Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play CHI PLAY '20, November 2–4, 2020, Virtual Event, Canada

Your Own Worst Enemy: Implications of the Customization,

and Destruction, of Non-Player Characters
Daniel Pimentel Sri Kalyanaraman
School of Journalism & Communication Media Effects & Technology Lab
University of Oregon University of Florida
Portland, Oregon, USA Gainesville, Florida, USA
pimend@uoregon.edu sri@jou.ufl.edu

ABSTRACT
Customization interfaces allow players to tailor character
appearance to represent desired self-concepts, increasing character
identification and contributing towards enjoyment. Yet, despite
their ubiquity, such interfaces seldom allow modification of non-
player characters (e.g., in-game enemies). A between-subjects
experiment (N=34) examined affective/cognitive responses to
customizing and destroying enemies in a custom-built game.
Participants created characters representing either a positive
(confidence) or negative (anxiety) self-concept, and subsequently
destroyed it during gameplay. Players reported greater
identification, attitudes, enjoyment, and reduction in negative
affect (anxiety) when customizing characters representing
confidence, whereas anxiety characters increased negative affect.
Affective responses to destruction varied based on self-concept.
Destroying confidence characters increased negative affect,
whereas negative affect was slightly reduced after destroying
anxiety characters. Both groups evaluated the game favorably and
exhibited similar purchase intentions. Results suggest that players
prefer creating enemies in their (ideal) image like they do their
own avatars. Avenues for future research are discussed.
Figure 1: Participants customized and destroyed in-game
CCS CONCEPTS enemy characters representing either a positive
(confidence: top) or negative self-concept (anxiety:
• Human-centered computing • Empirical studies in HCI • Applied
bottom).
Computing  Computer games
Symposium on Computer-Human Interaction in Play - CHI PLAY
KEYWORDS ’20, November 1–4, 2020, Ottowa, Canada. ACM Press, NY, NY,
Customization; NPC; Affect; Destruction; Identification; Games USA, 14 pages. DOI: 10.1145/3410404.3414269
ACM reference format:
Daniel Pimentel and Sri Kalyanaraman. 2020. Your Own Worst
1 Introduction
Enemy: Implications of the Customization, and Destruction, of Among the bestselling video games throughout the 2010’s are
Non-Player Characters. In Proceedings of the 2020 Annual titles as diverse as their fan bases, with themes ranging from
Nordic action-adventure (e.g., God of War) to first-person shooters
Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal (e.g., Call of Duty: Modern Warfare). A major
or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or commonality across these titles is the affordance of customization,
distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice
and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work or the ability for players to create and/or modify in-game content
owned by others than the author(s) must be honored. Abstracting with credit is (e.g., characters, environments, objects) to match desired aspects of
permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute the player’s identity or self-concepts [36]. Of particular interest to
to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from
Permissions@acm.org. this investigation is character customization, whereby players can
CHI PLAY ’20, November 1–4, 2020, Ottowa, CAN actively manifest their self-concepts, such as an actual or desired
© 2020 Copyright is held by the owner/author(s). Publication rights licensed to ACM.
ACM ISBN 978-1-4503-8074-4/20/11…$15.00.
aspect of their identity, onto a virtual character.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3410404.3414269

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Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
While still considered an overlooked topic of study [56–58],
character customization is known to have profound effects on how
players experience a game, its story, and its characters. Chief
among those effects is the connection established with a game
character after having a vested stake in its creation. In modifying
characters to represent aspects of the user’s identity, characters
and their experiences become more self-relevant [16] which
contributes to engagement [61] and enjoyment [19,40,50].
Furthermore, players’ emotional responses to in-game events are
amplified when using customized versus assigned characters [2].
Mere affordance of customization heightens connection to a
game character, though the nature of that connection is contingent
on what aspects of the player’s identity serves as the basis for its
creation. That is, a player’s design decisions shape how they
experience the created character and game events. For example,
creating characters to represent or embody socially desirable self-
concepts (e.g., traits such as muscularity, health-consciousness)
can contribute to positive outcomes both within the game and in
the real world [46,73]. Conversely, if a character’s appearance
veers from a desired self-concept, research suggests users
experience negative outcomes, such as decreased body satisfaction
and mood [71]. In sum, convergence between a player’s self-
concept(s) and their customized character can significantly
influence attitudes, behaviors, and cognitions [4].
Contemporary literature on avatar customization succeeds at
highlighting the implications of creating and controlling an in-
game protagonist. Despite the ubiquity of customization interfaces
and their known effects, one unique affordance continues to elude
the modern gamer: the ability to customize the antagonist(s).
Modern games seldom afford players the capacity to tailor in-
game enemies as they do their own characters, and for good
reason. For one, enemies are, by design, created to reach their
demise at the hands of the protagonist. Considering that
customization increases attachment to characters, and character
death creates negative affect by serving as a separation, rather
than merger, of a player-avatar relationship [24], it is presumed
that players may not desire to see a customized character
destroyed. Indeed, psychological research suggests that investing
in the customization of something that will ultimately be discarded
may offset any benefits accrued during its creation [62].
Second, mainstream games seldom provide players with a
dedicated user interface to customize enemy characters, with few
exceptions. For example, games like RPG Maker allow players to
create enemies using their own art design. Games like Skyrim host
modding communities that leverage tools outside of the original
game to alter game content, such as modifying non-player
characters (NPCs), though dedicated interfaces for enemy creation
remain absent in most mainstream games. Third, customization
interfaces in contemporary games are exclusively geared towards
(a) customizing the player’s character, and (b) limit customization
parameters to desirable traits (e.g., attractiveness, strength).
Customization interfaces seldom allow undesirable self-concepts
to be imbued onto characters (e.g., deformities), and even subtle
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CHI PLAY '20, November 2–4, 2020, Virtual Event, Canada
cues such as scars are considered “an inappropriate feature” within
the context of avatar customization systems [18, p. 100].
Collectively, these factors have encouraged the gaming
industry to cater to the user’s self-representation; the primary goal
of customization interfaces being to increase identification with
one’s character [68]. However, in-game enemies, like players, are
central to the game experience and can be similarly imbued with a
variety of (un)desirable self-concepts capable of influencing
affective and cognitive responses to the story. For example, in high
fantasy games (e.g., The Elder Scrolls: Morrowind), enemies can be
depicted as muscular warriors or atrophied, dehumanized
creatures. Should players have input in the enemy creation
process, how would this influence the user experience?
