Using Fish Sauce as a Substitute for Sodium

Chloride in Culinary Sauces and Effects

on Sensory Properties
Hue Linh Huynh, Robert Danhi, and See Wan Yan

Abstract: Historically, fish sauce has been a standard condiment and ingredient in various Southeast Asian cuisines.
Moreover, fish sauce imparts umami taste, which may enhance perceived saltiness in food. This quality suggests that fish
sauce may be used as a partial substitute for sodium chloride (NaCl) in food preparation, which may present a valuable
option for health-conscious and salt-restricted consumers. However, the degree to which NaCl can be decreased in food
products without compromising taste and consumer acceptance has not been determined. We hypothesized that NaCl
content in food may be reduced by partial replacement with fish sauce without diminishing palatability and consumer
acceptance. Preparations of 3 types of food were assessed to test this hypothesis: chicken broth (n = 72); tomato sauce
(n = 73); and coconut curry (n = 70). In the first session, the percentage of NaCl that could be replaced with fish
sauce without a significant change in overall taste intensity was determined for each type of food using the 2-Alternative
Forced Choice method. In the second session, subjects rated 5 samples for each food with varying NaCl and/or fish sauce
content on 3 sensory attributes: deliciousness; taste intensity; and saltiness. Our results demonstrate that NaCl reduction
was possible in chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry at 25%, 16%, and 10%, respectively, without a significant
loss (P < 0.05) in deliciousness and overall taste intensity. These results suggest that it is possible to replace NaCl in foods
with fish sauce without reducing overall taste intensity and consumer acceptance.

Keywords: consumer acceptance, culinary, fish sauce, sensory evaluation, sodium reduction

Practical Application: This study demonstrates that fish sauce may be used as a partial substitute ingredient for salt as a
means to reduce sodium content in food without diminishing palatability. These results may aid chefs and food manu-
facturers in creating foods lower in sodium content to better meet the needs and expectations of consumers, healthcare
providers, governmental organizations, and consumer advocacy groups without compromising taste. Consequently, using
fish sauce as a partial replacement for salt in food preparations may be a delicious and creative alternative for many low
S: Sensory & Food

sodium diets.
Quality

Introduction
Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a chemical compound that evokes
the perception of saltiness (Dötsch and others 2009). In food,
this perceived level of saltiness significantly influences consumer
food preferences (IOM 2010). Consequently, NaCl is a crucial
component in diversifying the organoleptic profile of food because
it reduces bitterness while enhancing saltiness, sweetness, and other
desirable flavor effects (Keast and Breslin 2003). According to
Ruusunen and Puolanne (2005), the functions of NaCl extend
beyond the augmentation of flavor and texture, as it also has the
practical ability to control the growth of microorganisms.
Although the perception of saltiness and its effect on consumer’s
dietary selections and preferences has been described, the under-
standing of the mechanism underlying sodium perception is still
incomplete (Beauchamp and Stein 2008). While an appropriate
level of sodium consumption is essential to the normal functions
of the human body, the average current sodium intake far exceeds
MS 20142012 Submitted 12/9/2014, Accepted 10/27/2015. Authors Huynh
and Danhi are with the School of Hospitality and Tourism, Taylor’s Univ. Lakeside
Campus, No.1, Jalan Taylor’s 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Author Yan is with the School of Biosciences, Taylor’s Univ. Lakeside Campus, No.1,
Jalan Taylor’s 47500 Subang Jaya, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia. Direct inquires
to author Yan (E-mail: yanseewan@gmail.com).
the recommendations for good health (Brown and others 2009).
Sodium has been identified to be the primary cause of high blood
pressure, which increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases. Pre-
vious research reveals 49% of patients who suffered from stroke,
and 62% of patients who had coronary heart disease, also suffered
from high blood pressure (He and MacGregor 2010). Addition-
ally, excessive consumption of sodium also diminishes bone density
(Tsugane and others 2004); increases the possible risk of gastric
cancer (Liem and others 2011); and contributes to obesity (He
and MacGregor 2008). However, high sodium content indicated
on food products was found to be insignificant in influencing
consumer food preference (Kim and others 2012), even though
consumers were aware of the increased risk of developing sodium-
related diseases as a consequence of a high sodium diet (Kim and
Lee 2014). Consequently, a consumer’s preference for foods with
the perception of saltiness may be more related to habituation than
to informed choice.
Although the harmful effects of excessive sodium consumption
have been identified, the percentage of high sodium food remains
relatively constant in many consumer diets (Cordain and others
2005). Various attempts have been made to minimize sodium
content in food by reducing the quantity of salt or replacing salt
with substitutes. Reducing NaCl could be achieved by 2 main
methods. First, NaCl could be replaced by other types of salts

