From garden to landscape

Dispen
Contents

1 Paradise 1
1.1 Etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Biblical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Old Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 New Testament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Judaism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4 Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.4.1 Slavic Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.2 Jehovah's Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4.3 Mormonism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.5 Islam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.6 The Urantia Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

2 Garden of Eden 5
2.1 Biblical narratives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.1 Eden in Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.1.2 Eden in Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 Proposed locations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.3 Parallel concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.4 Other views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.1 Jewish eschatology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.2 Islamic view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.4.3 Latter-day Saints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.5 Art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

3 Roman gardens 12

i
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3.1 Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.2 Parts of a Roman Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6.1 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6.2 Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.6.3 Websites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
3.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

4 Topiary 15
4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4.1.2 Far Eastern topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.3 Renaissance topiary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.1.4 Decline in the 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.2 Revival . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4.3 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4 Notable topiary displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.1 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
4.4.2 Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.3 Central America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.4 South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.5 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
4.4.6 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.5 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.7 References and sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

5 Persian gardens 22
5.1 Concept and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.3 Elements of the Persian Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5.4 Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5 Styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.1 Hayāt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.2 Meidān . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.3 Chahar Bāgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
5.5.4 Park . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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5.5.5 Bāgh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.6 World Heritage Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
5.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

6 Hortus conclusus 27
6.1 The Virgin Mary as hortus conclusus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.2 Actual gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6.3 In art . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.4 Modern cultural references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
6.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

7 Botanical garden 32
7.1 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
7.1.1 The botanical gardens network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
7.2 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.1 Precursors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
7.2.2 16th- and 17th-century European gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
7.2.3 18th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
7.2.4 19th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
7.2.5 20th century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
7.3 Role and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.4 Future . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
7.5 Photo gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.7 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
7.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

8 Giardino all'italiana 44
8.1 History and influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.1.1 Roman influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
8.1.2 Italian Medieval gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.1.3 Italian Renaissance gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.2 Italian villas with notable gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
8.2.1 The Medici Villa at Fiesole (1455–1461) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
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8.2.2 The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, Tuscany, (1459) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

8.2.3 The Cortile del Belvedere in the Vatican Palace, Rome, (1504–1513) . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
8.2.4 The Villa Madama, Rome (1516) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
8.2.5 Villa Castello, Tuscany, (1538) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
8.2.6 Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550–1572) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
8.2.7 Villa della Torre (1559) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2.8 Sacro Bosco at Bomarzo, Lazio (1552–1585) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2.9 Villa Lante . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
8.2.10 Boboli Gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.2.11 Giardino Giusti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.2.12 Giardino Bardini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.2.13 Villa d'Este . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
8.2.14 Villa Aldobrandini . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.2.15 Palace of Caserta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.2.16 Isola Bella (Lake Maggiore) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.3 Influences on other gardening styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.3.1 French garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
8.3.2 English garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.4 Glossary of the Italian Renaissance Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
8.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

9 Italian Renaissance garden 54

9.1 The classical influence on the Italian Renaissance garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
9.2 Alberti and the principles of the Renaissance Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.3 The literary influence on the Italian Renaissance Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.4 Power and magnificence - the political symbolism of the Renaissance garden . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.5 Glossary of the Italian Renaissance Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
9.6 Gardens of the Early Italian Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.6.1 The Medici Villa at Fiesole (1455-1461) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.6.2 The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, Tuscany (1459) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.6.3 The Cortile del Belvedere in the Vatican Palace, Rome (1504-1513) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
9.6.4 The Villa Madama, Rome (1516) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.7 Gardens of the High Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
9.7.1 Villa di Castello, Tuscany (1538) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9.7.2 Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550-1572) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.8 Mannerism and the gardens of the Late Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.8.1 Villa della Torre (1559) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
9.8.2 Sacro Bosco at Bomarzo, Lazio (1552-1584) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.9 The first botanical gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.10 Other gardens of the Italian Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.11 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
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9.12 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60

