
1948; Leenhouts,
Leenhouts ,
Malaysia to Melanesia;
Malaysia kanari or ngali
ngali nut
nut triangular in
triangular in cross
cross section,
section, c 3 g, seeds
seeds 3;
3; oily
oily "pili"
"pili" nuts
nuts (seeds)
(seeds) 1956;
1956; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
cultivated eaten after
eaten after removal testa raw
removal of testa raw or roasted, eaten
eaten in
in Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka asas Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij
.....
..... a dessert nut, made into bread in the the Celebes,
Celebes, highly
highly esteemed
esteemed in and Coronel, 1991;
1991; Macrae
Macrae
..... Melanesia where
Melanesia where several
several races
races cultivated;
cultivated; fresh
fresh seed
seed oil
oil mixed
mixed et al., 1993;
1993; Pelomo,
Pelomo, 1993
1993
with food,
with food, also used as an illuminant; grown as a shade tree
Canarium littorale
Canarium nuts small,
nuts small, hard-shelled,
hard-shelled, kernel edible Menninger, 1977
1977
Malaysia
Canarium luzonicum
luzonicum Java almond, pili "oily pili" nuts edible;
edible; seed oil source of "Manila
"Manila elmi" for
for Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
S.E. Asia
Asia nut, elemi
elemi varnishes, etc.
etc. 1977; Mabberley, 1987
1977; 1987

Canarium muelleri deciduous tree; nuts very small,

deciduous tree; small, eaten
eaten by
by Aborigines
Aborigines Menninger, 1977;
1977; Lazarides
Lazarides
Queensland et al., 1993
1993
Canarium ovatum
ovatum pili or Philippine
Philippine evergreen tree
evergreen tree;; oily
oily "pili
"pili"" nuts
nuts eaten
eaten raw
raw or roasted as a dessert
roasted as dessert Howes
Howes,, 1948;
1948; Leenhouts,
Leenhouts ,
Philippines
Philippines;; cultivated nut nut or used commercially
nut commercially in confectionery,
confectionery , emulsion of kernels 1956; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
used as
used as milk substitute; seed oil edible, source
substitute; seed source of
of "Manila
"Manila elmi"
elmi" Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Verheij
Verheij
for varnishes,
for varnishes, etc.,
etc ., also
also used
used asas an
an illuminant;
illuminant; young
young shoots
shoots and Coronel
and Coronel,, 1991
1991
edible; shell
edible; shell used
used for
for fuel
fuel and
and carving;
carving; grown as an avenue tree
and windbreak
and
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name ----Details
Details References

Canarium pateninervium kedondong tree; seeds eaten; soft, light

light wood
wood used
used for
for fuel
fuel Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
Thailand, Peninsular
Malaysia; Sumatra,
Malaysia; Sumatra, Borneo
Canarium pilosum damar lilin tree; seeds sweet, eaten; wood durable used for houses;
houses ; resin
resin Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
Indonesia, Malaysia,
Indonesia, used to close wounds
wounds
Brunei
Canarium pimeia
pimela Chinese black
black tree; oily "pili"
tree; "pili" nuts
nuts edible, fruit
fruit candies
candies or pickled; sold on the Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
S. China, Hainan, Indo-
Indo- olive world market; wood and resin
resin sometimes
sometimes used;
used ; fruit
fruit and
and leaves
leaves 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
China, Borneo; cultivated
China, used in local medicine
medicine Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
and Coronel, 1991
1991
Canarium salomonense adoa oily nut edible; oil used locally
locally for cosmetics;
cosmetics; potential
potential for Pelomo, 1993
1993
Solomon Islands,
Solomon Islands, New development
....... Guinea
.......
tv
Canarium schweinfurthii African elemi;
elemi; oily nut edible,
oily edible, marketed locally; oily pericarp
marketed locally; pericarp eaten raw, seeds
eaten raw, Menninger, 1977;
1977; Burkill,
Burkill,
tropical Africa incense or bush
incense cooked and
cooked and eaten,
eaten, seed oil substitute for shea
shea butter
butter from
from 1985;
1985; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
candle tree Vitellaria paradoxa;
Vitellaria paradoxa; stained
stained timber used
used as
as mahogany
mahogany substitute; Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992
oleo-gum exudate
oleo-gum exudate source of incense
Canarium sylvestre oily "pili" nuts edible
oily Hedrick, 1972
1972
Ambon
Canarium vrieseanum solo tree; seeds
seeds edible; resin
resin burnt
burnt as
as an
an illuminant;
illuminant; tough
tough wood
wood used Verheij 1991
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Indonesia, Philippines
Indonesia, in construction
Canarium vulgare Chinese olives, oily "pili" nuts
nuts eaten
eaten in Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka as
as aa dessert
dessert nut,
nut, made
made into
into Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Moluccas; cultivated
Moluccas; Java almond,
almond, wild bread in the Celebes; fresh seed
seed oil mixed
mixed with food, also
also used
used 1977
almond for lamps; grown as a shade
shade tree
tree and
and in
in plantations;
plantations;
Santira trimera fruits smelling of turpentine, edible, marketed
marketed locally;
locally; oily
oily seeds
seeds Menninger, 1977;
1977; Burkill,
Burkill,
West Africa edible 1985
1985
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name - Details References

Canarium pateninervium kedondong tree; seeds eaten; soft, light

light wood
wood used
used for
for fuel
fuel Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
Thailand, Peninsular
Peninsular
Malaysia;
Malaysia; Sumatra,
Sumatra, Borneo
Canarium pilosum damar lilin tree; seeds sweet, eaten;
eaten; wood durable used for houses;
houses; resin
resin Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Indonesia,
Indonesia, Malaysia, used to close wounds
wounds
Brunei
pimela
Canarium pimeia Chinese black
black tree; oily "pili"
tree; "pili" nuts
nuts edible, fruit
fruit candies
candies or pickled; sold on the Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
S. China, Hainan, Indo-
Indo- olive world market; wood
wood and resin
resin sometimes
sometimes used;
used ; fruit
fruit and
and leaves
leaves 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
China, Borneo; cultivated
China, used in local medicine
medicine Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
and Coronel, 1991
and 1991
Canarium salomonense adoa oily nut edible; oil used locally
locally for cosmetics;
cosmetics; potential
potential for Pelomo, 1993
1993
Solomon Islands,
Solomon Islands, New development
....... Guinea
.......
tv
Canarium schweinfurthii African elemi;
elemi; oily nut edible,
oily edible, marketed locally; oily pericarp
marketed locally; pericarp eaten raw, seeds
eaten raw, Merminger,
Menninger, 1977; Burkill,
tropical Africa
tropical incense or bush
incense cooked and
cooked and eaten,
eaten, seed oil substitute for shea
shea butter
butter from
from 1985;
1985; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
candle tree Vitellaria paradoxa; stained
Vitellaria paradoxa; stained timber used
used as
as mahogany
mahogany substitute; Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992
oleo-gum exudate
oleo-gum exudate source
source of incense
Canarium sylvestre oily "pili" nuts edible
oily Hedrick, 1972
1972
Ambon
Canarium vrieseanum solo tree; seeds
seeds edible; resin
resin burnt
burnt as
as an
an illuminant;
illuminant; tough
tough wood
wood used Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Indonesia, Philippines in construction
Canarium vulgare Chinese olives, oily "pili" nuts
nuts eaten
eaten in Sri
Sri Lanka
Lanka as
as aa dessert
dessert nut,
nut, made
made into
into Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Moluccas; cultivated
Moluccas; Java almond,
almond, wild bread in the Celebes; fresh seed
seed oil mixed
mixed with food, also
also used
used 1977
almond for lamps; grown as a shade
shade tree
tree and
and in
in plantations;
plantations;
Santira trimera fruits smelling of turpentine, edible, marketed
marketed locally;
locally; oily
oily seeds
seeds Menninger, 1977;
1977; Burkill,
Burkill,
West Africa edible 1985
1985
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details --- References

CAPPARACEAE; fruitoften
CAPPARACEAE; fruit oftenaa berry,
berry, rarely a nut or
or drupe
drupe

Boscia angustifolia lwrsan

kursan evergreen tree;
tree; berries bitter, edible,
edible, cooked
cooked seeds
seeds eaten;
eaten; leaves
leaves Menninger, 1977;
1977; Burkill,
Burkill,
tropical Africa
Africa to
to Saudi
Saudi and bark used in tisanes; browsed; wood hard, used used for
for local
local 1985; Peters
1985; Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992
Arabia carpentry; variously used in local
local medicine
medicine
Boscia senegalensis evergreen shrub;
shrub; berries marketed locally, fruit pulp, seeds
seeds and
and Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Sahel leaves
leaves eaten after leaching
leaching for 3-4 days and
and cooked,
cooked, regarded
regarded as
as 1977; Burkill,
1977; Burkill, 1985;
1985; Peters
famine food, roasted seeds
famine food, seeds used as
as coffee
coffee substitute;
substitute; wood
wood used
used et al.,
aI., 1992
1992
for huts; smoky
smoky firewood
firewood
Buchholzia coriacea musk tree evergreen tree; fruit thick-skinned,
thick-skinned, with
with disagreeable
disagreeable odour, Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Burkill,
West
West Africa;
Africa; rain forest boiled and eaten, seeds used as condiment,
condiment, aril
aril chewed;
chewed; seeds
seeds 1985; Peters
1985; Peters et
et aI.,
al., 1992
1992
used medicinally;
medicinally; bark andand leaves
leaves used
used medicinally
medicinally
......
......
w
CARYOCARACEAE;fruit
CARYOCARACEAE; fruit aa drupe, stone
stone separating
separating into
into 44 1-seeded
I-seeded pyrenes
pyrenes

Caryocar amygdaliferum suari nut; sawarri

sawarri seeds woody; almond-flavoured
seeds woody; kernels roasted
almond-flavoured kernels roasted and
and eaten,
eaten, source Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;
Uphof, 1972;
Colombia nut; caryocar;
caryocar; of pleasant-tasting sawarri or suari fat used in
pleasant-tasting sawarri in cooking;
cooking; fruit
fruit used
used Prance and Freitas, 1973;
Prance 1973;
almendron for treating leprosy; fruit pulp used as fish poison Usher, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
1977; Mabberiey,
1977; Mabberley, 1987
1987
Caryocar amygdaliforme caryocar
caryocar almond-flavoured kernels edible Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Peru 1977
Caryocar brasiliense pequí;
pequi; piquí;
piqui; tree, drupe
drupe 2-seeded,
2-seeded, mesocarp
mesocarp fleshy,
fleshy, endocarp
endocarp woody,
woody, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
occasionally
Brazil; occasionally piquia-oil plant muricate, stewed kidney-shaped;
muricate, fruit pulp eaten, mainly as a
kidney-shaped; fruit 1977; FAO,
1977; FAO, 1986;
1986; Clay and
cultivated flavouring,
flavouring, laxative,
laxative, source
source of an edible oil; kernels source of an Clement,
Clement, 1993;
1993; Dantas
Dantas de
edible fat;
edible fat; wood used for construction, fences
fences and
and fuel
fuel 1995
Araujo, 1995
 Species and
Species and distribution Conunon name
Common Details References

Caryocar coriaceum
coriaceum fruit pulp oily, eaten;
eaten; spiny
spiny seed
seed shell
shell difficult
difficult to
to remove,
remove, kernel
kernel Prance and Freitas, 1973;
1973;
N.E. Brazil
Brazil oily, highly
highly esteemed
esteemed for food; fruit
fruit oil
oil extracted
extracted and
and used
used in
in Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
cooking
cooking
Caryocar glabrum almendro; piquia- kernels eaten fresh,
kernels eaten fresh, boiled or roasted by natives;
natives; timber used
used for Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
N.E.
N .E. South
South America;
America; rana shipbuilding; epicarp used
shipbuilding; epicarp used as
as fish
fish poison;
poison; inner bark used for 1972; Prance
1972; Prance and Freitas,
cultivated washing hair and
and clothes
clothes 1973; Menninger, 1977;
1973; 1977;
FAO, 1986;
FAO, 1986; Clay and
Clement, 1993
1993
Caryocar nuciferum
Caryocar nuciferum souari or swarri
souari large tree; fruit globose, soft capsules ca.
soft wooded capsules ca. 15
15 cm in Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Howes,
Guianas; cultivated in the
Guianas; nut; butternut
nut; diameter;
diameter; pulp yellow, edible; 2-5 pyrenes kidney-shaped, up to
kidney-shaped, 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Caribbean, Surinam, 5 cm long with very hard, woodywoody shell up to 11 cm cm thick,
thick, hard
hard to
to FAO, 1982;
1982; Prance
Prance and
and
Malaysia crack; seeds white, almond
almond flavoured, eaten
eaten raw
raw or
or roasted,
roasted, Freitas, 1973;
1973; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
...... source of
of pleasant-tasting
pleasant-tasting fat.
fat. Nuts occasionally marketed in 1984;
1984; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
...... Europe, used for billiard
billiard balls; timber
balls; timber for
for shipbuilding
shipbuilding Verheij and Coronel, 1991;
Verheij 1991;
+>-
Clay and Clement, 1993;
1993;
Macrae et
Macrae et al., 1993
1993
Caryocar villosum
villosum améndoa
amendoa de rainforest;
rainforest; kernel, seed pulp and cotyledons
cotyledons edible,
edible, kernel and Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Prance and
N.E. South
South America,
America, espinho; arbre a
espinho; surrounding tissue
tissue source of oil; timber
timber for
for heavy
heavy construction
construction Freitas, 1973;
1973; Menninger,
Menninger,
Atlantic Brazil
Atlantic Brazil to French beurre; bats
bats and shipbuilding; introduced into Malaysia but plantations
plantations low 1977; FAO,
1977; FAO, 1986; Clay and
Guiana sauari; pekea; Potential for
yielding. Potential for development
development of fruit and oil Clement, 1993;
1993; Prance,
Prance, 1994
1994
pequiá;
pequia; piquiá
piquia

CHRYSOBALANACEAE;fruit
CHRYSOBALANACEAE; fruit aa 1-seeded
1-seeded drupe
Chrysobalanus
Chrysobalanus icaco icaco
cocoplum; icaco shrub or small tree; cultivated
shrub cultivated for its
its edible
edible fruit; kernel
kernel Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical America and delicious,
delicious, fruit eaten raw, boiled
boiled or
or candied;
candied; seed
seed oil
oil used
used as
as an
an 1977; 1985;
1977; Burkill, 1985;
Africa; cultivated
Africa; illuminant in
illuminant in West
West Africa;
Africa; source
source of timber
timber and
and fuel;
fuel; fruit used Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
in tanning and traditional medicine; grown as as an
an ornamental
ornamental and Coronel, 1991;
1991; Peters et
et
al., 1992
1992
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name
Conu-non -DetaiI-s
Details ---- References

Couepia edulis cutia nut; castanha

castanha large forest tree; fruit with hard, woody
forest tree; woody epicarp, very difficult
difficult to Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987; FAO,
FAO,
Amazonia; occasionally
occasionally de cutia crack, ovoid; nut-like
nut-like kernels, eaten
eaten raw
raw or
or roasted,
roasted, contains
contains 1986; Clay and Clement,
1986; Clement,
cultivated 73%
73 % oil, used
used for
for cooking
cooking and
and soap-making
soap-making 1993; Prance, 1994
1993; 1994
Couepia longipendula pendula nut; forest tree, bushy tree inin open
open under
under cultivation;
cultivation; drupe
drupe 4-6
4-6 cm
cm Clay and Clement. 1993;
1993;
Brazilian, Colombia and castanha de long, epicarp thin, mesocarp
mesocarp fibrous, woody;
woody; nut
nut 3-5
3-5 cm
cm long,
long, Prance, 1994
1994
Peruvian Amazonia; galinha; castanha
castanha sweet, eaten raw or roasted;
roasted; edible
edible seed
seed oil
oil semi-drying,
semi-drying, easily
easily
formerly cultivated around péndula
pendula rancifies, used as
rancifies, used as an illuminant; seed cake
illuminant; seed cake edible.
edible. Wood
Wood heavy,
heavy,
Manaus, some
Manaus, difficult to
difficult to work,
work, used in civil and
and naval construction. Excellent
naval construction. Excellent
experimental plantations potential oil plant.
Parinari campestris
Parinari campestris drupe small, kernel
kernel edible
edible Hedrick, 1972
1972
Trinidad, Guyana to N.
Brazil
.....
..... Parinari curatellifolia
curatellifolia mupunda
mbula; mupunda evergreen tree; drupe
evergreen tree; drupe 3-4 cm long,
long, eaten raw, source of a Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; FAO,
VI
tropical Africa fermented beverage, oily
fermented beverage, oily kernel
kernel eaten
eaten raw,
raw, used as an
an almond
almond 1982, 1983;
1982, 1983; Burkill, 1985;
1985;
substitute
substitute or pounded in soup; dr, ing seed oil used
drying used in
in making
making Mabberley, 1987; Peters et
Mabberley,
varnish or paint; timber for railway
varnish railway sleepers,
sleepers, mine
mine props,
props, al.,, 1992
al. 1992
fuelwood
Parinari excelsa
Parinari excelsa rough skinned or evergreen tree; drupes marketed locally,
locally, insipid
insipid pulp
pulp eaten
eaten raw
raw Hedrick, 1972; FAO, 1983;
Hedrick, 1983;
tropical Africa
tropical grey plum or fermented,
fermented, oily kernels eaten raw Burkill, 1985;
Burkill, Peters et
1985; Peters et al.,
1992
Parinari montana
montana drupe large,
drupe large, fibrous,
fibrous, with thick, acrid rind, kernel
kernel sweet,
sweet, edible
edible Hedrick, 1982
1982
Guyana,
Guyana, N. Brazil
Brazil

COMBRETACEAE;
COMBRETACEAE; fruit usually indehiscent, 1-seeded,
I-seeded, drupaceous
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Terminalia bellerica
bel/erica myrobalm kernels possibly toxic
kernels eaten, possibly toxic or narcotic;
narcotic; seed source of tannin Exell, 1954;
Exell, 1954; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
Indo-Malesia;
Indo-Malesia; cultivated and black dye;
dye; timber good, source
source of
of firewood
firewood and
and charcoal; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
fruit source of commercial myrobalm, used
commercial myrobalm, used for tanning,
tanning , source of Mabberley, 1987
1987
a black dye
Terminalia bentzoé
bentzoe false benzoin kernels eaten Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Mascarine Islands
Islands 1972
Terminalia catappa
Terminalia Barbados, Indian,
Indian, kernel enclosed
enclosed in fibrous flesh and difficult
difficult to open,
open, limiting
limiting its
its Howes, 1948; Coode, 1969;
Howes, 1969;
Malaysia;
Peninsular Malaysia; Malabar or commercial exploitation;
commercial exploitation; kernels
kernels eaten
eaten raw
raw or roasted, delicious,
delicious, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Thaman,
Thaman,
widely planted in tropics
tropics almond
tropical almond source of Indian
source Indian almond
almond oil;
oil; oil
oil cake
cake fed
fed to
to pigs;
pigs; timber
timber used
used 1976; Menninger,
1976; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
for general construction;
construction; bark for tanning; grown as shade tree FAO, 1982;
FAO, 1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
and ornamental;
ornamental; oil, leaves
leaves and bark
bark medicinal
medicinal 1984; Morton, 1985;
1984; 1985;
Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Tow, 1989
1989
...... Terminalia chebula myrobalan difficult to
fruit difficult to open,
open, kernel edible; dried fruit for
for tanning
tanning Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
......
0\ Mabberley, 1987
India, Sri Lanka,
Lanka, Myanmar
Myanmar 1987
Terminalia copelandii
Terminalia kernels edible;
kernels edible; source of timber Exell, 1954
1954
Philippines
East Indies, Philippines
Terminalia glabrata
Terminalia glabrata kernels eaten, almond flavoured
kernels Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Pacific Islands 1977

Terminalia impediens kernels edible Coode, 1969

1969
Guinea
New Guinea
Terminalia kaernbachii
Terminalia kaembachii okari nut tree; kernels
kernels excellent, one
one of
of the
the best-flavoured,
best-flavoured, tropical nuts Exell, 1964;
1964; Coode,
Coode, 1969;
1969;
Papuasia; cultivated
cultivated and a favourite
and favourite article of diet among the natives; wood
wood used for
for Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
furniture and
and Coronel, 1991;
1991; Macrae
Macrae
et al.,
aI., 1993
1993
Terminalia latifolia
Terminalia kernels eaten, almond
almond flavoured
flavoured Hedrick, 1972
1972
Caribbean
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Terminalia
Terminalia litoralis kernels edible, sometimes
sometimes eaten by children; useful
useful timber
timber Smith, 1971;
1971; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
Fiji, Tonga Menninger, 1977
1977

Terminalia
Terminalia microcarpa kalumpit fruit 3 cm in
in diameter;
diameter; fleshy,
fleshy, acidic
acidic kernels
kernels eaten
eaten raw
raw or
or boiled;
boiled; FAO, 1984
1984
Philippines timber for general construction, ship planking, furniture and
cabinet making

Terminalia nitens sakat fruit oval, 3 cm

cm long;
long; raw
raw kernel
kernel eaten;
eaten; timber
timber for
for construction
construction FAO, 1984
1984
Philippines and ship planking
Terminalia pamea kernels eaten, almond
almond flavoured
flavoured Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Guyana; cultivated 1977

Terminalia platyphylla wild plum kernels eaten Smith, 1971; Hedrick, 1972
1972
Australia
N. Australia

-
-...l
COMPOSITAE; fruit usually
COMPOSITAE; fruit usually aa cypsela,
cypsela, usually
usuallywith
withpersistent
persistentpappus,
pappus, rarely
rarely aa drupe

Helianthus annuus sunflower seeds

seeds eaten as
as a dessert nut and health food, boiled
boiled or roasted,
roasted, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
North America;
America; widely ground to a flour or in
in soup;
soup; source
source of
of aa commercial
commercial seed oil 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1977; 1984;
cultivated used in cooking and margarine; stem
stem aa flax
flax substitute;
substitute; oilcake
oilcake Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
and leaves
leaves used as fodder; cultivated as an
as fodder; an ornamental
ornamental Mabberley, 1987
1987

CORYLACEAE; fruit
CORYLACEAE; fruit a nut

Corylus americana
Corylus American filbert
American filbert nuts with edible seeds,well
seeds, well flavoured but smaller
smaller and thicker Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
E. North
North America;
America; or hazelnut shelled than C. avellana;
avellana; cultivated
cultivated as
as an
an ornamental
ornamental 1972; Krochmal,
1972; Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
cultivated Mabberley, 1987
Mabberley, 1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Cory Ius avellana Eurasia,

Corylus filbert, hazel or
filbert, shrub bearing
shrub bearing nuts
nuts with edible seeds, seeds
seeds marketed
marketed Bobiov, 1936; Howes, 1948;
Bobiov, 1948;
cultivated cob nut
nut commercially, source of edible filbert oil; coppice poles used
commercially, source used for Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
hurdles, wattle and daub and firewood;
firewood; basketry; hybridizes
hybridizes 1977;
1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
readily with A. maxima
maxima 1987; Bianchini
Mabberley, 1987; Bianchini
et al., 1988;
etaI.,1988;
Corylus
Cory Ius chinensis Chinese hazelnut,
hazelnut, Nuts with edible seeds
seeds Howes, 1948
1948
China Chinese filbert
Corylus
Cory colurna
Ius columa Turkish or Indian
Indian tree bearing hard-shelled
hard-shelled nuts with edible seeds, nuts
nuts marketed
marketed 1936; Howes, 1948;
Bobiov, 1936; 1948;
S.E. Europe,
Europe, S.W.
S.W. Asia;
Asia; hazelnut, Turkish commercially
commercially asas cobnuts,
cobnuts, kernels sometimes
sometimes processed for oil; Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
cultivated filbert, wood used
used for furniture and turnery, formerly
formerly used
used for
for spinning
spinning 1987; Rathore, 1993
1987; 1993
wheels
Corylus
Cory cornuta
Ius comuta beaked filbert; nuts with well-flavoured,
well-flavoured, edible seeds; more cold
cold hardy
hardy than
than C.
C. Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
....... N.E. North
North America
America beaked hazel americana 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
.......
00
Krochmal, 19982
19982
Corylus ferox
Corylus ferox Himalayan nuts small, thick shelled with edible seeds but bristly involucre
involucre Howes, 1948; Hedrick, 1972
Howes, 1972
Himalayan region hazelnut, curri limits its commercial exploitation for food
food
Corylus
Cory Ius heterophylla Siberian hazelnut marketed commercially
nuts with edible seeds, marketed commercially Bobiov, 1936
1936
E. Mongolia,
Mongolia, Manchuria,
Manchuria,
N. China;
China; cultivated
cultivated Japan
Cory Ius maxima
Corylus giant filbert, shrub or small tree bearing nuts with edible seed; seed oil for
shrub Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Howes,
S.E. Europe;
Europe; cultivated
cultivated Lambert's or cooking, confectionery, especially nut-chocolate, formerly
formerly used
used 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Lombardy filbert,
filbert, for paint, soap, etc.;
etc.; charcoal
charcoal used
used for
for gunpowder;
gunpowder; hybridizes
hybridizes Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
readily with A
A.. avellana et al.,
aI., 1988;
1988;
Corylus sieboldiana
Corylus hazel
Japanese hazel nuts edible but bristly involucre
involucre limits
limits its
its commercial
commercial exploitation
exploitation 1936
Bobiov, 1936
(including var. for food
mandshsurica)
China, Japan
 Species and
Species and distribution Conunon name
Common Details References

Corylus tibetica
Corylus Tibetan hazelnut, nuts with edible seeds
seeds but
but bristly
bristly involucre
involucre limits
limits its
itscommercial
commercial Howes, 1948;
1948; Roecklein
Roecklein and
and
China Tibetan filbert exploitation for food Ping Sun Leun, 1987
1987

CORYNOCARPACEAE;; fruit
CORYNOCARPACEAE fruit aa drupe

Corynocarpus laevi gata

laevigata karaka nut, New
karaka New tree, roasted
roasted seeds
seeds staple
staple food of the Maoris,
Maoris, new
new seeds
seeds toxic
toxic Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
New Zealand Zealand laurel unless steamed for
unless steamed for a day and soaked; fleshy
fleshy pulp eaten raw 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
although embryo considered toxic unless soaked in in salt
salt water
water Mabberley, 1987
1987

CUCURBITACEAE;fruit
CUCURBITACEAE; fruit aa berry (pepo hard-walled), less
(pepo if hard-walled), less often
often aa capsule,
capsule, rarely samaroid
samaroid

........
........ Acanthosicyos
Acanthosicyos horrida nara; narram; spiny
spiny shrub; gourd pulp
pulp and
and seeds
seeds eaten
eaten by
by Hottentots;
Hottentots; seeds
seeds Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
1.0
Namib desert
Namib narra melon; oily, marketed
marketed in Cape Town as almond substitute 1977; Arnold
1977; Arnold et
et aI.,
al., 1985;
1985;
butter nut Mabberley, 1987
1987
Citrullus lanatus watermelon seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw
raw or roasted as a dessert
dessert nut;
nut; raw
raw pulp
pulp also
also eaten,
eaten, Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
tropical Africa and
and Asia;
Asia; seed
seed oil used for cooking,
cooking, soap
soap andand as
as an
an illuminant;
illuminant; seedcake
seedcake 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
cultivated fed to livestock; also used as
fed as aa masticatory
masticatory andand in
in local
local medicine
medicine Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Purseglove, 1987;
Purseglove, 1987;
Peters et al., 1992
1992
Cucurbita maxima
maxima pumpkin; winter
pumpkin; annual herb
annual herb;; flesh of
of mature
mature fruits fine-textured, used
fruits fine-textured, used as
as a table Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
Central and South
South squash vegetable, in
vegetable, in pies
pies and jams;
jams; seeds
seeds eaten as a dessert nut Purseglove, 1987
1987
America; cultivated
cultivated
Cucurbita mixta
mixta pumpkin; winter annual herb;
annual herb; seeds eaten as
seeds eaten as a dessert nut, flesh
flesh stringy
stringy Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Central America; squash; cushaw Purseglove, 1985
1985
cultivated
 Species and distribution
Species and Common name Details References

Cucurbita moschata pumpkin, winter

pumpkin, annual herb
annual herb;; flesh
flesh of
of mature
mature fruits
fruits fine-textured,
fine-textured , used a
used as a table
table Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Central America;
America; squash vegetable, in pies and jams; seeds eaten as a dessert nut
vegetable, nut Purseglove, 1987
1987
cultivated
Cucurbita pepo pumpkin; summer annual herb
annual herb;; seeds
seeds eaten
eaten raw,
raw, roasted
roasted or fried as a dessert
dessert nut or Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Central America;
America; squash;
squash; vegetable
vegetable in food;
food ; baked pulpy flesh
flesh eaten in pies;
pies ; pulp fed toto livestock;
livestock; 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1977; 1984;
cultivated marrow some cultivars
some cultivars grown as an ornamental; used as as aa vermifuge
vermifuge Mabberley,
Mabberley , 1987;
1987;
Purseglove, 1987
1987
Telfairia
Teljairia pedata oyster nut; dioecious,, woody
dioecious woody stemmed,
stemmed,climbing
climbingvine;vine;gourd large,<<15
gourdlarge, kg,
15 kg, Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
E. Africa;
Africa; cultivated
cultivated African pumpkin; deeply ridged,
deeply ridged, seeds
seeds discoid,
discoid, 3-4
3-4 x 1.5 cm, up up to
to 140,
140, enveloped
enveloped 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
Zanzibar oil vine
vine in fibrous,
fibrous, bitter husk; seeds
seeds washed,
washed, sundried
sundried and dehusked;
dehusked; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
kernel eaten
kernel eaten raw
raw or roasted
roasted and in
in cooking,
cooking, Brazil
Brazil nut
nut flavour,
flavour, Mabberley, 1987; Peters et
Mabberley,
seed oil used in cosmetics, soap-
seed soap- and
and candle-making;
candle-making; the bitter al., 1992;
aI., 1992; Macrae et aI.
Macrae et al.,,
...... husk limits its commercial exploitation as an oilseed
oilseed 1993
tv
o kernel ca.
kernel ca. 6%
6 % fat, 27%
27 % protein,
protein, rich
rich in
in edible
edible oil
oil

DIPTEROCARPACEAE; fruits,
DIPTEROCARPACEAE; fruits, dry, indehiscent,
indehiscent, 1-seeded
1-seeded with woody
woody pericarp

Anisoptera thurifera palosapis deciduous forest

deciduous forest tree;
tree; fruit
fruit 2-15
2-15 mm
mm in diameter;
diameter; seeds eaten raw FAO, 1984
1984
Philippines or roasted
Shorea sp. Borneo illipe nut emergent rainforest
emergent rainforest tree;
tree; kernels commercial source of of speciality
speciality Blicher-Mathiesen,
Blicher-Mathiesen,
Malaysia, Borneo, New
New fats (cocoa butter equivalents) used as cocoa
fats cocoa butter
butter substitute
substitute in
in 1994; Howes, 1948;
1994; 1948;
Guinea chocolate formulations
chocolate formulations also
also in
in cosmetics,
cosmetics, formerly
formerly important
important for
for Menninger, 1977;
1977;
soap and
soap and candles;
candles; valuable
valuable timber tree Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Vateria indica
Vateria dammar seeds used
seeds used for
for making
making aa bread;
bread; seed
seed fat
fat -- "Malabar
"Malabar fat"
fat" or Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
S. India
India "dhupa fat" used
"dhupa fat" used for
for candles,
candles, etc.; resin
resin - "white
"white danuriar"
dammar" or Mabberley, 1987
1977; Mabberley, 1987
"piney varnish" formerly important
important
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

ELAEOCARPACEAE;fruit
ELAEOCARPACEAE; fruit aa capsule
capsule or
or drupe
drupe

Elaeocarpus bancroftii karanda nut; nut edible, equalling that of

edible, excellent flavour, equalling Macadamia;
of Macadamia; Mabberley, 1987; Tow,
Mabberley, 1987;
Australia Johnstone River
Johnstone virtually unknown in cultivation, CSIRO
CSIRO interested
interested in
in developing;
developing; 1989;
1989; Lazarides
Lazarides and Hince,
almond;
almond; karanda timber 1993
quandong

EUPHORBIACEAE; fruit
EUPHORBIACEAE; fruit a 3-lobed
3-1obed capsule

Aleurites moluccana candle-nut; fruit fleshy;

fruit fleshy; nut
nut 1, globose, ca.
1, globose, ca. 3 cmcm in
in diameter,
diameter, shell harsh, 1948; Hedrick,
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
S.E. Asia;
Asia; widely
widely candleberry; thick, kernel
thick, kernel white,
white, oily, ca. 55 g;
g; kernels
kernels eaten
eaten when
when thoroughly
thoroughly 1972;
1972; Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
cultivated
cultivated in the tropics balucanat; Indian
balucanat; dry or after roasting to destroy mild toxins,
dry used in curries;
toxins, used Mabberley, 1987; Tow,
Mabberley,
...... or source of the
source the edible
edible "China wood
wood oil", "candle-nut
"candle-nut oil", 1989;
1989; Lazarides and Hince,
Hince,
tv
...... Otaheite walnut "lumbang
"Iumbang oil", "walnut-oil" or "artist's oil", used in soaps,
oil", "walnut-oil" or "artist's soaps, paints
paints 1993; Macrae
1993; Macrae etet aI.,
al., 1993;
1993;
and quick-drying varnishes and as an illuminant;
quick-drying varnishes illuminant; oily seeds
seeds Burkill, 1994
1994
strung together serve as candles,
candles, hence
hence vernacular
vernacular name;
name;
cultivated
cultivated asas an ornamental;
ornamental; wood not durable, used used for
for fuel
fuel and
and
matches
Caryodendron amazonicum Possibly cospecific with
Possibly cospecific with C.
C. orinocense;
orinocense; uses
uses as
as for C.
C. orinocense
orinocense Reckin, 1983 ; Clement
Reckin, 1983; Clement and
and
1994
Villachica, 1994
NW Brazil, Colombia,
Colombia,
Peru
Caryodendron orinocens
orinocensee inchi;
inchi ; tacay or kernel
kernel surrounded by thin shell,
shell, easily
easily broken
broken with
with fingers;
fingers; Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Colombia, Ecuador, taccy nut;
taccy nut; orinoco roasted seeds
seeds eaten, flavour like Corylus avellana (hazel);
like Corylus (hazel); source
source 1977;
1977; Reckin, 1983;
Reckin, 1983;
Venezuela; small nut of edible oil. 1987; Clement
Mabberley, 1987; Clement
plantations in Colombia 1994
and Villachica, 1994
and Ecuador
 Species and
Species and distribution Common
Common name Details References