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists

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S150 Journal of Food Science r Vol. 81, Nr. 1, 2016 doi: 10.1111/1750-3841.13171
Further reproduction without permission is prohibited
Salt substitution using fish sauce . . .
such as calcium chloride (CaCl2 ) and potassium chloride (KCl);
this has been proven to reduce sodium by 50% in cheese and meat
products (Katsiari and others 1997; Kremer and others 2009).
However, the application of such attempts in food preparation was
found to be as insignificant as only 0.3% in processed food from
1983 to 2004 (Jacobson 2005). The second approach has been
to utilize the interactions of primary tastes (sweetness, sourness,
saltiness, bitterness, and umami) to enhance perceived saltiness
(Mojet and others 2004). Umami, specifically, as a category of
taste in foods, has a potential for affecting perceived saltiness and
tastiness when increased by adding it to foods (Yamaguchi and
Ninomiya 2000; Yeomans and others 2004). However, these 2
sodium reduction techniques have not achieved significant success
due to their undesirable effect on overall texture and flavor (Keast
and others 2004).
Taste enhancing synergy between 2 umami compounds—l-
glutamate and 5 -ribonulceotides—creates a unique tastiness in
food, which is naturally found in vegetables, fruit, meat, cheese,
soya sauce, and fish sauce (Yamaguchi and Ninomiya 2000). Previ-
ous studies have demonstrated that the umami quality of soya sauce
(Lioe and others 2006; Lioe and others 2010) and fish sauce (Park
and others 2002; Jiang and others 2007) influences consumer pref-
erence and overall liking. The practical application of soya sauce
to reduce NaCl in cream of tomato soup, stir fried pork, and salad
dressing has been described (Kremer and others 2009). However,
there is insufficient evidence to demonstrate the specific effective-
ness of fish sauce in reducing NaCl when used as a substitute for
sodium in foods. This study explores the partial substitution of fish
sauce for NaCl as a method to reduce sodium in chicken broth,
tomato sauce, and coconut curry while maintaining palatability.
Materials and Methods
Subjects
For each food item—chicken broth, tomato soup, and coconut
curry—75 subjects, aged between 18 and 59 y, were recruited for
all 3 taste tests. All subjects are students or staff at Taylor’s Uni-
versity Lakeside Campus, Subang Jaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
All subjects are Malaysian of various ethnicities (Malay, Chinese,
Indian, and others) and have good command of the English
language. Written informed consent was obtained from all the
subjects prior to the food tasting sessions. The actual number of
subjects for each recipe was 72 for chicken broth (29 male), 73 for
tomato soup (26 male), and 70 for coconut curry (31 male). For
each food item, the same subjects participated in 2 tasting sessions
of approximately 90 min each. Participation was voluntary.
Samples
For the preparation of the 3 recipes, first grade fish sauce, nuoc
mam nhi, from Phu Quoc Island, Vietnam was selected and ob-
tained from the manufacturer Red Boat Fish Sauce (DBA Viet
Phu Inc., Milpitas, Calif., U.S.A.). To achieve product consistency,
all samples were prepared from the same batch of 40°N grade fish
sauce made from the black anchovies of the Stolephorus species Bac-
caneeri, Miarcha, and Purpureus and sea salt. The sodium content of
the sample fish sauce was measured using atomic absorption spec-
troscopy (AAS) (PerkinElmer, Waltham, Mass., U.S.A.) according
to a method described by Tee and others (1996). The result of the
tests revealed 7.90% NaCl in the sample fish sauce.