As noted in a recent review of virtual character literature,
“researchers should consider and attempt to illuminate both the
intended and unintended effects of avatars” [16, p. 42]. Indeed,
while not customization per se, a recent study has explored player
identification with enemies based on gender [72]. Building off of
this work, this research seeks to address this gap in literature by
examining character customization in a novel context: the
psychological and physiological effects of creating and destroying
in-game enemy characters. To investigate the implications of
enemy customization, this study presents findings from a
controlled lab experiment whereby players customized characters
to represent either a positive (confidence) or negative (anxiety)
self-concept, and subsequently destroyed them in a custom-built
video game.
2 Related Work
2.1 The Self in Digital Games
2.1.1 Character Customization as Self-regulation
Self-concepts comprise a person’s beliefs regarding their unique
attributes and qualities [53] which store abstract and concrete
views about the “self” [54]. According to self-discrepancy theory
(SDT) [29], the self can be delineated across three dimensions: the
actual, ought, and ideal self. These dimensions capture
(un)desirable self-attributes that you believe you possess (actual),
should possess (ought), or hope to possess (ideal). For example,
competence and attractiveness (socially desirable), as well as
socially undesirable self-concepts such as depression [69] and
anxiety[74], all form part of one’s identity. It is important to note
that desirability, as used herein, refers to the social perceptions of
internal feelings associated with experiencing the state or trait,
rather than an assessment of an individual as a whole.
In virtual worlds, users are able to project a wide range of self-
concepts onto their virtual characters, the objects they use, and
even their environments, through customization interfaces. In
online communities like Second Life, players are able manifest
abstract self-concepts such as sophistication or a disability [39] by
customizing their character’s body, accessories, and homes [60].
Players can also effectively imbue self-concepts onto non-human
characters in games like Spore, where the customization interface
provides a high degree of phenotypic malleability [59]. This
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
process of anthropomorphism, or imbuing human-like qualities
onto non-human entities, has been shown to contribute to
favorable player experiences [38].
In this way, virtual content, whether one’s character or their
personalized gear, serve as rhetorical devices signaling self-
concepts through salient cues embedded during customization
[75]. Moreover, the resulting player-character merger is capable of
influencing how individuals feel about themselves and their virtual
experiences [3,47]. One of the ways in which character
customization influences players’ subsequent gaming experience
can be understood through a process outlined in SDT: self-
regulation.
Self-regulation refers to the active management of one’s self-
perception to ensure that it is in line with a desired standard [9]. In
virtual worlds, character customization interfaces allow players to
reduce player-character discrepancies and create congruence
between their character and the self-concept(s) it embodies. For
example, World of Warcraft players can actively customize their
virtual characters to match idealized self-concepts, which
contributes to psychological well-being [5]. Conversely, players
may create a character to accurately represent their actual self (via
3D body scanning), though this may yield negative effects (e.g.,
body dissatisfaction, negative mood) if the player desires idealized
self-concepts represented [71].
2.1.2 Character Customization and Identification
The direction and magnitude of a created character’s impact on
the player’s experience is also influenced by the degree to which
they identify with the character. Character identification is defined
as a congruence or subjective sense of self-similarity between the
player and character [51]. When players identify with characters,
they value an aspect of the character’s salient identity cues [48].
Identification is also associated with heightened emotional
connections to the character [10], and player enjoyment [19].
Identification can be delineated across two dimensions:
similarity and wishful identification [31]. Similarity identification
refers to the extent to which the player views the referent
character as self-similar [51]. Conversely, wishful identification is
aspirational, defined as the player’s desire to emulate or be more
like the character [44]. By imbuing characters with actual or
aspirational self-concepts, customization interfaces effectively
allow for heightened similarity or wishful identification,
respectively. Indeed, previous work has provided ample evidence
demonstrating how character customization contributes to both
dimensions of identification [e.g., 5,8,11,25].
The implications of character customization also extend to
player physiology. Previous work has shown that physiological
responses during gameplay can vary based on customization,
albeit when the character is controlled by the player. For example,
when players use a customized character in online games, skin
conductance diminishes at a slower rate compared to those using
pre-made characters [2]. As the authors note, “customizable games
may make the experience more sympathetically arousing, which
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may in turn affect the strength of the emotional valence
experienced, whether positive, negative, or both” (p. 282).
While character customization increases identification and is
an inherently enjoyable experience [28], affective responses may
vary based on what self-concepts are accessed during character
creation. For example, if players are creating a character rooted in
a desirable self-concept (e.g., happiness), players must continually
access self-relevant experiences to serve as inspiration for design
decisions. Accessing memories rooted in a desirable self-concept
have ultimately been shown to contribute to positive moods [34].
Conversely, if individuals customize a character to represent a
negative or undesirable self-concept (e.g., anxiety), previous
research suggests the process of creation should elicit negative
affect [14]. These insights dovetail into how users ultimately
experience the process of creation and subsequent gameplay, as
mood significantly influences information processing [8].
In sum, through customization users are able to selectively
imbue virtual characters with salient sensory cues that signal an
aspect of the creator’s identity. Furthermore, these identity cues
can be rooted in positive or negative self-concepts, which
presumably increase identification. While extant literature has
primarily examined the implications of customizing player-
controlled characters (avatars), it can be argued that customization
contributes to identification with non-playable characters (e.g.,
enemies) as well. Indeed, identification as a construct within media
studies has been used to examine relationships between observers
and TV characters, both human and non-human [30]. Considering
the aforementioned discussion, we propose the following
hypotheses.
H1: Customizing a character based on a positive rather than
negative self-concept will lead to greater physiological arousal.
H2a: Customizing a character based on a negative self-concept
will increase negative affect.
H2b: Customizing a character based on a positive self-concept
will decrease negative affect.
H2c: Players customizing a character based on a negative self-
concept will report greater negative affect than those based on a
positive self-concept.
H3: Players will identify more with customized characters
imbued with positive rather than negative self-concepts.
H4: Players will have more favorable attitudes towards
customized characters imbued with positive rather than negative
self-concepts.
2.2 Effects of Destroying Customized Characters
A residual effect of heightened connection to customized
characters is that affective responses to events befalling them may
be augmented – for better or for worse. As previously mentioned,
players’ emotional responses to in-game events are amplified
when using customized versus assigned characters [2]. In the
context of in-game enemies, an inevitable outcome of interest is
their temporary or permanent death. Character death is a
ubiquitous and essential feature in video games and can have
varied affective and cognitive implications for players [7].
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
Figure 2: Graphical flow chart depicting all experimental procedures and associated steps.