Cnidoscolus oligandrus
Cnidoscolus seeds with
seeds with 40-50
40-50% oil,, eaten in times of drought
% oil Menninger, 1977
1977
Brazil
Elateriospermum tapos tapos seeds large, oily, eaten
seeds eaten after boiling
boiling to remove
remove HCN Menninger, 1977;
1977;
S. Thailand, Peninsular Mabberley, 1987
1987
Malaysia
Manniophytom fulvum gasso nut seed kernel
seed kernel boiled and eaten, marketed
marketed locally; seed contains
contains Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Tropical Africa 50% oil, source
50% source of
of aa drying
drying oil
oil formerly
formerly considered
considered for paint
paint 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
manufacture; liane
manufacture; liane with fibres
fibres used for ropes
ropes and
and nets
nets Peters et al., 1992
1992
Omphalea diandra
Omphalea cob nut
cobnut seeds edible, embryo deleterious
seeds deleterious and
and requires
requires removal
removal Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Caribbean 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977
1977
Omphalea megacarpa
Omphalea Russell
Russell river nut
nut large nuts eaten raw Menninger, 1977
1977

-
N
N
Caribbean
Omphalea triandra
Omphalea Jamaican cob nut seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw
raw or roasted
roasted after
after removal
removal of
of deleterious
deleterious embryo,
embryo, Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
tropical America source of a sweet, fine-flavoured
fine-flavoured oil 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Phyllanthus emblica emblic; ambal
ambal seeds edible,
seeds edible, made into sweetmeats;
sweetmeats; dried fruit provides "emblic
"emblic Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical
tropical Asia; cultivated myrobalan",
myrobalan", used in local medicine
local medicine and source of tanbark and
of tanbark and 1977; Mabberely, 1987
1977; 1987
dyes
Pimelodendron seeds edible;
seeds edible; bark
bark purgative;
purgative; milky
milky latex
latex used
used as
as a varnish
varnish Menninger, 1977;
1977;
amboinicum Mabberely, 1987
1987
Moluccas
Plukenetia conophora
Plukenetia owusa nut
nut liane cultivated
liane cultivated for
for its oilseeds
oilseeds for use in cooking;
cooking; kernels
kernels eaten
eaten Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Sierra Leone to Zaire raw 1977; Mabberely, 1987
1977; 1987
Ricinodendron heudelotii erimado edible nuts and oilseeds; trade timber
timber Menninger, 1977;
1977;
tropical Africa Mabberley, 1987
1987
 Species and
Species and distribution Common
Conuilon name Details References

Schinziophyton rautanenii
Schinziophyton rautanenii manketti nut
nut Raw pulp
Raw pulp and
and seed
seed kernel
kernel eaten, aa staple
staple diet
diet of
of the
the Kalahai
Kalahai Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
S. Angola
Angola and N. Namibia
Namibia bushmen; manketti nut
bushmen; manketti nut oil
oil used
used in food,
food, varnishes, etc. timber 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
eastwards to Tanzania and
and used as a balsa
balsa Ochroma lagopus,
/agopus, substitute
substitute with possible use for Peters et al., 1992
1992
Mozambique
N. Mozambique paper-making
Tetracarpidium conophor; awusa liarme; seed
lianne; seed eaten
eaten raw
raw or
or roasted,
roasted, marketed
marketed locally;
locally; fruit,
fruit, leaves
leaves Menninger, 1977;
1977;
conophorum nut and young shoots edible;
young shoots edible; source
source of a drying
drying oil Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987; Peters et
West Africa; cultivated
cultivated al. 1992
1992

FAGACEAE; fruit
FAGACEAE; fruit aa nut

Castanea crenata Japanese chestnut nuts variable in size,

variable in size, some
some 5 cm in diameter,
diameter, edible but bitter Camus, 1929; Howes, 1948;
Camus, 1948;
>-'
Japan; cultivated
cultivated due to tannin content;
content; fed
fed to
to pigs
pigs in Japan;
Japan; timber
timber used
used for
for Uphof,
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974;
1974;
tv
Vol
sleepers, furniture, cabinet
cabinet work,
work, shipbuilding;
shipbuilding; cultivated,
cultivated, Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
resistant to chestnut blight, grown asas an
an ornamental
ornamental Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
Mabberley, 1987
Mabberley, 1987
Castanea dentata American or nuts smaller and sweeter
smaller and sweeter than
than C.
C. sativa; best
best trees
trees almost
almost extinct
extinct Camus, 1929;
Camus, 1929; Howes, 1948;
1948;
E. North
North America
America American
North American due to chestnut blight, Cryphonectria
Cryphonectria parasitica
parasitica and
and commercial
commercial Uphof, 1968;
Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
chestnut; sweet market
market ruined;
ruined; marketed
marketed andand sold roasted
roasted in towns;
towns; eaten by Usher, 1974;
Usher, 1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
chestnut native Americans, also
native Americans, also leaf tea used
used to treat whooping cough, as
whooping cough, 1977; Krochmal,
1977; Krochmal, 1982;
sedative and tonic,
sedative and tonic, bark for dysentery; important timber
timber for Rosengarten,
Ros 1984;
engarten, 1984;
furniture, fencing,
furniture, fencing, pulp and source of tannin
tannin Mabberley, 1987
1987
Castanea henryi nuts excellent,
excellent, small,
small, edible;
edible; timber for building Camus,
Camus, 1929;
1929; Howes, 1948;
1948;
China coast Uphof,
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974
1974
Castanea mollisima chestnut
Chinese chestnut nuts edible, sweeter
nuts edible, sweeter than
than C.
C. sativa
sativa but
but less
less sweet
sweet than C.
C. Camus,
Camus , 1929;
1929; Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948;
N.W.
N. W. China;
China; cultivated
cultivated dentata, resistant
resistant to
to chestnut
chestnut blight;
blight; cultivated
cultivated and
and sold
sold in
in local
local Uphof, 1968;
1968; Usher, 1974;
1974;
China, introduced
introduced North markets; source of timber and fuel
markets; fuel Menninger, 1977;
1977; Krochmal,
Krochmal,
America 1982; Rosengarten,
1982; Rosengarten, 1984
1984
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Detailse t a i l S - R e f e r e nReferences
---- D ces

Castanea ozarkensis
ozarkensis ozak chinquapin nuts
nuts small, edible Krochmal, 19982
19982
central USA; limestone
limestone
Castanea pumila Virginia chestnut; evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; nuts small, sweet,
sweet, very
very palatable
palatable but
but difficult
difficult to Camus,
Camus, 1929;
1929; Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948;
North America;
E. North America; chinquapin;
chinquapin; shell,, eaten by local
shell local Americans,
Americans, formerly
formerly sold
sold locally;
locally; nuts
nuts used
used Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
cultivated Allegheny to fatten
fatten pigs; also strung to make
make necklaces;
necklaces; root
root astridgent,
astringent, Usher, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
chinquapin used as
used as tonic and to treat fevers;
fevers; timber
timber for
for railway
railway sleepers
sleepers 1977; Krochmal,
1977; Krochmal , 1982;
1982;
Mabberley,
Mabberley , 1987
1987
sativa
Castanea sativa sweet
Spanish or sweet tree; nuts starchy, sold
tree; sold roasted,
roasted, flour
flour used
used in
in cooking,
cooking, especially
especially Camus,
Camus, 1929;
1929; Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968;
Mediterranean to chestnut in Italy, candied (marrons glacés);
glaces); timber used for sleepers, Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Usher, 1974;
1974;
Caucasus; cultivated in coppice timber
coppice timber for
for fencing,
fencing, gates, walking sticks, cellulose;
cellulose; bark Menninger, 1977;
1977;
mild temperate Europe and used in tanning; cultivated as ornamental and for erosion
used erosion control
control Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
subtropical regions et al.,
aI. , 1988;
1988; Verheij
Verheij and
and
..... Coronel, 1991
1991
N
~ nuts small,
nuts small, edible,
edible, used
used for flour Camus,1929;
Camus , I929; Uphof, 1968;
1968;
Castanea seguinii
seguinii
and central
E. and central China
China Usher, 1974
1974
Castanopsis
Castanopsis gon nuts eaten raw or cooked
nuts cooked Menninger, 1977
1977
acuminatissima
Myanmar
Castanopsis argentea seeds edible;
seeds edible; bark source of dye; timber Mabberley,, 1987;
Mabberley 1987; Verheij
Verheij
Indo-Malesia and Coronel,
and Coronel , 1991
1991
Castanopsis argyrophylla
Castanopsis argyrophyUa nuts edible
nuts Menninger, 1977
1977
India
Castanopsis boisii nuts edible, marketed locally
nuts locally Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974
Uphof, 1974
N. Vietnam
Castanopsis chinensis
Castanopsis chinensis nuts edible
nuts Menninger, 1977
1977
China
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details
Details References

Castanopsis chrysophylla
Castanopsis chrysophylla golden-leaved tree evergreen;
tree evergreen; nuts
nuts ripen
ripen in
in second
second year,
year, 8-12
8-12 mm
mm long,
long, sweet,
sweet, Howes, 1948; Uphof, 1968;
Howes, 1968;
S.W. USA
USA chestnut; golden
chestnut; eaten by
eaten by native Americans;
Americans; wood used for agricultural
agricultural Usher, 1974;
1974; Krochmal,
Krochmal,
or giant implements 1982; Mabberley,
1982; Mabberley , 1987
1987
chinquapin
Castanopsis costata
Castanopsis berangan duri
duri tree; nuts
nuts eaten
eaten parched, roasted
roasted or
or boiled,
boiled, used
used in
inconfectionery;
confectionery; Howes, 1948;
1948; Soepadmo,
Soepadmo,
Thailand, Peninsular wood hard,
wood hard, difficult to work; bark tannin
tannin source 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Borneo,
Malaysia, Borneo, Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
Sumatra; lowland
lowland to
to
submontane
sub montane forest
Castanopsis cuspidatus acorns small,
acorns small, sweet, eaten boiled or roasted; planted in Japan as Uphof, 1968;
1968; Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
Korea,
Korea, S. China
China an ornamental;
an ornamental; leaves
leaves formerly
formerly used as rice bowls
bowls Usher, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
1977; Rosengarten,
1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
...... Mabberley, 1987
1987
tv
VI
Castanopsis hysteris nuts eaten; timber
nuts eaten; timber for
for construction,
construction ,sleepers,
sleepers,cheap
cheap furniture,
furniture, Howes, 1948;
1948; CSIR, 1992
1992
E. Himalayas
Himalayas tools, etc.
etc. tannin
tannin potential;
potential; coppices
coppices well
well
Castanopsis indica nuts eaten;
eaten; timber for construction, panelling,
panelling , tools, fuel;
fuel; Howes, 1948;
1948; CSIR, 1992
1992
tropical Himalayas
Himalayas browsed
Castanopsis inermis be rang an
berangan nuts eaten boiled,
boiled, parched or roasted, used
used in
in confectionery,
confectionery, Camus,
Camus, 1929;
1929; Uphof, 1968;
1968;
Thailand , Peninsular
Thailand, Peninsular marketed
marketed in Sumatra;
Sumatra; wood hard, difficult to work; bark
bark tannin
tannin Usher, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
Malaysia, Sumatra;
Malaysia, source Verheij and Coronel,
1977; Verheij
cultivated 1991
Castanopsis javanica cultivated in Java
cultivated in Java for
for its edible nuts; post timber; bark used
used for
for Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Soepadmo,
Soepadmo,
Malesia; forests rice baskets
baskets 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Castanopsis lucida
Lucida berangan papan nuts eaten raw,
nuts eaten raw, boiled or roasted,
roasted, used
used in
in confectionery;
confectionery; wood
wood Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij
Thailand, Peninsular
Thailand, hard, difficult to work;
work; bark
bark tannin
tannin source
source and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Malaysia, Sumatra, Borneo
Borneo
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name__
Conunon u . Defails
Details __ References
u References

Castanopsis malaccensis berangan gajah

gajah nuts eaten raw, boiled or roasted,
nuts eaten roasted, used
used in
in confectionery,
confectionery, causes
causes Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij
Thailand, Peninsular diarrhoea if eaten to excess; wood hard, difficult
diarrhoea difficult to work;
work; bark
bark and Coronel, 1991
and 1991
Malaysia, Sumatra
Sumatra tannin source
Castanopsis megacarpa nuts bitter, eaten
eaten Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Verheij
Verheij
Malaysia and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991
1991
Castanopsis philipensis nuts eaten; timber Uphof, 1968;
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974;
1974;
Philippines Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Castanopsis sclerophylla
sclerophyUa nuts eaten locally Uphof, 1968;
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974
1974
E. and central
central China
China
Castanopsis sempervirens bush or Dudley
Dudley nuts eaten by native Americans, good roasted and
nuts and served
served with
with Krochmal, 1982
1982
California sierra chinquapin
chinquapin butter and salt
..... Castanopsis tibetana nuts eaten locally Camus,
Camus, 1929;
1929; Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968;
tv
0\
China, Tibet
China, Usher, 1974
1974
Castanopsis tribuloides evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; nuts roasted and eaten;
eaten; timber durable, used for Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
subtropical Himalayas planks, shingles and fuel
fuel 1977; CSIR, 1992
1977; 1992
wallichii
Castanopsis wallichii berangan duri tree; nuts small, rind
tree; rind thick
thick and
and difficult
difficult to open, eaten
eaten parched, Howes, 1948;
1948; Soepadma,
Soepadma,
Thailand, Peninsular
Thailand, Peninsular roasted or boiled, used in confectionery;
roasted confectionery; wood hard, difficult to 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
Malaysia; forest
Malaysia; work; bark tannin
work; tannin source
source Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Fagus grandifolia American,
American, nuts shaken
nuts shaken from
from tree
tree after
after frost has
has opened husks or raked from
opened husks Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
E. North
E. North America Carolina, red, the ground;
the ground; eaten roasted, considered
considered delicious, alsoalso as
as coffee
coffee 1972; Menninger,
1972; Merminger, 1977;
grey or white
white substitute; leaves
substitute; leaves eaten by some native Americans; leaf leaf infusions
infusions Krochmal, 1982;
Krochmal, 1982;
beech used to treat burns,
burns, scalds
scalds and
and frost
frost bite;
bite; leaves
leaves and
and bark
bark source
source Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
of tannin and dyes; timber
timber source;
source; cultivated
cultivated as
as ornamental
ornamental Mabberley, 1987
1987
sylvatica
Fagus sylvatica European beech
beech nuts eaten
nuts eaten fresh,
fresh, dried or roasted,
roasted, in
in cooking
cooking or
or as
as coffee
coffee Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Europe, cultivated
Europe; substitute, oil
substitute, oil source
source of salad
salad oil
oil and
and butter substitute,
substitute, also
also as
as an 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
illuminant; timber;
illuminant; timber; cultivated as an ornamental
ornamental Rosengarten,
Ros 1984;
engarten, 1984;
Mabberley, 1987
Mabber1ey, 1987
 Species and
Species and distribution Conunon
Common name Details References

Lithocarpus cornea evergreen tree; ground acorns eaten, marketed locally;

locally ; wood Camus,, 1936-54;
Camus 1936-54; Howes,
S. China
S. used for poles, carpentry,
used carpentry, utensils,
utensils, wagons,
wagons, 1948; Uphof,
1948; Uphof, 1968;
1968; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
1972; Usher, 1974;
1972; 1974;
Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Lithocarpus densiflorus
densiflorus tanoak; tanbark acorns mature end of
of second
second season; acorns
acorns leached
leached in
in hot
hot water
water Krochmal,, 1982
Krochmal 1982
Asia, introduced W.
W. USA
USA oak to remove tannins, dried, ground
ground and
and eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans
Americans
Lithocarpus philippinensis ulayan tree; acorns
acorns eaten roasted or boiled,
boiled, also
also used
used in
in candies
candies FAO, 1984
1984
Philippines
Nothofagus procera
Nothojagus procera rauli roble
rauli deciduous tree; acorns
deciduous tree; acorns edible; timber
timber used
used for furniture Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Hoffmann,
Hoffmann,
Chile 1978; Mabberley, 1987
1978; 1987

...... Quercus aegilops manna oak

manna deciduous tree; acorns used for making
deciduous tree; making bread Camus, 1936-54;
Camus, 1936-54; Howes,
Howes ,
N
-.l subsp. persica
subsp. 1948; Hedrick, 1972;
1948; 1972;
Iran, Iraq Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
Quercus
Quercus agrifolia coast live or
coast evergreen tree; acorns eaten raw or roasted
evergreen tree; roasted by native
native Americans,
Americans, Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
S.W. North
North America
America Californian field also ground for baking 1972; Saunders
1972; Saunders,, 1976;
1976;
oak Menninger, 1977
1977
Quercus alba
Quercus white or Quebec
white deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; acorns
acorns sweet,
sweet, eaten dried,
dried, boiled or roasted
roasted by Camus, 1936-54;
1936-54; Howes,
Howes,
E. North
North America
America oak native Americans,
Americans, also ground for baking
baking or
or used
used as
as coffee
coffee 1948; Uphof,
1948; Uphof, 1968;
1968;
substitute; important source of
of construction
construction timber and
and fuel;
fuel ; Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Usher,
Usher, 1974;
1974;
basketry Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley,
Mabberley , 1987
1987
Quercus coccifera
Quercus kermes oak
kermes evergreen shrub
evergreen shrub,, acorns ripening
ripening in second
second year, formerly eaten Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Mediterranean 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name D e t a i l s - References
Details

Quercus emoryi
emoryi Emory or evergreen tree; acorns sweet and palatable,
evergreen tree; palatable, eaten by native Howes, 1948;
1948; Kearney
Kearney and
and
Arizona, New
S. Arizona, New Mexico
Mexico blackjack oak; Americans and Mexicans;
Americans and Mexicans; timber source; good watershed
watershed Peebles, 1951;
1951;
bellota protection; browsed Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
1977; USDA, 1988
1977; 1988
Quercus
Quercus jrainetto
frainetto Hungarian oak tree; ground acorns used as a coffee
coffee substitute;
substitute; cultivated 'as
as an Davison, 1994
1994
Balkans
Balkans ornamental
Quercus gambelii
gambe/ii Gambel or shin
Gambel deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; ground
ground acorns
acorns edible,
edible, used as flour; browsed
browsed by Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968;
North America
W. North America oak game and livestock Usher, 1974;
1974; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
1987; USDA, 1988
1988
Quercus
Quercus garryana Garry, western
western or tree; acorns highly palatable, eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans;
Americans; Howes, 1948; Uphof, 1968;
Howes, 1968;
British Columbia to Oregon white oak important timber
timber tree; browsed by cattle
cattle and
and sheep
sheep Hedrick, 1972;
Hedrick, 1972; Usher,
Usher, 1974;
1974;
California
California Menninger, 1977;
1977;
...... Mabberley, 1987;
1987; USDA,
USDA,
tv
CXl 1988
1988

Quercus
Quercus g/abra
glabra acorns eaten locally Camus, 1936-74;
1936-74; Uphof,
Uphof,
Japan 1968; Usher,
1968; Usher, 1974;
1974;
Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Quercus
Quercus g/auca
glauca acorns eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
Himalayas
Quercus
Quercus grisea grey, evergreen, tree or shrub;
shrub; acorns
acorns eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans
Americans Hedrick, 1972
1972
S.W. North
North America
America live or Mexican
live
blue oak
blue
Quercus ilex holm oak,
holm oak, holly evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; acorns occasionally eaten;
eaten; oak timber used for
for Kuzeneva, 1936;
1936; Camus,
Camus ,
subsp. ilex oak; cultivated
oak; furniture; galls used for tanning; also
furniture; also planted
planted as
as an
an ornamental
ornamental 1936-54; Howes, 1948;
1936-54; 1948;
Mediterranean excluding Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
the Iberian Peninsula Camus, 1974;
1974; Merminger,
Menninger,
1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 1987
1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details ___ u_ References

subsp,. rotundifolia
subsp evergreen tree, cultivated in Spain and Portugal for its acorns, Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Spain, Portugal,
Spain, Portugal, N. Africa
Africa which are roasted and eaten, also source of
of oil
oil 1977
Quercus kelloggii California black deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; acorns
acorns used
used by Indians for food;
Indians for food ; browsed by Saunders, 1976;
1976; Menninger,
Menninger,
California Kellogg oak
or Kellogg game and livestock;
game livestock; wood used for fuel
fuel 1977;
1977;
USDA, 1988
1988
Quercus libani Lebanon oak deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; acorns roasted and eaten
eaten Townsend and
Townsend and Guest,
Guest, 1980
1980
Middle East
Quercus Zobala
Quercus lobata California or massive tree;
massive tree; ground acorns formerly
formerly aa favourite
favourite food
food of
ofnative
native Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968; Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
California valley white oak
oak Americans;
Americans ; important timber tree Usher, 1974;
1974; Saunders,
Saunders,
1976; Menninger, 1977;
1976; 1977;
Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; USDA,
USDA ,
1988
......
tv Quercus
Quercus macrocarpa bur oak
oak acorns large, eaten raw or roasted
acorns roasted by
by native
native Americans,
Americans , also
also Menninger, 1977
1977
\0
North America ground for baking
baking
macroZepis
Quercus macrolepis camata, camatina
camata, tree; ripe acorns eaten boiled or raw;
evergreen tree; raw; cups
cups -- "valonia"
"valonia" Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
S. Balkan,
Balkan, Aegean
Aegean or valonia oak and unripe fruits
fruits - "carnatas"
"carnatas" or "carnatina"
"carnatina" used
used for
for tanning
tanning 1972; Menninger, 1977
1977

Quercus
Quercus marilandica black jack oak
oak acorns eaten Howes, 1948
1948
USA
E. USA
Quercus
Quercus nigra black jack or tree;; acorns formerly used by Indians for food; wood
tree wood for fuel
fuel Uphof,
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974
1974
S.E. USA
USA possum oak
Quercus obZongifolia
Quercus oblongifolia evergreen or live tree or shrub;
shrub ; acorns
acorns eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans
Americans Hedrick, 1972
1972
S.W. USA
USA oak
Quercus
Quercus petraea
petraea sessile oak acorns eaten Mabberley,, 1987
Mabberley 1987
Europe
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common
Conunon name
name- --- - -Details
Details References

Quercus phellos willow oak acorns eaten Hedrick, 1972;

1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N.E. North
North America
America 1977

Quercus prinus basket, chestnut,

basket, deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; acorns
acorns sweet,
sweet, 44 cm
cm long,
long, eaten
eaten raw
raw or roasted
roasted by Camus, 1936-74;
Camus, 1936-74; Hedrick,
S. USA
USA chinquapin or cow native Americans,
native Americans, also
also ground
ground for
for baking;
baking; acorns eaten by 1972; 1976;
1972; Saunders, 1976;
oak livestock; important
livestock; source of tanbark; timber
important source Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Quercus robur
Quercus English, French, deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; acorns
acorns bitter,
bitter, used as famine
famine food, ground acorns
acorns Camus, 1936-54; Howes,
Camus, 1936-54;
Europe, Mediterranean
Mediterranean Scandinavian, used as coffee
coffee substitute; acorns eaten
eaten by
by pigs;
pigs; sweet
sweet manna-like
manna-like 1948; Uphof,
1948; Uphof, 1968; Hedrick,
Polish, black
Polish, black or exudate used
exudate used as
as sweetener;
sweetener; important
important timber
timber tree;
tree; wood
wood source
source of 1972; Usher, 1974;
1972; 1974;
truffle oak acetic acid;
acetic acid; bark and
and galls
galls source of tannin;
tannin; galls source of acetic Menninger, 1977;
1977;
acid Mabberley, 1987
1987
Quercus stellata iron or post oak
oak tree or shrub;
shrub; acorns
acorns eaten
eaten raw or roasted
roasted by
by native
native Americans,
Americans, 1936-54; Howes,
Camus, 1936-54; Howes,
....... E. USA
USA also ground for baking; wood for charcoal
charcoal 1948; Uphof,
1948; Uphof, 1968;
1968; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Vl
o 1972; Usher, 1974;
1972; 1974;
Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Quercus suber
Quercus cork oak evergreen tree; acorns
acorns sometimes
sometimes eaten roasted; thick
thick bark
bark source
source Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
S. Europe of commercial cork Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Quercus undulata Rocky Mountain
Rocky low shrub; acorns sweet, eaten by native
native Americans;
Americans; wood used Camus, 1936-54;
Camus, 1936-54; Howes,
California scrub or wavyleaf
scrub wavy leaf for fuel; bark used
used for
for tanning
tanning 1948; Uphof,
1948; Uphof, 1968; Hedrick,
oak 1972; Usher, 1974;
1972; 1974;
Menninger, 1977
1977
Quercus virginiana live oak acorns eaten raw
acorns raw or roasted
roasted by native
native Americans, also ground for Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;
Uphof, 1972;
E. North
North America
America baking, also source of sweet cooking
baking, oil; timber formerly
cooking oil; formerly Usher, 1974;
Usher, 1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
important for ship-building;
ship-building; bark used for tanning
tanning 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987
Mabberley, 1987
 Species and distribution
Species arid distriliution Common name Details References

GUTTIFERAE; fruit a drupe, berry

GUTTIFERAE; fruit berry or
orsepticidal
septicidal capsule
capsule

Allanblackia floribunda tallow tree; seeds edible,

seeds edible, source of oils, used as
as aa butter
butter substitute,
substitute, suitable
suitable Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
West Africa kisidwe for soap making;
for making; seedcake too bitter cattle
seedcake too cattle food
food Mabberley, 1987; Peters et
Mabberley,
al., 1992
ai., 1992
Allanblackia stuhlmannii evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; seeds yield an edible fat used in cooking,
cooking, as anan FAO, 1983;
FAO, 1983; Peters et al.,
ai.,
Tanzania illuminant and
illuminant and liniment. Seeds marketed; potential
potential plantation
plantation crop
crop 1992
Allanblackia ulugurensis evergreen tree; seeds yield an edible
edible fat
fat used
used in
in cooking
cooking and
and as
as FAO, 1983;
FAO, 1983; Peters
Peters et al.,
ai.,
Tanzania an illuminant; sap produces
illuminant; sap produces aa yellow
yellow dye.
dye. Seeds
Seeds exported;
exported; 1992
potential plantation crop
Garcinia conrauana seeds edible Menninger, 1977
1977
Cameroon
>-'
V.l
>-' Garcinia cowa
cowa aril and pericarp good flavour Mabberley, 1977
1977
Assam, Myanmar
Assam,
Garcinia indica cocum; kokum
kokum fruit pulp
fruit pulp edible,
edible, seeds
seeds source
source of edible
edible fat
fat -- "kokum"
"kokum" or "Goa Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
tropical Asia butter", pericarp
pericarp used
used to
to flavour
flavour curries
curries 1987
1987

Garcinia kola bitter or false

false kola
kola pulp eaten raw, rind
rind used in curries,
curries, seeds
seeds eaten
eaten raw,
raw, chewed
chewed Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977 ; Peters et
West Africa
West with a bitter, astringent and resinous taste; root aa chewstick
with chewstick al.,
ai., 1992
1992
Garcinia lateriflora seeds edible
seeds Menninger, 1977
1977
Philippines
Garcinia mangostana
mangostana mangosteen evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; arils delicious,
delicious, one of the best
best tropical
tropical fruit;
fruit; Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Malesia; cultivated, not
Malesia; seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw
raw or in various preparations; rind used for tanning
tanning 1977;
1977; FAO, 1982;
1982;
known in the wild
known and source
and source of black dye;
dye; wood used for cabinet work and Mabberley,
Mabberley , 1987;
1987;
construction Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
Seeds contain 45
Seeds 45%% fat
fat Coronel,1991
and Coronel, 1991
 Species
Species and distribution
distribution Common name Details References

Garcinia planchonii seeds edible, acidic

seeds edible, pulp edible,
acidic pulp edible, sun dried for storage
storage Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij
Viet
Viet Nam,
Nam, N. Laos
Laos and Coronel, 1991
1991

Mesua
Mesua ferrea
ferrea ironwood fruit with a rind like
like that of aa chestnut,
chestnut, resembles
resembles aa chestnut
chestnut in
in Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Indo-Malesia size, shape substance and taste; timber very hard, formeilly used
timber very hard, formerly used 1977; MabberJey, 1987
1977; Mabberley, 1987
for lances; sacred tree
tree in
in India;
India; flowers
flowers used
used medicinally,
medicinally,
cosmetically and to
cosmetically and to scent the stuffing of pillows
Pentadesma butyracea butter, candle or young seeds
young seeds eaten,
eaten, old seeds
seeds source
source of "Sierra Leone, Kanga
Kanga or Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
West Africa tallow tree; black
black lamy
lamy butter", used for cooking,
cooking, soap,
soap, margarine
margarine and
and candles
candles 1977; Mabberley,
1977; MabberJey, 1987;
1987;
mango Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992

..... HIPPOCASTANACEAE; fruit a capsule

IDPPOCASTANACEAE; fruit capsule
w
N

Aesculus
Aesculus californica Californian deciduous tree
deciduous tree or
or shrub; seeds boiled or roasted and leached, Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
California buckeye toxic if eaten raw, formerly
toxic formerly much
much eaten
eaten by
by Californian
Californian native
native 1972;
1972; Saunders, 1976;
1976;
Americans Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Aesculus hiPpocastanum
hippocastanum horse-chestnut deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; seeds bitter and inedible unless leached,
leached, may be Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Balkans to Himalayas
Balkans used as
used as coffee substitute;
substitute; horse medicine;
medicine; leaves and husks yield 1972;
1972; Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
a yellow dye;
dye; timber of
of limited
limited use; cultivated
cultivated as
as an
an ornamental
ornamental Mabberley, 1987
1987
Aesculus indica Indian horse- deciduous tree;
deciduous tree; seeds
seeds edible, eaten by hill tribes
tribes as
as famine
famine food;
food; Howes, 1948;
1948; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
Himalayas chestnut seed oil
seed oil used externally for rheumatic complaints;
complaints; fruits
fruits given to 1987; Rathore, 1993
1987; 1993
horses for
horses for colic;
colic; browse lopped for livestock; wood used
livestock; wood used to
to
building, packing
building, packing cases,
cases, troughs, etc.
etc.
Aesculus
Aesculus octandra yellow,
yellow, big or starchy seeds
starchy seeds roasted
roasted and leached
leached for several days to remove
remove Krochmal, 1982
Krochmal, 1982
S.E. USA
USA sweet buckeye toxic aesculin before eaten by native Americans
Americans - a nutritious
nutritious
food
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name
Common Details References

Aesculus parviflora
Aesculus parviflora buckeye fruit eaten boiled or roasted
roasted Hedrick, 1972
1972
S. USA
S.
Aesculus pavia little, red or
little, starch extracted from seeds;
seeds ; ground
ground seeds
seeds toxic
toxic to
to fish
fish and
and Krochmal,, 1982
Krochmal 1982
S.E. USA
USA scarlet buckeye;
buckeye ; possibly livestock;
livestock; seeds
seeds used to relieve headache
firecracker plant
firecracker

IRVINGIACEAE;fruit
IRVINGIACEAE; fruit aa capsule,
capsule,samara,
samara, rarely
rarely aa berry or drupe,
drupe, often
often aa schizocarp
schizocarp of
of dry
dry and
and sometimes
sometimes samaroid or fleshy mericarps
fleshy mericarps

Irvingia gabonensis dika nut; bread large tree; drupe 5-6

5-6 cm
cm long;
long; pulp
pulp eaten,
eaten, seed
seed ground
ground cooked
cooked to
to Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
tree; wild
wild mango
mango make dika bread,
make dika bread, also
also source
source of an edible
edible oil, dika butter, 1977; FAO, 1982;
1982;
formerly
formerly considered as a substitute for cocoa
cocoa butter;
butter; seed
seed oil
oil used
used Mabberley, 1987; Peters et
Mabberley,
....... for making soap al., 1992
1992
VJ
VJ