To eliminate variance in both weight and volume in the prepa-
ration of the recipes, a saline solution was created with the same
sodium content as the fish sauce so that the recipes would have the
same amount of liquid. Table salt (NaCl) of 20.13% was dissolved
into 79.87% of water, resulting in a solution with 7.90% sodium
content, thus matching the sodium content of fish sauce.
Recipe development
Equipment, time, and temperature controls were monitored.
To maintain consistency from batch to batch, recipe yield was
measured and water was added back to achieve accurate final
yield. After preparation, sodium content of the 3 prepared samples
was determined by AAS. Then sodium calculation for samples was
conducted on each batch (with salt solution and fish sauce) and
all samples were prepared from the same batch of each recipe, in
which the range of concentration was finalized based on a pilot
test amongst colleagues (n = 15).
Chicken broth
A basic chicken broth was prepared to produce an overall flavor
suitable to be utilized in both Asian and non-Asian cuisines. The
broth was prepared according to the following recipe: 1699.18 g
chicken thighs/legs (bone in, skin off) and 2199.11g water were
combined, heated to 100 °C/212 °F (Thermapen, ThermaWorks,
England), and then skimmed. 31.52 g peeled and sliced ginger;
337.93 g peeled and quartered onions; 28.59 g smashed garlic
cloves; and 3.67 g cracked white peppercorns were stirred in. The
heat source was reduced to simmer the broth at 88 °C/190.4 °F
until there was a 84.1% yield. The broth was strained through
fine-wire mesh strainer, cooled in an ice bath, and stored in a
food grade refrigerator at 4.45 °C/40 °F. This broth was tested
on its own and also used as an ingredient in the tomato sauce and
coconut curry recipes.
Tomato sauce
A tomato sauce was prepared, typical of those used in
American, Italian, French, and other non-Asian cuisines. The
S: Sensory & Food
sauce was prepared according to the following recipe: 175.07 g
pure olive oil was heated over low heat (121 °C/250 °F); 267.72
Quality
g small dice yellow onions were added and stirred constantly for
5 min; then 70.03 g minced garlic was added and cooked for
1 min. 2578.38 g chopped sodium-free prepared tomatoes (Monte
Verde (M) Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia); 0.35 g dried oregano; 8.40 g
ground black pepper; 19.54 g chopped fresh basil; and 1346.58
g the chicken broth were stirred in. The mixture was heated to
100 °C/212 °F, and then the heat source was reduced to simmer
the sauce at 88 °C/190.4 °F until there was a 62.3% yield. Then
the sauce was cooled in an ice bath and stored in a food grade
refrigerator at 4.45 °C/40 °F.
Coconut curry
A variety of coconut curries are common dishes in Southeast
Asian cuisines. The curry for this study was prepared according
to the following recipe: 125.93 g vegetable oil; 276.63 g shallots;
57.95 g garlic; 103.73 g lemongrass; 65.15 g galangal; and
28.01 g curry powder (Adabi Consumer Industry Sdn. Bhd,
Malaysia) were pureed in a blender for 1 min until a smooth
paste was achieved. The paste was then cooked for 5 min over
low heat (121 °C/250 °F) and stirred constantly. 712.31 g of
the chicken broth was added. The mixture was brought to
100 °C/212 °F, reduced to 88 °C/190.4 °F, and held for 15 min.
414.94 g coconut milk (Kara Marketing (M) Sdn. Bhd, Malaysia)
and 1528.35 g water were stirred in and the curry was simmered
at 88 °C/190.4 °F until there is a 53.43% yield. The curry was
strained through a perforated (2.25-mm hole size) metal conical
Vol. 81, Nr. 1, 2016 r Journal of Food Science S151
 Salt substitution using fish sauce . . .