Research on character death in games can be delineated across
three primary streams: death of the player (self), death of an
enemy, and death of innocent NPC [41]. While no studies to the
best of our knowledge have investigated responses to destroying
customized characters, extant literature on how players respond to
the death of their character provides valuable insight. While
customized characters in certain online games may be “throw-
away experiments” [12, p. 1156], players can feel sadness upon the
loss of their character. For idealized characters, customization
elicits a higher level of attachment from the player, and therefore
their loss may produce a more negative reaction as death
demarcates the player-avatar relationship [24]. In games like Dayz,
players often become attached to their customized characters, and
feel a sense of detachment upon their death, along with other
negative emotions (e.g., sadness) [1].
Extant literature on death of NPCs also reveals insight into
how players may respond to destroying customized enemies. For
example, destroying or harming virtual enemies can elicit negative
feelings of distress and guilt [25]. Killing innocent players has also
been considered counter hedonic [64], though repeated
destruction leads to habituation such that less negative emotions
(guilt) are felt over time [23]. Ultimately, the aforementioned
studies pertain to destroying characters that are neither
customized nor self-relevant, overlooking identification with the
destroyed character. While little is understood regarding the
effects of destroying an NPC or enemy that was customized by the
player, returning to SDT yields insight into psychological
responses to destroying things that represent one’s identity.
As previously mentioned, character customization can yield
psychological benefits by reducing player-character discrepancies.
Conversely, the character’s subsequent destruction may come to
influence players by increasing those discrepancies. Furthermore,
the direction of the affective response should vary according to
what self-concept serves as the basis for the character’s creation.
This assumption is supported by literature in emotional regulation.
Cognitive and behavioral science studies have shown that
mental detachment from a disliked or feared “self” can serve a
means by which to improve emotional states [35]. If destruction
decouples the player-character bond, it may produce positive
affective responses (or reduce negative affect) when the destroyed
character is based on a negative or undesirable self-concept (e.g.,
anxiety, depression) rather than a positive self-concept (e.g.,
confidence). Put differently, if “identification of the player with the
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avatar breaks down in the moment of the avatar’s death” [58, p.
98], the impact of this detachment should vary based on whether
the character is representative of a positive or negative self-
concept. It is important to note that the terms “positive” and
“negative” do not signal goodness or badness of individuals
experiencing states of anxiety or confidence. Rather, these terms
reflect the emotional valence of responses during those states,
acknowledging that meanings attached to those experiences can
vary in retrospect. Given this discussion, we propose the following
hypotheses:
H5: Destroying a character imbued with negative rather than
positive self-concepts will lead to greater physiological arousal.
H6a: Destroying a character imbued with negative self-
concepts will decrease negative affect.
H6b: Destroying a character imbued with positive self-
concepts will increase negative affect.
H6c: Players destroying a character imbued with negative
rather than positive self-concepts will report less negative affect.
H7: Identification will mediate the effects of H6.
H8: Players will have more favorable attitudes towards games
involving a character imbued with positive rather than negative
self-concepts.
3 Methods
3.1 Overview
A 2-condition (self-concept: anxiety vs. confidence) between-
subjects experiment was conducted in a controlled lab setting to
examine the effects of customizing and destroying game
characters representing a player’s negative (anxiety) or positive
(confidence) self-concept (see Figure 1 for examples).
3.2 Participants
Participants (N = 34) were recruited via an undergraduate student
research pool and provided course credit in exchange for
completing the study. A total of 25 female (9 male) students (Mage
= 20.18; SD = 1.62) participated in the roughly 45-minute
experiment. On average, participants played a half an hour of
video games per day (MHours = .49, SD = .892).
3.3 Procedures
Upon arrival, participants were informed of the general purpose of
the study: to play and evaluate a video game currently under
development by a (fictional) game development company.
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
Figure 3: Screenshot of the physiological monitoring
system showing first-person perspective of the player
when encountering the character (a), live video of the
Figure 4: Overview
participant of key game
and experimental events.
set-up Players begin in a space station (a), teleport to an unknown planet (b) to
(b), physiological
identify (c) and capture (s) the
data output (c,d) and time stamps (e).lifeform (the user-created character). Players then return to the space station and
navigate towards the specimen wing (e) where they subsequently scan and destroy the creature using a toxic freezing
gas released by the player (f).
After reading and signing the informed consent form, participants
then completed a pre-questionnaire (T1) assessing various
demographic and control variables (e.g., baseline anxiety) at a
designated computer station (station 1). Upon completing the pre-
questionnaire, participants were then taken to a separate section
of the laboratory (station 2) equipped with a gaming PC wherein
they would complete the customization phase of the experiment,
as well as be equipped with the physiological monitoring
equipment (T2). Furthermore, station 2 featured a fixed camera to
record the participant and the screen during customization and
gameplay (Figure 3). This allowed the researchers to cross-
reference GSR activity with key moments during gameplay. An
overview of the experimental procedures is shown in Figure 2.
3.3.1 Customization Phase
After transitioning to station 2, participants were informed that,
prior to playing and evaluating the video game prototype, they
were to create a game character for use within that game.
Specifically, participants were told that the character creation
feature was still under development and that they would be using
a separate game system to create the character, after which the
researcher would manually integrate the created character into the
game prior to the user’s playthrough. Afterwards, participants
were provided with written instruction on how to use the
character creation system on the PC. Character customization was
facilitated using a separate game from the one created by the
researchers: Electronic Arts’ Spore. Participants were told that the
reason for this was that the game they were to actually play is still
developing their customization interface, but that the final version
of the character creation feature will be implemented into later
iterations of the game. Spore was chosen because it provides
players with a high degree of customization over the characters,
and the ability to export the complete 3D model.
Each participant was provided with (a) explicit instructions on
how to use features within Spore to create a character, and (b)
guidelines for the subsequent customization of the character. That
is, participants were randomly assigned one of two sets of
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instructions on how to customize their character; creating it to
visually represent either a negative (anxiety condition) or positive
(confidence condition) self-concept. Participants were given 10
minutes to create a character, though they were able to notify the
researcher if they were finished prior to the time limit. Prior to
beginning the customization task, participants were equipped with
the physiological monitoring sensory (i.e., Shimmer), which was
strapped to the participant’s non-dominant hand to limit the
amount of noise produced during customization. After completing
the customization phase, the researcher helped unequip the
physiological monitoring equipment, and escorted the participant
to station 1 to complete a second questionnaire (T3).