JUGLANDACEAE;fruit
JUGLANDACEAE; fruit aa nut or drupe-like
drupe-like

Carya alba
Carya shagbark or an important food
food of native Americans,
Americans , also
also marketed
marketed and
and Hedrick, 1972
1972
North America shellbark hickory exported;
exported; timber for wagons, agricultural implements and tool
wagons , agricultural implements and tool
handles; fuel
fuel
Carya aquatica
Carya water or swamp
swamp nuts small,
small , astringent, sometimes
sometimes eaten; source of
of aa brown
brown dye
dye Howes,, 1948;
Howes 1948; Menninger,
S.E. USA
USA hickory,, bitter or
hickory 1977; Krochmal
1977; Krochmal,, 1982
1982
wild pecan
Carya carolinae-
Carya Caroline hickory, nuts sweet, edible
edible Krochmal,
Krochmal , 1982
1982
septentrionalis southern shagbark
S.E. USA hickory
 Species
Species and distribution
distribution Common name Details References

cathay ens is
Carya cathayensis Chinese hickory;
hickory ; nuts edible,
nuts edible, used in
in sweetmeats;
sweetmeats ; wood
wood used
used for
for tool
tool handles
handles Uphof, 1968;
Uphof, 1968; Usher,
Usher , 1974;
1974;
E. China
China mountain walnut Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Carya cordiformis bitternut, swamp
swamp nuts bitter, rarely eaten by native
nuts native Americans; form~rly used
Americans; bark formerly used Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968;
E. North
North America,
America, S.
S. hickory in making
making chair seats; wood
wood used
used for
for yokes
yokes and
and hoops
hoops Usher, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
Appalachians 1977; Krochmal, 1982;
1977; 1982;
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Carya
Carya g/abra
glabra broom, hognut, nuts variable,
nuts variable, hard and
and tough,
tough, kernel
kernel sometimes
sometimes sweetish
sweetish but
but Howes, 1948; Uphof,
Howes, Uphof, 1968;
1968;
E. North
Nonh America
America oval, redheart, red
oval, usually astringent,
astringent, eaten by native Americans;
Americans; timber used for Hedrick, 1972;
Hedrick, 1972; Usher, 1974;
1974;
or pignut hickory wagons, agricultural implements
wagons, implements and tool handles;
handles; fuel
fuel Menninger, 1977;
1977; Krochmal,
Krochmal,
1982; Rosengarten,
1982; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
...... Mabberley, 1987
1987
v.>
~ pecan; Illinois nut,
Carya illinoinensis pecan; common
common dessert nut, especially
especially thin-shelled ones;
ones; used like Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
S. USA;
USA; widely
widely cultivated
cultivated sof-shelled hickery hazelnuts (Cory/us
hazelnuts (Corylus spp.) walnuts (Jug/ans
spp.) or walnuts (Juglans sp.) inin food;
food; seed
seed 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
oil formerly used by native Americans
Americans to season food,
food, now used Kroclunal,
Krochmal , 1982;
1982;
cosmetics, etc.;
in cosmetics, etc.; timber for veneer, furniture,
furniture, flooring
flooring and 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
panelling;
panelling; grown as ornamental; first cultivar
cultivar selected
selected in
in 1846,
1846, Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
now over 500
500 names
names et al.,
aI., 1988;
1988;
Carya /aciniosa
Carya laciniosa big, western,
western, nuts thick shelled, considered to be
be of
of fine
fine quality,
quality, marketed;
marketed; Howes, 1948;
1948; Uphof,
Uphof,19.68;
19.68;
central North
North America;
America; botton shellbark nuts eaten by native Americans,
Americans, source of the fermented
fermented drink Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Usher,
Usher, 1974;
1974;
cultivated or king nut "powcohiccorir"; wood used forfor agricultural
agricultural implements
implements and
and tool
tool Menninger, 1977;
1977; Krochmal,
Krochmal ,
hickory handles; fuel
fuel 1982;
1982; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Carya myristiciformis numeg or bitter
numeg nuts with very thick shell, sometimes
sometimes eaten by native
native Americans
Americans Howes,, 1948;
Howes 1948; Menninger
Menninger
S.E. USA
USA water hickory 1977; Krochmal
1977; Krochmal,, 1982
1982
Carya ovalis smaller loose bark nuts small, sometimes
nuts sometimes eaten by native
native Americans
Americans Howes, 1948;
1948; Krochmal,
Krochmal ,
North America hickory 1982
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

Carya ovata shagbark, nuts edible, marketed - commercial

commercial hickory nuts;
nuts; wood used for Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Uphof, 1968;
1968;
E. North
North America;
America; scalybark, white,
scalybark, white, wagons, axe
axe handles, basketry
basketry and
and fuel
fuel Usher, 1974;
Usher, 1974; Menninger,
cultivated red heart or 1977; Krochmal,
1977; Krochmal, 1982;
upland hickory Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Carya paUida
pallida sand,
sand, pale or pale
pale nuts with thick,
nuts thick, hard shell, eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans
Americans Menninger, 1977;
1977; Krochmal,
Krochmal,
S.E. USA
USA leaf hickory 1982
Carya texana Texas, Buckley's
Texas, small nuts
small nuts often
often produced
produced from
from young plants, sometimes
sometimes eaten Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
var. villosa
villosa or black hickory 1977
S-central USA
USA
Carya totnentosa
tomentosa mockernut; white
mockernut; nut with very hard, thick
thick shell;
shell; kernel
kernel sweet
sweet and
and in
in some
some Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
E. North
North America
America hickory varieties as large as that of shellbark but difficult to extract. A
varieties as A 1977; 1982;
1977; Krochmal, 1982;
...... variety with prominent angles
angles known as "square
"square nut"
nut" Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
w
VI
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Carya tonkinensis may-chau kernels
kernels source of edible oil, also
also used
used as
as illuminant
illuminant Howes, 1948
1948
N.E. India,
India, Viet
Viet Nam,
Nam,
S. China
China
Juglans ailanthifolia
Jug/ans cordate, Japanese nuts small, edible; husk used as piscicide; wood used
used for Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Uphof, 1968;
1968;
var.
var . cordiformis
cordiformis or Siebold walnut;
walnut; gunstocks, cabinet work;
gunstocks, cabinet work; bark exocarp used in dyeing; hardy, Hedrick,
Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Usher, 1974;
1974;
China, Japan; cultivated
cultivated heatnut cultivated for nuts
cultivated for nuts in Canada;
Canada; grown as an ornamental; rootstock Menninger, 1977;
1977;
for cultivars J. regia
cultivars of J. regia Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Juglans australia
Jug/ans Argentine walnut nut small
small with thick shell, edible; wood
wood prized,
prized, especially
especially for
for National Research Council,
Council ,
Argentina, S. Bolivia
Bolivia making guitars 1989
Juglans baccata
Jug/ans walnut nuts edible, rich in starch, source of
nuts edible, of oil
oil Hedrick, 1972
1972
Caribbean
 Species
Species and
and distribution name
Common name Details References

Jug/ans boliviana
Juglans Bolivian black nuts excellent,
nuts excellent, good
good quality
quality;; grows
grows well
well in Costa Rica Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968; Usher,
Usher, 1974;
1974;
N. Bolivia, S.
S. and
and Central
Central walnut National Research Council,
Peru; mountains 1989
Jug/ans californica
Juglans ca/ifornica black walnut fruit with thick husk,
fruit husk, kernels
kernels eaten Krochmal, 1982
Krochmal, 1982
S. California
Jug/ans cathayensis
Juglans cathayensis kernels eaten locally;
kernels locally; cultivated as
as an ornamental Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968;
central China Usher, 1974
1974
Jug/ans cinerea
Juglans cinerea butternut; lemon
lemon kernels edible,
kernels edible, with strong oily taste, used to thicken
thicken pottage, Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Uphof. 1968;
1968;
E. North
North America;
America; nut; oil nut; seed oil
seed oil used
used for seasoning,
seasoning, immature kernels pickled;
immature kernels pickled; sap
sap source Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
cultivated white walnut sugar; timber for furniture and interior
of butternut sugar; interior finishing;
finishing; Usher, 1974;
1974; Menninger,
Menninger,
nuts laxative,
nuts laxative, used
used to treat intermittent fever,
fever, tape
tape worm
worm and 1977; Krochmal,
1977; Krochmal, 1982;
1982;

-
\.;J
01
Jug/ans duclouxiana
Juglans duclouxiana
fungal infection;
fungal infection; inner root bark mildly cathartic;
yield yellow to orange dye;
nuts edible
dye; cultivated
cultivated for
cathartic; green
for shade
shade
green husks
husks Rosengarten, 1984;

Uphof, 1968;
1984;

1968; Usher,
Usher, 1974
1974
Asian mountains;
cultivated in China
Jug/ans hindsii
Juglans hindsii California black nuts edible, harvested from the wild; grown
grown in
in California
California as
as aa Howes, 1948;
1948; Krochmal,
Krochmal,
California walnut,
walnut, Hind's street tree;
tree; rootstock used
used for
for J.J. regia
regia 1982; Rosengarten,
1982; Rosengarten, 1984
1984
walnut
Jug/ans
Juglans kamaonia nuts edible Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968; Usher, 1974
1974
W. Himalayas
Himalayas
Juglans major
Jug/ans Arizona
Arizona, Arizona nuts small, eaten
eaten by native
native Americans;
Americans; leaves
leaves astringent
astringent Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Uphof, 1968;
1968;
S.W. North America
S.W. America black or little 1974; Krochmal,
Usher, 1974; Krochmal,
walnut; nogal 1982; Rosengarten,
1982; Rosengarten, 1984
1984
sylvestro
Jug/ans
Juglans mandshurica Manchurian nuts edible; cultivated as an
cultivated as an ornamental
ornamental Howes, 1948
1948
N. China walnut
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details
Defails- References

Juglans microcarpa Texas, Texas

Texas nuts small, sweet,
sweet, edible
edible Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
w. North
W. North America;
America; black,
black, little or 1972; Krochmal
1972; Krochmal 1982;
1982;
sometimes cultivated river walnut
walnut Rosengarten, 1984
1984
neotropica
Juglans neotropica Ecuador walnut
walnut semievergreen;
semievergreen; nuts thick-shelled,
thick-shelled, edible, marketed locally, used
used Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968; Usher, 1974;
1974;
W. Venezuela,
Venezuela, Colombia,
Colombia, in sweetmeats;
sweetmeats; wood strong, used inin furniture;
furniture; occasionally
occasionally Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984; National
National
Ecuador; highlands cultivated Research Council, 1989
1989
Juglans nigra black, American
American nuts thick-shelled,
thick-shelled, kernels
kernels sweet, edible, usedused inin confectionery;
confectionery; Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
E. North
North America;
America; or eastern
eastern black
black timber prized for cabinet making,
making, furniture, gunstocks, etc.; 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
cultivated walnut rootstock for cultivars
rootstock for of J.J. regia; husk
cultivars of husk for
for treating
treating intestinal
intestinal Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
worms,
worms, syphilis, ulcers, fruit
fruit juice laxative;
laxative; nuts
nuts and
and bark
bark yield
yield Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
brown, green or blue dye
brown, Mabberley, 1987
1987
Juglans regia English or Persian walnuts
walnuts of commerce;
commerce; timber excellent cabinet
cabinet wood, furniture, Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
...... S.E. Europe
Europe to W. Asia;
Asia; walnut gunstocks, veneer;
gunstocks, veneer; seed oil used in cooking, paints and soap; sap 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
w
-..l
cultivated source of sugar;
source sugar; dye from husks
husks as
as floor
floor stain;
stain; cultivated
cultivated as
as Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
ornamental Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
et aI.,
et al., 1988;
1988;
venezuelensis
Juglans venezuelensis Venezuelan walnut nuts edible, now rare
nuts edible, National Research Council,
National
N. Venezuela;
Venezuela; coastal
coastal 1989
1989
mountains
Pterocarya fraxinifolia Caucasian wingnut nut edible;
edible; wood used for matches
matches and clogs;
clogs; cultivated
cultivated as
as Uphof, 1968; Hedrick, 1972;
Uphof, 1972;
W. Asia; cultivated
W. cultivated ornamental Usher, 1974;
1974; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
1987
1987

rhoifolia
Pterocarya rhoifolia wing nut
Japanese wingnut nut edible;
edible; wood used for chopsticks, clogs
clogs and
and matches
matches Uphof, 1968;
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974
1974
Japan
Pterocarya stenoptera wingnut bark medicinal
nut edible; bark medicinal Uphof, 1968;
Uphof, 1968; Usher, 1974
1974
China; cultivated
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

LAURACEAE;fruit
LAURACEAE; fruit aa I-seeded
1-seededberry
berry or
or drupe,
drupe, rarely dry and
and indehiscent
indehiscent

Beilschmiedia bancroftii
Beilschmiedia canary ash; yellow
yellow ground kernels eaten by Aborigines;
Aborigines; good
good timber
timber Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Queensland walnut; Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Lazarides
Lazarides
wanga et al.,
aI., 1993
1993
Beilschmiedia
Bells chmiedia mannii eaten
seed eaten Peters
Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992
West Africa
West
Cryptocaqa
Cryptocarya alba peumo oily seed kernels cooked and
and eaten in times
times of scarcity;
scarcity; bark Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Chile source of tannin; wood
wood for
for firewood
firewood and
and charcoal
charcoal 1977; 1978
1977; Hoffman, 1978
Cryptocarya latifolia ntonga nuts fruit used locally for their oil; fatty
fatty kernels
kernels used
used by
by Zulus
Zulus for
for Howes, 1948;
1948; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
South Africa flaying leather 1987

-
w
00
Cryptocarya moschata
Brazil
Brazilian nutmeg tree, pungent
pungent seed used as spice; timber
esteemed
timber hard,
hard, yellowish,
yellowish, Hedrick, 1972;
1977;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
1977; Mabberley, 1987
Mabberley, 1987
Endiandra insignis Boomban roasted, pounded and leached
leached kernel eaten by Aborigines
Aborigines 1977
Menninger, 1977
Queensland
Endiandra palmerstonii Queensland walnut pounded kernel eaten by Aborigines
Aborigines Menninger, 1977;
1977; Lazarides
Lazarides
Queensland et al.,
aI., 1993
1993
Umbellaria californica
Umbel/aria California laurel aromatic evergreen, drupe
aromatic evergreen, drupe with
with 11 nut-like seed <<2cm
nut-likeseed 2cm in Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
S.W. USA
USA bay or olive; bay
bay diameter; fruit
diameter; fruit and
and seed
seed eaten
eaten raw,
raw, roasted
roasted or ground to to a flour 1977; Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
tree; bay laurel;
tree; and baked by native Americans;
Americans; root
root bark
bark used
used for
for beverage;
beverage; Mabberley, 1987
1987
Oregon, Pacific,
Pacific, aromatic
aromatic dried leaves as flavouring;
flavouring; leaves used in in internal
internal and
and
black, white
white or external medicines
external medicines and
and flea
flea control;
control; good timber
yellow myrtle;
Cocos cinnamon
Cocos cinnamon
bush,
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name
Common Details References

LECYTHIDACEAE;fruit
LECYTHIDACEAE; fruit aa capsule,
capsule, drupe
drupe or berry, seeds
seeds often nut-like

Barringtonia asiatica fruits eaten as a vegetable; seeds

fruits seeds oleaginous,
oleaginous, toxic
toxic Payens, 1967;
Payens, 1967; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Queensland;
Madagascar to Queensland; 1972; Menninger, 1977
1972; 1977
introduced Caribbean
Barringtonia edulis
edulis cut-nut fruit insipid,
fruit eaten raw
insipid, eaten raw or cooked; seeds eaten
cooked; seeds eaten raw,
raw, flavour
flavour of Payens, 1967;
Payens, 1967; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
semi-cultivated
Fiji; semi-cultivated raw peanuts 1972; Menninger, 1977
1977
Barringtonia niedenzuana cut-nut seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw, flavour of
of raw
raw peanuts
peanuts Payens, 1967;
1967; Menninger,
Menninger,
semi -cultivated
Melanesia; semi-cultivated 1977
1977

Barringtonia novae- cut-nut seeds eaten

seeds eaten raw, flavour of
of raw
raw peanuts
peanuts Menninger, 1977
1977
hyberniae
semi-cultivated
Melanesia; semi-cultivated
,....
V)
Barringtonia procera nua nut tree with ovoid drupes; seed eaten
eaten on
on Santa
Santa Cruz;
Cruz; young
young leaves
leaves Payens, 1967;
1967; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
'" New
New Guinea, Micronesia; eaten as
eaten as a vegetable 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
planted Duke, 1989
1989
Barringtonia scortechinii
scortechinii seed used
seed used to
to flavour food Menninger, 1977
1977
Borneo
Bertholletia excelsa Brazil,
Brazil, Amazon or fruit a large woody capsule,
fruit capsule, seeds
seeds with hard,
hard, woody testa and Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hill,
Hill, 1952;
1952;
South America Pará
Para nut; oily endosperm,
oily endosperm, takes
takes 14 months to mature; largely
largely harvested
harvested Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Merminger,
Menninger,
butternut; from the
from the wild,
wild, fruit being split open with an axe; seeds
seeds with
with hard 1977; FAO, 1982,
1977; 1982, 1986;
1986;
creamnut; woody testa,
woody testa, eaten
eaten as
as a dessert nut and in confectionary,
confectionary, also
also a Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
source of commercial
source edible oil, also used in
commercial edible in soap
soap Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
et al.,
aI., 1988;
1988; ;; Verheij
Verheij and
and
Coronel, 1991
1991
Careya
Careya arborea patana oak; slow seeds
seeds edible;
edible; leaves used for silkworms
silkworms Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Merminger,
Menninger,
Sri Lanka match tree
match 1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 1987
1987
 Species
U

Species and
and distribution-
distribution Common name Detaiis
Details - - - - - - - - -
References

Chydenanthus excelsus
exceLsus seeds eaten 1977
Menninger, 1977
New Guinea
Eschweilera
Es chweilera grandiflora
grandiflora seeds edible 1972
Hedrick, 1972
Guyana
Eschweilera jarana
Eschweilera jarana seeds edible;
seeds edible; timber for sleepers
sleepers 19979
Prance and Mori, 19979
South America
Lecythis lanceo/ata
Lecythis Lan ceo Lata seeds edible Howes, 1948
1948
South America
Lecythis
Lecythis minor seeds edible but contain toxic selenium analogue of
seeds of the
the amino-
amino- Hedrick, 1972; Prance and
Hedrick, 1972; and
New Granada cystathionine causing temporary loss of hair and
cystathionine causing temporary loss of hair and nails and nausea Mori, 1979;
1979; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
when growing
when growing on soils high in selenium
selenium 1987
...... Lecythis o//aria
Lecythis ollaria pot nut seeds
seeds edible
edible but contain toxic selenium analogue ofof the
the amino-
amino-
+:-. Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
o tropical America cystathionine causing
cystathionine causing temporary
temporary loss
loss of
of hair
hair and
and nails
nails and
and nausea 1972; Prance and Mori,
1972;
when growing
when growing on soils high in selenium 1979; Mabberley, 1987
1979; 1987
Lecythis
Lecythis usitata paradise or tall tree; fruit
fruit woody,
woody, large,
large, dehiscent;
dehiscent; seeds
seeds (nuts)
(nuts) 30-40,
30-40, Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hill, 1952;
1952;
South America; Amazon
Amazon sapucaia nut irregularly
irregularly oblong, resembling Brazil nuts but more rounded with
rounded with Prance and Mori, 1979;
1979;
rain forest, cultivated
cultivated thinner and softer shell, kernel
kernel white,
white, creamy
creamy texture
texture and
and Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984; Macrae
superior sweet
superior sweet flavour,
flavour, delicious;
delicious; kernels
kernels eaten
eaten raw,
raw, roasted or in
in et al., 1993
1993
confectionary,
confectionary, highly nutritious, source of of oil
oil
62%
62% fat, 20%20% protein
protein
Lecythis zabucajo sapucaia nut oily seeds (sapucaia nuts)
nuts) c 5 cm
cm long,
long, edible,
edible, with
withdelicate
delicate Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hill, 1952;
1952;
Brazil, Guyana; cultivated
cultivated flavour suitable for chocolates
chocolates Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
1987
Planchonia careya
PLanchonia cocky apple fruit large, with
with adherent calyx, eaten
eaten by
by Aborigines;
Aborigines; source
source of
of Hedrick, 19772;
19772; Lazarides
Lazarides
Australia fuel, toxins,
toxins, medicines
medicines and
and fibre
fibre and
and Hince, 1993
1993
 Species and distribution
Species Common name - - DetailS
Details - - References

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
LEGUMINOSAE subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE;
CAESALPINIOIDEAE;fruit
fruit usually
usually a dry legume
legume (pod),
(pod), usually
usually dehiscent
dehiscent

Cordeauxia edulis
Cordeauxia ye-eh, yeheb
ye-eb, yeheb or seed eaten
seed eaten raw
raw or boiled,
boiled, potential as aa dessert
potential as dessert nut;
nut; source
source of a Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
central Somalia, Ogaden
Ogaden yehib red dye; potential for development
development and commercial
commercial exploitation 1977; National
1977; National Academy
Academy of
Sciences, 1979; Mabberley,
Sciences,
1987; Peters
1987; Peters et
et aI.,
al., 1992
1992
Lemuropisum edule tara nut
nut dehiscent legume
dehiscent legume with
with 6-12
6-12 sweet,
sweet, starchy
starchy seeds which
which are eaten Willing, 1989
1989
S.W.
S. W. Madagascar
Madagascar raw; shrub browsed by goats
raw; goats
Tylosema esculentum
l'ylosema marama or pod hard, 1.5-2
1.5-2 cm
cm in
in diameter,
diameter, seeds
seeds 1-6,
1-6, eaten as a dessert nut, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
southern Africa maramba bean tuber also edible. Plant difficult to cultivate
cultivate 1977; National
1977; National Academy
Academy of
Sciences, 1979; Arnold et
Sciences,
al.,
aI., 1985;
1985; Peters
Peters et
et al.,
aI., 1992
1992

--
~

LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily
LEGUMINOSAE subfamilyMIMOSOIDEAE;
MIMOSOIDEAE;fruit
fruitusually
usuallyaa dry
dry pod
pod

Pithecellobium bubalinum seed edible,

seed edible, although a surfeit can cause
cause kidney damage due to Whitmore, 1972
1972
Malaysia presence of crystals
presence
Pithecellobium dulce Madras thorn; armed shrub
armed shrub or tree; seed oil edible, aril edible,
edible, pulp
pulp made into a Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
Central America; Manila tamarind lemonade; seed
lemonade; seed oil
oil used
used for
for making soap, seed meal
making soap, fed to
meal fed and Coronel, 1991
1991
naturalized throughout the livestock; bark, leaves
livestock; leaves and seeds
seeds source
source of
of tannin;
tannin; browsed
browsed byby
tropics livestock; source of fuelwood,
livestock; fuelwood, grown for shade
shade and
and hedges
hedges
Pithecellobium jiringa
Pithecellobium jiringa jering; ngapi
ngapi nut
nut seed marketed
seed marketed locally,
locally, with powerful smell and flavour which Howes, 1948;
1948; Whitmore,
Whitmore,
Myanmar
Myanmar to W. Malesia
Malesia disappears on
disappears on cooking.
cooking. Eaten
Eaten raw,
raw, salted, boiled or cooked
cooked in 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977
1977
coconut milk
coconut milk or oil, surfeit
surfeit can
can cause
cause kidney
kidney damage
damage due toto
presence of crystals;
presence crystals; reputed
reputed good
good for
for diabetes;
diabetes; pod
pod source
source of
dye
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name
Common name Details References

LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
LEGUMINOSAE subfamily PAPILIONOIDEAE;
PAPILIONOIDEAE; fruit
fruit usually a dry
dry pod
pod (leginne)
Oegume) usually
usually dehiscent
dehiscent

Apios americana
Apios potato or wild
potato climber;
climber; sweet tubers boiled
boiled or roasted, an
an important
important Indian
Indian food 1948; Hedrick,
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
North America; bean, groundnut;
bean, as an
and potato substitute; cultivated as an ornamental
ornamental 1972; National Academy
1972; National Academy of
occasionally cultivated Indian potato 1979; Mabberley,
Sciences, 1979; Mabberley,
1987
Arachis hypogaea peanut,
peanut, groundnut annual
annual herb with indehiscent fruit with 1-6
1-6 seeds, gynophore
gynophore Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
America; cultivated
South America; lengthening, reflexing
lengthening, reflexing and stiffening
stiffening to bury the fruit;
fruit; seeds
seeds 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
throughout the tropics edible raw or roasted, widely used
edible raw used as
as a dessert nut and
and asas source Verdcourt, 1979;
1979;
of groundnut oil used in margarine
margarine 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
Purseglove, 1987
1987

...... Arachis villosulicarpa seeds edible, locally

locally cultivated
cultivated Rosengarten, 1984
1984
~ South America
tv
Castanospermum australe
Castanospermum australe Australian or tree of coastal forests with indehiscent, fruit turgid,
turgid, 2-valved,
2-valved, Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
N.E. Australia,
Australia, New Morton Bay
Bay with 2-5
2-5 chestnut-like
chestnut-like seeds;
seeds; seeds
seeds (black
(black beans)
beans) leached, roasted
roasted 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Caledonia, Vanuatu; chestnut and eaten by Aborigines, toxic if
and if eaten
eaten raw;
raw; decorative
decorative timber;
timber; Verdcourt, 1979;
1979; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
cultivated elsewhere street tree 1987
1987

Glycine max soya bean or annual herb

annual herb bearing dehiscent,
dehiscent, ca. 3-seeded
3-seeded pods
pods containing
containing 30-
30- Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
E. Asia, now
now widely
widely soybean 45% protein; newly
newly germinated seeds used as
seeds used as "bean
"bean sprouts" in Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verdcourt,
Verdcourt,
cultivated Chinese cooking;
Chinese cooking; one
one of the world's most
most important
important legume
legume 1979; Mabberley, 1987;
1979; Mabberley, 1987;
crops, processed beans as soynuts for dessert
dessert and
and food
food industry;
industry; Purseglove, 1987
1987
soya meal
soya meal and protein used industrially for plastics, adhesives,
adhesives,
waterproofing, synthetic fibre, fire-fighting
fire-fighting foam, etc.
etc.
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name
n a n i e - - - D e t aDetails
ils References

Inocarpus fagifer Tahiti chestnut

chestnut medium sized forest tree with with kidney
kidney shaped,
shaped, indehiscent,
indehiscent, 1-1- Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948 ; Hedrick,
Malesia to Pacific
Ma1esia Pacific Islands,
Islands , seeded fruit
seeded fruit borne in terminal clusters;
clusters ; chestnut
chestnut flavoured,
flavoured, fleshy
fleshy 1972; Verdcourt,
1972; Verdcourt, 1979;
1979;
occasionally cultivated seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw,
raw, boiled or roasted when nearly ripe, moderately
moderately Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
elsewhere nutritious,
nutritious , palatable
palatable but sometimes
sometimes hard to digest,
digest, known
known asas aila
aila Mabberley,, 1987; Macrae
Mabberley Macrae et
or lala
lala in
in Neo-melanesian,
Neo-melanesian, staple food for some some islanders;
islanders ; wood al., 1993
aI., 1993
used for mouldings
mouldings and interior
interior finishing
finishing seeds 80 %
seeds 80%
carbohydrates (starch),, 10% protein, 7%
carbohydrates (starch) 7% fat
fat
Macrotyloma geocarpum Hausa or annual herb with
with geocarpic
geocarpic fruit; seeds
seeds eaten;
eaten; mainly
mainly cultivated
cultivated Merminger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977 ; National
National
West Africa;
Afdca; cultivated
cultivated Kersting's
Kersting 's in West Africa; potential for further
further research
research and
and development
development Academy of Sciences, 1979;
Academy
groundnut Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Purseglove, 1987; Peters
Purseglove, 1987; Peters et
et
al.,
aI., 1992
1992

...... Vigna
Vigna subterranea Bambara annual herb with geocarpic fruit
fruit;; seed eaten green and raw or Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
+:>. tropical Africa; cultivated
cultivated groundnut mature and cooked;
cooked; widely
widely cultivated
cultivated 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
w
National Academy
Academy of
Sciences, 1979;
1979; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
1987; Purseglove, 1987;
1987; 1987;
Peters
Peters et al.
ai. 1992
1992

MONIMIACEAE; fruit aa head

MONIMIACEAE; fruit head of drupes
drupes or nuts

sempervirens
Laurelia sempervirens nutmeg,
Peruvian nutmeg, aromatic seeds
seeds used as a spice
spice Hedrick, 1972;
1972 ; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
Peru and Chile tepa 1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details
Details References

MORACEAE; fruit a drupe

MORACEAE; fruit
Artocarpus altilis
altitis breadfruit; evergreen, monoecious
evergreen, tree; seeds (fruits from female
monoecious tree; female trees)
trees) Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
Pacific, widely
widely cultivated
cultivated breadnut; pana de
de roasted or boiled and eaten,
roasted eaten, fruit pulp cooked and eaten;
eaten; staple 1982; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
pepita food in Polynesia, sliced fruit fermented under storage
food storage and
and 1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
baked;
baked; browsed by livestock;
livestock; bark fibre and latex used for Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
caulking; wood
caulking; wood used
used for
for canoes,
canoes, surfboards,
surfboards, crates, light and Coronel, 1991
1991
construction; cultivated for windbreaks, shade
construction; cultivated for windbreaks, shade and as ornamental
Artocarpus elasticus
elasticus ripe seeds
ripe seeds roasted
roasted and
and eaten,
eaten, seeds
seeds source of small quantities
quantities of a Menninger, 1977;
1977;
W. Malesia
Malesia solid oil;
solid oil; source of bark cloth Mabberley, 1977;
1977;
Purseglove, 1987
1987
Artocarpus heterophyllus
heterophyllus jack or jak nut;
nut; large evergreen,
large evergreen, monoecious tree, seeds
monoecious tree, (jak nuts)
seeds Gak eaten raw,
nuts) eaten raw, Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Western Ghats, India;
India; jak fruit grilled or boiled, pulp eaten raw or variously
grilled variously preserved, young
young 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
..... widely cultivated in the fruit pulp boiled as
fruit as a vegetable, pickled or canned;
canned; browsed
browsed byby FAO, 1982;
1982; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
+:-
+:- tropics livestock; good
livestock; good timber,
timber, bark source ofof tannin
tannin and
and yellow
yellow dye;
dye; 1984; Mabberley, 1987;
1984; 1987;
grown as shade tree inin coffee
coffee and
and areca
areca plantations;
plantations; various
various uses
uses Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
in local medicine and Coronel, 1991
1991
Artocarpus integer champedak evergreen, monoecious
evergreen, tree; fruit pulp disgusting stench,
monoecious tree; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Myanmar, Malesia;
Myanmar, immature fruits
immature fruits used
used in
in soups,
soups, pulp
pulp of ripe fruits eaten; seeds Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
cultivated eaten roasted
eaten roasted or boiled; young leaves eaten; wood used for and Coronel, 1991
1991
building, furniture and boats;
boats; bark used for cordage;
cordage; latex
latex used
used
in preparation of lime
lime
Artocarpus odoratissimus
odoratissimus marang evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; seeds eaten roasted
seeds eaten roasted or boiled,
boiled, pulp eaten fresh,
fresh, Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Borneo, cultivated
Borneo, cultivated in the cooked as a vegetable
cooked as vegetable or in cakes
Philippines
Artocarpus ovatus anubing tree; roasted seeds
tree; eaten; timber
seeds eaten; timber strong and
and durable,
durable, used for FAO, 1984;
1984; Verheij
Verheij and
and
Philippines
Phil ippines construction Coronel, 1991
1991
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

Brosimum
Brosimum alicastrum
alicastrum breadnut; evergreen tree, seeds
seeds (bread
(bread nuts)
nuts) boiled
boiled eaten in
in times
times of Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
central America alicastrun; scarcity or roasted for aa beverage;
scarcity beverage; latex
latex potable;
potable; leaves
leaves and
and fruit
fruit 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
snakewood for fodder; wood for crates,
crates, tool
tool handles
handles and
and fuel;
fuel ; browse;
browse; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
local medicinal
various local medicinal applications
applications Mabberley, 1987
1987
Treculia africana
Treculia aJricana African breadfruit;
breadfruit; numerous small
numerous small seeds
seeds embedded
embedded pulp
pulp of massive
massive fruit;
fruit; roasted,
roasted , Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
tropical Africa mozinda fried or boiled seeds eaten as dessert nut; seed embryo
fried embryo ground to 1972; Mabberley, 1987;
1972; 1987;
meal and eaten
meal Purseglove, 1987;
Purseglove, 1987; Peters et
al., 1992
aI., 1992

OLACACEAE; fruit usually

OLACACEAE; fruit usually aa 1-seeded drupe or nut
I-seeded drupe

...... Anacolosa Jrutescens

frutescens galo nut tree; nut
nut resembling
resembling a filbert, kernel eaten fresh or roasted,
roasted, of
of Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
~
VI
India to Philippines
Philippines good flavour and quality; pulp eaten fresh or boiled;
boiled; potential
potential for 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987;
domestication; wood for house
house posts
posts Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Coula
Coula edulis Gabon nut, tree; drup
drup 3-4
3-4 cm
cm long;
long ; seeds
seeds (Gabon
(Gabon nuts)
nuts) eaten
eaten raw,
raw, cooked
cooked or
or Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical West Africa;
Africa; African walnut
walnut fermented,
fermented , marketed locally,
locally, seeds
seeds source
source of
ofedible
edible oil;
oil; timber a 1977;
1977; FAO, 1982;
1982;
plantations
cultivated in plantations commercial mahogany substitute, used for for construction
construction andand Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Peters et
charcoal al.,
aI., 1992;
1992; Macrae
Macrae et al.,
aI.,
1993

Heisteria parvifolia shrub; kernels

kernels eaten
eaten Menninger,
Menninger, 1977; Peters et
West Africa al.,, 1992
aI. 1992
Ongokea
Ongokea gore tree; fruit
fruit an
an offensive
offensive smelling drupe; ripe flesh
flesh eaten; seed
seed Menninger, 1977;
1977;
West Africa kernels
kernels little eaten; seed yields
yields a drying oil - isano
isano oil Mabberley, 1987
1987
borneensis
Scorodocarpus borneensis kulim fruit edible; hard,
hard, onion-scented
onion-scented wood
wood used
used for
for construction
construction Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Malesia
Malesia Mabberley, 1987
1987
Strombosia grandifolia kernels roasted and
and eaten
eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
West Africa
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