Table 1–Recipes for samples (chicken broth, tomato sauce and chicken curry) 1 to 4.

Salt Sample Sample Sample Sample

Standard #1 #2 #3 #4
Chicken broth
Total NaCl (% w/w) 1.58 1.58 1.38 1.18 0.98
NaCl reduction (%) 0 0 13 25 38
Fish sauce (Red Boat 40N) (%) 0 75 75 75 75
Salt solution (%) 100 25 25 25 25
Tomato sauce
Total NaCl (% w/w) 1.28 1.28 1.08 0.88 0.68
NaCl reduction (%) 0 0 16 31 47
Fish sauce (Red Boat 40N) (%) 0 75 75 75 75
Salt solution (%) 100 25 25 25 25
Coconut curry
Total NaCl (% w/w) 1 1 0.90 0.85 0.80
NaCl reduction (%) 0 0 10 15 20
Fish sauce (Red Boat 40N) (%) 0 75 75 75 75
Salt solution (%) 100 25 25 25 25

strainer. The mixture was cooled in an ice bath and stored in a level by which NaCl could be replaced with fish sauce without a
food grade refrigerator at 4.45 °C/40 °F. significant change in the overall taste intensity. Subjects compared
the 4 samples of different fish sauce concentrations with that of a
Determination of the range of sodium concentration standard at 100% NaCl concentration. They then indicated which
The range of sodium concentration to be used for the consumer of the 2 samples had the stronger taste intensity. The subjects an-
acceptance test for each recipe was based on a pilot testing session swered the same question for all 4 sample sets during this session.
with 15 students and staff at Taylor’s University. The first goal of After the first session, the optimal percentage by which NaCl
this pilot test was to determine a base NaCl level that would be can be replaced with fish sauce without respondents noticing the
accepted as a “well-seasoned/palatable” sample to be used as the significant change in the overall taste intensity was determined.
Salt Standard. This pilot test also aimed to identify the palatable In the second session, 5 samples (comprised of Salt Standard and
sodium range that could fulfill 3 possible results: no significant 4 samples with different table salt and/or fish sauce concentrations)
difference in overall taste intensity between Salt Standard with were evaluated using 100 mm line scales (anchored from “Not at
fish sauce samples; Salt Standard have stronger overall taste inten- all” to “Extremely”) for degree of liking (measured by scale of
sity compared to fish sauce samples; and fish sauce samples have “deliciousness”) (Luscombe-Marsh and others 2008), overall taste
stronger overall taste intensity compared to Salt Standard. intensity, and perceived saltiness. Following this procedure, each
The first stage of the process to determine sodium range was subject rated a total of 3 attributes, 5 times each during this session.
S: Sensory & Food

to create a Salt Standard (100% NaCl), which was determined to All samples were coded with random 3 digit identifiers and were
be “well-seasoned” in a pilot test. The second stage was to create counterbalanced so that each sample appeared in a particular tasting
Quality