3.3.2 Integrating Player Characters into the Game
During the period where the participant completed the second
questionnaire in station 1, the researcher exported the
participant’s character from Spore (Figure 1) onto the desktop
(station 2) for animation and integration into the game (T3). The
animations for the character were adapted from an animation
library (Mixamo). To ensure that the animations worked with all
of the created characters, participants were instructed to provide
their characters with key baseline features, namely a head, two (2)
arms, and two (2) legs. Tails were allowed as well. Characters were
exported as a .DGA file and subsequently imported into Adobe
Photoshop so that they could be exported as a .OBJ file. During
this transition, the researcher logged the overall 3D volume of the
character using the metric dimensions provided by Adobe
Photoshop upon import. After exporting the .OBJ version of the
character, the researcher then imported the character into Mixamo
for rigging, allowing for the stock animations in the game to work
with the avatar. After processing, the rigged character was
exported back into the PC for integration into the game. The game
was developed such that the researcher could drag-and-drop each
participant’s rigged character into the scene with minimal work.
In total, the exporting, rigging, and integration of the character
took between 5-7 minutes, which was ample time considering the
nd
participant was completing the 2 online questionnaire
concurrently. After the participant completed the second
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play CHI PLAY '20, November 2–4, 2020, Virtual Event, Canada

questionnaire, the researcher re-equips the participant with the Table 1: Mean Scores
physiological monitoring equipment. After ensuring that the Anxiety Confidence
equipment was functioning, the researcher informed the Measure (N = 17) (N = 17) t(32) p
participant that they could begin playing the game (T4; Figure 3). M (SD) M (SD)
Perceived
3.3.3 The Stimulus Material: Overview of the Video Game 4.55 (1.62) 4.83 (1.33) -.55 .583
Customization
An open-world space exploration game was developed for use
Anxiety T1 13.58 (5.63) 10.76 (5.32) 1.5 .143
within this experiment. The game was developed using Unity 3D
Anxiety T3 16.41 (7.17) 8.82 (3.76) 3.86 .001
software for use with a PC and an accompanying XBOX a
Anxiety Δ T1-3 -2.82 (5.8) 1.94 (3.3) -2.94 .006
controller. The Unity Asset Store was used to purchase 3D models
used in the game environment (e.g., space station). Players control Anxiety T5 17.11 (6.99) 15.82 (6.45) .56 .579
a
an unnamed space explorer from a first-person perspective. The Anxiety Δ T3-5 -.71 (6.35) -7 (5.36) 3.12 .004
player is equipped with a heads-up display (HUD) that provides Enjoyment 4.25 (1.43) 5.48 (1.49) -2.45 .02
in-game instructions and task-specific information throughout the Attitudes 3.13 (1.45) 5.33 (1.31) -4.62 .000
experience. Furthermore, a synthetic artificial intelligence (AI) Character
1.63 (.68) 2.95 (1.07) -4.03 .000
assistant is integrated into the HUD and accompanies the player, Identification
providing key information via dialogue. The AI’s dialogue was Wishful
1.69 (.73) 3.51 (1.34) -4.87 .000
created using an online text-to-speech voice synthesizers and Identification
edited using Adobe Audition. Similarity
1.56 (.82) 2.4 (0.92) -2.8 .009
Identification
Upon arriving at the computer station, players are presented GSR Peaks 15.52
with an introductory screen informing them that the game is a 14 (11.61) .385 .703
(Customization) (11.56)
prototype and that their feedback will be integrated into future GSR Peaks
iterations of the game. After agreeing to continue, players emerge 4.47 (5.31) 4.82 (3.54) -.22 .821
(Encounter)
in a space station orbiting an earth-like planet, which is shown via GSR Peaks
a hologram shown to the player (Figure 4a). After investigating the 1.06 (1.43) 1.65 (1.83) -1.04 .306
(Destruction)
hologram, the player receives instruction that there has been an Character Size 3.71 (2.3) 3.66 (.22) .59 .593
unidentified lifeform detected on the surface, and that the player’s Perceived Size
mission is to investigate, scan, capture, and return the creature to 11.31 (5.89) 8.82 (3.46) 1.49 .144
(feet)
the ship for analysis and subsequent destruction. Afterwards, the Purchase 17.12
player boards a ship and emerges on the surface of the planet 22.41 (15.33) -1.08 .286
Intention ($) (12.99)
(Figure 4b). Using the HUD, and assisted by the AI dialogue, the Purchase
user avoids acidic water and solves simple puzzles to discover the 4.19 (1.46) 4.31 (1.39) -.24 .812
Intention
creature (Figure 4c). Once discovered, the player scans the creature
Desire to
and subsequently calls for the ship to capture the creature (Figure 4.25 (1.04) 4.47 (1.13) -.41 .684
Customize NPCs
4d). Once captured, the player boards the ship and navigates to the a
examination wing of the vessel where he/she then scans and Negative score indicates an increase in state anxiety.
destroys the creature via toxic gas (Figure 4e). After successfully
terminating the creature (Figure 4f), the player’s screen fades to 3.4.2 Arousal: Galvanic Skin Response (GSR)
black and they are thanked for completing the demo. The To assess the intensity of players’ affective responses to (a)
researcher then escorts the participant to station 1 to complete the customizing, (b) encountering and (c) destroying their customized
third and final questionnaire (T5). characters, we leveraged the physiological monitoring suite
3.4 Measures provided by iMotions. The suite provides real-time tracking of a
single user’s electrodermal data, namely galvanic skin response
3.4.1 STAI (GSR). GSR data is recorded at sampling rates from 1 – 10 Hz
The State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) measures, via self-report, measured in units of micro-Siemens (μS). Specifically, this study
an individual’s current level of anxiety, as well as trait aspects of used the Consensys GSR by Shimmer, a mobile sensor which
anxiety. The STAI served as a repeated measure, employed prior connects two electrodes to the participant’s non-dominant, palm
to the experiment (T1), immediately after customization (T3), and side of the index and middle finger and relays GSR data to the
immediately after destroying the character (T5). The STAI score iMotions software for analysis. Changes in GSR activity in
used in subsequent analyses was comprised of the sum of response to stimuli are referred to as event-related skin
participants’ ratings on each of the 5 7-point Likert scale items conductance responses (ER-SCRs), or GSR peaks, and provide
adapted from [55] (α = .81). Higher scores indicated higher levels insight into how participants’ arousal fluctuates as a function of
of negative affect (state anxiety). Items measured the level of key events (i.e., character customization, encounter and
agreement with a variety of statements, such as “I feel tense,” and destruction). Peak onset and offset values were calibrated and
“I am worried.” provided as a standard setting within the iMotions suite. That is, a

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peak was only logged if the amplitude was above the established
threshold, or 0.0005 above onset [33]. This data was subsequently
exported to IBM SPSS where an aggregate measure of GSR peaks
was created corresponding with the three specified events (i.e.,
customization, encounter, destruction). As there is a latency period
between 1-5 seconds between a stimulus onset and a deviation in
the GSR signal, peaks attributed to both the encounter and
destruction events involved manually identifying the event time,
and aggregating registered peaks that fell within the 10-second
range. This approach to GSR measurement during video gameplay
is based off of similar experimental studies [e.g., 60].