Strombosia
Strombosia pustulata
pustulata evergreen tree; seed
seed kernel
kernel eaten
eaten as
as famine
famine food
food Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Peters et
West Africa al.,
aI., 1992
1992
Strombosia scheffleri kernels
kernels eaten in small quantities in times
quantities in times of scarcity
scarcity as
as they can Menninger, 1977
1977
tropical Africa
tropical cause vomiting
Ximenia americana
Ximenia tallow nut; wild,
wild, densely branched, spinose shrub;, usually
densely branched, usually deciduous;
deciduous ; drupe
drupe Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
pantropical beach,
beach, hog,
hog, ovoid, juicy, 1-seeded;
I-seeded; raw oror cooked
cooked pulp
pulp eaten,
eaten, kernels
kernels white,
white, 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
tallowwood or palatability varies, purgative,
palatability varies, purgative, eaten
eaten raw
raw or roasted, seed
seed oil
oil used
used FAO, 1983;
FAO, 1983 ; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
wild plum; wild
wild for cooking and as cosmetic;
cosmetic; timber
timber substitute
substitute for
for white
white 1984; Mabberley,
1984; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
olive sandalwood, used for for fuel
fuel Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991;1991;
Peters et al.,
aI., 1992;
1992; Macrae
Macrae
et al.,
aI., 1993
1993

-
~ PROTEACEAE; fruit
PROTEACEAE; fruit aa follicle,
follicle, nut,
nut, achene
achene or
or drupe

Brabejum stellatifolium wild, Hottentots

Hottentots kernels
kernels require leaching before eating,
eating , formerly
formerly used
used as
as aa coffee
coffee Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
South Africa; cultivated
cultivated or bitter
bitter almond
almond substitute;
substitute; grown as hedges, noteworthy
noteworthy as first
first indigenous
indigenous tree
tree 1972; Palmer and Pitman,
1972;
to be cultivated in South Africa
Afriea 1972; 1977
1972; Menninger, 1977
Finschia
Finschia carrii kernels eaten Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
W. Pacific
W.
Finschia chloroxantha tree; kernels eaten, locally
tree; locally important food;
food; timber for cabinet Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij
Papua New Guinea, work; potential ornamental
ornamental and Coronel, 1991
1991
Solomon Islands
Finschia ferruginiflora
ferruginiflora kernels cooked and eaten
kernels Menninger, 1977
1977
New Guinea
Finschia rufa
Finschia kernels eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
W.Pacific
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common
Common name . U - - - Details References

Finschia sp. nuts eaten in

in Vanuatu
Vanuatu
W. Pacific
Pacific
Gevuina avellana
Gevuina Chilean wild nut;
Chilean evergreen tree, hazel-flavoured
hazel-flavoured seeds eaten fresh or
or roasted;
roasted; Howes, 1948; Menninger,
Howes, 1948; Menninger,
Chile gevuina nut;
gevuina nut; Chile wood for furniture, picture frames, roof
roof shingles,
shingles, grown
grown asas an
an 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
nut; avellano
nut; ornamental Mabberley, 1987
1987

Grevillea annulifera
Grevillea shrub; ~eeds hard-shelled,
shrub; seeds hard-shelled, kernel
kernel edible
edible Menninger, 1977
1977
W. Australia
W.
Grevillea elaeocarpifolia
Grevillea kernels eaten Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
Micronesia
Helicia cochinchinensis seeds edible; wood used for fuel
seeds edible; 1977; Verheij
Menninger, 1977; Verheij
...... Indo-China, China, Japan
Indo-China, 1991
and Coronel, 1991
+:>.
-....)
Helicia diversifolia "helicia nuts"
source of "helicia nuts" 1987
Mabberley, 1987
Queensland
Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia
pinnatifolia monkey,
monkey, rose oror tree, seed eaten; potential
potential as an
an ornamental
ornamental Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
N. Australia red bopple nut 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
1989; Lazarides
Tow, 1989; Lazarides and
and
Hince, 1993
1993
Kermadecia leptophylla nuts cooking before eating
nuts require lengthy washing and cooking eating Menninger, 1977
1977

Macadamia integrifolia
integrifolia macadamia seeds edible - "macadamia"
"macadamia" oror "Queensland
"Queensland nut", taste
taste like
like hazel
hazel Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Queensland; rainforest,
Queensland; (smooth, thin-shell
thin-shell nuts, sold
sold either in
in endocarp
endocarp and
and then
then cracked
cracked like
like almonds
almonds or 1972; 1977;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
cultivated type); Queensland
Queensland shelled, roasted
roasted and
and salted
salted 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
nut; Australian
Australian Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Tow,
Tow,
bush nut
nut 1989; Verheij
1989; Verheij and Coronel,
1991;
1991; Lazarides and Hince,
Hince,
1993
 Species and distribution
Species and Common name Details References

Macadamia ternifolia
Macadamia (thick-
macadamia (thick- seeds edible Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Queensland shell) 1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1977; 1987;
Purseglove, 1987; Lazarides
Purseglove,1987; Lazarides
and Hince, 1993
1993
Macadamia tetraphylla macadamia dehiscing on
fruit dehiscing on tree, seeds edible, roasted
roasted and
and eaten
eaten in
irr Tonga
Tonga Thaman, 1976;
Thaman, 1976; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
Queensland,
Queensland, New South (rough-shell type) 1984; 1987;
1984; Mabberley, 1987;
Wales Lazarides and Hince, 1993
1993
Panopsis suaveolens
suaveolens palo de papa;
papa; nuts very hard, kernels
nuts kernels edible
edible Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
Costa Rica
Rica palon de la
montañas
montanas

...... ROSACEAE; fruit a head of

ROSACEAE; fruit of follicles or achenes
follicles or achenes in
in swollen
swollenhypanthium
hypanthium or
or aa pome,
pome, rarely a capsule
capsule
~
00

Prinsepia utilis
uti/is deciduous thorny shrub;
deciduous thorny shrub; kernel source of an edible oil, also
also used
used Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Himalayas as an
an illuminant
illuminant 1977
Prunus
Prunus armeniaca
armeniaca apricot, Chinese
Chinese cultivated in N.
cultivated in N. China for its edible
edible kernels, where it has been Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N. China;
China; widely
widely almond grown since 2000 BC, kernels smaller than the almond but used 1977; 1987;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
cultivated in Eurasia and
and in similar ways;
ways; fruit pulp the
the apricot
apricot of
of commerce
commerce Verheij
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
1991
America
Prunus bucharica suffructose, exceptionally drought resistant, 98.5% bitter
bitter kernels,
kernels, Kovalev, 1941
1941
Central Asia
Asia 1,5%
1,5 % sweet kernels; kernels source of edible
edible oil; root
root bark
bark yields
yields
tanning
yellow dye and tanning
Prunus dulcis
dulcis almond kernel eaten as a dessert nut, used
used in
in confectionery
confectionery and as
as Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
W. Asia;
Asia; cultivated
cultivated almond butter; seed oil used medicinally;
medicinally; cultivated as an 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
ornamental Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
et al., 1988;
etal.,1988;
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name
name-· Details References

Prunus fasci
Prunus jasciculata
culata desert or wild
wild kernels baked and eaten; browsed Kearney and
Kearney and Peebles, 1951;
1951 ;
S.W.. USA
S.W USA almond; wild Hedrick, 1972;
Hedrick, 1972; Krochmal,
Krochmal ,
peach 1982
ulmifolia
Prunus ulmifolia kernels
kernels edible;
edible; attractive, early flowering
flowering tree Kovalev, 1941
1941
Turkestan

RUTACEAE;
RUT fruit schizocarp,
ACEAE; fruit schizocarp, berry
berry or drupe

Calodendrum capensis Cape chestnut

chestnut nuts eaten;
eaten; seeds
seeds source of an oil used in
in cosmetics;
cosmetics; timber Mabberley,
Mabberley , 1987; Martin et
East Africa to Cape useful; cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental al.,
aI., 1988
1988

......
~ SANTALACEAE;fruit
SANTALACEAE; fruit aa nut or drupe, 1-seeded
I-seeded

Santalum
Santalum acuminata quandong;
quandong ; native
native root parasitic tree;
tree; fruit globose, flesh
flesh eaten raw oror cooked;
cooked; seed
seed Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Australia; cultivated peach shell hard, kernel oily, nutritious,
nutritious, usually
usually eaten
eaten roasted,
roasted, flavour
flavour 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
harsh; nuts as necklaces,
necklaces , etc.; timber
timber for
for cabinet
cabinet making
making and
and Rosengarten, 1984;
1984; Macrae
Macrae
engraving; kernel 60
engraving ; kernel 60%
% fat, 25%
25 % protein
protein et al.,
aI., 1993
1993
Santalum spicatum sandalwood parasitic tree;
parasitic tree; fruit pulp thin, seed
seed shell
shell thin,
thin, crushed
crushed by
by hand,
hand, Menninger, 1977
1977
W. Australia
Australia kernels
kernels eaten; timber, fuelwood
fuel wood

SAPINDACEAE Fruit fleshy

SAPINDACEAE fleshy or dry, dehiscent
dehiscent or
or indehiscent,
indehiscent, seeds
seeds with arils or
or sarcotestas
sarcotestas

macrococcus
Alectryon macrococcus mahoe aril and kernel eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
Hawaii
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details - - - References

Blighia sapida
Blighia akee evergreen tree; ripe fruit pulp eaten fried
evergreen tree; fried or boiled,
boiled , toxic if green Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
West Africa; cultivated
cultivated or overripe, seed
seed coat
coat toxic
toxic but
but fine
fine flavour
flavour when
when cooked
cooked andand 1977;; Purseglove,
1977 Purseglove, 1987;
1987;
roasted with the fleshy aril Peters et al.,
al ., 1972
1972
Cubilia
Cub ilia cubili kubili nut
nut seeds
seeds eaten boiled or roasted, leaves
leaves used
used as
as vegetable;
vegetable; cultivated
oultivated Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948 ; Menninger,
Menninger,
Malesia
central Malesia in Java 1977; Mabberley
1977; Mabberley,, 1987
Cupania americana
Cupania seeds
seeds sweet, chestnut-like, eaten in the Caribbean, also source of
chestnut-like, eaten Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Mexico fermented
fermented liquor 1977

Deinbollia grandifolia fruit pulp edible, seeds

seeds slightly
slightly oily
oily and
and eaten
eaten 1977
Menninger, 1977
West Africa
Glenniea penan gensis
penangensis kernel boiled and eaten
eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
Malesia

-
VI
0
Malesia (not
Malesia
fruticosa
Lepisanthes fruticosa
(not in New
lunan nut fruit with edible
fruit edible flesh
flesh and
flavoured; root used in
flavoured;
and kernel
kernel,, the latter
in traditional
latter roasted
traditional medicine
medicine
roasted and
and chestnut Howes,, 1948;
Howes 1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1977; 1987;
Guinea);
Guinea); cultivated Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Magonia pubescens tingui seed oil used for cooking
seed cooking and soap
soap making
making Menninger, 1977
1977
Paraguay, Brazil
Paraguay,
Melicoccus
Melicoccus bijugatus Spanish lime; fruit pulp eaten, seeds
seeds usually eaten
eaten after roasting
roasting Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Caribbean honney berry; 1977
genip; mamoncillo
mamoncillo
Nephelium
Nephelium lappaceum rambutan;
rambutan; evergreen tree; fruit pulp edible, seeds bitter and narcotic,
evergreen narcotic, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Malesia; widely cultivated
Malesia; rampostan sometimes roasted
sometimes roasted and
and eaten,
eaten, source of an edible
edible cocoa-butter;
cocoa-butter; 1977; FAO,
FAO , 1982;
1982;
in the humid tropics fruit and
fruit and seeds
seeds source
source of dyes;
dyes; wood
wood used
used inin general
general 1987; Verheij
Mabberley, 1987; Verheij
construction; fruit used in
construction; in traditional
traditional medicine
medicine and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Seed contains up to 31%
Seed contains up to 31 % dry weight of fat
Nephelium ramboutan-ake
Nephelium pulasan fruit pulp
fruit pulp edible;
edible; seeds boiled or roasted for a cocoa-like
seeds boiled cocoa-like Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Philippines; cultivated beverage, also source ofof an
an edible
edible cocoa-butter,
cocoa-butter, also
also used
used as
as an
an 1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
illuminant
iIIuminant Purseglove, 1987
1987
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

Paullinia cupana
cupana guarana climbing
climbing shrub;
shrub; whole
whole roasted
roasted seeds
seeds source of commercial Hedrick, 1973;
1973; Menninger,
Menninger,
South America; cultivated
cultivated "guarana", containing
"guarana", 4.2%
containing 4.2 % caffeine; seeds pounded for a bread, 1977; Mabberley, 1978
1977; 1978
seeds with
seeds with cassava
cassava and
and water
water source of alcoholic beverage;
beverage; used
in local medicine as stimulant and digestive
Paullinia subrotunda aril and seeds eaten
aril 1972; Menninger,
Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
Asia 1977
Pometia pinnata Fijian longan;
longan; raw fruit
raw fruit eaten;
eaten; oily seeds boiled or roasted and eaten; timber
seeds boiled 1972; Menninger,
Hedrick, 1972; Menninger,
Malesia langsir; malugai
malugai used locally for construction
construction purposes
purposes 1977; 1984;
1977; FAO, 1984;
4.4% fat, 4.4% protein,
4.4% protein, 39.9%
39.9% fibre
fibre Mabberley, 1987
1987
Sapindus indicum soapberry fruit latex caustic, ripe seed
seed eaten,
eaten, contain
contain 50%
50 % oil
oil Menninger, 1977
1977
Asia

...... Schleichera oleosa lac tree; Ceylon

Ceylon unripe fruit
unripe fruit pickled;
pickled; aril eaten; seeds commercial source of the
commercial source Menninger, 1977;
1977;
VI
...... Indo-Malesia oak; kussum;
kussum; edible "Macassar
edible oil",, used for candles,
"Macassar oil" candles, hair dressing, batik Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
kosumba;
kosumba; gum lac work, soap
soap and illuminant;
illuminant; leaves
leaves edible;
edible; timber hard, used
used for
for Purseglove
Purseglove,, 1987
1987
mortars; bark for tanning;
mortars; tanning; host
host of
of lac
lac insects
insects

SAPOTACEAE; fruit fleshy, indehiscent

SAPOTACEAE; indehiscent

Argania spinosa argan tree seed oil used for cooking and illuminant;
seed illuminant; drupe eaten
eaten by
by livestock
livestock Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Morocco; cultivated
cultivated 1977; Mabberley, 1987
1977; 1987
Baillonella toxisperma
toxisperma djave;
djave; false shea forest tree;
forest tree; fruits source of edible seed oil; good
good timber
timber 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
Nigeria to Zaire butternut; African
African Mabberley , 1987; Falconer,
Mabberley, 1987; Falconer,
pearwood 1992
1990; Peters et al. 1992
Dip loknema butyracea
Diploknema Indian butter tree;
tree ; deciduous
deciduous tree; kernel source
source of
of an
an edible
edible phulwara
phulwara butter;
butter; seed
seed Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO ,
India pholwara cake edible,
cake edible, source
source of fat used in soap; durable
durable timber
timber used
used for
for 1982; Mabberley, 1987
1987
cabinet work, construction and fuel
cabinet fuel
kernel contains 60-67
kernel 60-67%% fat
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details .._ - - References

Madhuca longifolia illipe nut;

illipe nut; mahua kernel commercial source
kernel commercial source of "illipe butter"
butter" used in margarine and Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
India soap; seed-cake,
soap; seed-cake, "mahua meal", used
used as
as worm-killer
worm-killer on lawns;
lawns; 1977; 1987;
1977; Mabberley, 1987;
flowers edible Purseglove , 1987
Purseglove, 1987
Madhuca motleyana seed source of edible oil
seed Menninger, 1977
1977
Malesia
Males ja

Palaquium
Pala quium amboinense seed source of fat
fat Menninger, 1977
1977
S.E. Asia
Asia
Palaquium
Pala quium gutta gutta-percha evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; seed source of fat; latex
latex commercial
commercial source of Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Malaysia "gutta-percha" Mabberley, 1987
1987
Palaquium hexandrum fruit sour, edible, seed
fruit seed source of fat, used
used for
for food
food Menninger, 1977
1977
Sumatra
...... Palaquium
Pala quium philippense seed source
seed source of fat,
fat, used for food
food and
and as
as an
an illuminant
illuminant Menninger, 1977
1977
VI
N
Philippines
Palaquium
Pala quium rostra tum
rostratum fruit green,
fruit green, sweet and edible,
sweet and edible, seed
seed source
source of a bitter oil Menninger, 1977
1977

caimito
Pouteria caimito egg fruit; abiu evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; fruit
fruit 4-12
4-12 cm
cm in diameter,
diameter, seeds
seeds 1-5,
1-5, edible,
edible, fresh
fresh Menninger, 1977; FAO,
Merminger, FAO,
Peru; cultivated
cultivated mucilaginous
mucilaginous pulp eaten 1986
campechiana
Pouteria campechiana canistel; egg-fruit; fruit pulp
fruit pulp edible,
edible, dehydrated,
dehydrated, powdered
powdered and
and used
used as
as food
food 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
Central America, yellow sapote additive; seed edible
additive; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Caribbean Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
and Coronel, 1991
1991
Pouteria glomerata seed edible
seed Merminger, 1977
Menninger, 1977
Central America
obovata
Pouteria obovata lucuma seed edible;
edible; fruit pulp edible, dehydrated,
dehydrated, powdered
powdered and
and used
used as
as Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Verheij
Verheij
Peru food additive and Coronel, 1991
and 1991
 Species and distribution
Species and Common name Details References

Pouteria sapota mammee

sapote; mammee fruit pulp
fruit pulp edible,
edible, kernel
kernel large,
large, oily, finely
finely ground for a Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Central America; zapote; marmalade confection, also boiled, roasted,
confection, roasted, ground
ground and
and mixed
mixed with
with cocoa;
cocoa; 1977; Verheij
1977; Verheij and Coronel,
cultivated plum seed
seed oil potential in soap, cosmetic
cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries;
industries ; 1991
wood used
wood used in construction,
construction, for carts and furniture
Pouteria viridis
viridis green apote

Tieghemella
Tieghemella heckelii makore; cherry fleshy fruit;
fleshy fruit; kernels
kernels source of cooking oil, also used for
for soap
soap and
and Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Peters et
West Africa mahogany;
mahogany; bacu, medicine;
medicine; timber a mahogany substitute al.,
aI., 1992
1992
baku
Vitellaria paradoxa
Vitellaria paradoxa shea nut; shea tree; fruit
fruit source
source of
of edible
edible seed oil, shea
shea butter, used
used in
in food
fQod and
and Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
N. tropical Africa
N. butternut illumination, the
illumination, the fractionated
fractionated shea
shea oil commercial
commercial source
source of cocoa 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
butter equivalents
equivalents used in
in chocolate
chocolate formulations;
formulations; melliferous.
melliferous . FAO, 1982;
1982; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
I-'
VI
1987; Purseglove, 1987;
1987;
W Peters et al.,
aI., 1992
1992

SIMMONDSIACEAE; fruit
SIMMONDSIACEAE; fruit a loculicidal capsule, 2 empty
empty locules
locules

Simmondsia
Simmondsia chinensis jojoba; jajoba; dioecious, evergreen shrub bearing
bearing 1-seeded,
I-seeded, acorn-like
acorn-like capsules;
capsules; Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
S. California, Arizona and
S. goat, sheep or seeds readily
seeds readily eaten by children, native
native Americans and caprivores, 1972; Saunders, 1976;
1976;
northern Mexico deer nut; wild
wild ground as
ground as a coffee substitute; seed oil substitute
substitute for spermwhale
spermwhale Menninger, 1977;
1977;
hazel oil, widely used in cosmetics
cosmetics and industry
industry Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
1987
Mabberley, 1987

STAPHYLEACEAE; fruit aa head

STAPHYLEACEAE; fruit head of
of follicles,
follicles,drupe
drupe or
or berry
berry or inflated capsule

Staphylea bolanderi
Staphylea California shrub or tree; inflated
shrub inflated capsule with edible seeds, seed oil sweet,
edible seeds, sweet , Krochmal,
Krochmal , 1982
1982
California bladdernut used for cooking
cooking
 Species and
Species and distribution Conunon
Common name ' Details References

Staphylea pinnata
Staphylea pinnata European bladder kernels taste of pistachio, eaten by children; cultivated as
as an Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Europe nut ornamental 1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 1987
1987

Staphylea
Staphylea trifolia American shrub or tree,
tree, inflated
inflated capsule
capsule with
with edible
edible seeds;
seeds; seeds
seeds sometimes
sometimes Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N.E. USA
USA bladdernut eaten like a dessert nut, seed
seed oil
oil sweet,
sweet, used
used for
for cooking;
cooking; 1977; Krochmal,
1977; Krochmal, 1982
1982
cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental

STERCULIACEAE; fruit dehiscent

STERCULIACEAE; fruit dehiscent or
or indehiscent,
indehiscent, fleshy
fleshy to
to leathery
leathery or
or woody,
woody, often
often separating
separating into
into mericarps
mericarps

Brachychiton acerifolius bottle tree, deciduous tree; roasted

deciduous tree; roasted seeds
seeds eaten;
eaten; timber;
timber; Aborigine source of Tow, 1989;
1989; Lazarides
Lazarides and
and
E. Australia
Australia kurrajong fibre; cultivated
cultivated as
as an
an ornamental
ornamental Hince, 1993
1993
...... Cola acuminata
Cola Abatacola,
Abatacola, kola or evergreen tree, fruit
fruit edible,
edible, "nut"
"nut" (seed)
(seed) chewed
chewed asas aa masticatory
masticatory Dalziel, 1937;
1937; Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948;
VI
..j:::..
West Africa to Angola,
Angola, bata nut and stimulant to promote digestion; used in in cola
cola drink;
drink; sun-dried
sun-dried Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
introduced in
in America;
America; seeds formerly exported as
formerly exported as a source of caffeine;
caffeine; used in local 1977; Rosengarten,
1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
cultivated medicine Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987; Peters et
al.,
aI., 1992
1992
Cola anomala
Cola Bamenda cola "nut"
"nut" (seed) chewed as a masticatory to promote digestion;
digestion; used
used Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Cameroon in cola drink;
drink; Purseglove, 1987
1987
Cola caricaefolia
Cola caricaejolia false or monkey
monkey seed kernel eaten Dalziel, 1937;
1937; Menninger,
Menninger,
West Africa cola 1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
1977; 1984;
Peters
Peters et al., 1992
1992
Cola heterophylla monkey cola seed kernel eaten
eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
West Africa
Africa
Cola millenii false
false or monkey
monkey whole seed eaten
eaten Dalziel, 1937;
Dalziel, 1937; Menninger,
Menninger,
West Africa
Africa cola 1977
1977
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name - - - -- Details References

Cola nitida kola nut;

nut ; gbanja
gbanja evergreen tree
evergreen tree;; fruit eaten as aa masticatory
masticatory and stimulant, used as Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
West Africa; cultivated kola an ingredient or flavouring
flavouring in
in beverages
beverages and
and mineral
mineral waters
waters 1977; FAO, 1982;
1977; 1982;
Purseglove,
Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Peters et
et
al., 1992
1992
Cola rostrata seed eaten Dalziel,
Dalziel, 1937; Peters et al.,
West Africa 1992
Cola verticillata
Cola verticil/ata Owe kola,
Owé kola, kernel eaten, also chewed
chewed as aa masticatory
masticatory to
to promote
promote digestion;
digestion; Dalziel, 1937;
1937; Menninger,
Menninger,
West Africa slippery cola used in cola drink; caffeine
caffeine present
present 1977; 1984;
1977; Rosengarten, 1984;
Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Purseglove, 1987
1987
Heriti era fomes
Heritiera starchy seeds
seeds eaten as famine food after leaching
leaching tannins Menninger, 1977
Menninger, 1977

-
VI
VI
Indo-Malesia
Heriti era littoralia
Heritiera
coasts of Indian
Indian and
and Pacific
Pacific
seeds eaten with fish;
seeds fish; timber for
for dhow
dhow masts
masts Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Oceans
Ptery gota alata
Pterygota alata Buddha's coconut
coconut seeds winged
seeds winged eaten;
eaten; reputedly
reputedly used as opium substitute; grown as Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
India a street tree 1977; Mabberley,
1977; Mabberley, 19987
19987
Sterculia apetala Panama tree seeds eaten
oily seeds eaten raw,
raw, roasted or fried
fried Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Central America
America 1977
Sterculia balan ghas
balanghas seeds roasted, chestnut flavour
seeds Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
tropical E. Asia
Asia 1977
1977

Sterculia chicha maranhao nut seeds eaten;

seeds eaten; seed
seed oil
oil used
used for lubrication, etc. Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N.E.. South
N.E South America
America 1977; Mabberley, 1987
1977; 1987
Sterculia diversifolia bottle tree seeds and young taproots eaten by Aborigines
seeds Aborigines Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Australia 1977
 Species and
Species and distribution
distnbution Common name
Common Details References

foetida
Sterculia joetida Java olive, seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw
raw or
or roasted,
roasted, taste like filberts,
filberts, source of oil Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Old World tropics sterculia nuts 1972;
Menninger, 1977;
1977;
1987
Mabberley, 1987
Sterculia guttata
Sterculia seeds eaten
seeds Hedrick, 1972
1972
tropical India
Sterculia oblon gata
oblongata malaboho seeds eaten
seeds eaten raw
raw or
or roasted;
roasted; root edible;
edible; bark fibre for cordage, Merminger, 1977; FAO,
Menninger,
Philippines wood for light carpentry and
wood and matches
matches 1984;
1984; Guzman
Guzman etet aI., 1986;
al., 1986;
Verheij and Coronel,
Verheij Coronel , 1991
1991
Sterculia quadrifida peanut tree; deciduous tree; roasted seeds eaten by Aborigines;
deciduous tree; Aborigines; also source of Menninger, 1977;Tow,
Menninger,
Australia gorarbar medicine and fibre
medicine 1989; Lazarides
1989; Lazarides and Hince,
1993
.....
VI
0\ Sterculia rupestris narrow leaved roasted seeds
roasted seeds eaten Menninger, 1977
1977
Australia bottle tree
Sterculia setigera seeds eaten as famine food; source
source of
of aa gum
gum exudate
exudate Dalziel, 1937;
1937; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
tropical Africa 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Purseglove, 1987;
1987; Peters et
al.,
aI., 1993
1993
Sterculia treubii seeds eaten, also source of oil
seeds eaten, Menninger, 1977
1977
Lesser Sunda
Sunda Islands
Islands
Sterculia trichosiphon broad leaved roasted seeds eaten
eaten 1977
Menninger, 1977
bottle tree
Sterculia urceolata seeds eaten, also source of oil
seeds eaten, Menninger, 1977
1977
Sunda Islands
Lesser Sunda Islands
 Species and
Species and distribution
distnbution Common name Details __ u__ References

Sterculia
Sterculia urens seeds roasted
seeds roasted and
and eaten,
eaten, also
also used as coffee
coffee substitute; source of
substitute; source Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Howes,
India "karaya gum"
"karaya gum" or "Indian
"Indian tragacanth''
tragacanth" 1972;
1977;
Menninger, 1977;
1987
Mabberley, 1987
Theobroma
Theobroma bicolor patashte evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; fruit
fruit 10-15
10-15 xx 6-18
6-18 cm,
cm, seeds numerous, 1.6-3
seeds numerous, 1.6-3 x 1986
FAO, 1986
tropical central
tropical central and
and South 0.8-1.3 cm; pulp
pulp eaten raw, seeds eaten cooked
cooked toasted
toasted or made
made
America into inferior chocolate;
into chocolate; cocoa butter of good quality; pericarp
used for containers
containers
Theobroma cacao
Theobroma cocoa tree; seeds numerous;
tree; fruit 10-30 x 5-12 cm, seeds numerous; pulp
pulp eaten
eaten raw,
raw, 1977; FAO,
Menninger, 1977; FAO,
tropical South America; made
made into jams
jams or jellies, or
or fermented
fermented for
for alcohol
alcohol or
or vinegar;
vinegar; 1986; Mabberley, 1987;
1986; Mabberley,
widely cultivated seeds commercial
seeds commercial source
source of cocoa
cocoa butter for chocolate, contains 1987
Purseglove, 1987
stimulant
stimulant theobromine,
theobromine, also
also used
used in cosmetics
cosmetics and industry;
and industry;
...... widely cultivated in the tropics
VI
-...l

STYLOBASIACEAE; nut-like
STYLOBASIACEAE;

Stylobasium
Stylobasium spathulatum nut bush nut eaten by Australian
Australian aborigines
aborigines Brand and
and
Australia 1985
Cherikoff, 1985

TILIACEAE; fruit a dry

TILIACEAE; dry or
ornot,
not,dehiscent
dehiscent or
orindehiscent
indehiscent

Diplodiscus paniculatus baroba nut

nut tree; starchy seeds boiled and eaten;
tree; eaten; bark used for cordage;
cordage; wood
wood Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Mabberley,
Mabberley ,
Philippines for light construction and domestic
domestic utensils
utensils 1987; Coronel .
1987; Verheij and Coronel.
1991
1991
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name
Coiiimon-iiame Details References

TRAPACEAE; fruit
TRAPACEAE; fruit indehiscent,
indehiscent, persistent
persistent stony
stony endocarp,
endocarp, one cotyledon retained
one cotyledon retained in
in fruit

Trapa bicornis ling nut annual aquatic herb; fruit eaten boiled, preserved, candied
aquatic herb; candied or Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
S.E. Asia;
Asia; cultivated
cultivated ground into flour for baking;
baking; fruits
fruits make
make a bitter
bitter medicine
medicine for 1984; Anderson, 1986;
1984; 1986;
treating stomach complaints,
complaints, spleen and ulcers; widely
widely cultivated
cultivated Mabberley, 1987
1987
in China, Japan
Japan and
and Korea
Korea
Trapa cochinchinensis
cochinchinensis annual aquatic herb; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten Hedrick, 1972
1972
S.E. Asia
Asia
Trapa incisa annual aquatic herb; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten Hedrick, 1972
1972
Japan, cultivated
Trapa natans
var.
var. natans Eurasia,
Eurasia, European water annual aquatic herb;
annual aquatic herb; fruit eaten, ground to flour
flour or
or boiled,
boiled, staple
staple Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
...... Africa, naturalized North chestnut, horn
chestnut, food in Neolithic
Neolithic 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
Vl
00
America; cultivated
cultivated nut; Jesuit's nut,
nut; Rosengarten, 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
saligot, water
saligot, Mabberley, 1987
1987
calthrops
var. bispinosa
bispinosa
tropical Asia; cultivated
cultivated singhara nut annual aquatic
annual aquatic herb;
herb; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten raw, boiled,
boiled, roasted,
roasted, fried
fried or
or Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
ground into flour for baking, staple food
into flour food for Hindus 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Peters et
al., 1992
1992
var. africana
Lake Victoria annual aquatic
annual aquatic herb;
herb; fruit eaten by the
the Waganda
Waganda Menninger, 1977
1977

UMBELLIFERAE; fruit
UMBELLIFERAE; fruit a schizocarp of 2 mericarps facially
facially united
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Conopodium majus earth or pig nut; annual herb; globose root tubers eaten boiled or roasted Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
W.Europe arnut; jurnut;
arnut; 1977
earth chestnut

VOCHYSIACEAE;fruit
VOCHYSIACEAE; fruitaa loculicidal
loculicidalcapsule
capsuleoror winged
winged sainara
samara with
with accrescent
accrescent calyx
calyx

Erisma
Erisma japura
japura japurd;
japuni; quaruba evergreen tree;
tree; indehiscent fruit 12-13
indehiscent fruit 12-13 xx 44 cm,
cm, seeds
seeds 1, 3-4 cm Hedrick, 1972; FAO, 1986;
Hedrick, 1986;
Amazonia branca long; seeds
seeds a famine food, eaten raw, roasted or boiled, source
famine food, source Mabberley, 1987
1987
of a vile-smelling edible oil,
vile-smelling edible oil, also used for candles,
candles, etc.
etc .