Sample #1 with 75% fish sauce and 25% salt solution to equal order an equal number of times. Between samples, subjects were
the sodium content of the Salt Standard. Diluting the fish sauce given a 5 min break during which they cleansed their palates with
variation with water was necessary in order to reduce the strong water and plain bread. These 2 tasting process were repeated 3
taste of fish sauce which could introduce bias in rating. Samples times for 3 food items (chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut
2, 3, and 4 were created similarly, with the same ratio of 75% fish curry).
sauce and 25% salt solution. The total reduced sodium content is
listed in Table 1.
Statistical analysis
Procedure All data were analyzed using Statistical Package for the Social
The tasting sessions were conducted at Culinary Bar Theatre, Sciences Version 17 (SPSS Inc., Chicago, Ill., U.S.A.). In the first
Taylor’s University Lakeside Campus, Malaysia for 3 d (1 food item session, 1 sample t-test was performed to observe the significant
per day). Tasting sessions were conducted from 10 am to 11:30 difference between Salt Standard with 4 other samples. The t-value
am. Room temperature was controlled to be 23.9 °C/75 °F. Prior indicated a significant difference in mean value, which indicates
instructions on specific terminology and the method to cleanse whether or not consumers are able to detect the difference be-
the palate using both water and plain bread were clearly explained tween the 100% sodium standard recipe and the sodium reduction
to all subjects. For all tasting sessions, 5 samples (1 Salt Standardsamples. Significant difference was defined as P < 0.05. In the sec-
and 4 samples) with varying table salt/fish sauce ratio (Table 1) ond session, one-way repeated measures ANOVA was conducted
were prepared 24 h before serving. All samples were placed in to test for overall differences in ratings of deliciousness, taste inten-
2000 mL/70.4 fl oz airtight containers and stored in a food grade sity and perceived saltiness. Significant level was set at probability
refrigerator at 4.45 °C/40 °F. Fifteen minutes before serving, each P < 0.05.
sample was mixed and reheated to 73.9 °C/165 °F, then portioned
into 15 mL/.53 fl oz. samples in 25 mL/.89 fl oz. plastic cups, and Results and Discussion
allowed to cool to 30 °C/86 °F.
There were 2 tasting sessions (2-AFC test and Rating on At- 2-AFC test results
tributes) for each food item. In the first session, subjects responded A summary of the results of 2-AFC test is displayed in Figure 1.
to 4 2-Alternative Forced Choice (2-AFC) tests to determine the Comparison of the data for each recipe follows below.

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Salt substitution using fish sauce . . .

For the chicken broth recipe, subjects rated a stronger taste in-
tensity in Sample 1 than in the Salt Standard in Pair 1 (equal in
sodium content). Subjects also rated a stronger taste intensity in
the Salt Standard than in Sample 4 in Pair 4 (38% salt reduction).
There was no significant difference reported in Pair 2 (13% salt re-
duction) and Pair 3 (25% salt reduction). Thus, it can be concluded
that chicken broth with 1.58% NaCl tasted equally as intense as
chicken broth prepared with 75% fish sauce and 25% NaCl with
a maximum 25% salt reduction (Table 1).
In Pair 1 of the tomato sauce recipe, Sample 1 was identified
to be significantly more intense compared to the Salt Standard.
Rating for Pair 2 indicated no significant difference in taste inten-
sity, whereas for Pair 3 and Pair 4, the Salt Standard was reported
to be more intense. Thus, it can be concluded that tomato sauce
prepared with 1.28% NaCl tasted equally as intense as tomato
sauce prepared with 75% fish sauce and 25% NaCl with a 16% salt
reduction (Table 1).
For the coconut curry, the NaCl reduction gap was relatively
small (5% to 10% reduction from each sample), and no significant
difference in taste intensity was rated across the samples. Thus,
it can be concluded that coconut curry prepared with 1% NaCl
tasted equally intense as coconut curry prepared with 75% fish
sauce and 25% NaCl. Consequently, using fish sauce as a NaCl
substitute in coconut curry could be performed in any concen-
tration without affecting consumer acceptance, noting an optimal
sodium reduction up to 20% (Table 1).
Rating on attributes (deliciousness, taste intensity, and
perceived saltiness)
Figure 2 displays subjects rating on deliciousness, taste intensity,
and perceived saltiness of the Salt Standard and samples for chicken
broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry.
First, a significant overall difference (P < 0.05) was observed
for deliciousness [F(2.962, 210.314) = 10.705; P < 0.05], taste
intensity [F(3.255, 231.078) = 2.946; P < 0.05], and perceived
saltiness [F(3.734, 265.149) = 42.591; P < 0.05] for salt standard
and all the 4 samples of the chicken broth. Subjects perceived
Sample 4 to be the most delicious, Sample 1 to have the strongest
taste intensity, and Salt Standard to be the saltiest.