3.4.3 Perceived Customization
A 5 item 7-point Likert scale item measured participants’ level of
agreement with the following statements: “The creature was
personalized according to my feelings.” The item was adapted
from [37] (α = .81).
3.4.4 Character Identification
Identification with the customized character was delineated across
two dimensions: wishful and similarity identification. Wishful
identification was measured via a 5-item 7-point likert scale (α =
.92) adapted from [51]. Items measured the level of agreement with
various statements related to perceptions of the creature, such as “I
wish I could be more like the character,” and “I imagine myself in
the character’s place”. Similarity identification was adapted from
[51] who conceptualized similarity identification as self-avatar
congruence. A 6-item 7-point Likert scale (α = .95) assessed
participants’ agreement with various statements, including “I felt
connected to the character,” and “The character represented me as
a unique individual.”
3.4.5 Attitudes
Attitudes towards the character were measured via a 12-item 7-
point Likert scale measuring users’ level of agreement with
various statements including, “the character was appealing,” and
“the character was interesting” (α = .97) [37].
3.4.6 Enjoyment
Enjoyment experienced during character customization was
measured (T3) via a 4-item 7-point Likert scale measuring users’
level of agreement with various statements about the character
creation system including, “the game was entertaining,” and “I
enjoyed the game” (α = .95).
3.4.7 Purchase Intention
To assess how the customization manipulation influenced the
desirability of owning the game, participants were asked to
provide a dollar amount they would be willing to pay to own the
final version of the game after their playthrough (T5).
Additionally, purchase intentions were measured via a 4-item 7-
point Likert scale measuring users’ level of agreement with
various statements about the game including, “I would play this
game again as-is if I could” and “I would recommend this game to
my friends” (α = .86). Participants were also asked to provide a
cash amount that they would be willing to spend to play the final
version of the game, and whether they would like games to allow
them to create characters other than their own characters.
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Table 2: Hypotheses
Hypothesis Supported
H1*: Customizing a + character will lead to greater
No
arousal than a – character.
H2a: Customizing a - character will ↑ negative affect. Yes
H2b: Customizing a + character ↓ negative affect. Yes
H2c: Customizing a – versus + character will ↑
Yes
negative affect.
H3: Players will identify more with + characters. Yes
H4: + characters will engender ↑ favorable attitudes. Yes
H5: Destroying a - character will ↑ arousal. No
H6a: Destroying a - character ↓ negative affect. No
H6b: Destroying a + character ↑ negative affect. Yes
H6c: Players destroying a – character will report less
No
negative affect than those destroying a + character.
H7: H6 will be mediated by character identification. Yes
H8: Games involving – characters will elicit less
purchase intentions than those involving + No
characters.
*The +/-refers to the positive (+) or negative (-) self-concept used.
3.4.8 Character Size
Given the wide variety of character features afforded to
participants, we assessed multiple measures of character size. First,
objective size was assessed by exporting the customized character
model from Spore in a .DAE format. This file was then imported
into Adobe Photoshop to extract volumetric data, provided in 3D
units (millimeters), which was subsequently log-transformed.
Subjective (or perceived) size, measured at T5, was assessed with a
1-item measure asking participants to estimate the characters in-
game size in feet. Objective/subjective size allowed to conduct
exploratory analyses and examine relationships between variables
involved in the customization process and how they may manifest
themselves on character models.
4 Results
4.1 Manipulation Checks
4.1.1 Baseline Anxiety
Mean scores and standard deviations of relevant variables are
shown in Table 1. An independent samples t-tests was conducted
to examine differences in baseline state anxiety. Results revealed
no significant differences in baseline anxiety between the two
experimental groups t(32) = 1.5, p > .05. Thus, random assignment
was successful in ensuring equal distribution of participants in
terms of their general level of negative affect prior to beginning
the experiment.
4.1.2 Perceived Customization
First, independent samples t-tests revealed no significant
differences in the perceived customization afforded by the system,
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
t(32) = -.55, p > .05, indicating that users felt a similar degree of
control over the creation of the character regardless of what self-
concept its customization was based on. Second, independent t-
tests further demonstrated no significant differences in
participants’ agreement with the statement that their character
was based on aspects of their personality t(32) = -1.45, p > .05,
indicating that both groups imbued the avatar with similar levels
of self-concepts.
Third, independent t-test revealed that participants in the anxiety
condition agreed more strongly with the statement that their
character was based on some negative (undesirable) aspect of their
identity (M = 3.82, SD = 2.32) compared to those in the confidence
condition (M = 2.35, SD = 1.41), t(32) = 2.29, p < .05). Furthermore,
those in the confidence condition agreed more strongly with the
statement that their character was based on some positive
(desirable) aspect of their self (M = 5.12, SD = 1.83) compared to
those in the undesirable condition (M = 2.06, SD = 1.34), t(32) = -
5.54, p < .001. Overall, the results suggest that participants indeed
imbued the appropriate self concepts (i.e., anxiety, confidence)
onto the customized avatar based on their assigned experimental
condition.
4.2 Dependent Variables
4.2.1 Arousal: Character Customization
Player arousal was collected in real-time during character
customization (T2) and playthrough (T4). GSR monitoring during
T2 was 10 minutes, whereas monitoring during gameplay ranged
between 5-10 minutes based on the player’s time-to-completion.
GSR peaks were subsequently logged and marked by the iMotions
system. During the customization phase, average peaks were
included in the analysis (Table 1). Independent samples t-tests
revealed no significant differences between the groups in terms of
arousal during character customization t(32) = .385, p > .05. Thus,
H1 was not supported.
4.2.2 State Anxiety: Character Customization
A repeated-measures general linear model using (a) the self-
concept manipulation as the between-subjects group, and (b) state
anxiety (T1, T3, T5) as the within-subjects variable was conducted.
Results found a significant interaction F(2,64) = 5.637, p < .01,
suggesting that changes in state anxiety throughout the
experiment differed between the groups (Figure 5).