9.13 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
9.14 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

10 French formal garden 62

10.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
10.1.1 Renaissance Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.1.2 Vaux-le-Vicomte . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
10.1.3 Gardens of Versailles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
10.1.4 Decline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
10.2 Theorists and Gardeners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
10.3 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.3.1 Colors, Flowers and Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
10.4 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
10.5 Theatre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
10.6 Perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
10.7 Technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
10.8 List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
10.8.1 Predecessors in the Renaissance Style . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
10.8.2 Gardens Designed by André Le Nôtre* [25] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
10.8.3 Gardens Attributed to André Le Nôtre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.8.4 Later gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.8.5 19th - 21st century . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.8.6 Gardens à la française outside France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
10.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
10.10Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
10.11References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

11 French landscape garden 70

11.1 The decline of the jardin à la française . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
11.2 The influence of the English garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
11.3 The Chinese influence on the French landscape garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11.4 Rousseau's philosophy of the landscape garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
11.5 Painters and the symbolism of the landscape garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
11.6 The influence of explorers and botanists on the French landscape garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.7 Chronology of notable landscape gardens in France . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.7.1 The Moulin Joli (1754-1772) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.7.2 Ermenonville, Oise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
11.7.3 The Chateau de Pompignan (works 1745-1780, garden mainly 1766-1774) . . . . . . . . . 74
11.7.4 Parc Monceau, Paris (1773-1778) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
11.7.5 Désert de Retz, Yvelines (1774-1782) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
11.7.6 The rustic village as garden feature (hameau) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
vi CONTENTS

11.7.7 Jardin de la reine, Versailles, (1774-1779) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

11.7.8 Other gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11.8 See Also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
11.11Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

12 English landscape garden 77

12.1 History of the English landscape garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
12.1.1 William Kent and Charles Bridgeman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
12.1.2 Chiswick House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
12.1.3 Rousham . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
12.1.4 Stowe House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
12.1.5 Stourhead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
12.2 The great age of the English garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
12.2.1 Capability Brown . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
12.2.2 Humphry Repton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12.3 The Anglo-Chinese garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
12.4 The gothic revival influence on English gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
12.5 The English garden spreads to the continent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
12.6 Characteristics of the English garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.7 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
12.10Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
12.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

13 Mughal gardens 85
13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
13.2 Design and symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
13.3 Sites of Mughal gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.3.1 Afghanistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.3.2 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.3.3 Pakistan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
13.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
13.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88

14 Chinese garden 89
14.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
14.1.1 Beginnings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
CONTENTS vii

14.1.2 The Legend of the Isle of the Immortals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

14.1.3 Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.1.4 Gardens for poets and scholars (221–618 AD) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
14.1.5 Tang dynasty (618–907), First Golden Age of the Classical Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
14.1.6 Song Dynasty (960–1279) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
14.1.7 Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.1.8 Ming dynasty (1368–1644) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
14.1.9 Qing dynasty (1644–1912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
14.2 Design of the classical garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
14.2.1 Architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
14.2.2 Artificial mountains and rock gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
14.2.3 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
14.2.4 Flowers and trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
14.2.5 “Borrowing scenery”, time and seasons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.2.6 Concealment and surprise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.3 In art and literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
14.4 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.5 Influence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.5.1 Chinese influence on the Japanese garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
14.5.2 In Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
14.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
14.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
14.8 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
14.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

15 Japanese garden 108

15.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
15.1.1 Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
15.1.2 In antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
15.1.3 Gardens of the Nara period (710-794) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
15.1.4 Gardens of the Heian period (794–1185) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
15.1.5 Kamakura and Muromachi Periods (1185–1573) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
15.1.6 The Momoyama Period (1568–1600) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
15.1.7 Edo Period (1615–1867) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
15.1.8 Meiji Period (1868–1912) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
15.1.9 Modern Japanese gardens (1912 to present) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
15.2 Garden elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
15.2.1 Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
15.2.2 Rocks and sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
15.2.3 Garden architecture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
15.2.4 Garden bridges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
15.2.5 Stone lanterns and water basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
viii CONTENTS