60 A Figure 1–2-AFC test for overall taste intensity of chicken broth

Salt Standard- 1.58%
(A), tomato sauce (B), and coconut curry (C). ∗ Asterisk indicates a
50 * * Sample 1- 1.58%
Sample 2- 1.38% significant difference between samples and salt standard at
Sample 3- 1.18% P < 0.05.
Subjects (n=72)

40 Sample 4- 0.98%

30

20

10

S: Sensory & Food

Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4

Quality
*
60 B Salt Standard- 1.28%
Sample 1- 1.28%
* * Sample 2- 1.08%
50
Sample 3- 0.88%
Subjects (n=73)

Sample 4- 0.68%
40

30

20

10

0
Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4

60 C Salt Standard- 1.00%

Sample 1- 1.00%
50 Sample 2- 0.90%
Sample 3- 0.85%
Subjects (n=70)

40 Sample 4- 0.80%

30

20

10

0
Pair 1 Pair 2 Pair 3 Pair 4

Vol. 81, Nr. 1, 2016 r Journal of Food Science S153

 Salt substitution using fish sauce . . .

Second, for the tomato sauce recipe, deliciousness [F(3.840,
276.471) = 5.899; P < 0.05), taste intensity (F(3.909, 281.429)
= 3.354, P < 0.05), and perceived saltiness (F(3.912, 281.688)
= 9.150; P < 0.05) were observed to have significant difference
amongst all the samples. Sample 1 was identified to be the most
delicious, to have the strongest taste intensity, and to be the saltiest.
Third, a significant difference (P < 0.05) was also identified for
deliciousness [F(4.000, 276.000) = 3.810, P < 0.05] and taste in-
tensity (F(3.502, 241.668) = 3.067, P < 0.05] amongst samples of
coconut curry. No significant difference (P > 0.05) was observed
for saltiness [F(3.474, 239.708) = 2.027, P > 0.05]. Subjects rated
Sample 1 to be the most delicious and to have the strongest taste
intensity.
Overall, Sample 1 was identified to be the saltiest and the
strongest in overall taste intensity for all 3 food items. It can
be concluded that for the 3 recipes of chicken broth, tomato
sauce, and coconut curry, the use of fish sauce as a sodium re-
duction technique not only amplified the level of saltiness but
also strengthened the overall palatability and taste intensity as well.
These results demonstrate that using fish sauce can result in an
expected 10% to 25% reduction in sodium without any significant
negative impact on deliciousness and overall taste intensity for the
foods tested in this study. It is to be noted, however, that the similar
and successful use of fish sauce as a sodium reduction technique
in other recipes would depend vastly on the flavor profile of each
food.
Using fish sauce as a salt reduction technique in foods
This study has demonstrated the possibility of using fish sauce
to reduce sodium in 3 types of food items without significantly
impacting consumer acceptance and food palatability. This
conclusion can be further explained by examining the chemical
compounds naturally found in fish sauce. Preliminarily, fish sauce
contains an abundance of amino acids originating from fish
proteins, which gives it a remarkable and complex umami taste.
Park and others (2002) research on taste active compounds in fish

A Figure 2–Rating on attributes (deliciousness, taste

8 intensity, and saltiness) for chicken broth (A), tomato
7 sauce (B), and coconut curry (C). Straight line =
significance difference, dotted line = no significance
6 difference between samples and salt standard at P < 0.05.
5
Intensity

4
3
2 Deliciousness
Taste Intensity
1
Saltiness
0
Salt Standard Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4
S: Sensory & Food

8 B
Quality

7
6
5
Intensity

4
3
2 Deliciousness
Taste Intensity
1
Saltiness
0
Salt Standard Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

C
8
7
6
5
Intensity

4
3
Deliciousness
2
Taste Intensity
1
Saltiness
0
Salt Standard Sample 1 Sample 2 Sample 3 Sample 4