......
VI
'D
 Species and
Species and distribution Coalition
C()lnmon name Details References

MONOCOTYLEDONS

CYPERACEAE; fruit an achene

CYPERACEAE; fruit achene

Cyperus
Cy p erus esculentus
es culentus tiger, chufa,
chufa, bush,
bush, perennial,, stoloniferous herb, stolons
perennial stolons terminating
terminating in
in aa tuber;
tuber; Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Asia;
Africa and W. Asia; rush or Zulu
Zulu nut;
nut; tuber rich in starch, sugar and fat, eaten raw or roasted,
roasted, inin 1976;
1972; Saunders, 1976;
cultivated almond
earth almond confectionary, made
confectionary, made into
into flour
flour or juice served as aa beverage
beverage - Menninger, 1977;
1977;
"horchata de
"horchata de chufas"
chufas" in Spain,
Spain, source of the edible "chufa
"chufa oil",
oil" , Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
also used in soap-making;
soap-making; cultivated in warm climates
climates for itsits Mabberley, 1987
1987
edible tubers and for feeding
feeding pigs.
pigs .
Cyperus
Cyperus rotundus nut grass perennial stoloniferous herb bearing
stoloniferous herb bearing root tubers; root tuber
tuber eaten
eaten Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Saunders,
Saunders,
weed
pantropical weed raw 1976

...- Eleocharis dulcis

dulcis Chinese water perermial,
perennial, stoloniferous herb; cultivated
stoloniferous herb; cultivated in
in China,
China, etc.
etc. in flooded
flooded Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
0\
o Old World tropics chestnut fields which
fields which are drained for harvesting the tubers or corms which Mabberley, 1987
1987
constitute the
constitute the chief crunchy
crunchy white
white vegetable
vegetable in chop
chop suey, etc.,
etc.,
exported fresh and canned
canned

IRIDACEAE;
IRIDACEAE; fruit aa loculicidal
loculicidal capsule

Gynandriris sisyrinchium Spanish nut iris-like with spring-flowering corms, corms eaten; grazed by
spring-flowering corms, Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Townsend
Townsend
Mediterranean to sheep and Guest, 1985
1985
Afghanistan
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name
name---~-~-- - Details References
References

NYMPHAEACEAE; fruit bexry-like

NYMPHAEACEAE; berry-like

Euryale ferox fox or gorgon nut;

fox nut; aquatic herb,
aquatic herb, pulpy fruit with 8-15
8-15 black,
black, globose
globose seeds;
seeds; 1977; Menninger,
Hedrick, 1977; Menninger,
N. India to China
N. prickly water lily cultivated by
cultivated by Chinese
Chinese for
for 3000 years;
years; seeds eaten raw before
before 1977; 1987
1977; Mabberley, 1987
fully ripe,
fully ripe, nutty flavour,
flavour, roasted or boiled
boiled when
when mature;
mature; fruit
fruit
pulp, stems
pulp, stems and rhizome also edible
Nelumbo
Nelumbo lutea American lotus;
lotus; aquatic
aquatic rhizomatous
rhizomatous herb; rhizome edible
herb; seeds and rhizome edible Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
North America,
North America, Caribbean water chinquapin 1987
Nelumbo
Nelumbo nucifera sacred lotus; water
water aquatic
aquatic rhizomatous
rhizomatous herb
herb with white, 1-seeded
I-seeded carpels
carpels embedded
embedded Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
warm Asia to Australia;
warm cinquapin; water in flat-topped,
flat-topped, fleshy
fleshy receptacle
receptacle which
which at maturity dries and ripe 1977; Menninger, 1977;
1977; 1977;
cultivated or rattle nut;
nut; seeds rattle
seeds rattle within;
within; revered by Buddhists; unripe seed eaten raw Rosengarten, 1984;
1984;
Egyptian bean (lotus nut or seed),
(lotus nut or seed), ripe seed roasted or boiled
boiled after removal
removal of Mabberley, 1987; Macrae et
Mabberley, 1987; et
...... bitter, green embryo; rhizome
rhizome source of
of Chinese
Chinese arrowroot; ai., 1993
al., 1993
0\
...... cultivated as
cultivated as an ornamental
seed contains
contains 6868%% carbohydrates
carbohydrates (starch)
(starch),, 17
17%% protein, 2.5 %
protein, 2.5%
fat,
fat, rich
rich in
in vitamin
vitamin CC

PALMAE; fruit usually

P ALMAE; fruit usually a fleshy fibrous drupe, rarely
fleshy or fibrous rarely more
more or
orless
less dehiscent
dehiscent

Acrocomia aculeata
Acrocomia mucujá; macatíba;
mucuja; macauba; solitary, spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; kernel
kernel Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Martinique, Dominica
Martinique, gru gru nut
nut edible,
edible, source
source of an edible oil;; pulp oily, sweet, edible,
edible oil edible , used in 1986;
1972; FAO, 1986;
cooking and soap
cooking and soap;; nuts fed to pigs;
pigs ; palm
palm cabbage
cabbage eaten;
eaten; leaves
leaves 1977; Johnson,
Menninger, 1977; Johnson,
used
used for browse, thatch
thatch and basketry; trunks
trunks for
for posts
posts 1983;
1983 ; Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield ,
1987
1987
Acrocomia lasiospatha
Acrocomia macaw;; mucuja
macaw pleonanthic, monoecious,, feather
pleonanthic , monoecious feather palm; fruit with thin, edible
edible Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Uhl
Uhl and
and
Caribbean, Brazil
Brazil pulp;
pulp ; nut oily and bitter,
bitter, esteemed
esteemed locally
locally Dransfield,
Dransfield , 1987
1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Acrocomia totai gru gru; pleonanthic, monoecious,

pleonanthic, monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; kernels an important
important Menninger, 1977;
1977;
N.E. Argentina,
Argentina, Paraguay
Paraguay mbocarya; source of oil, used
used locally
locally for cooking,
cooking, soap
soap and
and as
as an
an illuminant
illuminant Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
Paraguay palm Dransfield, 1987
1987
minima
Aiphanes minima coyor solitatry, spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; kernel
kernel Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Uhl
Uhl and
and
America
Central America thick,
thick, white, edible, similar to that of coconut;
coconut; thin, sweet pulp Dransfield, 1987
1987
edible
Areca catechu betel or areca
areca solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
tropical cultigen;
cultigen; cultivated
cultivated palm; bungaa;
bungaa; masticatory,
masticatory, sliced endospern of ripe or or unripe
unripe seeds
seeds (nuts)
(nuts) 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
in S.
in S. and S.E. Asia
Asia jamba; pinang
pinang chewed in a wad of betel pepper (Piper betle,
chewed betle, Piperaceae)
Piperaceae) with
with Johnson, 1983;
Johnson, 1983; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
lime, a mild
mild narcotic
narcotic containing
containing arecaine,
arecaine, causing
causing salivation,
salivation, 1984; Purseglove, 1985;
1984; 1985;
dulling of appetite
dulling and reddening
appetite and reddening of saliva; palm cabbage eaten; Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
leaves for
leaves for thatch;
thatch; leaf sheaths
sheaths for hats and containers;
containers; seed used Dransfield, 1987
1987
...... as a vermifuge
as and in veterinary medicine;
vermifuge and fruit source of tannin
medicine; fruit
0\
N
and dye; cultivated
cultivated as ornamental
ornamental
Areca laxa pleonanthic, monoecious,
pleonanthic, monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; used as substitute for Hedrick, 1972
1972
Andaman Islands betel nut .

Arenga pinnata black sugar palm;

palm; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious
monoecious feather palm; Miller, 1964;
Miller, 1964; Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
Malesia from
Malesia from W.
W. India to sugar plum; toddy immature kernels
immature kernels cooked
cooked and eaten in Philippines,
Philippines , boiled and Menninger, 1977; FAO,
Menninger,
Hainan, Philippines and palm; areng
areng palm;
palm; marketed as
marketed as a sweetmeat;
sweetmeat; male spadix tapped for palm palm sugar,
sugar, 1984; Purseglove,
1984; Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
Papua New Guinea;
Guinea; widely ejow; gomuti;
gomuti; jaggery, palm
palm wine
wine or
or toddy,
toddy, distilled
distilled for
for arrak;
arrak; palm
palm cabbage
cabbage Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
cultivated in the tropics
tropics kaong eaten raw
eaten raw or cooked; stem pith source of sago; leaf leaf sheath
sheath source Dransfield, 1987
1987
of good fibre;
fibre; leaves
leaves for
for thatching;
thatching; split
split petioles
petioles for
for basketry
basketry
Astracaryurn
Astrocaryum aculeatum star nut
nut palm;
palm; solitary, spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; mesocarp
mesocarp Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Amazonia tucumá
tucuma thin, edible, contains 15-75%
15-75 % oil; kernels hard and
and inedible,
inedible, 1977; FAO, 1986;
1977; 1986;
contain 37%
contain 37% edible oil, used
used commercially,
commercially, residue
residue used
used as
as cattle
cattle Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberley,
feed; leaf fibres marketed commecially,
feed; commecially, used for for hammocks.
hammocks. Dransfield, 1987
Dransfield, 1987
Potential oil crop
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Dei-ails
Details -- -References
References

Astrocaryon
Astrocaryon jauari
jauari jauari; awarra
awarra solitary, spiny,
spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; kernel
kernel Johnson, 1983
1983
South America source of edible oil; leaves
leaves used for thatch
thatch

Astrocaryum murumuru murti-muru

muru-muru or spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; kernel
kernel chief
chief source
source Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Amazonia murumuru of edible oil in Pará,
Para, Brazil,
Brazil, used
used commercially;
commercially; leaf
leaf fibres
fibres used
used 1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1977; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
for hammocks
hammocks and Dransfield, 1987
1987
tucumoides
Astrocaryon tucumoides awarra spiny, pleonanthic monoecious,
monoecious, feather palm; kernel source
source of
of Menninger, 1977;
1977;
N.E. South
South America
America edible oil used commercially;
commercially; leaves used for matting
matting 1987
Mabberley, 1987
vulgare
Astrocaryon vulgare tucuma spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; mesocarp
mesocarp edible,
edible, Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
tropical America rich in
in vitamin
vitamin A; kernels
kernels source
source of
of edible
edible oil,
oil, excellent
excellent for
for Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
cooking and soap-making,
soap-making, used commercially;
commercially; leaf fibres used Dransfield, 1987;
1987; Prance,
Prance,
for fishing lines and nets, hammocks,
hammocks , strongest fibre inin 1994
Amazonia, possibly
possibly commercially
commercially viable. Plant often
viable. Plant often of
...... disturbed areas
areas therefore
therefore probably
probably easily
easily domesticated
domesticated
0\
VJ
Attalea oleifera solitary, unarmed,
unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Uhl
Uhl and
and
Brazil extremely hard nut;
extremely hard nut; kernels source of a cooking
cooking oil 1987
Dransfield, 1987
Bactris gasipaes peach palm;
peach palm; palm suckering, spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; starchy
starchy Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Amazonian Peru;
Peru; chestnut; fruit pulp dry and mealy,
mealy, edible;
edible; boiled
boiled kernels
kernels edible;
edible; kernels
kernels aa 1972; National
1972; National Academy
Academy of
unknown in the wild,
wild, pejibay(e); commercial oilseed; fruit
commercial oilseed; fruit regarded as the most
most nutritionally
nutritionally Sciences, 1975;
Sciences, 1975; Menninger,
Menninger,
widely cultivated in
in South
South pejivalle; pupuha
pejivalle; balanced tropical foods;
balanced of tropical foods; palm
palm hearts
hearts an
an important export; fruit
important export; fruit 1977; Johnson, 1983;
1977; 1983;
America, especially for
America, residues fed to livestock; leaves
leaves for thatching;
thatching; wood
wood forfor long
long Purseglove, 1985;
1985; FAO,
FAO ,
palm hearts, introduced
introduced in
in bows and floor slabs, source
source of
of cellulose
cellulose for
for cellophane
cellophane paper
paper 1986; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl
S. E.Asia
S. and rayon.
rayon. Potential
Potential for
for improvement
improvement as as an
an oil
oil crop.
crop. and Dransfield, 1987;
1987;
Verheij
Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991;
1991;
Clay and Clement, 1993;
Clay 1993;
Clement and Villachica,
1994
1994
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Bactris major prickly plum;

plum; spiny, pleonanthic, monoecious
spiny, monoecious,, feather
feather palm; nut marketed as Hedrick, 1972;
1972;
Caribbean black roseau "cocorotes", cultivated as an
cultivated as an ornamental
ornamental Mabberly, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberly,
Dransfield, 1987
1987

Borassus aethiopum African fan palm; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious

solitary, dioecious,, fan
fan palm; fibrous
fibrous pulp Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Johnson,
Tropical Africa deleib palm eaten raw
eaten raw of cooked;
cooked ; germinating radicle of buried nut cooked
cooked as
as 1983; Purseglove, 1985;
1985; Uhl
Uhl
famine food;
famine food; palm cabbage
cabbage eaten;
eaten; sap source of of toddy;
toddy; leaves
leaves and Dransfield, 1987
1987
used for thatch and basketry
used

Borassus flabellifer
flabellifer palmyra, toddy or
palmyra, solitary, unarmed,
solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, dioecious,, fan
pleonanthic, dioecious fan palm; fruit pulp Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
India to Myanmar;
Myanmar; wine palm;
palm; roasted and
roasted and eaten,
eaten, seedlings edible; inflorescence sap source of 1877;
1877; Johnson, 1983;
1983;
cultivated siwalan and toddy;
sugar and toddy; timber
timber for rafters, leaves
leaves for
for thatch,
thatch, basketry,
basketry, Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
writing paper,
writing paper, etc.; fibre exported Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl and
Dransfield, 1987
....... Caryota cumingii pugahan hapaxanthic, monoecious
hapaxanthic, monoecious,, feather
feather palm,
palm, leaves
leaves bipinnate with
with FAO, 1986;
1986; Uhl
Uhl and
and
0\
~
Philippines fish-tail leaflets
fish-tail leaflets;; seeds
seeds used
used as
as substitute chewing
chewing gum;
gum; sap Dransfield,
Dransfield , 1987
1987
source of palm
source palm wine
wine and
and alcohol,
alcohol, stem source
source of sago; palm
cabbage eaten;
cabbage eaten; soft
soft petiole
petiole fibre
fibre used for tinder, cauking
cauking and
and
stuffing pillows;
stuffing pillows; petioles
petioles for
for basketry; leaves .used
used for thatch;
thatch;
timber slats used for flooring;
flooring; cultivated
cultivated as
as an
an ornamental
ornamental
Caryota mitis fishtail palm hapaxanthic, monoecious,
hapaxanthic, monoecious, feather
feather palm,
palm, leaves
leaves bipinnate with
bipinnate with Menninger,
Menninger, 1977;
1977; Johnson,
Johnson,
Indo-Malesia fish-tail leaflets
fish-tail leaflets;; mesocarp
mesocarp toxic with numerous
numerous oxalate
oxalate crystals,
crystals, 1987; Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl
immature kernel
immature kernel edible;
edible; fruits used as aa masticatory
masticatory after
after and Dransfield, 1987
1987
leaching macerated
leaching macerated fruit;
fruit; palm
palm cabbage
cabbage eaten,
eaten, sap
sap source
source ofof
wine, stem source
wine, source of sago;
sago ; leaves used for thatching, leaf sheath
source of fibre;
source fibre ; cultivated as an ornamental
ornamental

Caryota obtusa giant mountain solitary,, hapaxanthic,

solitary hapaxanthic , monoecious,
monoecious, feather palm, leaves
leaves bipinnate Whitmore, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
var.
var . aequatorialis
aequatorialis fishtail palm with fish-tail
with fish-tail leaflets; mesocarp toxic with
with numerous
numerous oxalate
oxalate 1977; Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield,
Malaysia crystals, kernel
crystals, kernel edible;
edible ; fruits used
used as
as aa masticatory
masticatory after
after leaching
leaching 1987
macerated
macerated fruit
 Species
Species and distribution Common
Connnon name Details References

Cocos nucifera
Cocos coconut solitary, unarmed,
solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather
pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm;
palm; fruit Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
western Pacific, now
now 1-seeded drupe;
I-seeded drupe; fibrous
fibrous mesocarp
mesocarp (husk)
(husk) yields
yields fibre
fibre coir for 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
pantropical coasts; doormats,
doormats, matting, cordage, coir-dust
coir-dust a peat
peat substitute
substitute in Johnson, 1983;
1983; Rosengarten,
Rosengarten,
cultivated horticulture;
horticulture; endocarp
endocarp hard, woody, 3-pored3-pored with
with adherent
adherent seed; 1984; Purseglove,
1984; Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
endosperm hollow,
endosperm hollow, edible,
edible, containing
containing ca.
ca. 500 ml of reffeshing
refreshing Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
coconut milk
coconut milk which
which is also used in plant physiology experiments, Dransfield, 1987
1987
dried endosperm (copra)
(copra) used
used inin confectionery
confectionery (desiccated
(desiccated
coconut), also important
coconut), also source of
important source of oil
oil for
for margarine,
margarine, soap,
soap, etc.,
residue used
residue used in stockfeed;
stockfeed; apical buds of over maturemature trees
trees used
used
for tinned
for tinned palm
palm hearts;
hearts; axis
axis tapped
tapped for
for toddy which,
which, when
evaporated yields
yields jaggery (palm sugar), when when fermented,
fermented,
produces
produces arrak and may be further fermented
fermented to vinegar;
vinegar; leaves
leaves
for basketry, thatch,
thatch, etc.;
etc.; timber
timber(porcupine
(porcupine wood)
wood) for
for building.
building.
..... Copernica prunifera wax or carnauba
wax solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fan fan palm;
palm; Menninger, 1977;
1977; Johnson,
Johnson,
0\
Vl N.E.. Brazil
N.E Brazil wax palm immature kernels
immature kernels edible;
edible; leaf wax used commercially
commercially in shoe 1983; Mabberley,
1983; Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl
polish,
polish, gramaphone records, candles,
gramaphone records, candles, etc.;
etc.; leaves
leaves for basketry, and Dransfield, 1987
1987
etc.; trunk
trunk for
for wood
wood
Elaeis guineensis
guineensis African oil palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; Howes, 1948;
1948; Kedrick,
Kedrick,
tropical Africa; cultivated
cultivated pericarp and kernel processed commercially for edible
edible oil,
oil, pulp
pulp 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
and kernel eaten, an important
important source of vitamin A; sap used to Johnson, 1983;
1983; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
make wine and
make wine and alcohol;
alcohol; shell used for fuel
shell used fuel and road surfacing; 1987; Uhl and Dransfield,
1987;
palm heart eaten; leaves
leaves for thatch,
thatch, weaving;
weaving; petiole
petiole for
for fencing
fencing 1987; Hartley, 1988;
1987; 1988;
Falconer,
Falconer, 1990; Peters
Peters et al.,
aI.,
1992
Elaeis oleifera American oil palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, feather
feather palm;
palm; nuts source of Johnson, 1983;
1983; Uhl
Uhl and
and
South America
Central and South America edible and industrial oil; germplasm source for hybrids
hybrids with
with E.
E. Dransfield, 1987; Hartley,
Hartley ,
guineensis for disease restistance etc.
guineensis etc. 1988
 Species
Species and
and distribution Conunon name
Common Details References

Eugeissona utilis bertam palm suckering, dioecious

suckering, dioecious,, feather
feather palm; fru
fruit
it edible;
edible; starch from trunk Johnson, 1983; Mabberley,
Johnson,
S.E. Asia;
Asia; locally
locally a staple food
food of some natives; leaves for thatch
thatch 1987
cultivated
Gastrococcus crispa corojo;; belly palm
corojo solitary,, heavily armed,
solitary armed , pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious , feathej
featheJ palm;
palm; Menninger, 1977;
1977; Uhl
Uhl and
and
Cuba fruit with hard shell; kernel
fruit kernel edible,
edible, appreciable
appreciable quantities
quantities of
of oil;
oil; Dransfield,, 1987
Dransfield 1987
fibres for cordage; cultivated
leaf fibres cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental
Hyphaene compressa solitary, spiny, pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious, fan
fan palm; fibrous
fibrous flesh
flesh of Uhl and
Uhl and Dransfield, 1987;
1987;
East Africa fruit eaten,
fruit eaten, seed
seed kernel
kernelofofunripe
unripefruit
fruiteaten,
eaten,also
alsothe
the part
part of Peters aI.
Peters al.,, 1992
1992
germinating seedling
germinating seedling just
just below
below ground
ground;; endocarp
endocarp a substitute
substitute
vegetable ivory
vegetable ivory used
used for buttons; palm heart eaten;
eaten; leaves
leaves used
used
for thatch,
for thatch, matting, baskets, cordage, paper
paper and
and fuel
fuel
Hyphaene coriacea
Hyphaene clustered or solitary, spiny,
clustered spiny, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious, fan
fan palm;
palm; Uhl and
Uhl and Dransfield, 1987;
1987;
...... East and South Africa, fibrous flesh
fibrous flesh of fruit
fruit eaten,
eaten, seed kernel of unripe fruit eaten, also
also Peters
Peters et al.,
aI. , 1992
1992
0\
0\ the part
partofofgerminating
germinating seedling
seedling just
just below
below ground;
ground; endocarp
endocarp a
Madagascar
substitute vegetable
substitute vegetable ivory
ivory used
used for
for buttons
buttons;; palm heart eaten;
leaves used
leaves used for
for thatch,
thatch, matting,
matting, baskets, cordage, paper and and fuel
fuel

Hyphaene petersiana
Hyphaene gingerbread palm solitary or rarely clustered, dioecious fan palm;
solitary palm; pulp and seeds Menninger,
Menninger, 1977; Uhl and
tropical Africa eaten raw
eaten raw,, germinating seeds eaten;
germinating seeds eaten; seed
seed kernel
kernel of unripe
unripe fruit
fruit Dransfield,
Dransfield , 1987; Peters et
eaten, also
eaten, also the
the part
partof
ofgerminating
germinating seedling
seedling just below ground; al.,
a\. , 1992
1992
endocarp formerly
endocarp formerly a substitute source of vegetrable ivory for
buttons; palm heart eaten; leaves
leaves used for thatch, matting,
matting,
baskets, cordage, paper andand fuel
fuel
Hyphaene thebaica
Hyphaene doum or dum solitary, armed, pleonanthic,
solitary, pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious , fan
fan palm;
palm; fibrous
fibrous mealy
mealy Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Sudan and Egypt
Egypt palm mesocarp (husk),, which tastes
meso carp (husk) tastes of gingerbread
gingerbread and
and seed
seed kernel
kernel of 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
unripe fruit
fruit eaten,
eaten, also
also the part
partofofgerminating
germinating seedling
seedling just Johnson, 1983; Purseglove,
below ground; endocarp a substitute
substitute vegetable ivory used for 1985;
1985; MabberJey, 1987; Uhl
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
buttons;
buttons; palm heart eaten;
eaten; leaves used for thatch, matting,
leaves used matting , and Dransfield,
and Dransfield, 1987;
1987; Peters
Peters
baskets, cordage, paper
paper and
and fuel
fuel et al.,
aI. , 1992
1992
 Species and distribution
Species and distnbution Common mUlle
Common narre Details References

Jessenia bataua batawa; chapil; solitary, unarmed

solitary, unarmed (except
(except for
for short fibres
fibres on upper parts of leaf
leaf Menninger, 1977;
1977; FAO,
FAO,
tropical South America jagua; mille
mille pesos;
pesos ; sheath) pleonanthic,
sheath) pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm; kernels
kernels eaten 1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
1986; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
palma de leche;
leche ; mainly by the
mainly by the poor;
poor; thin, oily
oily pulp edible, made into a wine, and Dransfield, 1987
1987 Clay
Clay
palma patavona;
patavona; mesocarp oil
mesocarp oil used
used for
for food,
food, soap and cosmetics,
cosmetics , residue fed to and Clement,
Clement , 1993;
1993;
patauá; serie;
pataua; serje; pigs; leaves used for thatching;
thatching; leaf sheath and petiole source of Clement and Villachica,
Villachica,
ungurauy; yagua
yagua soft and
soft and stiff
stiff fibres
fibres.. Managed
Managed in in the
the wild
wild 1994
Jubaea chilensis
chilensis Chilean wine-
wine- massive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
massive, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious , feather
feather Howes,
Howes , 1948;
1948; Uphof,
Uphof, 1968;
1968;
coastal Chile palm; coquito; palm; nuts
palm; nuts - "little
"little cokernuts"
cokernuts" or "coquitos"
"coquitos" used
used in
in Chilean
Chilean Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Usher,
Usher, 1974;
1974;
honey-palm; little, confectionery, occasionally
confectionery, occasionally marketed,
marketed, source
source of an edible oil; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
pigmy or monkey
monkey massive bole
massive bole formerly
formerly felled
felled and
and tapped
tapped for
for sap
sap (up
(up to
to 300 litres) Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
coconut which is reduced by boiling for treacle (palm
which (palm honey) and palm Dransfield, 1987
1987
wine; leaves
wine; leaves used for basketry; cultivated
cultivated as ornamental;
ornamental;
occasionally exported
occasionally
......
0\
-.] Livistonia cochinchinensis
cochinchinensis solitary, pleonanthic,
solitary, hermaphrodite, fan
pleonanthic, hermaphrodite, fan palm;
palm; ripe fruits
fruits eaten Uphof, 1968;
1968; Menninger,
Menninger,
S.E. Asia
Asia in N. Vietnam;
Vietnam; cultivated
cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental 1977; Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield,
1987; Braun, 1984
1987; 1984
Livistonia sari bus
saribus solitary, pleonanthic, hermaphrodite fan palm of swamp forests;
solitary, Uphof, 1968;
1968; Menninger,
Menninger,
Indo-Malesia endosperm macerated
endosperm macerated in
in vinegar
vinegar or salt solution and eaten in S.E.
S.E. 1977
Asia
Lodoicea maldivica double coconut robust, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
robust, pleonanthic, dioecious fanfan palm;
palm; fruit Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Seychelles coco de mer
coco large, requires six years to ripen;
large, ripen; immature
immature fruit
fruit at
at 10-12
10-12 months
months 1977; Purseglove,
1977; Purseglove, 1985:
1985 ;
with sweet
with sweet,, translucent,
translucent , jelly-like, edible kernel;
kernel ; mature
mature endocarp
endocarp Mabberley,
Mabberley , 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
a vegetable ivory, hard and inedible, used for bowls,
vegetable ivory, bowls , etc.;
etc .; leaves
leaves Dransfield,
Dransfield , 1987
1987
used for thatch and plaiting, down
used down from
from young
young leaves
leaves for
for stuffing
stuffing
pillows; wood
pillows; wood used
used for pallisades, troughs; cultivated
cultivated as
ornamental
 Species and distribution
Species Common name Details References

Manicaria saccifera monkey

busso, monkey solitary, unarmed,
solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather
pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm
palm of Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
America
tropical America cap or sleeve
sleeve fresh water
fresh water swamps;
swamps; seeds
seeds a source
source of oil - "ubusou";
"ubusou"; palm
palm Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Mabberley, Uhl and
and
palm source of sago
source sago in
in Venezuela;
Venezuela; leaves
leaves used
used for
for thatch
thatch and
and sails;
sails; Dransfield, 1987
1987
spathe used
spathe used for
for a hat
Mauritia flexuosa tree of
of life;
life; massive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
massive, pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious, fan
fan palm;
palm; Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N. South
South America,
America, buriti; guagara
guagara farinaceous kernel
farinaceous kernel eaten;
eaten; mesocarp
mesocarp used used to make ice cream, 1977; Johnson,
1977; Johnson, 1983;
1983; FAO,
Trinidad muriti; ta or
muriti; refreshing drink
refreshing drink and
and oil;
oil; pith source of sago, sap source
source of
of palm
palm 1986; Mabberley,
1986; Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
temiche palm wine; leaves
wine; leaves for
for thatching
thatching and
and fibre
fibre for
for cordage, petiole source of and Dransfield, 1987;
1987; Clay
Clay
cork; trunk for
cork; for rafts and dug-out canoes; roots
dug-out canoes; roots medicinal.
medicinal. Palm
Palm and Clement, 1993
1993
of local importance
importance as "tree
"tree of
of life"
life"
Maximiliana maripa cucurite; huacava;
huacava; masive, solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
masive, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
N.E. South
South America,
America, inaja; incham;
incham; palm;
palm; outer husk
husk provides aa saline
saline flour
flour used
used for
for seasoning
seasoning food;
food; 1977; 1986;
1977; FAO, 1986;
...... Trinidad kokerite pulp edible,
edible, yellow and sweet, made into drinks; kernelkernel toasted
toasted Mabberley,
Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
0'1
00
and eaten, source of an edible
edible oil;
oil; palm
palm cabbage
cabbage eaten; leaves
leaves Dransfield, 1987
1987
used for thatch, basketry and matting, peduncle bract as a
container; cultivated for landscaping
landscaping
kernels 4.7% moisture,
kernels 4.7% 59.3% oil, 19.3%
moisture, 59.3% 19.3% protein
protein
Medemia
Medemia argun argun robust, solitary,
robust, solitary, unarmed,
unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious, fan palm; Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
N. Sudan,
Sudan, S. Egypt
Egypt germinating fruit eaten; an
an endangered
endangered species
species Dransfield, 1987
1987
Nypa fruticosa
Nypa fruticosa nipa palm suckering fan palm;
suckering fan palm; immature seeds edible, too
too hard
hard when
when Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
India to Australia;
Australia; mature,
mature, pulpy immature kernels eaten raw, mature kenerls
kernels eaten 1977;
1977; Johnson, 1983;
1983;
mangove swamps;
swamps; pounded and
pounded and eaten;
eaten; inflorescences tapped for
inflorescences tapped for sugar; leaves
leaves used Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Mabberley, Uhl and
and
cultivated locally
locally for thatch, cigarette
cigarette papers, basketry,
basketry, matting
matting Dransfield, 1987
1987
Orbignya cohune
cohune cohune nut; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; egg-
egg- Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Central America
America corozo sized, hard-shelled fruit with kernel tasting
tasting like coconut
coconut but more
more 1972; Purseglove, 1985;
1972; 1985;
oleaginous and the
oleaginous and the oil
oil superior,
superior, unripe
unripe kernel
kernel used
used as
as cooking
cooking Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberley,
"milk"; young leaves
"milk"; leaves edible; endocarp used as fuel;fuel; subsistence
subsistence Dransfield, 1987; Clay and
Dransfield,
oil crop; leaves
leaves used for thatch,
thatch, rachis
rachis for
for light
light construction
construction Clement, 1993;
Clement, 1993; McSweeney,
McSweeney,
1995
 Species
Species and
and distribution
distnbution Common name
Conunon Details--
Details - - References
Re erences

Orbignya cuatrecasana
Orbignya taparos solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,feather
monoecious,feather palm; seeds
seeds Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberley,
Colombia edible Dransfield, 1987
1987

Orbignya
Orbignya martiana babacu
babassu or babacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather palm; fruit
feather palm; Purseglove, 1985; Uhl and
Purseglove,
Amazonian Brazil palm formerly
formerly exported now processed locally for oil
oil Dransfield, 1987
1987
Orbignya oleifera babassu or babacu
babacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather palm; fruit
feather palm; Uhl and Dransfield, 1987;
1987;
South America palm source of an edible oil, oil
oil exported;
exported; leaves
leaves used
used for
for thatch
thatch Clay and Clement, 1993
1993
Orbignya
Orbignya phalerata
phalerata babassu or babacu
babacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; hard-
hard- Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; FAO,
FAO,
Amazonia
Amazonia from the palm;
palm; coco
coco de
de shelled fruit;
fruit; kernels
kernels important source of palm kernel
important source kernel oil; source 1986; Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
Uhl
Guianas
Guianas to Bolivia macaco; timber, fuel
of shade, fibre, timber, fuel and
and medicine
medicine and Dransfield, 1987;
and 1987;
palmaguassu;
palmaguassil; Pinheiro and Frazao, 1995
1995
Orbignya speciosa
Orbignya spedosa babassu or babacu
babacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather palm; fruit
feather palm; Johnson, 1983;
1983; Uhl
Uhl and
and
....... South America palm source of an edible oil, oil
oil exported;
exported; leaves
leaves used
used for
for thatch
thatch Dransfield, 1987
1987
0\
\0
Orbignya spectabilis babassu or babacu
babacu solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; fruit
fruit Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
Central Brazil palm formerly
formerly exported now processed locally for oil Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Dransfield, 1987
1987
Parajubaea cocoides
Parajubaea cocoides Quito palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Ecuador, S. Colombia;
Colombia; mesocarp sweet, fleshy,
mesocarp sweet, fleshy, eaten raw; kernels
kernels source of
of oil;
oil; Dransfield, 1987;
Dransfield, 1987; National
National
mountains cultivated
cultivated as an ornamental; potential
potential for
for development
development Research
Research Council, 1989
1989
Parajubaea torallyi
torallyi janchicoco solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberley, and
S. and central Bolivia
Bolivia monoecious palm; mesocarp
monoecious palm; mesocarp sweet,
sweet, fleshy,
fleshy, eaten
eaten raw;
raw; kernels
kernels Dransfield, 1987; National
Dransfield, National
source of oil; fruit as
as animal
animal feed;
feed; palm
palm hearts
hearts eaten;
eaten; leaf
leaf fibre
fibre Research Council, 1989
Research 1989
for cordage and basketry;
basketry; leaf midrib for fuel,
fuel, petiole
petiole for
for local
local
construction; cultivated
construction; as an ornamental;
cultivated as ornamental; potential
potential for
development
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name
Common Details References

Phytelephas aequatorialis
Phytelephas vegetable ivory;
vegetable solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; FAO, 1986;
1986; Uhl
Uhl and
and
Panama to
Panama to Peru and W. coroso; corozo; immature pericarp
immature pericarp and endosperm provides refreshing drink and Dransfield, 1987
1987
Brazil; riverine
Brazil; tagua at a later stage eaten; very
very hard;
hard; mature
mature cellulose
cellulose endosperm
endosperm
used as
used as vegetable ivory for
vegetable ivory for buttons,
buttons, carvings, ornaments, etc.
Phytelephas macroearpa
Phytelephas macrocarpa ivory nut; tagua
tagua solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, dioecious,
dioecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; 'young
young Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Panama to Peru; riverine
Panama to riverine seed provides
seed provides refreshing
refreshing drink
drink and
and at
at a later stage eaten; very 1977; Johnson, 1983;
1977; 1983;
hard, cellulose endosperm
endosperm used
used as
as vegetable
vegetable ivory
ivory foi-
for billiard Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
balls, chessmen,
balls, chessmen, buttons, etc. Mabberley, 1987;
Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Uhl and
and
Dransfield, 1987
1987
farinifera
Raphia farinifera raphia palm suckering, armed, hapaxanthic,
suckering, hapaxanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; boiled Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
S. tropical
tropical Africa,
Africa, kernels eaten, yellow, oily
kernels pulp edible
oily pulp and source
edible and source of
of raphia
raphia 1977; Purseglove,
1977; Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
Madagascar; cultivated
cultivated butter, oil used in cooking,
butter, cooking, also as illuminant, lubricant and
also as Mabberley, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberley, and

-
-..)
0
pomade;
leaves source
leaves source of raffia wax
important source
pomade; young leaves formerly important source of
of raffia,
raffia, older Dransfield, 1987
1987