15.2.6 Garden fences, gates, and devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

15.2.7 Trees and flowers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
15.2.8 Fish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.3 Aesthetic principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
15.4 Differences between Japanese and Chinese gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.5 Garden styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.5.1 Chisen-shoyū-teien or pond garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.5.2 The Paradise Garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.5.3 Karesansui dry rock gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
15.5.4 Roji, or tea gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15.5.5 Kaiyū-shiki-teien, or promenade gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15.5.6 Tsubo-niwa courtyard garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15.5.7 Hermitage garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15.6 Literature and art of the Japanese garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15.6.1 Garden manuals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15.6.2 Gardens in literature and poetry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15.6.3 Philosophy, painting, and the Japanese garden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
15.7 Noteworthy Japanese gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
15.7.1 In Japan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
15.7.2 In English-speaking nations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
15.7.3 In other countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
15.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
15.9 Sources and citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
15.10Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
15.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

16 Japanese rock garden 131

16.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
16.1.1 Early Japanese rock gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
16.1.2 Zen Buddhism and the Muromachi Period (1336-1573) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
16.1.3 Later rock gardens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
16.2 Selection and arrangement of rocks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
16.3 Sand and gravel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.4 Symbolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.5 Landscape painting and the Zen garden critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
16.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
16.7 List . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
16.8 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
16.9 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
16.9.1 Note . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
16.10External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
CONTENTS ix

17 Roof garden 137

17.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
17.2 Environmental impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
17.3 Urban agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
17.4 Importance to urban planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
17.5 Roof garden vs. green roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
17.6 Science of gardening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
17.7 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
17.8 Gallery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
17.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
17.10References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
17.11External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

18 Public space 141

18.1 Use of public spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
18.1.1 Right to common passage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
18.1.2 Restrictions on state action in public spaces in the United States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
18.1.3 Social norms in public spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
18.1.4 Controversy regarding restrictions on use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
18.1.5 As a site for democracy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
18.1.6 Privatization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
18.1.7 Semi-public spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
18.2 Public space in design theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
18.2.1 Historical shift . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
18.2.2 Modern critique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
18.2.3 Art in public space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
18.2.4 Approaching urban design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
18.3 Notes and references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
18.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
18.5 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
18.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
18.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.7.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
18.7.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
18.7.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Chapter 1

Paradise

For other uses, see Paradise (disambiguation).
Paradise (Persian: ‫پردیس‬, Paradise garden) is the Heaven is a paradisaical relief. In old Egyptian beliefs,
virtuous dead. In Christian and Islamic understanding,
the otherworld is Aaru, the reed-fields of ideal hunting
and fishing grounds where the dead lived after judgment.
For the Celts, it was the Fortunate Isle of Mag Mell. For
the classical Greeks, the Elysian fields was a paradisaical
land of plenty where the heroic and righteous dead hoped
to spend eternity. The Vedic Indians held that the physi-
cal body was destroyed by fire but recreated and reunited
in the Third Heaven in a state of bliss. In the Zoroastrian
Avesta, the“Best Existence”and the“House of Song”
are places of the righteous dead. On the other hand, in
cosmological contexts 'paradise' describes the world be-
fore it was tainted by evil.
The concept is a topos in art and literature, particularly of
the pre-Enlightenment era, a well-known representative
of which is John Milton's Paradise Lost.