A series of paired samples t-tests were conducted to examine
whether affective responses to character customization vary as a
function of the self-concept it represents. Results indicated players
who created a character representing a negative self-concept
(anxiety) experienced a significant increase in negative affect (state
anxiety) from T1 to T3 (M = -2.82) t(16) = -2.01, p < .05.
Conversely, players who created characters representing a positive
self-concept (confidence) experienced a significant decrease in
state anxiety from T1 to T3 (M = 1.94) t(16) = 2.42, p < .05. Thus,
H2a and H2b were supported.
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Figure 5: Changes state anxiety as a function of character
customization (T3) and destruction (T5) across groups.
An independent samples t-test was conducted to determine if
there were between-group differences in post-customization
affect. Results revealed that players who customized characters
representing a negative self-concept reported significantly higher
state anxiety levels (M = 16.41) at T3 compared to those who
created a character based off of a positive self-concept (M = 8.82)
t(32) = 3.86, p < .01. Thus, H2c was supported.
4.2.3 Identification
A series of independent samples t-test were conducted to examine
if there were between-group differences in character
identification. Results demonstrated that players experienced
greater identification (wishful and similarity) with characters
representing confidence rather than anxiety (see Table 1; all p’s <
.001). Thus, H3 was supported.
4.2.4 Attitudes
A series of independent samples t-test were conducted to examine
if there were between-group differences in attitudes towards the
customize character. Results demonstrated that players held more
favorable attitudes towards characters representing confidence
than anxiety t(32) = -4.62, p < .001. Furthermore, character
customization was a more enjoyable experience for those imbuing
characters with a positive (MEnjoyment = 5.48) rather than negative
(MEnjoyment = 4.25) self-concept. Thus, H4 was supported.
4.2.5 Arousal: Character Destruction
As with the character customization phase, players’ GSR data was
collected during gameplay. The system provided a recording of
each play through (Figure 3), which was used by the researchers to
manually time stamp and log how many peaks occurred around
two key in-game events: (a) encountering and (b) destroying the
customized character. Independent t-tests revealed no significant
differences between the groups in terms of arousal (GSR peaks)
during the encounter t(32) = -.22, p > .05 or during the destruction
t(32) = -.1.04, p > .05. Thus, H5 was not supported.
4.2.6 State Anxiety: Character Destruction
A series of paired samples t-tests were conducted to examine
whether player’s affective responses to destroying a customized
character differed as a function of the self-concept it represented.
Results demonstrated no significant change in state anxiety from
T3 to T5 among those who destroyed a character representing
their anxiety t(16) = -.45, p > .05. Thus, H6a was not supported.
However, players who destroyed a character representing their
confidence experienced a significant increase in state anxiety t(16)
= -5.38, p < .0001 (see Figure 5). Thus, H6b was supported.
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
Independent samples t-test revealed no significant differences
in state anxiety after destruction (T5) between the two groups t(32)
= .52, p > .05. Thus, H6c was not supported. However, the change
in anxiety from T3 to T5 between the two groups was significantly
different t(32) = 3.12, p< .01, indicating that destroying a character
imbued with positive self-concepts increased negative affect
(MChange = -7, p < .01), whereas destroying a character imbued with
a negative self-concept did not (MChange = .71, p > .05).
4.2.7 Mediation Analysis
To determine whether identification mediated the effects of
destroying a customized character on players’ affective responses,
a bootstrapped (5,000 resamples) mediation analysis was
conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 4; Hayes, 2012).
Results revealed that the customization manipulation
significantly influenced the affective responses to character
destruction through identification (b = -3.18, bootstrapped SE =
1.18; 95% CI [-5.37, -.715]), in support of H7. Specifically, the
customization manipulation significantly influenced character
identification (b = 1.32, SE = 3.08; p < .001) such that players
identified more with characters representing positive rather than
negative self-concepts. Identification subsequently exhibited a
significant inverse relationship with the magnitude of anxiety
change from T3 to T5 (b = -2.39, SE = 1.09; p < .05). That is, the
more players identified with their customized character, the
greater the negative affective response was triggered by its
destruction, supporting H7.
4.2.8 Purchase Intentions
A series of independent samples t-tests were conducted to
determine whether experimental groups differed in their
intentions to purchase the game. Results demonstrated that while
participants who played the game with a customized character
representing a positive rather than negative self-concept evaluated
the game more favorably, were willing to pay more for the game,
and desired more customization opportunities, the differences
were non-significant (all p’s > .05). Thus, H8 was not supported.
4.2.9 Character Model Volume
Volumetric data of customized character models was calculated
after each participant completed the experiment. As avatar volume
exhibited significant positive skewness (2.47) and kurtosis (9.12),
the variable was log-transformed. This transformation
subsequently reduced skewness (.22) and kurtosis (.62), allowing
for subsequent exploratory analyses of the relationship between
the self-concept used during customization and subsequent
affective responses to the character. A moderation analysis was
conducted using the PROCESS macro (Model 1) [26,27] to examine
whether the effects of destruction on anxiety change may have
varied based on the character’s size, and whether this relationship
differed based on the self-concept (anxiety vs. confidence) imbued
onto the character. The results demonstrated a significant
interaction b = -20.61, F(1,30) = 6.17, p = .01. When participants
customized and destroyed a character based on the anxious self-
concept, character size (volume) contributed towards state anxiety
reduction (b = 18.12, bootstrapped SE = 5.78; 95% CI [6.31, 29.92]).
However, for those destroying customized characters based on the
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confident self-concept, the relationship was non-significant (b = -
2.48, bootstrapped SE = 5.94; 95% CI [-14.61, 9.64). Thus, while
there were no main effects of the customization manipulation on
avatar size, the destruction of larger characters elicited a
significant decrease in negative affect when representing anxiety
rather than confidence.
5 Discussion
This investigation centered around the cognitive and affective
responses to a relatively novel feature in digital games: the
customization of in-game enemy characters. In a controlled lab
experiment, participants created a character to represent either a
negative (anxiety) or positive (confidence) self-concept. The
character was subsequently integrated into a custom-built space
exploration game wherein players would search, capture, and
destroy an unidentified alien lifeform, represented by their
customized character. Overall, the results indicate that this feature
can significantly influence the player experience, shaping
cognitive and affective responses to key game events.
Furthermore, these effects vary based on how players customize
their characters. Using positive or negative aspects of one’s
identity as inspiration for character design shapes players’ (a)
emotional responses to game events and (b) identification with
game characters. Below we further summarize the key findings.