Raphia vinifera bamboo or wine

bamboo armed, hapaxanthic, monoecious,
armed, monoecious, feather palm; pulp and
and seed
seed Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Purseglove,
Purseglove,
West Africa palm eaten; sap
eaten; sap source of palm wine;
wine; palm cabbage eaten; leaves
cabbage eaten; leaves for
for 1985; Uhl and Dransfield,
Dransfield,
thatch,
thatch, matting, etc. 1987; Peters et al.,
1987; Peters ai., 1992
1992
Salacca
Salaeea zalacca
zalaeea salak palm; snake
snake creeping and
creeping and tillering,
tillering, armed,
armed, dioecious,
dioecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; pulp sour- Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
S.W. Java, S. Sumatra;
S.W. Sumatra; fruit sweet, eaten raw, candied or pickled, canned;
sweet, canned; kernels
kernels sweet,
sweet, 1977;
1977; Johnson, 1977;
1977;
widely cultivated
widely cultivated in
in S.
S. E. edible, sometimes
edible, pickled; leaves
sometimes pickled; leaves for thatch and matting; petiole Purseglove, 1985;
1985;
Asia and Queensland bark for matting;
matting; grown
grown for
for hedges
hedges Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Verheij
Verheij
and Coronel, 1991
1991
Scheelea butyraeea
Seheelea butyracea oil or wine
wine palm
palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
solitary, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm; oil
oil Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
tropical America
tropical seed; sap source of palm wine; cultivated
seed; cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental 1987; Uhl and Dransfield,
1987; Dransfield,
1987
Scheelea macroearpa
Seheelea macrocarpa yagua palm solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; fruit
solitary, fruit Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Uhl
Uhl and
and
tropical America edible but kernels
kernels hard and rarely eaten,
eaten, source
source of
of oil;
oil; cultivated
cultivated Dransfield, 1987
1987
as an ornamental
ornamental
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

Scheelea magdalenica
Scheelea mamarron solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; fruit
fruit Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Uhl and
tropical America edible but kernels
edible but kernels hard
hard and
and rarely eaten Dransfield, 1987
1987

Scheelea martiana
Scheelea chopaja; maripd;
maripa; solitary, unarmed, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather
feather palm;
palm; FAO, 1986;
FAO, 1986; Uhl and
tropical South America uricuri; urucuri;
urucuri; mesocarp cooked
starchy/oily mesocarp cooked and
and eaten;
eaten; seeds ground to aa flour;
flour; Dransfield, 1987
1987
urucurizeiro pericarp
peri carp used for smoking
smoking rubber latex
latex
Serenoa repens saw palmetto
palmetto suckering, rhizomatous,
rhizomatous, more or or less
less stemless,
stemless, hermaphrodite,
hermaphrodite, Saunders, 1976;
1976; Menninger,
E. USA
USA fan palm; kernels
fan palm; kernels formerly
formerly an
an important
important food
food of
of native
native 1977
cabbage edible
Americans; palm cabbage edible
Syagrus cocoides pleonanthic, monoecious,
pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm with
with leaves
leaves appearing
appearing 3-
3- Menninger, 1977; Uhl and
Menninger,
tropical America ranked; kernel source of
of pururima
pururima oil
oil Dransfield, 1987
1987
Syagrus
Syagrus coronata nicuri plum;
plum; solitary, pleonanthic, monoecious,
monoecious, feather palm; kernel
kernel Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Johnson,
>-'
limited
arid Brazil; limited ouricuri or licuri sometimes eaten; palm
sometimes eaten; palm kernel
kernel oil
oil -- "urucury wax"
wax" edible, also 1983; Mabberley,
1983; Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Uhl
-...l palm used in soap and as
used as substitute
substitute for carnauba
carnauba wax
wax
>-' cultivation and Dransfield, 1987
and 1987
Syagrus edulis
edulis pleonanthic, monoecious,
pleonanthic, monoecious, feather palm; nuts
nuts delicious
delicious Menninger, 1977; Uhl and
Menninger,
N.E. Brazil
Brazil Dransfield, 1987
Veitchia
Veitchia joannis
joannis solitary feather
feather palm; kernels slightly astringent, readily
readily eaten, Menninger, 1977; Braun,
Menninger, 1977; Braun,
Fiji;
Fiji; introduced South especially by children; cultivated as an
especially by an ornamental
ornamental 1984
America
Washingtonia filifera
Washingtonia filifera Californian fan robust, tall, solitary,
solitary, pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, hermaphrodite,
hermaphrodite, fan
fan palm,
palm, fruit
fruit Hedrick, 1972;
Hedrick, 1972; Saunders,
Colorado Desert, palm a 1-seeded berry; pulp thin and sweet, seed large, eaten
I-seeded berry; eaten fresh,
fresh, 1976;
1976; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
California dry or ground
ground into
into aa meal
meal by
by native
native Americans;
Americans ; leaf
leaf fibre
fibre used
used Mabberley,, 1987; Uhl and
Mabberley
for basketry; source of building materials;
materials; palm grown as as a street Dransfield,, 1987
Dransfield 1987
tree
Washingtonia robusta
Washingtonia Mexican fan palm
palm robust, tall, solitary,
solitary , pleonanthic,
pleonanthic, hermaphrodite,
hermaphrodite, fan
fan palm,
palm, fruit
fruit Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Saunders,
Saunders ,
Mexico a 1-seeded
I-seeded berry; fruit
fruit edible
edible 1976; Mabberley,
1976; Mabberley, 1987; Uhl
Uhl
and Dransfield, 1987
1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

PANDANACEAE; fruit berry

PANDANACEAE; fruit berry or drupe

brosimos
Pandanus brosimos pme
screw pine cultivated
cultivated for oil-rich seeds
for its edible, oil-rich seeds Purseglove,, 1985;
Purseglove 1985; Verheij
Verheij
New
New Guinea; highlands and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991
1991
Pandanus conoideus
conoideus karuka edible
screwpine; oily seeds edible Verheij and Coronel,
Verheij Coronel , 1991
1991
New
New Guinea
Pandanus dubius screwpine; seeds edible; leaf fibres
fibres used
used for
for basketry
basketry Verheij and Coronel,
Verheij Coronel , 1991
1991

Pandanus ju!ianetU
julianett:i screw pine
pine dioecious screwpine;
dioecious screwpine; multiple
multiple fruit
fruit large,
large, dense,
dense, up to 16
16 kg,
kg , Menninger, 1977;
1977;
New
New Guinea;
Guinea; highlands individual fruits readily separated, up to
individual fruits readily separated, up to 10 x 1.5 cm; pulp sweet
1.5 cm; pulp sweet Purseglove, 1985;
1985; Verheij
Verheij
coconut flavour,
coconut flavour, eaten raw or smoked, kernel kernel eaten
eaten raw
raw or
or and Coronel,
Coronel , 1991;
1991 ; Macrae
Macrae
normally roasted, source
normally roasted, source of oil et al.,
aI., 1993
1993
......
-..l arborescent screwpine,
arborescent screwpine, multiple
multiple fruit,
fruit, subglobose,
subglobose, 9.1 cm in FAO, 1984
FAO,1984
tv Pandanus luzoniensis
luzoniensis alas-as
Philippines diameter, individual
diameter, fruits 3-4
individual fruits 3-4 x 2-2.6 cm, seeds
seeds (nuts)
(nuts) 1-10;
1-10;
seeds
seeds eaten boiled
boiled or roasted; decoction of prop root medicinal;
decoction of prop root medicinal;
grown as ornamental
ornamental
5.89% fat,
5.89% fat, 12.1%
12.1 % protein,
protein, 36.9%
36.9% fibre
fibre

ZOSTERACEAE: fruit
ZOSTERACEAE: fruit a small drupe or irregularly
irregularly dehiscing
dehiscing

mstera
Zostera marina water nut;
water nut; eel or submerged marine
submerged marine grass-like
grass-like herb, ripe, seed-bearing
seed-bearing portion
portion Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Atlantic and Pacific coasts grass; grass
sea grass; floats to surface and is harvested; threshed
floats threshed grain
grain eaten
eaten by
by Seri
Seri 1977; Felger and Moser,
Moser,
of North America
America and
and wrack; alva or
wrack; Indians of Baja California,
Indians California, grain with
with economic
economic potential for 1985; Mabberley, 1987;
1987;
Eurasia ulva marina development; dried
development; dried leaves
leaves used
used for
for packing
packing glass,
glass , pillows,
pillows , etc. ; Irving et
Irving et al.
al.,, 1988
1988
plant use
plant use for
for compost
compost
 u

Species
Species and
and distribution Common
Common name
name Details - n _ n__ References

GYMNOSPERMS

ARAUCARIACEAE; female
ARAUCARIACEAE; female cones
coneslarge,
large, more
more or less globose,
globose, disintegrating when seeds
seeds mature

Araucaria
Araucaria angustifolia
angustifolia Brazilian or seeds large, edible, marketed in Rio de
seeds de Janeiro;
Janeiro; important
important timber
timber Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
S. Brazil, N.
N. Argentina
Argentina Paraná pine
Parana tree 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Mabberley, 1987
1987
Araucaria araucana Chilean pine; evergreen tree,
evergreen tree, seeds
seeds - "Chile nut''
nut" eaten fresh, boiled or roasted,
roasted, Howes,, 1948;
Howes 1948; Hedrick,
Chile; introduced
introduced and monkey puzzle also distilled for spirit. Eighteen good-sized
also good-sized trees
trees will provide a 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1877;
1877;
cultivated year's sustenance;
sustenance; cultivated
cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental Mabberley, 1987
Mabberley, 1987
Araucaria bidwillii
bidwillii bunya-bunya pine large tree, cones
large tree, large, seeds
cones large, seeds starchy,
starchy, up
up to
to 6 x 2 cm; seeds
seeds Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Howes,
Queensland edible, sold in supermarkets, eaten roasted or boiled by
edible, 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
..... Aborigines, flavour of chestnuts, also stored
Aborigines, stored until
until germinating
germinating Mabberley, 1987; Tow,
Mabberley,
-..l
w and then eaten;
and eaten; good timber and cultivated as an ornamental
ornamental and 1989; Lazarides
1989; Lazarides and
and Hince,
street tree 1993

CUPRESSACEAE; cones
CUPRESSACEAE; cones woody,
woody, leathery
leathery or berry-like

Juniperus californica
californica Californian evergreen tree
evergreen tree or shrub; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten by Indians
Indians Saunders, 1976; Mabberley,
Californian desert juniper 1977
Juniperus communis
communis juniper evergreen shrub with sweet, aromatic fruit;
fruit; edible,
edible , used
used to
to Kedrick, 1972;
1972; Mabberley,
Mabberley ,
north temperate region flavour gin, liqueurs
liqueurs and
and meat
meat dishes;
dishes; cultivated
cultivated as
as an
an ornamental
ornamental 1987
Juniperus deppeana
deppeana var.
var. check-barked or evergreen tree; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans
Americans 1972; Saunders,
Kedrick, 1972; Saunders,
pachyphlaea alligator juniper 1976; Menninger, 1977
1976; 1977
S.W. USA
USA
Juniperus occidentalis western juniper fruit eaten by native Americans
fruit Americans 1977
Menninger, 1977
California
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details References

Juniperus osteosperma
osteosperma Utah juniper evergreen tree
evergreen tree or shrub; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten by
by native
native Americans
Americans Kedrick, 1972;
Kedrick, 1972; Saunders,
Saunders,
arid S.W. USA
arid USA 1976

CYCADACEAE; female
CYCADACEAE; female cones
conesleafy,
leafy, toothed
toothed to
to deeply
deeply lobed
lobed with
with large,
large, naked seeds
seeds terminally
terminally

Cycas media Australian nut

nut seeds first leached
seeds leached to remove toxic substances before cooking and Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977;
Australia palm eating; boiled seeds a staple
staple diet
diet of
of the
the Aborigines
Aborigines Mabberley, 1977
1977
Cycas
Cycas pectinata dioecious, palm-like tree; seeds
seeds first
first leached
leached to
to remove
remove toxic
toxic Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel, 1991
1991
Himalyas
E. Himalyas substances before cooking
substances before and eating;
cooking and eating; stem pith source ofof sago;
sago;
young leaves as vegetable;
vegetable; ornamental
ornamental
Cycas revoluta seeds first leached
leached to remove
remove toxic
toxic substances
substances before cooking and Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
....... Japan eating; sago from pith used for flour
flour and
and bread
bread 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1977
1977
-....)
~

Cycas rumphii sago palm dioecious,

dioecious, palm-like tree; seeds first
first leached
leached to
to remove
remove toxic
toxic Hedrick, 1977;
1977; Menninger,
Menninger,
Malesia to Pacific
Pacific substances before cooking
substances before cooking and
and eating;
eating; stem pith source of sago;
sago; 1977; Mabberley, 1987;
1977; 1987;
young leaves as vegetable; ornamental
ornamental Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Verheij 1991
Cycas
Cycas siamensis dioecious,
dioecious, palm-like
palm-like tree; seeds first
first leached
leached to
to remove
remove toxic
toxic Verheij 1991
Verheij and Coronel, 1991
Myanmar, Thailand,
Thailand, Indo-
Indo- substances before cooking
substances before cooking and
and eating;
eating; stem pith source of sago;
China, Malaysia
Malaysia young leaves as vegetable; ornamental
ornamental
Dioon edule seeds foul smelling,
seeds foul smelling, yield a starch used as arrowroot, cooked
cooked and
and Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Menninger,
Menninger,
Mexico eaten 1977;
1977; Mabberley, 1987
1987
 Species
Species and
and distribution Conunon name
Common Details References

GINKGOACEAE; female
GINKGOACEAE; female gametophyte
gametophytepedunculate
pedunculate in
in leaf
leaf axil,
axil, 22 ovules,
ovules, seed
seed 1i by abortion

Ginkgo biloba
Ginkgo ginkgo; dioecious
dioecious tree, widely cultivated as an ornamental and street tree tree Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
E. China,
China, cultivated
cultivated maidenhair; Kew
maidenhair; though female
though female trees
trees are objectionable because the fallen seeds 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1972; 1977;
elsewhere tree stink
stink of rancid
rancid butter. Ginkgo
Ginkgo nuts eaten after first
first removing
removing Krochmal, 1982;
Krochrnal, 1982;
nauceous outer
nauceous outer layer to leave female gametophyte, canned
leave female gametophyte, canned and
and Rosengarten,
Ros 1984;
engarten, 1984;
marketed in
marketed in USA,
USA, eaten
eaten roasted
roasted or in birds nest soup; also
also source
source 1987; Bianchini
Mabberley, 1987; Bianchini
of an edible oil which is also used fuel
fuel and
and can
can cause
cause dermatitis
dermatitis et al., 1988;
1988; Li
Li Penglai
Penglai and
in sensitive
in sensitive people.
people. Peel
Peel source
source of
of insecticide
insecticide Song Zexia, 1990
1990

GNETACEAE; female stroboli

GNETACEAE; female stroboli bearing
bearing drupe-like
drupe-like fruit
fruit
......
-..I
VI Gnetum costatum
Gnetum Dioecious tree;
Dioecious tree; bitter fruits boiled and eaten;kernels nutritious; Verheij
Verheij and 1991
and Coronel, 1991
Papua New Guinea
Guinea bast fibre for cordage
cordage
kernels 40-45%
40-45 % starch, 8-10%
8-10 % protein
protein
Gnetum gnemon
Gnetum gnemon incl.
incl. var.
vaL gnetum; bago;
gnetum; dioecious, evergreen tree,
dioecious, evergreen tree, fruit
fruit ca.
ca. 22 cm
cm long;;
long;; seeds
seeds eaten
eaten in
in Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
brunonianum melindjo Ambon roasted,
roasted, boiled or fried,
fried, marketed
marketed locally;
locally; young
young leaves
leaves 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Indo-Malesia; cultivated
cultivated and inflorescences used as
inflorescences used as a vegetable;
vegetable; fibre from inner
inner bark
bark FAO, 1984;
1984; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
1987; Verheij and Coronel,
Coronel,
1991
1991

Gnetum indicum kuliat woody vine, fruit

woody vine, fruit ovoid,
ovoid, 3.1 cm long,
long, seeds
seeds 1;
1; fruit
fruit eaten
eaten boiled
boiled FAO, 1984
1984
Philippines or roasted;
roasted; seeds boiled with sugar and eaten; bast fibre for for
cordage
cordage and
and baskets;
baskets; cut
cut stem
stem source
source of
of water
water
Gnetum latifolium
Gnetum Latifolium incl.
incl . woody vine; fruit eaten boiled or roasted;
woody vine; roasted; seeds
seeds boiled
boiled with
with sugar
sugar FAO, 1984;
1984; Menninger,
Menninger,
var.. junicuLare
var funiculare or fried and
and eaten
eaten after removal
removal of the
the inner,
inner, hairy
hairy seed-coat;
seed-coat; 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij and Coronel,
Malaysia to Philippines
Philippines 1991
 Species
Species and
and distribution Common name Details .----- References

Gnetum
Gnetum nodiflorum curucuda; itua
itua woody vine;
woody vine; fruit
fruit ellipsoid,
ellipsoid, 4-5
4-5 x 2.5 cm;
cm; roasted
roasted seeds
seeds chestnut-
chestnut- FAO, 1986
1986
Amazonia flavour, also
flavour, ground to
also ground to a flour; stem fibres for cordage,
cordage, also
also used
used
as a cellulose base for some paper
as
Gnetum tenuifolium dagum slender liana;
liana; boiled seeds eaten; decoction of the roots
roots drunk
drunk Menninger, 1977;
1977; Verheij
Verheij
Malaysia after childbirth and Coronel, 1991
1991

PINACEAE; female
PINACEAE; female cones
cones usually 2 seeds per scale
scale

Pinus albicaulis whitebark, nut, seeds and

seeds and inner bark eaten by native
native Americans
Americans Menninger, 1977; Krochmal,
Menninger,
Rocky
Rocky Mountains scrub or alpine
alpine 1982
pine
,..... Pinus armandii Armand or seeds commonly
seeds commonly sold
sold in
in markets
markets and eaten Howes, 1948
1948
-.J
0\ W. China Chinese white
palm
P. bungeana
bungeana lace-bark pine seeds small,
seeds small, eaten
eaten in China;
China; hardly in USA
USA Menninger, 1977
1977
N.W.
N. W. China; cultivated
cultivated
Pinus cembra
cembra Swiss stone pine;
pine; seed wingless,
seed wingless, edible,
edible, sole winter food
food of peasants
peasants in Siberia; Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Alps and Carpathians;
Alps Siberian ceder leaves source
leaves source of turpentine;
turpentine; timber tree 1972;
1972; Mabberley, 1987
1987
cultivated
Pinus cembroides single leaved or evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; seeds
seeds eaten
eaten fresh
fresh or lightly roasted by native Howes, 1948;
1948; Kearney
Kearney and
and
S.W. North America;
America; big cone pine; Americans Peebles,
Peebles, 1951;
1951; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
cultivated Mexican piñon
pinon nut 1972;
1972; Saunders, 1976;
1976;
Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Pinus coulteri
Pinus Coulter, enormous cones,
enormous cones, seeds
seeds large, edible
edible Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
California Californa,
Californa, nut or 1972; Krochmal, 1982
1972; 1982
big cone pine
 Species
Species and
and distribution
distribution Common name ------ u--Details
Details - - -References
References

Pinus edulis Nevada two- evergreen tree;

evergreen tree; seeds
seeds - "piñon
"pinon nuts" important food
food of native Howes, 1948;
1948; Kearney
Kearney and
and
S.W. North
North America
America leaved, two- Americans
Americans and
and Mexicans,
Mexicans, eaten
eaten raw marketed
raw or roasted, marketed Peebles, 1951;
1951; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
leaved, Rocky commercially; resin
commercially; resin chewed
chewed for
for sore
sore throats,
throats, also
also used
used for 1972; Saunders, 1976;
1976;
Mountain, treating boils, sores and
and insect
insect bites, hot
hot resin
resin for
for poulticing
poulticing Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Colorado or piñon
pinon muscular pains,
muscular pains, boiled needles
needles with sugar for syphilis
syphilis Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
pine Rosengarten, 1984
1984
flexilis
Pinus flexills limber,
limber, Arizona or seeds
seeds large, eaten by native
native Americans
Americans Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
USA; cultivated
W. USA; cultivated Rocky Mountain 1972; Krochmal, 1982
1982
pine
Pinus gerardiana pine;
Nepal nut pine; seeds large,
seeds large, ca. 2.5
2.5 cm
cm long;
long; high
high protein
protein "neoza
"neoza nuts"
nuts" marketed
marketed Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Himalayas,
Himalayas, 300-400 m; chilgoza, locally in
locally in India,
India, stored for winter use, potential
potential for export;
export; 1972;
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
cultivated chilghoza or noosa grown for
grown for social forestry
forestry but has
has not adapted to European
adapted to European or Anthony
Anthony et al.,
aI., 1993;
1993;
...... pine North American climates
climates Rosengarten, 1984
1984
-.)
-.)
Pinus koraiensis Korean nut or seeds edible,
seeds edible, exported from mainland China; cultivated as an Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
China, Japan;
China, Korea, Japan; cedar pine ornamental 1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
cultivated Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Pinus lambertiana
Pinus California sugar, evergreen tree
evergreen tree bearing
bearing cones
cones ca.
ca. 50 cm
cm long;
long; seeds
seeds eaten
eaten by
by Howes, 1948;
1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
S.W. USA
USA sugar, big or
or giant
giant native Americans;
native Americans; resin cathartic
cathartic 1977; Krochmal, 1982
1982
pine
Pinus monophylla single-leaf pinon,
piñon, evergreen tree;
evergreen tree; seeds edible, eaten roasted
seeds edible, roasted or made into cakes by Kearney and Peebles, 1951;
1951 ;
Great Basin to Baja
Baja nut, one-leaf or
nut, native Americans,
native Americans, resin used to sweeten
sweeten food Hedrick, 1972;
1972; Saunders,
Saunders,
California; cultivated
cultivated stone pine 1976; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Pinus monticola western white, seeds edible Merringer, 1977
1977
S.W. USA
USA silver or Idaho
Idaho
pine
 species and
Species and distribution
distnbution Common name Details References

Pinus nelsonii Nelson pinyon seeds edible Howes, 1948;

1948; Menninger,
Menninger,
Mexico pine 1977

Pinus pinea pignolia; stone, tree; seeds with wings small or absent;
evergreen tree; absent; seeds,
seeds, Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Hedrick,
Mediterranean and
N. Mediterranean parasol or pignolias, eaten as dessert nut and
and in
in confectionery,
confectionery, cultivated
cultivated 1972; Menninger, 1977;1977;
cultivated
Portugal; cultivated umbrella pine and marketed
and marketed commercially;
commercially; broken
broken kernels
kernels source
source of an
an oil; 1984;
Rosengarten, 1984;
cultivated as an ornamental Mabberley, 1987;
1987; Bianchini
Bianchini
et al.,
ai., 1988;
1988;
Pinus ponderosa western yellow, seeds
seeds small, edible Howes, 1948;
1948; Kearney
Kearney and
Pacific North America bull or ponderosa
ponderosa Peebles, 1951;
1951; Meninger,
Meninger,
pine 1977

Pinus pumila Japanese dwarf

Japanese seeds eaten locally Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Asia; cultivated
E. Asia; cultivated stone pine
......
-..I evergreen tree; seeds eaten by native
native Americans
Americans Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
00 Pinus quadrifolia Parry's or
or four-
four- Hedrick,
Baja California leaved nut pine 1972; Saunders, 1976;
1972; 1976;
Menninger, 1977
1977
Pinus roxburgii chir or emodi
emodi pine
pine seeds eaten
seeds eaten in times
times of scarcity;
scarcity; source of terpentine, charcoal for Howes,
Howes, 1948;
1948; Hedrick,
Himalayas Chinese fireworks 1972;
1972; Mabberley, 1987
1987
Pinus sabiniana digger,
digger, bull or evergreen tree
evergreen tree up
up to
to 25
25 m tall, cones
cones up to
to 20
20 cm
cm long,
long, Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick 1972;
1972;
California (Great Valley
Valley gray pine containing up
containing up to
to 180 seeds,
seeds, cones
cones require only 2 years to develop
develop Saunders, 1976; Menninger,
Saunders,
Ranges)
and Coast Ranges) and produce
and produce seed
seed compared
compared to to 3 years for the Italian
Italian stone pine, 1977; Krochmal,
1977; Krochmal, 1982;
1982;
P. pinea; seeds
seeds eaten
eaten by native
native Americans;
Americans; timber source of
timber source Farris, 1983;
1983; Mabberley,
Mabberley,
fuelwood,
fuel props and
wood, pit props and oleoresin;
oleoresin; pitch for treating burns and 1987
sores, bark infusion
infusion for
for consumption
consumption
Pinus sibirica Siberian stone seeds eaten locally
seeds Rosengarten, 1984
1984
Russia eastwards
N.E. Russia eastwards to pine
5TE
57°E
 Species and
Species and distribution Conunon
Common name Details References

Pinus torreyana Torrey, del mar, seeds ca.

seeds ca. 2.5 cm
cm long,
long, edible
edible Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick 1972;
1972;
California lone or soledad
lone Menninger, 1977;
Menninger, 1977; Krochmal,
Krochmal ,
pine 1982; Mabberley, 1987
1982; 1987

TAXACEAE; fruit usually aa 10-ntunerous

TAXACEAE; lO-numerous seeds
seeds

Torreya
Torreya grandis seeds eaten and used medicinally
seeds Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Menninger,
China 1977
Torreya nucifera Japanese torreya; evergreen tree; seeds
evergreen tree; eaten, also
seeds eaten, source of seed oil used
also source used for Howes, 1948;
Howes, 1948; Hedrick,
China and Japan kaya nut cooking in Japan; regarded
regarded mildly
mildly laxative
laxative and
and anthelmintic;
anthelmintic; 1972; Menninger,
1972; Menninger, 1977;
1977;
cultivated as an
an ornamental
ornamental Mabberley, 1987
1987
......
-..l
\0
ZAMIACEAE; female
ZAMIACEAE; female cones
conesdeterminate,
determinate, scales
scalesmore
more or
or less
less peitate
peltate bearing 2(-3)
2(-3) ovules
lvules on adaxial margins

Encephalartos hildebrandtii husks

husks of ripe seed dried
dried and
and ground
ground to
to a flour,
flour , broken
broken kernels
kernels Menninger, 1977;
1977; Peters et
dried, ground to a flour
flour and
and leached,
leached, then dried and
and stored;
stored; stem
stem al.,
al. , 1992
1992
pith source of sago
sago
Lepidozamia hopei arumba treated nuts used for flour
flour by
by Aborigines
Aborigines Menninger, 1977;
1977; Lazarides
Lazarides
Queensland and Hince, 1993
Hince , 1993
Macrozamia riedlii zamia nut with volatile toxin removed
removed by roasting Menninger, 1987;
1987; Lazarides
Lazarides
West Australia and Hince, 1993
and 1993
Macrozamia spiralis Queensland nut seeds eaten
seeds eaten if soaked and pounded
soaked and pounded or
or baked
baked,, source of good Mabberley, 1987
1987
Wales
New South Wales quality arrowroot
quality
Zamia chigua seeds boiled and mashed before eating
seeds Menninger, 1977
1977
New Granada
 Species and
Species and distribution Common name Details References

Zamia fioridiana
floridiana seminole bread; seeds edible Menninger, 1977
1977
America
Central America comptie
coontie; comptie

-
00
o
 APPENDIX
APPENDIXBB

COMPOSITION
COMPOSITION OF NUTS PER 100 100 g EDIBLE
EDIBLE PORTION
PORTION (Raw(Raw unless
unless otherwise
otherwise indicated)
indicated)
(Farris, 1983; Rosengarten,
(Farris, Rosengarten, 1984; Arnold et
1984; Arnold et aI.,
al., 1985;
1985; Brand
Brand and
and Cherikoff,
Cherikoff, 1985;
1985; Booth
Booth and Wickens,
Wickens, 1988;
1988; Willing, 1989)
1989)

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00
ee
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a
t
/ 1OOg- ---------------------//100g
id/100g-
t
ee
r
e hCaP
s
h
1OOg ------------------------
Ca P K
K NaMgFeZnCuAdee
Na Mg Fe
mg/100g
----------------------------------------------------mg/
Zn Cu A
ii

d
n
e
n
e C
1OOg ---------------------------------------------------------
Average daily
Average daily requirements 1300 55 800 800 4000 2200 350 15 15 800 1.4 1.1 1.3 60
ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARD1ACEAE - - 0
Pistacia vera
Pistacia 594 55.3
.3 19.3 53.7 17.1 1.9 2.7 131 500 972 7.3 230 1.4 0.67
Sclerocarya birrea
subsp.
subsp. caffra nut 2703 44.0
.0 28.3 57.3 3.7 2.9 3.8 118 808 601 3.81 462 4.87 5.19
5. 19 2.81 0.72 0.42 0.12
0.42 0. 12
BOMBACACEAE
Adansonia digitata fruit 1292
1292 8.7 2.7 0.2 73.7
73 .7 8.9 5.8 335 76.2 2409 11.2
11.2 167 2.65 1.0 0.37 2.73 0.62 0.14
kernel
kernel 1803 8.1
1803 33.7 30.6 4.8 16.9 5.9 273 5.12
5. 12 1275
1275 2.48 640 6.55 6.68 2.78 1.0 0.25 0.14 209
BURSERACEAE
Canarium ovatum 669 6.3 11.4 71.1 5.7
5.7 2.7 2.8
2.8 140 554 489 33 3.4 40 0.5
0.5 0.88 0.09 Tr
CARYOCARACEAE
Caryocar sp. kemel
kernel 629 3.8 23.7 61.2 8.4
8.4 - 2.9
COMPOSITAE
H elianthus annuus
Helianthus annuus dry kernels 560 4.8 24.0 47.3
47 .3 16.1 3.8 4.0 120 837 920 30 7.1 50 5.4 1.96 0.23
CORYLACEAE
Cory/us
Corylus avellana kernel 634
634 5.8 12.6 62.4 13.7 3.0 2.5 209 337 704 22 3.4 0.9 0.46 Tr
CUCURBITACEAE
CUCURBIT ACEAE
Cucurbita spp.
spp. dry kemels
kernels 553 4.4 29.0 46.7 13.1 1.9 4.9 51 1144 11.2 70 2.4 0.24 190.
 NN
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hCaPK NaMgFeZnCuAdeeC
s
h Ca P K Na Mg Fe Zn Cu
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A
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C
EUPHORBIACEAE
Schinziophyton rautanenii
Schinziophyton rautanenii flesh 1410
1410 8.6
8.6 7.8 0.5 75 .0
75.0 2.9 5.2
5.2 85.0 74.3
74.3 2145 2.39 214 2.54
2.54 1.68 1.30
kernel 2715 4.2 26.3 58 .1
58.1 4.6 2.7 44.1
.1 223 869 674 3.35 493
493 3.42 3.54
3.54 2.52
2.52

-
00
N
FAGACEAE
Castanea
Castanea dentata
Castanea mollissima
Castanea
mollissima
Castanea sativa fresh 194
33.4
57 .6
57.6
52.5
10.2
4.4
2.9
10.2
0.9
1.5
42 .3
42.3
34.6
34.6
41.0
1.9
1.4
1.1
1.9
1.1
1.0 27 88 454 6 1.7 0.6 0.22 0.22
dry 377 8.4 6.7 4.1 76.1
76.1 2.5 2.2 52 162 875
875 12 3.3 1.2
1.2 0.32 0.38
sp.
Fagus sp. 568 6.6 19.4 50 16.6 3.7 3.7
3.7
JUGLANDACEAE
Carya
Carya alba 673 3.3 13.2 68 .7
68.7 10.9 1.9 2.0 Tr 380 2.4
2.4
Carya illinoensis
iIIinoensis 687 3.4 9.2 71.2 12.3 2.3 1.6 73 289
289 603 Tr 2.4 130 0.9 0.86 0.13 22
nigra
Juglans nigra 628 3.1
3.1 20.5 59.3 13.1 1.7 2.3
2.3 Tr 570 460 33 6.0
6.0 300 0.7 0.22 0.11
Juglans regia 651 3.5
3.5 14.8 64.0 13.7 2.1 1.9 99 380 450 22 3.1 30 0.9 0.33
0.33 0.13 22

LECYTHIDACEAE
excelsa
Bertholletia excelsa 654 4.6 14.3
14.3 66.9
66.9 7.8 3.1 3.3
3.3 186 693 715 1
1 3.4 Tr 1.6
1.6 0.96 0.12
0. 12
LEGUMINOSAE-CAES
LEGUMINOSAE-CAES..
Cordeauxia edulis seed
seed 446 7.8- 10.8-
10.8- 9.9
9.9 31.4- 2.1 2.2- 31-33 221- 625- 452- 79-82 2.3
16.9 15.9 13.4 41.5 3.8
3.8 232 633 493 163
Guibourtia coleosperma seed 1589 9.1 14.3 4.4 62 .3 4.4
62.3 1.9
1.9 323 198 390 20.3 295 4.69 2.7 0.87
Tylosema
Tylosema esculentum seed
seed 2253 3.7
3.7 32
32.9
.9 2.1 20.5
20.5 2.1 3.0
3.0 183 463 780 22.6
22 .6 3.87 3.33 1.38 1.89 0.62 0.52
Lemuropisum edulen seed 14-26 6-9 38-43 26-32
 N
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C o0 R
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P
e n W o0 dd F m a a m
c pP ee aa t rr i i a m v i
i a r t ee F a b A nn c ii i n
e rr g e i a t r s i n n
s t yY rr n t e ee h Ca P K Na Mg Fe Zn Cu
Cu A
A d e e C
LEGUMINOSAE-PAP,
Arachis hypogaea raw with skins
raw 564
564 55.6
.6 26.0 47 .5
47.5 16.2
16.2 2.4 2.3 69 401 674 5 2.1 17.2 1.14 0.13
0. 13 00
raw less skins
raw skins 568
568 5.4 26.3 48.4 15.7
15.7 1.9
1.9 2.3 59 409 674 5 2.0 0 15.8 0.99 0.13 00
boiled 376 15.5
36.4 15.5 31.5 12.7
12.7 1.8
1.8 2.
2.11 43
43 181
181 462 4 1.3 10.0 0.48 0.08 0
...... roasted
roasted with skins 582
582 1.8
1.8 26.2
26.2 48.7
48.7 17.9
17 .9 2.7 2.7 72 407 701
701 55 2.2 17.1 0.32 0.13
0. 13 0
00 roasted and salted
salted 585 1.6 26.0 49.8 16.4
16.4 2.4 3.8
3.8 74 401 674
674 418 2.1 17 .2
17.2 0.32 0.13 00
\j.)
Vigna subterranea
Vigna subterranea seed 14--24 c.60
PROTEACEAE
Macadamia 691 3.0 7.8 71.6 13.4
13.4 2.5 1.7
1.7 48 161
161 264 2.0 00 1.3 0.34 0.11 0
ROSACEAE
ROSACEAE
Prunus dukcis kernel,, dried
kernel 598 4.7 18.6 54.2 16.9 2.6 3.0 234
234 505 773
773 44 4.7 00 3.5
3.5 0.24 0.92 Tr
roasted and salted 627 0.7
0.7 18.6 57.7 16.9 2.6 3.5 235 504 773 198
198 4.7 0 3.5
3.5 0.05 0.92 00
SANTALACEAE
Santalum acuminata
Santalurn kemel
kernel 3000 1.6 15 .5
15.5 67.6 3.1 20.8 1.3
SAPOTACEAE
Vitellaria paradoxa
Vitellaria paradoxa kernel
kernel 45-60
SIMMONDSIACEAE
SlMMONDSIACEAE
Simniondsia chinensis
Simmondsia nut c. 30 c. 50
c.50
STYLOBASIACEAE
Stylobasium spathulaturn
Stylobasiurn spathulatum kemel
kernel 1988 1.3 11.6 0.9 0 33
TRAPACEAE
Trapa tartans
natans fruit
fruit 79 78.3 1.4 0.2
0.2 18.2 00.8
.8 1.1 4 65 500
5(X) 20 0.6 0 1.0 0.14
0. 14 0.20
0.20 4
70.0
70 .0 4.7 00.3
.3 0.6 20 150 0.8
 N
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ii