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Salt substitution using fish sauce . . .
sauce concluded that the free amino acids (including threonine,
cystine, proline, methionine, tyrosine, alanine, glutamic acid, and
valine) affected the receptivity of saltiness, sweetness, bitterness,
and sourness on the human tongue. Despite the slight ammonia
scent, the taste of fish sauce has been described as the merging
of cheesy and meaty flavors due to the volatile fatty acid and
dominant free amino acid glutamate that are present in fish sauce
(Yamaguchi and Ninomiya 2000; Curtis 2009).
The findings of the current study also support previous research
on the taste effect of acid oligopeptide fraction in fish protein
hydrolysate (Fujimaki and others 1973), where the researchers
reported that fish sauce added a remarkable brothy flavor and
pleasant aftertaste in foods. It was also confirmed by subsequent
research that fish sauce contains a high molecular weight fraction
which likely transforms the perception of primary taste intensity
and flavor profile of foods (Ueda and others 1997).
Although not totally comprehensive in scope, the current study
demonstrates that sodium reduction by substituting fish sauce in
the recipes of chicken broth, tomato sauce, and coconut curry was
successful without significantly compromising consumer accep-
tance. The scientific mechanism of using fish sauce as a sodium
reduction technique is still in need of further in depth under-
standing to explore the chemical interaction at the molecular level
of each food component during cooking. The NaCl compensa-
tion level of fish sauce would need to vary according to individ-
ual recipes, the concept of which is reflected through the current
findings where optimal sodium reduction in chicken broth is 25%;
tomato sauce is 16%; and coconut curry is 10%. The reason for
the variance may because the high level of free glutamate in both
tomatoes and coconut milk suppressed the sodium reduction abil-
ity of the fish sauce (Kremer and others 2009). Other factors may
influence perceived flavor and saltiness such as serving temperature
and tasting quantity (Paulus and Reisch 1980). Consequently, all
samples from the 3 recipes in the current study were presented in
a premeasured quantity at room temperature (23.9 °C/75 °F).
Examining this study’s Rating on Attributes, fish sauce is shown
to be a potential substitute of NaCl without diminishing degree
of liking/deliciousness. Thus, a gradual reduction method is ap-
plicable in order to accomplish sodium reduction in a range of
other food items. To apply this method more broadly, however,
consideration must be given to each recipe regarding how fish
sauce will affect expected color and aroma. Amongst the 3 recipes
tested, chicken broth was an obvious example of subtle changes in
color intensity as the "brown" color across samples was easily dis-
tinguished by the subjects. The change in color may influence the
consumer primary perception of the taste of foods. Throughout
the current study, none of the subjects reported any detection of
“fishy” or “ammonia” odor. Even though the aroma was almost
identical across samples in all 3 recipes, it would be advisable to
monitor consumer acceptance over a longitudinal study to ensure
that long term acceptance of subtle aroma and a color change is
possible.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that using fish sauce as a substitute
ingredient to reduce sodium in 3 types of food items (25% in
chicken broth; 16% in tomato sauce; and 10% in coconut curry)
can be accomplished without significantly impacting consumer
acceptance or food palatability. However, it is noted that the level
of NaCl reduction needs to be varied across recipes based on
the complexity of the ingredients and preparation method. Thus,
future research involving different recipes is recommended.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Nancy
Vathsala Rajan during the data collection phases of this project.
Special appreciation is dedicated to Michael Chang for his as-
sistance in reviewing the manuscript. Thanks to Red Boat Fish
Sauce, Milpitas, CA DBA Viet Phu Inc. for providing fish sauce
samples to be used in all recipes. The authors also wish to confirm
that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this
publication that could have influenced its outcome.
Author Contributions
Robert Danhi and Hue Linh Huynh designed the study. Robert
Danhi, Hue Linh Huynh, and See Wan Yan collected the data.
Hue Linh Huynh, See Wan Yan, and Robert Danhi drafted the
manuscript.
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