5.1 Key Findings
5.1.1 Self-concepts in Character Customization
Scholars acknowledge that the mere act of customization is an
enjoyable experience across multiple domains [36]. While this
observation is robust, scholars have warned against viewing
customization affordances as a panacea; it is important to question
how different forms of customization may come to influence the
user experience [21], and this is especially true in video games. It
is not merely enough to assume that customization interfaces are
warranted because they allow users to achieve self-congruity with
their content [65]. Instead, our results support the notion that the
effects of self-congruity afforded by customization interfaces, in a
gaming context, vary significantly based on what self-concept is
being employed during creation.
The creation of in-game enemies yielded more enjoyable and
engaging experiences when the characters were created to
represent positive (confidence) rather than negative (anxiety) self-
concepts in the players. Participants who imbued characters with
desirable self-relevant traits rated the characters more favorably
and experienced a reduction in negative affect during the creation
process, whereas the reverse was true for those imbuing
characters with undesirable traits. Thus, results suggest that while
customization of in-game enemies may be yield positive outcomes
for players, the magnitude of this effect is contingent on the
nature of the self-congruence achieved by the customization. In
essence, like our avatars, we seem to prefer creating our enemies
in our (ideal) image as well.
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
5.1.2 Character Identification
Of particular importance is the finding that players in both groups
exhibited a similar level of (a) perceived customization and (b)
agreement with the item “I based the character on aspects of my
personality” (p > .05). Despite the characters’ evident self-
relevance, participants identified more with the character rooted
in a desirable self-concept than the character representing anxiety.
On the one hand, this runs somewhat counter to the idea that
identification is indicative of a self-other merger [19]. On the other
hand, this result lends credence to previous work positing that
identification may work on a more subconscious level [49]. In this
way, players may acknowledge that they actively
anthropomorphized the character to signal their anxiety or
confidence, but the degree to which they emotionally connect with
the character after its creation can vary based on the nature of the
self-concept used. Furthermore, results indicate this effect may be
driven by the wishful identification sub-dimension as players may
aspire to be like the confident enemy rather than the one
embodying anxiousness. Among players customizing using the
confidence self-concept, the difference between wishful
identification (M = 3.51, SD = 1.34) and similarity identification (M
= 2.41, SD = .92) was significant t(16) = 5.21, p < .0001. Among
those customizing using an anxious self-concept, the difference
was non-significant (MDifference = .127, p = .494) such that players
neither perceived themselves as, nor desired to be, similar to the
character.
In sum, creating enemies to represent positive rather than
negative self-concepts contributed to identification. Identification
was also strongly related to enjoyment (r = .459, p < .01) and
attitudes towards the character (r = .661, p < .001), supporting
previous work arguing that identification is associated with
positive emotions and evaluations of the character [49]. In the
context of this study, we demonstrate these relationships are also
observed with regards to in-game enemies. Thus, if identification
is a shift in self-perception [43], our results indicate that it is easier
for players to shift towards enemies that relate to a positive rather
than negative self-concept. However, future research should
explore the mechanisms through which negative self-concepts
may better serve players. For example, the type of harm players
inflict on a disliked self-related enemy may contribute to positive
affect (we explore destruction-type in the following sections).
5.1.3 Implications of Character Destruction
Another key insight pertains to the affective fallout associated
with destroying a customized character, an inevitability for in-
game enemies. Customizing in-game enemies creates a player-
character bond that, when broken, can create negative emotional
responses. This may be rooted in the old adage that labor leads to
love. As demonstrated in a series of experiments, favorable
evaluation of a customized object dissipates when that object is
subsequently destroyed [62]. However, our results show that such
labor effects are conditional with regards to in-game enemies, as
effects of destruction varied based on the self-concept used.
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As shown by the results of our mediation analysis, the more
players identified with their customized character, the greater the
negative affective response (increase in state anxiety) was
triggered by its destruction. As posited within SDT, destruction
may have represented a distancing from a desired self, triggering
negative affect. Destruction of anxiety characters, with whom
players did not identify with, seemingly failed to sever any
emotional ties to the characters, potentially explaining the lack of
significant change in state anxiety from T3 to T5. This suggests a
floor effect of destruction on affect based on identification.
5.1.4 The Potential Role of Character Size
Considering that players’ character models were available and
standardized in terms of format, exploratory analyses were
conducted to examine whether the self-concept manipulation
influenced aspects of the character, namely size. While both
groups on average created similarly sized characters, affective
responses the destruction varied as a function of the characters
size for those representing anxiety, though no such relationship
was found for those representing confidence. This finding suggests
that players felt less negative affect from destroying a character
representing a negative self-concept the bigger it was.
There are two potential explanations for these effects:
formidability and discrepancy enlargement. Literature on
formidability equates the construct to strength and size [32], and
influences how players experience confrontations with in-game
enemies. For example, destroying enemies can elicit positive
gaming experiences, such as a state of flow, when the
formidability of the enemy matches the skill of the player [11,13].
Furthermore, game design scholars argue that players building
their own dungeons should create enemies that exhibit a positive
linear increase in formidability [66].While not reported in this
paper, participants did evaluate the character on some dimensions
of formidability, namely size and strength, with no significant
differences across groups on both factors. Thus, the observable
linear relationship between character size (formidability) and
affect is unlikely to be explained by positive emotions elicited by
destroying a more formidable character. However, future work
should explore how formidability may manifest itself in
customized enemies beyond behavioral means (e.g., increased
health, damage) and the role that imbuing salient, formidability-
related self-concepts (e.g., strength, grit) may influence how
players experience their destruction.
An alternative explanation relates to SDT. It is perhaps more
likely that destruction of the anxiety character functioned as
discrepancy-enlargement as outlined in SDT; destruction
symbolized a distancing from a disliked self, and affective
responses to this distancing may have been augmented by the
character size. It is understood that anxiety begets anxiety [12].
Since the character was a visual representation of anxiety as
conceptualized by the player, it served as a visual cue capable of
triggering anxiety-related thoughts. Furthermore, affective
responses to emotionally valanced imagery increase in tandem
with imagery size [15]. Thus, while character size may not
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
influence how players experience the destruction of a character
they identify with, results demonstrate size seems to moderate
affective responses to negative stimuli (anxiety characters).