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s
PINACEAE
rr
t
g
yy
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rr
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ss
h Ca P K Na Mg Fe Zn Cu A
i
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e C

Pinus edulis
edulis seed 635
635 3.1 13.0 60.5 19.4 1.1 2.9 51
51 1144 11.2 70 00.24
.24 00.19
. 19
Pinus pinea seed 552
552 5.6 31.1 47.4 10.7 0.9 4.3 12 604 5.2 30 Tr 1.28 0.23 Tr
Pinus sabiniana seed 571 3.6 25.0 49.4 17.5 4.5 5.1 53.87 8.39 13.04 1.69
.......
00
+>-
 APPENDIX
APPENDIXCC
BOTANICAL
BOTANICAL NAMES
NAMES (bold)
(bold) CITED
CITEDIN
INTHE
THETEXT
TEXTAND
ANDTHEIR
THEIRSYNONY1VIS
SYNONYMS (italics)
(itali cs)
USED
USED IN THE CITED
CITED LITERATURE
LITERATURE

Acanthosicyos horrida
Acanthosicyos horrida Welw.
Welw . ex
ex Benth.
Benth. & & Hook.f.
Hook.f. CUCURBITACEAE
CUCURBITACEAE
Acioa edulis
Acioa edulis Prance
Prance = Couepia
Couepiaedulis
edulisCHRYSOBALANACEAE
CHRYSOBALANACEAE
Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.)
(Jacq.) Mart.
Mart. PALMAE
PALMAE
A. lasiospatha
lasiospatha Mart.
Mart.
A. sclerocarpa
sclerocarpaMart.Mart.== A. A. aculeata
aculeata
A. total Mart. PALMAE
totai Mart. PALMAE
Adansonia digitata
digitata L.
L. BOMBACACEAE
BOMBACACEAE
A. gregorii
gregorii F.Muell.
F.Muell .
Aesculus californica
Aesculus californica (Spach)
(Spach) Nutt.
Nutt. HIPPOCASTANACEAE
HIPPOCAST ANACEAE
A. hippocastantun
hippocastanum L, L,
A. indica
indica (Wall.
(Wall. exex Cambess.)
Cambess .) Hook.
Hook.
A. octandra
octandra Marsh.
Marsh.
A. parviflora
parviflora Walt.
Walt.
A. pavia
pavia L.L.
Aiphanes minima
minima (Gaertn.)
(Gaertn.) Burret
Burret PALMAE
PALMAE
Alectryon macrococcus Radlk. Radlk. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Aleurites moluccana
moluccana (L) (L) Willd.
Willd . EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
A. triloba
A. trilobaJ.R.
J.R. & & G.
G. Forst.
Forst. == A.A.moluccana
moluccana
Allanblackia floribunda Oliv. Oliv oGUTTIFERAE
GUTTIFERAE
Allantoma cylindrica Miers
Allantoma cylindrica Miers = A.A. lineata
lineataLECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
A. lineata
lineata (Mart.
(Mart . ex
ex Berg.)
Berg.) Miers
Miers
A. stuhlmannii
stuhlmannii (Engl.)
(Engl.) Engl.
Engl.
A. ulugorensis
ulugorensis Engl.
Engl.
Amygdalus bucharica Korsh.
Amygdalus bucharica Korsh. == Prunus bucharica
bucharica ROSACEAE
ROSACEAE
A. communis
A. communisL.L. == P. P. dulcis
dulcis
A. ulmifolia
A. (Franch.)Popov.
ulmijolia (Franch.) Popov.== P. ulmifolia
ulmifolia
Anacardium gigantetun
Anacardium giganteum Hanc.
Hanc .exex Engl.
Engl. ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
A. Inunile
humile St.
St. Hil.
Hil.
A. nanum St.
nanum St. Hil.Hil.
A. occidentale L.
A. rhinocarpus DC.
A. DC.
frutescens(Blume)
Anacolosia frutescens (Blume)Blume
Blume OLACACEAE
OLACACEAE
A.
A. luzoniensis Merr. = A.
luzoniensis Merr. A. frutescens
frutescens
Anisoptera
Anisoptera thurifera
thurifera(Blanco)
(Blanco)Blume
Blume DIPTEROCARPACEAE
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
Antrocaryon micraster
micrasterA.Chev.
A.Chev .&& Guill.
Guill .ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
Apios americana
americanaMedik.
Medik.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily subfamilyPAPILIONOIDEAE
PAPILIONOIDEAE
A.
A. tuberosa Moench
Moench == A. americana
americana
Arachis hypogaea
hypogaea L. L.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily subfamilyPAPILIONOIDEAE
PAPILIONOIDEAE
A. villosulicarpa
villosulicarpa Hoehne
Hoehne
Aralia trifolia Decne &
trijolia Decne & Planch.
Planch. == Panax
Panax trifolius
trifolius L.
L. ARALIACEAE
ARALIACEAE
Araucaria angustifolia
Araucaria angustifolia(Bertol.)
(Bertol.)Kuntze
Kuntze ARAUCARIACEAE
ARAUCARIACEAE
A. araucana
araucana(Molina)
(Molina) K.Koch
K.Koch
A. bidwellia
bidwellia Hook.
Hook.
A. brasiliana R.Rich.
R.Rich. = = A.A. angustifolia
angustifolia
A. imbricata Pav.
A. imbricata Pav. = A.A. araucana
Areca catechu L. PALMAEPALMAE
A. laxa
laxa Buch.-Ham.
Buch.-Ham.

185
Arenga pinnata
pinnata (Wurmb)
(Wurmb) Merr.Merr . PALMAE
PALMAE
A. saccarifera Labill. =
A . saccarifera Labill. = A. pinnata
Argania sideroxylon
sideroxylonRoem. Roem.&&Schultes
Schultes == A.
A. spinosa
spinosa SAPOTACEAE
SAPOT ACEAE
A. spinosa
spinosa (L.)(L.) Skeels
Skeels
Artocarpus altilis
altilis (L.)
(L.) Fosb.
Fosb . MORACEAE
MORACEAE
A . champeden
A. champeden (Lour.) Spreng.
Spreng.
A.
A . communis
communis J.R. J.R.&&G.Forst.
G.Forst. = A. A. altilis
altilis
A. elasticus
elaSticus Reinw.
Reinw . exex Blume
Blume
A. heterophyllus
heterophyllus Lam. Lam.
A. integer
integer (Thunb.)
(Thunb.) Merr.
Merr.
A.. integra
A integra (Thurb
(Thurb.) Merr. == A.
.) Merr. A. heterophyllus
heterophyllus
A. integrifolia
A. integrifoliaL.f.L.f. == A.
A. heterophyllus
heterophyllus
A. ovatus
ovatus Blanco
Blanco
Astrocaryum aculeatum
aculeatum G.Mey.
G. Mey. PALMAE
PALMAE
A. jauari
A. jauari C.Mart.
C.Mart.
A. murunwru
A. murumnru C.Mart. C.Mart.
A.
A. tucuma C.Mart.
C .Mart.
A. tucumoides Drude
A. Drude
A. vulgare C.Mart.
A. C .Mart.
Attalea cohune Mart.
Attalea cohune Mart. == Orbignya
Orbignya cohtme
cohune PALMAE
PALMAE
A. oleifera Barb.Rodr.
Barb.Rodr.
Azadirachta indica
indica A.Juss.
A.Juss . MELIACEAE
MELIACEAE
Bactris gasipaes
gasipaes Kunth Kunth PALMAE
PALMAE
B. major Jacq. Jacq.
B. maraja
B. maraja Mart.Mart.
B. minor
minor Jacq.
Jacq .
Baillonella toxisperma Pierre Pierre SAPOTACEAE
SAPOT ACEAE
Barringtorda
Barringtonia asiatica
asiatica (L.)
(L.)Kurz
Kurz LECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
B. butonica
butonica J.R.J.R. && G.Forst.
G.Forst. == B. asiatica
B. careya .Muell . = Planchonia
careya FF.Muell. Planchonia careya
B. edulis
edulis Seem.
Seem.
B. excelsa auct. non
excelsa auct. nonBl.Bl. == B.
B. procera
B. magnifera
B. rnagmfera Laut.Laut. == B. procera
B. niedenzuana
niedenzuana (K.Schum.)
(K.Schum.) Knuth
Knuth
B. novae-hyberniae
novae-hyberniae Laut. Laut. B. procera
procera (Miers)
(Miers) Kunth
Kunth
B. scortechinii
scortechinii KingKing
Bauhinia esculenta Burch. == Tylosema
esculenta Burch. Tylosemaesculentum
esculentum (Burch.)
(Burch .) A.Schreib.
A.Schreib .
LEGUMINOSAE subfamily.
LEGUMINOSAE subfamily. CAESALPINIOIDEAE
Beilschmiedia bancroftii C.White
Beilschmiedia C.White LAURACEAE
LAURACEAE
B. mannii
mannii (Meisn.)
(Meisn.) Benth.
Benth. && Hook.f.
Hook.f.
Bertholletia excelsa
excelsa Humb.
Humb . && Bonpl.
Bonpl. LECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
Blighia sapida
sapida König
Konig SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Borassus aethioptun
aethiopum Mart.
Mart. PALMAE
PALMAE
B.
B. flabellifer L.
L.
Boscia angustifolia A.Rich.
A.Rich. CAPPARACEAE
CAPPARACEAE
B. senegalensis (Pers.) Lam. ex Poir.
Boswellia serrata
Boswellia serrata Roxb.
Roxb . ex
ex Colebr.
Colebr. BURSERACEAE
BURSERACEAE
Brabejum stellatifolium
stellatifolium L. PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
Brachychiton acerifolius
acerifolius (G.Don)
(G.Don) F.Muell.
F.Muell . STERCULIACEAE
STERCULIACEAE
Brosimum alicastrum Sw. Sw. MORACEAE
MORACEAE
Buchanania lanzan
Buchanania lanzan Spreng.
Spreng. == B.
B. latifolia
latifolia ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
B. latifolia
B. latifolia Roxb.
Roxb .
Buchholzia coriacea Engl.
Buchholzia Engl . CAPPARACEAE
CAPPARACEAE
Butyrospermumparkii
Butyrospermum parkii(G.
(G.Don) Kotschy= =Vitellaria
Don) Kotschy Vitellaria paradoxa
paradoxa SAPOTACEAE
SAPOT ACEAE

186
Calodendrum capensis
capensis Thunb.
Thunb . RUTACEAE
RUT ACEAE
Canarium album
Canariwn album(Lour.)
(Lour.)Rauesch
Rauesch BURSERACEAE
BURSERACEAE
C. amboinense
C. amboinenseHochr. Hochr.==C. C. indicwn
indict=
C. commune
C. commune L.L. == C. C.indicum
indicwnpro promajor
major parte,
parte, C.
C. vulgare
vulgare pro
pro minor
minor parte
C. harveyi
harveyi Seem.
Seem.
C. indicum
indicwn L. L.
C. littorale L.L.
C. luzonicum
luzonicwn (Blume)
(Blume) A.Gray
C. mehenbethe
C. mehenbethe Gaertn.Gaertn. == C. indicum
indicwn
C. moluccanum Bl.
C. Bl. =--- C.
C. indicwn
indicum
C. muelleri
muelleri Bailey
Bailey
C. nungi
C. nungi Guill.
Guill. == C. indictun
indicwn
C. ovatum
ovatwn Engl.
Engl.
C. pachyphyllum
C. pachyphyllumPark. Park.== C. ovatum
ovatwn
C. patentinervium
patentinerviwn Miq. Miq .
C. pilostun
piloswn Bennett
Bennett
C. pimela
pimela Leenh.
Leenh.
C. rufum
C. Benn. == C. litorale
rujum Benn.
C. salomonense
salomonense B.L.Burn
B.L.Burtt
C. schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii Engl.Engl.
C. sylvestre
sylvestre Gaertn.
Gaertn.
C. vrieseanum
vrieseanwn Engl. Engl.
C. vulgare
vulgare Leenh.
Leenh.
Careya arborea
arboreaRoxb.
Roxb . LECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
Carya alba
alba Nutt.
Nutt. JUGLANDACEAE
JUGLANDACEAE
C. aquatica
aquatica (Michx.)
(Michx.) Laud.
Laud .
C. carolinae-septentrionalis
carolinae-septentrionalis(Ashe) (Ashe) Engl.
Engl.&& Graebn.
Graebn.
C. cathayensis
cathayensis Sarg.
Sarg.
C. cordiformis
cordiformis(Wangenh.)
(Wangenh.) K.Koch
K.Koch
C. glabra
glabra(Mili.)
(Mill .) Sweet
Sweet
C. illinoinensis
illinoinensis (Wangenh.)
(Wangenh.) K.Koch
K.Koch
C. laciniosa
laciniosa (F.Michx.)
(F.Michx.) Loudon
Loudon
C.
C. microcarpa
microcarpa Nutt.Nutt. == C. C.(walls
ovalis
C. myristiciformis
myristiciformis Nutt.Nutt.
C.
C. olivaeformis
olivaeformis Nutt.Nutt. = C. C.illinoinensis
illinoinensis
C. ovalis
ovalis (Wangenh.)
(Wangenh.) Sarg.Sarg .
C. ovata
ovata (Mi!!.)
(Mill.) K.Koch
K.Koch
C. pallida
pallida(Ashe)
(Ashe) Engl.
Engl. & & Graebn.
Graebn.
C.
C. pecan (Marsh.) Engl. &
(Marsh.) Engl. & Graebn.
Graebn. == C. C.illinoinensis
illinoinensis
C. porcina Nutt.
C. porcina Nutt. = = C.C. glabra
glabra
C. sulcata
C. sulcataNutt.
Nutt. = = C.
C. laciniosa
laciniosa
C. texana
texana Buckl.
Buckl. var.
var. villosa
villosa (Sarg.)
(Sarg .) Little
Little
C. tomentosa
tomentosa (Poir.)
(Poir.) Nutt.
Nutt.
C. tonkinensis
tonkinensis Lecomte
Lecomte
C. villosa
C. Sarg. = C.
villosa Sarg. C. texana
texana var.
var. villosa
villosa
Caryocar amygdaliferum
Caryocar amygdaliferumMutis Mutis CARYOCARACEAE
CARYOCARACEAE
C. amygdaliforme G.Don C. C.brasiliense
brasilienseCambess.
Cambess .
C. brasiliense
brasiliense Cambess.
Cambess.
C.
C. butyrospermum
butyrospermum Willd Willd. . = C. C. villostun
villoswn
C.
C. butyrosum
butyrosum Willd.Willd. = = C.C. villostun
villoswn
C.
C. coccineum
coccineum PilgerPilger == C. glabrum
C. coriaceum
coriacewn Wittm.
Wittm.
C. glabrum
glabrum (Aubl.)
(Aubl.) Pers.
Pers .
C. nuciferum L. L.

187
 C. tomentosum
C. tomentosumL.L. == C. c. nuciferum
nuciferum
C. villostun
villosum (Aubl.) Pers.
Caryodendron amazonicum
Caryodendron amazonicumDucke DuckeEUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
C. orinocense Karst.
Karst.
Caryota aequatorialis
Caryota aequatorialis (Becc.)
(Becc.)Ridl.
Ridl. == C.
C. obtusa
obtusa var.
var. aequatorialis
aequatorialisPALMAE
PALMAE
C. cumingii Lodd.
Lodd.
C. mitis Lour.
C. Lour.
C. obtusa Griff.
C. Griff. var.
var. aequatorialis
aequatorialis Becc.
Becc.
Castanea crenata
crenataSieb.
Sieb. && Zucc.
ZUCCo FAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
C. dentata
C. dentata (Marsh.)
(Marsh.) )) Borkh.
Borkh.
C. henryi Rehder
Rehder & & Wilson
Wilson
C. mollisima Blume
Blume
C. ozakensis Ashe
Ashe
C. pumila (L.)
C. (L.) Mill.
Mill.
C.
C. sativa L.
C. seguinii Dode
Dode
Castanopsis accuminatissima
accuminatissima(B1.) (Bl.) A.DC.
A.DC . FAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
C. argentea
argentea (Blume)
(Blume) A.DC.
C. argyrophylla King
C. King
C. boisii Hickel
Hickel & & A.Camus
A.Camus
C chinensis
C. chinensis Hance
Hance
C. chrysophylla (Dougl.)
(Dougl.) A.DC.
A.DC .
C. costata
costata (B1.)
(Bl.) A.DC.
A.DC .
C. cuspidata
cuspidata (Thunb.)
(Thunb.) Schottky
Schottky
C. hullettii King
King
C. hystrix Miq.
Miq .
C. indica (Roxb.)
(Roxb.) Miq.
Miq.
C. inermis
inermis (Lindl.
(Lindl. ex
exWall.)
Wall.) Benth.
Benth. && Hook.
Hook.
C. javanica
javanica(B1.)
(Bl.) A.DC.
A.DC.
C. lucida
lucida(Nees
(N ees ex
ex Wall.)
Wall .)Soepadmo
Soepadmo
C. malaccensis
malaccensis Gamble
Gamble
C. megacarpa
megacarpa Gamble
Gamble
C. philippensis
philippensis (Blanco)
(Blanco) Vidal
C. rujescens Hook. f. && Thonn.
C. rufescens Hook.f. Thonn. == C. hystrix
C. sclerophylla
sclerophylla Schott
Schott & & Kotschy
Kotschy
C. sempervirens
sempervirens (Kellogg)
(Kellogg) Dudley
Dudley
C. sumatrana
C. sumatranaA.DC.A.DC. = = C.
C. inermis
inermis
C. tibestana Hance
Hance
C. tribuloides A.DC.
A.DC.
C. wallichii
wallichii King
King ex Hook.f.
Hook.f.
Castanospermum australe
australeA.Cunn.
A.Cunn. && Fraser
Fraserex
ex Hook.
Hook. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
subfamily
PAPILIONOIDEAE
Ceiba pentandra
pentandra(L.) (L.)Gaertn.
Gaertn.BOMBACACEAE
BOMBACACEAE
Chrysobalanus
Chrysobalanus icacoicacoL.L.CHRYSOBALANACEAE
CHRYSOBALANACEAE
Chydenanthus
Chydenanthus excelsus
excelsus Miers
MiersLECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
Citrullus
Citrullus lanatus
lanatus(Thunb.)
(Thunb.)Matsum
Matsum&& Nakai
NakaiCUCURBITACEAE
CUCURBITACEAE
C.
C. vulgaris Eckl. &
vulgaris Eckl. & Zeyh.
Zeyh. == C. lanatus
lanatus
Cnidiscolus oligandrus
oligandrus(Muell.
(Muell. Arg.)
Arg.)PaxPaxEUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Cocos aculeata
Cocos aculeata JJacq.
acq. = Acrocomia
Acrocomia aculeata
aculeataPALMAE
PALMAE
C.
C. butyracea
butyracea (Mutis) L.f. == Scheelea
(Mutis) L.f. Scheelea butyracea
butyracea PALMAE
PALMAE
C.
C. coronata Mart.
Mart. = Syagrus
Syagrus coronata
coronata
C. nucifera
nucifera L.
L.
C.
C. ventricosa Arruda == Acrocomia
ventricosa Arruda Acrocomia aculeata
aculeata

188
Cola acuminata
acuminata(Beauv.)
(Beauv .)Schott
Schott&&Endl.
End!.STERCULIACEAE
STERCULIACEAE
C. anomala
anomalaSchumann
Schumann
C. caricaefolia
caricaefolia(G.Don)
(G .Don) K.Schum.
K.Schum.
C. heterophylla
heterophylla(P.Beauv.)
(P .Beauv .)Schott
Schott &
& Endl.
End!.
C. millenii
millenii K.Schum.
K.Schum.
C. nitida
nitida(Vent.)
(Vent.) Schott
Schott &
& Endl.
End!.
C.
C . rostrata
rostrataK.Schum.
K.Schum.
e.
C. togoensis Engl. && K.Krause
togoensis Engl. K.Krause = = C.
C. millenii
millenii
e.
C. vera K.Schum. == C. nitida
vera K.Schum.
C. verticillata
verticillata(Thonn.)
(Thonn.) A.Chev.
A.Chev .
Conopodium denudatum Koch
Conopodium denudatum UMBELLIFERAE
Koch UMBELLIFERAE
C. majus
majus(Gouan)
(Gouan) Loret
LoretUMBELLIFERAE
UMBELLIFERAE
Copernicia prunifera
prunifera(Mill.)
(Mill .)H.Moore
H.Moore PALMAE
PALMAE
Cordeauxia edulisHemsl.
Cordeauxia edulis Hemsl.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily
subfamilyCAESALPINIOIDEAE
CAESALPINIOIDEAE
Corylus americana
americanaMarshall
Marshall CORYLACEAE
CORYLACEAE
C. avellana
avellana L.L.
C. chinensis
chinensis Franch.
Franch.
C. colurna
columa L. L.
C. cornuta
comuta Marsh.
Marsh.
C. ferox
ferox Wall.
Wall.
C. heterophylla
heterophylla Trautv.
Trautv.
e. mandshurica Maxim.
C. Maxim. & & Rupr. C. sieboldiana
sieboldiana var. mandshurica
mandshurica - C. maxima
maxima
Mill.
e. rostrata
C. rostrata Ait.
Ait. = C.
C. cornuta
comuta
sieboldiana Blume
C. sieboldiana Blume
var. sieboldiana
var.
var. mandshurica
mandshurica(Maxim.
(Maxim.&& Rupr.)
Rupr.)Schneid.
Schneid.
C. tibetica
tibetica Batalin
Batalin
e. tubulosa
C. tubulosaWilldWilld.. == C.
C. maxima
maxima
Corynocarpus laevigata
Corynocarpus laevigataForster
Forster&&Forster
ForsterCORYNOCARPACEAE
CORYNOCARPACEAE
Couepia edulis (Prance)
(Prance) Prance
Prance CHRYSOBALANACEAE
CHRYSOBALANACEAE
C. longipendula Pilger
Pilger
Coula edulis Baill. OLACACEAE
OLACACEAE
Crescentia alata
alata Kunth
Kunth BIGNONIACEAE
BIGNONIACEAE
C. cujete L.L.
Crossonephelispenangensis
Crossonephelis penangensis(Rid!.) Leenh. == Glenniea penangensis
(Ridl.)Leenh. penangensis SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Cryptocarya alba
Cryptocarya alba(Mol.)
(Mol.)Looser
LooserLAURACEAE
LAURACEAE
C. latifolia
latifolia Sond.
Sond .
C. moschata Nees Nees & Mart.
Mart .
e.
C. peumus
peumusNees Nees == C. alba
Cubilia blancoi
Cubilia blancoi Blume
Blume == Cubilia
Cubiliacubili
cubiliSAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Cubilia cubili
cubili (Blanco)
(Blanco) Adelb.
Adelb .
Cucurbita maxima
Cucurbita maximaDuchesne
Duchesneex exLam.
Lam.CUCURBITACEAE
CUCURBIT ACEAE
C. mixta Pang.
Pang.
C. moschata
moschata (Duchesne
(Duchesne exex Lam.)
Lam.) Duchesne
Duchesne ex Poir.
C. pepo L.
Cupania americana
americana L. L. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Cycas circinalis
Cycas circinalis L.
L. == C.
C. rumphii
rumphiiCYCADACEAE
CYCADACEAE
C. media R.Br.
C.
C. pectinata Griff.
C. Griff.
C. revoluta Thunb.
Thunb .
C. rumphii Miq.
C. Miq.
C. siamensis Miq.Miq.

189
189
Cyperus esculentus
esculentus L. L. CYPERACEAE
CYPERACEAE
C. rotundus L.
C. L.
Deinbollia grandifolia
grandifoliaHook.f.
Hook.f. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Derris
Derris spp.
spp.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily subfamilyPAPILIONOIDEAE
PAPILIONOIDEAE
Dioon edule
edule Lindley
Lindley ZAMIACEAE
ZAMIACEAE
Diplodiscus
Diplodiscus paniculatus Turcz. TILIACEAE TILIACEAE
Diploknema butyracea
butyracea(Roxb.)
(Roxb.)H.J.Lam
H.J.LamSAPOTACEAE
SAPOTACEAE
Durio zibethinus
zibethinus Murray
MurrayBOMBACACEAE
BOMBACACEAE
Elaeis guineensis Jacq.
J acq. PALMAE
P ALMAE
E. oleifera
oleifera (Kunth)
(Kunth) Cortés
Cortes
Elaeoc,arpus
Elaeocarpus bancroftii F. F. Muell.
Muell . ELAEOCARPACEAE
ELAEOCARPACEAE
Elateriospermum
Elateriospermumtapos taposBlume
BlumeEUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Eleocharis dulcis
dulcis (Burm.f.)
(Burm.f.) Henschel
Henschel CYPERACEAE
CYPERACEAE
E. tuberosa Schultes
Schultes == E. dulcis
dulcis
Encephalartos
Encephalartos hildebrandtii
hildebrandtiiA.BraunA.Braun&&Bouché
BoucheZAMIACEAE
ZAMIACEAE
Endiandra
Endiandrainsignis
insignisF.M.Bailley
F.M.BailleyLAURACEAE
LAURACEAE
E. palmer4onii
palmers'tonii(Bailey)
(Bailey) C.White
C.White & & Francis
Francis
Erisma
Erisma japura
japuraSpruce
SpruceVOCHYSIACEAE
VOCHYSIACEAE
Eschweilera grandiflora
grandiflora(Aubl.)
(Aubl.)Sandwith
Sandwith LECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
E. jaranum
jaranum(Huber)
(Huber) Ducke
Ducke
E. sub glandulosaMiers
subglandulosa Miers== E.E. jarana
jarana
Eucarya acuminata (R.Br.) Sprague Sprague = = Santalum
Santalumacuminata
acuminataSANTALACEAE
SANTALACEAE
Eugeissona utilis Becc.
Becc. PALMAE
PALMAE
Euryale ferox
ferox Salisb.
Salisb .NYMPHAEACEAE
NYMPHAEACEAE
Fagus ferruginea Ait.
Fagus Ait. == F. F. grandifolia
grandifolia FAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
F. grandifolia
grandifolia Ehrh.
Ehrh.
F. sylvatic.a
sylvatica L.
Finschia carrii
carrii(Sleumer)
(Sleumer) WhiteWhite PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
F. chloroxantha
chloroxantha Diels Diels
F. ferruginiflora
ferruginiflora WhiteWhite
F. rufa
rufa Warb.
Warb.
Fusanus acuminatus
Fusanus acuminatusR.Br. R.Br. == Santaltun
Santalumactnninata
acuminataSANTALACEAE
SANT ALACEAE
Ganua motleyana
motleyana (de (de Vriese)
Vriese) Pierre
Pierre ex
ex Dubard
Dubard == Madhuca
Madhuca motleyana
motleyana SAPOTACEAE
SAPOTACEAE
Garcinia barrettiana
barrettianaconrauana
conrauanaEngl. Engl.GUTTIFERAE
GUTTIFERAE
G. cowa Roxb.
Roxb. ex DC. DC.
G. indicum (Lour.)
(Lour.) Merr.
Merr.
G. kola
kola Heckel
Heckel
G. lateriflora Bl.
G. BI.
G.
G. mangostana L.
L.
G. planchonii
planchonii Pierre
Pierre
Gastrococos crispa
crispa(Kunth)
(Kunth) H.Moore
H.Moore PALMAE
PALMAE
Gevuina avellana
avellana Molina
Molina PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
Ginkgo biloba
biloba L.L.GINKGOACEAE
GINKGOACEAE
Glemnea penengensis Ridl.
Glenniea Ridl. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Gluta elegans
elegans (Wall.)
(Wall.)Hook.f.
Hook.f.ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
G. renghas L. L.
G. velutina
velutina Bl.
BI.
Glycine max
max (L.)
(L.)Merr.
Merr.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily subfamilyPAPILIONOIDEAE
PAPILIONOIDEAE
Gnetumbrunonianum
Gnetum brunonianumGriff. Griff.== G.
G. gnemon
gnemon var var.. brunonianum GNETACEAE
GNET ACEAE
G. costatum
costatum K.Schum.
K.Schum.
G. edule
G. edule BI.
Bl. = G. G. latifolium
latifolium var.
var. funiculare
G. gnemon L.
G.
var. bruninianum
bruninianum (Griff.)
(Griff.) Markgr.
Markgr.
G. indicum (Lour.)
(Lour.) Merr.
Merr .

190
 G. latifolium
latifolium Bl.
Bl.
var. ftmiculare
funiculare (B1.)
(Bl.) Markgr.
Markgr.
G. nodiflorum
nodiflorum Brogn.
Brogn.
G. scandens nomen.
nomen.
G. tenuifolium
tenuifolium Ridl.
Ridl.
Grevillea annulifera F.Muell.
Grevillea F .Muell. PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
elaeocarpifolia Guill.
G. elaeocarpifolia Guill. == Finschia chloroxantha
Guilielma utilis
Guilielma utilis (Kunth)
(Kunth)Bailey
Bailey== Bactris gasipaes
Gynandriris sisyrinchium
sisyrinchium (L.)(L.) Parl.
ParI. IRIDACEAE
IRlDACEAE
Heisteria parvifolia
parvifolia Sm.Sm. OLACACEAE
OLACACEAE
Helianthus annuus
annuus L. L.COMPOSITAE
COMPOSIT AE
var. macrocarpus
macrocarpus (DC.)(DC.) Cockerell
Cockerell
Helicia cochinchinensis Lour. Lour. PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
H. diversifolia C.White
C. White
Heritiera fomes
Heritiera fomes Buch.-Ham.
Buch.-Ham. STERCULIACEAE
STERCULIACEAE
H. littoralis
littoralis Ait.
Ait.
H. minor RoxbRoxb.. == H.H. fomes
fomes
Hicksbeachia pinnatifolia
pinnatifoliaF.Muell.
F.Muell .PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
Holopyxidiumjaranum
Holopyxidium jaranum(Huber)
(Huber)Ducke
Ducke== Eschweilera jaranwn
jaranum LECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
Hyphaene compressa
compressa H.Wendl.PALMAE
H .WendI.PALMAE
H. coriacea
coriacea Gaertn.
Gaertn.
H. petersiana
petersiana Mart.
Mart.
H. thebaica
thebaica Mart.
Mart.
H.
H. ventricosa
ventricosa JJ.Kirk
.Kirk == H. petersiana
petersiana
Inocarpus
Inocarpus edulis
edulis J.R. & & G.Forst.
G.Forst. ==I. I.
fagifer LEGUMINOSAE
fagifer LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily
subfamilyPAPILIONOIDEAE
PAPILIONOIDEAE
I. fagifer
fagifer(Parkinson)
(Parkinson) Fosb.
Fosb .
Iris sisyrinchium
sisyrinchium L. L. = Gynandriris
Gynandririssisyrinchiinn
sisyrinchiumIRIDACEAE
IRlDACEAE
Irvingia gabonensis
Irvingia gabonensis(O'Rorke)
(O'Rorke)Baill.
Baill.IRVINGIACEAE
IRVINGIACEAE
var. excelsa
excelsa Okafor
Okafor
var. gabonensis
gabonensis
Jessenia batua
batua (Mart.)
(Mart.) Burret
Burret PALMAE
PALMAE
J. polycarpa Karst == J. batua
polycarpa Karst
Jubaea chilensis
Jubaea chilensis (Molina)
(Molina) Baill.
Baill. PALMAE
PALMAE
J. spectabilis Kunth = J.
spectabilis Kunth J. chilensis
chilensis
Juglans ailanthifolia
ailanthifolia Carrière
Carriere JUGLANDACEAE
JUGLANDACEAE
var. cordiformis
cordiformis (Makino)
(Makino) Rehder
Rehder
J. australis
australis Griseb.
Griseb .
J. baccata
baccata L.L.
J. boliviana
boliviana (C.DC.)
(C.DC.) Dode
Dode
J. californica
californica S.Wats.
S.Wats .
J.
J. cathayensis
cathayensis Maxim.
Maxim.
J.
J. californica
californicaS.Wats.
S.Wats .
J. cinerea
cinerea L.L.
J. duclouxiana
duclouxiana DodeDode
J. hindsii
hindsii (Jeps.)
(Jeps .) R.E.Sm.
R.E.Sm.
J. honorei Dode = J.J. neotropica
honorei Dode neotropica
J. kamaonia Dode
kamaonia Dode
J. major
major(Torr.
(Torr. exexSitsgr.)
Sitsgr.) Heller
Heller
J. mandshurica
mandshurica Maxim.
Maxim .
J. microcarpa
microcarpaBerland.
Berland.
J. neotropica
neotropica Diels
Diels
J. nigra
nigra L.
L.
J.
J . regia
regia L.
L.

191
 J. rupestris
rupestris Engelm.
Engelm. == J. microcarpa
microcarpa
var.
var. major Torr.ex
major Torr. exSitsgr.
Sitsgr. == J. major
major
J. sieboldiana
sieboldiana Maxim.
Maxim .
var.
var . cordiformis Makino =
cordiformis Makino = J.
J. ailanthifolia
ailanthifoliavar.
var. cordiformis
cordifonnis
sieboldiana = J. ailanthifolia
var. sieboldiana ailanthifolia var.
var. ailanthifolia
ailanthifolia
J.
J. venezuelensis
venezuelensis Manning
Manning
Juniperus californica
californicaCarrière
Carriere CUPRESSACEAE
CUPRESSACEAE
J. communis
communis L. L.
J. deppeana
deppeanaSteud. Steud. var.
var. pachyphlaea
pachypblaea(Torr,)
(Torr,)Martinez
Martinez
J. occidentalis
occidentalis Hook.f.
Hook.f.
J. osteosperma
osteosperma (Torr.)(Torr.) Little
Little
J. pachyphlaea
pachyphlaea Torr. Torr. = J.J. deppeana
deppeana var.
var. pachyphlaea
pachypblaea
J.
J. utahensis
utahensis (Engelm.)
(Engelm.) Lemmon
Lemmon == J. J. osteosperma
osteosperma
Kennadecia
Kermadecia leptophylla
leptophyllaGuill.
Guill.PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
Kerstingiella geocarpa Harms == Macrotyloma
Kerstingiella Macrotylomageocarpum
geocarpumLEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily
subfamily
PAPILIONOIDEAE
Kigelia africana
africana (Lam.)
(Lam.) Benth.
Benth.BIGNONIACEAE
BIGNONIACEAE
K. pinnata
K. pinnata (Jacq.)
(Jacq.)DC DC.. == K. africana
Lannea
Lannea schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii(Engl.) (Engl.)Engl.
Engl.ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
var. stuhlmannii
stuhlmannii (Engl.)
(Engl.) Kokwaro
Kokwaro
L. stuhlmannii
L. stuhlmannii Engl. Engl. == L. schweinfurthii
schweinfurthii var. stuhlmannii
Laurelia aromatica
Laurelia aromatica Juss Juss.. ex
ex Poir.
Poir. == L.L.sempervirens
sempervirensMONIMIACEAE
MONIMIACEAE
L. sempervirens
sempervirens(Rufz (Rufz & & Pavón)
Pav6n) Tul.
Tul.
Bert. = L.
L. serrata Bert.
L. L. sempervirens
sempervirens
Lecythis davisii Sandw.
Sandw. LECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
L. grandiflora
L. grandiflora Aubl.Aubl. == Eschweilera
Eschweilera grandiflora
grandiflora
L. lanceolata
lanceolata Poir.
Poir.
L. minor
minor Jacq.
J acq.
L. ollaria
L. ollaria Loefl.
Loefl .
L. pisonis
pisonis Cambess.
Cambess .
L. urnigera
L. Mart. ex
urnigera Mart. ex Berg.
Berg. == L. pisonis
pisonis
L. usitata Miers
L.
L. validissima
L. Miers == L. zambucajo
validissima Miers zambucajo
L. zabucajo Aublet Aublet
Lemuropisum edule
Lemuropisum eduleH.Perrier
H.PerrierLEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE
CAESALPINIOIDEAE
Lepisanthes fruticosa
fruticosa(Roxb.)
(Roxb .)Leenh.
Leenh.SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Leptozamia hopei
Leptozamia hopei Regel
Regel ZAMIACEAE
ZAMIACEAE
Litchi chinensis
chinensis Sonn.
Sonn. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Lithocarpus cornea
cornea (Lour.)
(Lour.) Rehder
Rehder FAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
L. cuspidatus (Thunb.)
(Thunb .) Nakai
Nakai == Castanopsis
Castano psis cuspidata
L. densiflorus
densiflorus Rehder
Rehder
L. philippienis
philippienis (A.DC)
(A .DC) Rehder
Rehder
Livistonia cochinchinensis
cochinchinensis Blume Blume PALMAE
PALMAE
L. saribus
saribus (Lour.)
(Lour .) Chev.
Chev .
Lodoicea callipyge
Lodoicea callipygeComm.Comm. == L. maldivica
maldivica PALMAE
PALMAE
L. maldivica
maldivica (J.Gmel.)
(J.Gmel.) Pers.
Pers.
Lucuma caimito (Rufz
Lucuma caimito (Rufz && Pav.)
Pav.) Roem.
Roem. && Schult.
Schult. == Pouteria
Pouteriacaimito
caimitoSAPOTACEAE
SAPOTACEAE
Macadamia integrifolia
Macadamia integrifoliaMaiden
Maiden&& Betche
Betche PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
M. ternifolia F.Muell.
F.Muell.
M.
M. terrufolia
ternifolia F.Muell.
F.Muell . var.
var. integrifolia
integrifolia (Maiden
(Maiden & & Betche)
Betche) Maiden
Maiden && Betche
Betche M.
integrifolia
M. tetraphylla L. L. Johnson
Johnson
Macrotyloma geocarpum
Macrotyloma geocarpum(Harms) (Harms)Maréch
Marech&&Baudet
BaudetLEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
subfamily
PAPILIONOIDEAE

192
Macrozamia
Macrozamia riedlii
riedlii(Gaudich.)
(Gaudich .)C.Gardner
C.GardnerZAMIACEAE
ZAMIACEAE
M. spiralis
spiralis(Salisb.)
(Salisb .) Miq.
Miq.
(Roxb.) Pierre ex Dubard == Diploknema
Madhuca butyracea (Roxb.) Diploknemabutyracea
butyraceaSAPOTACEAE
SAPOTACEAE
M.
M . latafolia (Roxb.)
latifolia (Roxb Macbr. == M.
.) Macbr. M. longifolia
longifolia
M. longifolia
M. longifolia(Koenig.)
(Koenig.) Macbr.
Macbr.
M.
M. motleyana
motleyana(de (deVriese)
Vriese)Baehni
BaehniSAPOTACEAE
SAPOT ACEAE
Magonia pubescens
pubescens A.St.-Hil.
A.St .-Hil. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Mangifera
Mangiferaaltissima
altissimaBlanco
BlancoANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
M. caesia
caesia Jack
Jack
M. indica
indica L.
L.
M. kempanga
kempanga BlumeBlume
M. odorata
odorata Griff.
Griff.
Manicaria
Manicaria saccifera
sacciferaGaertn.
Gaertn.PALMAE
PALMAE
Manniophyton africanumMuell.
Manniophyton ajricanum Muell.Arg.
Arg. = M.
M. fulvum
fulvum EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
M. fulvum
fulvum Muel.
Muel. Arg.
Arg .
Mauritia
Mauritia flexuosa
flexuosa L,fL:fPALMAE
PALMAE
Maximiliana maripa
maripa(Correa)
(Correa) Drude
Drude PALMAE
PALMAE
M. regia C .Mart. =
M. regia C.Mart. M. maripa M. maripa
argunWiirtetemb.
Medemia argun Wiirtetemb. PALMAE
PALMAE
Melicoccus
Melicoccus bijugatus Jacq. Jacq. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Mesua ferrea
ferrea L. L.GUTTIFERAE
GUTTIFERAE
Mimusops djdjaveEngl.
Mimusops djdjave Engl. = Baillonella
Baillonella toxisperma
toxisperma SAPOTACEAE
SAPOTACEAE
heckelii (Pierre
M . heckelii (Pierre ex
ex Chev
Chev.) Hutch. &
.) Hutch. & Dalz.
Dalz. == Tieghemella
Tieghemella heckelii
heckelii
Nelumbium nelumboDruce
Nelumbium nelumbo Druce == Nelmnbo
Nelumbo nucifera
nuciferaNYMPHAEACEAE
NYMPHAEACEAE
Nelumbo lutea
lutea(Willd.)
(Willd .)Pers.
Pers .NYMPHAEACEAE
NYMPHAEACEAE
N. nucifera Gaertn.
Gaertn.
N.
N. speciosa Willd. = N.
speciosa Willd. N. nucifera
nucifera
Nephelium lappaceum
lappaceum L. L. SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
N.
N. litchi Camb
Camb.. = Litchi
Litchi chinensis
chinensis
N. mutabile
N. mutabileBl. Bl. == N. ramboutan-ake
N. ramboutan-ake
N. ramboutan-ake (Labill.)
(Labill.) Leenh.
Leenh.
Nothofagus alpina (Poepp
Nothojagus alpina (Poepp. . && EndI.)
Endl.)Oest.
Oest. == N. procera
procera FAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
N. procera
procera (Poepp.
(Poepp . & & Endl.)
EndI.) Oest.
Oest.
Nypa fruticans
fruticans Wurmb
Wurmb PALMAE
PALMAE
Omphalea diandra
diandra L. L. EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
O. megacarpa
megacarpa Hemsl.HemsI.
O. triandra L.L.
Ongokea gore
gore (Hua)
(Hua) Pierre
Pierre OLACACEAE
OLACACEAE
Orbignyabarbosiana
Orbignya barbosianaBurret
Burret == O. phalerata PALMAE
PALMAE
O. cohune (C.Mart.)
(C .Mart.) Dahlgren
Dahlgren
O. cuatrecasana
cuatrecasana Dugand
Dugand
o.
O. martiana
martiana Barb.-Rodr.
Barb.-Rodr.== O.O. phalaris
O. oleifera
oleifera Burret
Burret
o.
O. phalerata
phalerata Mart.
Mart.
O. speciosa (C.Mart.)Barb
O. speciosa (C.Mart.) Barb.Rodg.
.Rodg . == O.
O. phalerata
phalerata
O. spectabilis (C.Mart.)
(C .Mart.) Burret
Burret
Oroxylum indicum
indicum (L.)
(L.)Kurz
KurzBIGNONIACEAE
BIGNONIACEAE
Otophorajruticosa
Otophora Roxb. = Lepisanthes
fruticosa Roxb. Lepisanthes fruticosa
fruticosaSAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Owenia cerasifera
Owenia cerasifera F.Muell.
F.Muell. == Pleiogynium
Pleiogyniumtimoriense
timorienseANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
Pachira aquatica
aquatica Aubl.
AubI. BOMBACEAE
BOMBACEAE
P. grandiflora Tussac == P. aquatica
grandiflora Tussac aquatica
P. insignis (Sw.)
P. (Sw.) Savigny
Savigny

193
193
Palaquium amboinense
Palaquium amboinenseBurck BurckSAPOTACEAE
SAPOT ACEAE
P. gutta
gutta (Hook.f.)
(Hook.f.)Baill.
Baill.
P. hexandrum
hexandrum (Griff.)
(Griff.) Baill.
Baill .
P. javense Burck
Burck == P. P. amboinense
amboinense
P. philippense
philippense (Perrott.)
(Perrott.) Rob.
Rob.
P. rostratum
rostratum(Miy.)(Miq .) Burck
Burck
Panax trifolius
trifolius L.L. ARALIACEAE
ARALIACEAE
Pandanus
Pandanus brosimos
brosimosMerr.Merr.&&PerryPerryPANDANACEAE
PANDANACEAE
P. conoideus
conoideus Lam.Lam.
P. dubius
dubius Spreng.
Spreng .
P. julianettii
julianettii Martelli
Martelli
P. luzoniensis
luzoniensis Merrr.
Merrr.
Panopsis suaveolens Pittier
Pittier PROTEACEAE
PROTEACEAE
Parajubaea cocoides Burret PALMAE
cocoides Borret PALMAE
P. torallyi
torallyi (Mart.)
(Mart.) Burret
Burret
Parinari campestris
Parinari campestrisAubl. Aubl.CHRYSOBALANACEAE
CHRYSOBALANACEAE
P. curatellifolia
curatellifoliaPlanch.
Planch. exex Benth.
Benth.
P. excelsa
excelsa Sabine
Sabine
P. mobola
mobola Oliv.Oliv. == P. curatellifolian
curatellifolian
P. montana Aubl. Aubl .
Parinarium campestre
Parinarium campestre Aubl.
Aubl. == Parinari
Parinaricampestris
campestrisCHRYSOBALANACEAE
CHRYSOBALANACEAE
P. montanum
P. montanum Aubl. Aubl.== Parinari montana
Parmentiera cereifera
Parmentiera cereiferaSeem.
Seem. BIGNONIACEAE
BIGNONIACEAE
Pasania cuspidata Oerst.
Oerst. == Castanopsis
Castano psiscuspidatus
cuspidatusFAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
Paullinia cupana
cupanaKunthKunth SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
P. subrotunda
subrotunda(Rufz (Ruiz & & Pay.)
Pav.) Pers.
Pers.
Pentadesma butyracea
butyraceaSabine
Sabine GUTTIFERAE
GUTTIFERAE
Phyllanthus emblica
Phyllanthus emblica L.L.EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Phytelephas aequatorialis
aequatorialis Spruce
Spruce PALMAE
P ALMAE
P. macrocarpa
macrocarpa Ruiz Ruiz && Pavón
Pav6n
Pimelodendron amboinicum
Pimelodendron amboinicumHassk. Hassk.EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Pinus albicaulis
albicaulis Engelm.
Engelm. PINACEAE
PINACEAE
P. armandii
armandii Franch.
Franch.
P. bungeana
bungeana Zucc.ZUCC oex ex Endl.
Endl.
P. cembra L.
P. cembroides Zucc. Zucco
var. edulis
var. (Engelm.)Jones
edulis (Engelm.) Jones == P. edulis
edulis
var. monophylla
var. monophylla (Torr.(Torr.&&Frem.)
Fran.) Voss
Voss == P. monophylla
monophylla
var. parryana
var. parryana (Engelm.)
(Engelm.)VossVoss = P. quadrifolia
quadrifolia
P. cembroides
cembroides Zucc. Zucc .
var. quadrifolia (Parl. ex ex Sudw.)
Sudw.) De Laub.
Laub.
P. coulteri
coulteri D.Don
D. Don
P. edulis
edulis Engelm.
Engelm.
P. flexilis
flexilis James
James
P. gerardiana
gerardianaWall.Wall . ex
ex D.Don
D.Don
P. koraiensis Sieb.Sieb. & & Zucc.
Zucc o
P. lambertiana
lambertiana Douglas
Douglas
P. longifolia
P. Roxb.
longifolia Roxb . == P. roxburghii
P. monophylla Torr. Torr. && Frém.
Frem.
P. monticola
monticola Douglas
Douglas ex D.DonD. Don
P. nelsonii
nelsonii Shaw
Shaw
P. parryana Engelm.
Engelm. == P. quadrifolia
quadrifolia
P. pinea L. L.
P. ponderosa
ponderosa Douglas
Douglas ex ex Lawson
Lawson

194
 P. pumila
pumila(Pallas)
(Pallas) Regel
Regel
P. quadrifolia
quadrifoliaParl.
ParI .ex
exSudw.
Sudw.
P. roxburghii
roxburghii Sarg.
Sarg.
P. sabiniana
sabinianaDouglas
Douglas ex ex D.Don
D. Don
P. sibirica
sibirica Du
Du Tour
Tour
P. torreyana
torreyanaParry
Parryex ex Carrière
Carriere
Pistacia mexicana
Pistacia mexicanaKunthKunthANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
P.
P . terebinthus
terebinthus L.
L.
P. texana
texanaSwingle
Swingle
P. vera
vera L.
L.
Pithecellobium
Pithecellobium bubalinum
bubalinum(Jack) (Jack)Benth.
Benth.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubfamily
subfamilyMIMOSOIDEAE
MIMOSOIDEAE
P . dulce (Roxb.)
P. dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Benth.
P. jiringa
jiringa (Jack)
(Jack) Prain
Prain
P. lobatum Benth. == P. jiringa
lobatum Benth.
Planchonia careya
Planchonia careya(F.Muell.)
(F .Muell .)Kunth
KunthLECYTHIDACEAE
LECYTHIDACEAE
Pleiogynium cersiferum (F.Muell.) Parker == P.
Pleiogynium cersiferum (F .Muell.) Parker P. timoriense
timorienseANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
P. timoriense (DC.) (DC.) Leenh.
Plukenetia conophora
Plukenetia conophoraMuell. Muell.Arg.
Arg .EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
oleosa Pierre
Poga oleosa PierreANISOPHYLLEACEAE
ANISOPHYLLEACEAE
Pometia pinnata
pinnata Forst.
Forst. && Forst.f.
Forstf.SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Pouteria caimito
Pouteria caimito(Ruiz(Rufz&& Pay.)Pav. )Radlk.
Radlk.SAPOTACEAE
SAPOT ACEAE
P. campechana
campechiana(Kunth) (Kunth)Baehni
Baehni
P. glomerata
glomerata(Miq.)(Miq.)Radlk.
Radlk.
P. hypoglauca
hypoglauca Standi.Standl. == P. glomerata
glomerata
P. obovata
obovata (R.Br.)
(R.Br.) Baehni
Baehni
P. sapota
sapota (Jaq.)
(Jaq.) H.E.Moore
H .E.Moore & & Stearn
Stearn
P. viridis
viridis (Pittier)
(pittier) Cronquist
Cronquist
Prinsepia utilis
Prinsepia utilis Royle
Royle ROSACEAE
ROSACEAE
Pritchardiafilifera Linden = Washingtonia
Pritchardia filifera Linden Washingtonia filifera
filifera PALMAE
PALMAE
Prunus amygdalus
amygdalus BatschBatsch == P.P.dulcis
dulcisROSACEAE
ROSACEAE
P. armeniaca
armeniaca L. L.
P. bucharica
bucharica(Korsk.)
(Korsk.)Hand.-Mazz.
Hand .-Mazz.
P. domestica L.
P. dulcis
dulcis (Mill.)
(Mill .) D.A.Webb
D.A.Webb
P. fasciculata
fasciculata (Torr.)
(Torr. ) A.Gray
A.Gray
P. ulmifolia
ulmifolia Franch.
Franch.
Pterocarya caucasica C.A.Mey. == P.P.fraxinifolia fraxinifoliaJUGLANDIACEAE
JUGLANDIACEAE
P. fraxinifolia
fraxinifolia (lam.
(lam. exex Poir.)
Poir .) Spach
Spach
P. rhoifolia
rhoifolia Sieb.
Sieb. & & Zucc.
Zucco
P. stenoptera C.DC. C. DC.
Pterygota alata
alata(Roxb.)
(Roxb .)R.Br.R.Br.STERCULIACEAE
STERCULIACEAE
Pyrularia pubera
Pyrularia puberaMichx.Michx . SANTALACEAE
SANT ALACEAE
Quercus aegilops
aegilops L. L. FAGACEAE
FAGACEAE
subsp. persica
subsp. persica (Jaub.
(Jaub . && Spach.)
Spach.) Blakelock
Blakelock
aegilops sensu
Q. aegi/ops sensu auct.
auct. == Q. macrolepis
macrolepis
Q.. agrifolia Née
Q Nee
Q. alba L. L.
Q. ballota
Q. ballotaDesf.
Desf. = = Q.Q.ilex
ilexsubsp.
subsp . rotundifolia
rotundifolia
Q. bicolor
Q. bicolor Willd
Willd. . == Q. prinus
Q. californica
Q. californica (Torr.)
(Torr.) Cooper
Cooper = Q. Q. kelloggii
kelloggii
Q. calliprinos
Q. calliprinos WebbWebb == Q. coccifera
coccifera
Q. coccifera L.
Q.
Q. cornea Lour.
Q. Lour . ==Lithocarpus cornea
Lithocarpus cornea
Q.
Q. cuspidata
cuspidataThunbThunb. . == Castanopsis
Castanopsis cuspidata

195
195
 Q. emoryi Torr.
Q.
Q. frainetto
frainetto Tenn.
Tenn .
Q. gambelii Nutt.
Q. Nutt .
Q. garryana
garry ana Douglas
Douglas
Q. glabre Thunb.
Thunb .
Q. glauca
glauca Thunb.
Thunb .
Q. grisea Liebm.
Q. ilex
Q. Hex L.
subsp.. Hex
subsp ilex
subsp.rotundifolia
subsp. rotundifolia (Lam.) T.Marais
T .Marais
var. ballota Desf.
var. baLLota Desf. = Q. Q.ilex
Hexsubsp.
subsp . rotundifolia
Q. kelloggii
kelloggii Newb.
Newb .
Q. libani
Q. Iibani Oliv.
Oliv .
Q. lobata
lobata Née
Nee
Q. marilandica
Q.
Q. macrocarpa
Q. macrornrpa Michx. Michx .
Q. macrolepis Kotschy Kotschy
Q. michauxii Nutt. == Q. Q. prinus
prinus
Q. nigra L,
Q.
Q. oblongifolia
Q. oblongifolia Torr.Torr. = Q. Q. grisea
grisea
Q. obtusiloba
Q. obtusilobaMichx Michx. . == Q.
Q. stellata
stellata
Q. persica Jaub. Spach. = Q.
Jaub. & Spach. aegilops subsp.
Q. aegilops subsp. persica
Q. petraea
Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl.
Q. phellos
Q. phellos L.
Q.
Q. prinoides
prinoidesWilld Willd.. == Q. prinus
Q. prinus L.
Q. robur L.
Q.
Q. sessilis
Q. sessilisEhrh.
Ehrh. =Q.=Q. petraea
petraea
Q. stellata
stellataWangenh.
Wangenh .
Q. suber L.
Q. undulata Torr.
Q. virginiana
virginiana Mill.
Raphia farinifera
Raphia farinifera (Gaertn.)
(Gaertn.) Hyl. Hyl. PALMAE
R. vinifera
viniferaP.Beauv.
P.Beauv.
Ravensara
Ravensara aromatica Sonn. Sonn. LAURACEAE
Ricinodendron heudelottii
heudelottii (Baill.)
(Baill.)Heckel
HeckelEUPHORBIOACEAE
EUPHORBIOACEAE
R. rautanenii
R. Schinz == Schinziophyton
rautanenii Schinz Schinziophyton rautanenii EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Rhodognaphalon schumannianum
Rhodognaphalon schumannianum A A.Robyns
.Robyns BOMBACACEAE
Salacca edulisReinw
Salacca edulis Reinw. . == S. zalacca
zalacca PPALMAE
ALMAE
S. zalacca (Gaertn.)
(Gaertn .) Voss
Voss
Santalum acuminata
Santalum actuninata (R.Br.)
(R.Br.) DC DC.. SANTALACEAE
S.
S. spicatum (R.Br.) DC. DC .
Santiria trimera
trimera (Oliv.)
(Oliv.)Aubrév.
Aubrev.BURSERACEAE
BURSERACEAE
Sapindus indicum
Sapindus indictun Poir.
Poir. (status
(status uncertain)
uncertain) SAPINDACEAE
SAPINDACEAE
Scheeleabutyracea
Scheelea butyracea(Mutis (Mutisex exL.f.)
L.f.) Karst.
Karst. ex
exH.A.Wendi.
H.A.Wendl. PALMAE
PALMAE
S.
S. macrocarpa Karst. Karst.
S.
S. magdalenica
S.
S. martiana Burret Burret
Schinziophyton rautanenii
Schinziophyton rautanenii (Baill.)
(Baill .)Radc1.-Sm.
Radcl.-Sm. EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Schleichera oleos
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.)
a (Lour .) Oken SAPINDACEAE
S. trijuga Willd. == S.S.oleosa
S. trijuga oleosa
Sclerocary birrea
Sclerocary birrea (A.Rich.)
(A .Rich .) Hochst.
Hochst. ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
subsp. birrea
subsp. birrea
subsp. caffra (Sond.)
subsp. caffra (Sond .) Kokwaro

196
Scorodoarpus borneensis
borneensis (Baill.)
(BailI.) Becc.
Becc. OLACACEAE
OLACACEAE
Semecarpus anacarditun
anacardiwnL.f. L.f.ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
S. atra Vie11.
S. Viell . == S. vitiensis
vitiensis
S. vitiensis (A.Gray)
(A .Gray) Engl.
Engi.
Serenoa repens
repens (Bartram)
(Bartram) Small
Small PALMAE
P ALMAE
Shorea amplexicaulis
amplexicaulis Ashton Ashton DIPTEROCARPACEAE
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
S. beccariana Burck
S. Burck
S. fallax Meijer
Meijer
S. gysbertsiana Burck
S. Burck == S. S. macrophylla
macrophylla
S. hemsleyana
hemsleyana (King)
(King) King
King ex
ex Foxw.
Foxw .
S. lepidota
lepidota (Korth)
(Korth) Bl.
BI.
S. macrantha
macrantha Brandis
Brandis
S. macrophylla
macrophylla (de (de Vriese)
Vries e) Ashton
Ashton
S. mecistopteryx Ridl. Ridi.
S. palembanica
palembanica Miq. Miq .
S. parvistipulata
parvistipulata HeimHeim
S. pilosa
pilosa Ashton
Ashton
S. pinanga
pinanga Scheff.
Scheff.
S. scaberrima
scaberrima BurokBurok
S. seminis
seminis (de
(de Vriese)
Vriese) Slooten
Slooten
S. smithiana
smithiana Sym.Sym.
S. splendida
splendida (de (de Vriese)
V riese) Ashton
Ashton
S. stenoptera
stenoptera Burck
Burck
S. sumatrana
swnatrana(Slecten
(Slecten ex
ex Thor.)
Thor.) Sym.
Sym.
Simmondsia
Simmandsia calif californica Nutt. == S.S.chinensis
arnica Nutt. chinensisSIMMONDSIACEAE
SIMMONDSIACEAE
S. chinensis
chinensis (Link)
(Link) C.Schneider
C .Schneider
Sorindeia
Sarindeia longifolia (Hook.f.) Olivo
langifalia (Hook.f.) Oliv. == Trichoscypha
Trichoscyphalongifolia
longifoliaANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
Spondias lutea L.
Spandias lutea L. == S.S.mombin
mombinANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
S. mombin L. L.
Staphylea bolanderi
bolanderiSTAPHYLEACEAE
STAPHYLEACEAE
S. pinnata L. L.
S. trifolia L.
Sterculia
Sterculia alata Roxb.
Roxb. == Pterygota
Pterygotaalata
alataSTERCULIACEAE
STERCULIACEAE
S. apetala
apetala (Jacq.)
(Jacq .) Karst.
Karst.
S. balanghas L.
S.
S. carthaginensis
carthaginensis Cav.Cav. == S.S. apetala
S. chicha
chicha A.St.Hil.
A.St.HiI.
S. diversifolia
diversifolia G.Don
G. Don
S. foetida
foetida L.
L.
S. guttata
S. guttata Roxb.
Roxb.
S. oblongata R.Br. R.Br.
S. quadrifida R.Br.
S. R.Br.
S. rupestris
rupestris (Lindl.)
(LindI.) Benth.
Benth.
S. setigera Del.Del.
S. tomentosa
S. tamentasa Guill. Perr. == S. setigera
Guill.&&Perr. setigera
S. treubii
treubii Hochst.
Hochst.
S. trichosiphon
trichosiphon Benth.
Benth.
S. urceolata
urceolata Sm. Sm.
S. urens
urens Roxb.
Roxb.
Strombosia grandifolia
grandifoliaBenth.
Benth.OLACACEAE
OLACACEAE
S. pustulata
pustulata Oliv.
Oliv o
S. scheffleri Engl.
S.
Stylobasium
Stylobasiwn spathulatum
spathulatwnDesf. Desf.STYLOBASIACEAE
STYLOBASIACEAE

197
Syagrus cocoides
cocoides Mart.
Mart. PALMAE
PALMAE
S. coronata
coronata(C.Mart.)
(C.Mart.)Becc.Becc.
S. edulis (Barb.-Rodr.) Flambach
Flambach
Telfairia
Telfairia pedata
pedata(Sims)
(Sims)Hook.
Hook.CUCURBITACEAE
CUCURBIT ACEAE
Terminalia
Tenninalia bellerica
bellerica(Gaertn.)
(Gaertn.)Roxb.
Roxb .COMBRETACEAE
COMBRETACEAE
bentzoë (L.) L.
T. bentzoe
T. catappa L. L.
T. chebula
chebula Retz.
Retz .
T. copelandii
copelandii Elmer
Elmer
T. glabrata
glabrata Forst.f.
Forst. f.
T. impediens
impediens Coode
Coode
T. kaernbachii
kaembachii Warb.Warb .
T. latifolia
latifolia Sw.
Sw .
T. litoralis
litoralis Seem.
Seem.
T. mauritiana
T. mauritianaLam. Lam. = T. T. bentzoë
bentzoe
T. microcarpa
microcarpa BlumeBlume
T. nitens
nitens Presl
Presl
T. okari
T. okari C. White == T. kaernbachii
C.White kaembachii
T. pamea
pamea DC.DC.
T. platyphylla
platyphylla F.Muell.
F.Muell.
Tetracarpidium conophorum
Tetracarpidiwn conophorwn(Muell.-Arg.)
(Muell .-Arg.)Hutch.
Hutch.&&Dalz.
Dalz.EUPHORBIACEAE
EUPHORBIACEAE
Theobroma bicolor
Theobroma bicolorHumb.
Humb .&& Bonpl.
Bonpl.STERCULIACEAE
STERCULIACEAE
T. cacao
cacao L.L.
T. leiocarpa
T. leiocarpa Bern.
Bern. == T. cacao
cacao
Tieghemella heckelii (Pierre ex Chev.) SAPOTACEAE SAPOTACEAE
Torreya grandis
grandisFortune
Fortuneex ex Lindl.
Lindl. TAXACEAE
T AXACEAE
T. nucifera
nucifera (L.)
(L.) Sieb.
Sieb. && Zucc.
Zucco
Trapa bicornis
Trapa bicornisOsbeck
OsbeckTRAPACEAE
TRAPACEAE
T. bispinosa
T. bispinosa Roxb
Roxb. . == T. natans
natans var.
var. bispinosa
bispinosa
T. cochinchinensis
cochinchinensis lour. lour .
T. incisa Sieb,
Sieb, & & Zucc.
Zucc o
T. natans L.
T. L.
var. africana
africana Brenan
Brenan
var.
var . natans
var. bispinosa
bispinosa (Roxb.)
(Roxb.) Makino
Makino
Treculia africana
africanaDecne.
Decne.ex exTrécul
TreculMORACEAE
MORACEAE
Trichoscypha longifolia
longifolia (Hook.f.)
(Hook.f.) Engl.
Engl. ANACARDIACEAE
ANACARDIACEAE
Tylosema esculenttun
esculentwn (Burch.)
(Burch.) A.Schreib.
A.Schreib. LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
subfamily CAESALPINIOIDEAE
Umbellularia californica
Umbellularia californica(Hook.
(Hook. && Am.)Am.)Nutt.
Nutt.LAURACEAE
LAURACEAE
Vateria indica
Vateria indicaL.L.DIPTEROCARPACEAE
DIPTEROCARPACEAE
Veitchia joannis Wendl.
Wendl. PALMAE
PALMAE
Vigna subterranea
subterranea(L.) (L.)Verdc.
Verdc.LEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAEsubsp. subsp.PAPILIONOIDEAE
PAPILIONOIDEAE
Vitellaria paradoxa
paradoxaGaertn.
Gaertn.f.f.SAPOTACEAE
SAPOTACEAE
Voandzeiasubterranea
Voandzeia subterranea (L.)
(L.) Thouars
Thouars == Vigna
Vigna subterranea
subterraneaLEGUMINOSAE
LEGUMINOSAE subfamily
subfamily
PAPILIONOIDEAE
Washingronia
Washingronia filifera
filifera (Linden)
(Linden) H.Wendl.
H.Wendl . PALMAE
PALMAE
W. robusta
robusta H.Wendl.
H .Wendl.
Ximenia americana L. OLACACEAE
Ximenia OLACACEAE
Zamia chigua
chigua Seem.
Seem. ZAMIACEAE
ZAMIACEAE
Z. floridiana A.DC.
A.DC.
Zostera marina
marinaL. L.ZOSTERACEAE
ZOSTERACEAE

198
198
 Most edible nuts
nuts contain
contain concentrated
concentrated food
foodreserves
reserves
of energy,
and are a valuable source of energy, protein,
protein, oils,
oils,
minerals and
and vitamins suitable for human
human
consumption. Apart from direct
direct consumption
consumption in
in the
the
raw form as
as well as
as coated and salted,
salted, edible nuts
use in
find use in confectionery,
confectionery,ice
icecreams
creamsand
and sweets,
sweets,
beverages, oils,
beverages, oils, etc. This document examines
examines the
importance of
of edible
edible nuts
nuts as
as a non-wood forest
forest
product. ItIt deals
deals with
with the
the distribution,
distribution,ecology,
ecology,
processing, storage,
harvesting, processing, storage, marketing
marketingand
and
benefits of
economic benefits of several
several major, minor
minor and
and
potential edible
edible nut-producing
nut-producingplants
plants and
and
their
their products.
products.

ISBN 92-5-1037
ISBN 92-5-103748-5
48-5 issri
ISSN1020-3370
1020-3370

7
11NINO I5
Jlllll!I!IIIIJtIIJI!IJ
9 11 7 8 9 2 5 1 0 3 7 4 8 1111
M-37 V8929E/1/10.95/1300
V8929E/1/10 95/1300

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