5.1.5 Physiological Implications
To the best of our knowledge, few studies have explored the
physiological responses to the deaths of customized in-game
enemies, despite a rich history of studies on physiological
responses to video game violence. For example, one experiment
demonstrated that defeating an enemy increases positive affect
and decreases negative affect, though it is most arousing when the
enemy is a friend [42]. Despite no significant differences between
groups in terms of post-destruction GSR, our results build on the
aforementioned study by demonstrating that negative affect can
occur when destroying an enemy that is (a) created by the player,
and (b) rooted in a positive self-concept. Participants experienced
similar amounts of GSR peaks during the character creation,
encounter, and destruction. This is particularly interesting
considering that participants who destroyed characters
representing a positive self-concept reported a significant increase
in state anxiety. While previous research suggests a positive linear
relationship between changes in affective states (anxiety) and
physiological arousal [45], our results align with emerging work
suggesting that individuals can experience a high level of state
anxiety but present muted physiological responses to stimuli such
as video game events [67,70].
Another finding worth noting is the significant differences in
GSR peaks between the encounter and the destruction events for
both groups. Paired samples t-tests demonstrated that the
encounter elicited significantly more peaks than the destruction of
the customized character. This may be due to the fact that there
was significantly more uncertainty surrounding the encounter.
Indeed, during the destruction event, the character was shown in a
fiberglass enclosure. Furthermore, it is suggested that GSR may
increase due to an unexpected stimulus but decrease with
habituation [81]. In this way, the novelty of encountering the
customized character created multiple peaks and this arousal
gradually depleted up until the point of destruction.
5.1.6 Consumer Implications
The fact that there were no significant differences in purchase
intentions, despite the confidence group experiencing an increase
in state anxiety due to gameplay, further demonstrates the
importance of (a) customization and (b) negative emotions in
gameplay experiences. Previous work has shown that having
customized characters can contribute to replayability [6]. In this
vein, our results demonstrate that creating in-game enemies is an
enjoyable process. Furthermore, the creation process is such an
integral part of the experience that even when players experience
negative affect by creating a character rooted in a negative rather
than a positive self-concept, they evaluate the game favorably.
Players’ emotional responses to in-game events are nuanced,
with negative experiences (e.g., death) contributing to meaning
and self-reflection [7]. While the importance of avatar
customization in driving player engagement is well-documented,
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this study demonstrates that similar connections, with varied
affective implications, can be made with in-game enemies. It is
evident in our findings that creating characters rooted in a
desirable self-concept is a more enjoyable process, and their
subsequent destruction creates a more pronounced emotional
response than if the character is representative of an undesirable
self-concept. Furthermore, the investment of creating characters
based on undesirable aspects of the self, while not conducive to a
self-other merger, does carry emotional weight, as shown by the
state anxiety increase during customization. How these emotional
shifts can be effectively leveraged remains to be seen and is
something researchers and game designers should experiment
with.
5.1.7 AI and Personalized NPCs
Overall, it is our hope that this study encourages further
investigations into customization of in-game enemies and other
NPCs, and perhaps a deeper discussion on the role of the self in
games. This study demonstrates the implications of player-driven
customization. However, should in-game enemies be customized
to represent certain measurable aspects of a player’s identity by
the system itself, how would players respond? Advances in AI
have allowed for in-game enemies and NPCs to become
increasingly adaptable to players, both in terms of dialogue and
behavior [77]. However, little has been done in the way AI can be
used to create customized in-game enemies and scenarios for
players, though this is something that may grow in popularity. In
Orson Scott Card’s novel “Ender’s Game”, in-game enemies and
scenarios are procedurally created by an advanced AI system. The
system’s sophistication makes it so these scenarios are customized
to be self-relevant to “players” by basing their appearance on the
individual’s memories. While our study demonstrates that players
experience negative emotions when destroying an enemy with
whom they identify with, the affective implications of this
particular feature (enemy customization) should receive further
attention as it may be used to auger responses to in-game events.
6 Limitations
Despite participants having a high level of control over their
character’s appearance, the customization did not yield high
identification scores across both groups. This may be an artifact of
the characters themselves as Spore characters are non-humanoid.
As such, anatomical incompatibilities may have inhibited
similarity identification with the characters. Indeed, identification
may vary based on whether a character is humanoid or not [72].
Another limitation pertains to the customization instructions.
Participants were not explicitly told that the customized character
would be an “enemy” or would be destroyed, only that it would be
integrated into the game. Thus, it is unclear whether our results
would replicate if participants are told they are creating in-game
enemies that will inevitably be destroyed.
Another limitation pertains to the self-concepts used in the
customization procedure. The anxious self-concept was chosen
due to the fact that it is (a) considered a negative self-concept and
(b) is generally experienced by all humans. The confidence self-
concept may have proven problematic as it may be susceptible to
Paper Session 2: The Dark Side of Play
more individual differences. While random assignment ensures
that self-esteem was equally distributed across the sample, it is
impossible to identify whether participants created confidence
avatars while simultaneously being low in confidence. Future
research may investigate how other positive self-concepts (e.g.,
strength, pride) may best serve as the basis for character
customization in this context.
The generalizability of the study results is also impacted by the
nature of the stimulus material. That is, we produced a custom-
built prototype with a simple control scheme and linear narrative
to account for differences in gaming proficiencies in the sample.
Further research will be needed to contextualize our results across
genre, difficulty, and duration (participants only played the game
for a short time). There are also limitations associated with
generalizations regarding physiological responses. For one, to
correctly interpret GSR data it is important to pair it with other
measures, such as heart rate variability [18]. Furthermore, we only
measured negative affect (state anxiety). Future work may benefit
by using the positive and negative affect scale (PANAS) [79].
The implementation of the destruction mechanism may have
also influenced results. To destroy the character, participants
engaged in passive destruction, activating a poisonous gas that
froze and killed the character within its chamber. This is in
contrast to how other popular mechanics (e.g., shooting,
bludgeoning) which are more active. Previous research has shown
that as individuals are provided more control over story events,
they experience the consequences of their actions more deeply
[22]. In this way, if players are afforded more control over the
destruction, it may influence affective responses to the destruction
itself. Future work should explore how other forms of destruction
may influence how players experience e the death of a customized
in-game enemy. Similarly, it should be noted that the enemy did
not present a threat to the player and could not harm him/her.
Thus, this conceptualization of an enemy may limit the
generalizability of the results. Lastly, as participants were asked to
customize a “character” rather than an “enemy”, the phrasing may
have influenced the creation and attachment process, as the
former implies an expectation of the character’s purpose. While
unlikely that this invalidates our results, future work may seek to
investigate how self-concepts manifest themselves differently on
characters based on their game roles.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to thank Minji Kim for assisting with the
physiological monitoring set-up and data collection.
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