1.1 Etymology

Paradise by Jan Bruegel

term for a place of timeless harmony. The Abrahamic

faiths associate paradise with the Garden of Eden, that is,
the perfect state of the world prior to the fall from grace,
and the perfect state that will be restored in the World to
Come.
Paradisaical notions are cross-cultural, often laden
with pastoral imagery, and may be cosmogonical or
eschatological or both, often compared to the miseries
of human civilization: in paradise there is only peace,
prosperity, and happiness. Paradise is a place of content-
ment, a land of luxury and idleness. Paradise is often de-
scribed as a“higher place”, the holiest place, in contrast
to this world, or underworlds such as Hell. In eschato-
logical contexts, paradise is imagined as an abode of the
Nicolas Poussin, Four seasons of paradise, 1660–64
The word “paradise”entered English from the French
paradis, inherited from the Latin paradisus, from
Greek parádeisos (παράδεισος), from an Old Iranian
*paridayda-“walled enclosure”. By the 6th/5th century
BCE, the Old Iranian word had been adopted as Assyrian
pardesu “domain”. It subsequently came to indicate
walled estates, especially the carefully tended royal parks

1
2 CHAPTER 1. PARADISE

and menageries. The term eventually appeared in Greek three times in the New Testament writings:
as parádeisos “park for animals”in the Anabasis of the
early 4th century BCE Athenian Xenophon. Aramaic • Luke 23:43 – by Jesus on the cross, in response to
pardaysa similarly reflects “royal park”. the thief's request that Jesus remember him when he
Hebrew ‫( פרדס‬pardes) appears thrice in the Tanakh; came in his kingdom.
in the Song of Solomon 4:13, Ecclesiastes 2:5 and
Nehemiah 2:8. In those contexts it could be interpreted • 2 Cor.12:4 – in Paul's description of a man's descrip-
as an“orchard”or a“fruit garden”. In the Septuagint tion of a third heaven paradise, which may in fact be
(3rd–1st centuries BCE), Greek παράδεισος parádeisos a vision Paul himself saw.
was used to translate both Hebrew pardes and Hebrew • Rev.2:7 – in a reference to the Gen.2:8 paradise and
gan,“garden": it is from this usage that the use of“par- the tree of life
adise”to refer to the Garden of Eden derives. The same
usage also appears in Arabic and in the Quran as firdaws
‫فردوس‬.
1.3 Judaism
The word's etymology is ultimately derived from a PIE
root *dheigʷ “to stick and set up”. It is reflected in
Avestan as pairi-daêza-.* [1]* [2] The literal meaning of See also: Heaven in Judaism
this Eastern Old Iranian language word is “walled (en-
closure)",* [1] from pairi- “around”and -diz “to make, In Rabbinical Judaism, the word 'Pardes' recurs, but less
form (a wall), build”.* [3]* [4] The word is not attested often in the Second Temple context of Eden or restored
in other Old Iranian languages (these may however be Eden. A well-known reference is in the Pardes story,
hypothetically reconstructed, for example as Old Persian where the word may allude to mystic philosophy.* [5]
*paridayda-). The idea of a walled enclosure was not pre-
The Zohar gives the word a mystical interpretation, and
served in most Iranian usage, and generally came to refer
associates it with the four kinds of Biblical exegesis: pe-
to a plantation or other cultivated area, not necessarily
shat (literal meaning), remez (allusion), derash (anagog-
walled. For example, the Old Iranian word survives in
ical), and sod (mystic). The initial letters of those four
New Persian pālīz (or “jālīz”), which denotes a veg-
words then form ‫ – פּ ַ ְרדֵּס‬p(a)rd(e)s, which was in turn felt
etable patch.
to represent the fourfold interpretation of the Torah (in
which sod – the mystical interpretation – ranks highest).

1.2 Biblical
1.4 Christianity
1.2.1 Old Testament
See also: World to Come and Kingship and kingdom of
The word pardes, borrowed from the Old Persian word,
God
does not appear before the post-Exilic period (post-538
In the 2nd century AD, Irenaeus distinguished paradise
BCE); it occurs in the Song of Songs 4:13, Ecclesiastes
2:5, and Nehemiah 2:8, in each case meaning “park”
or “garden”, the original Persian meaning of the word,
where it describes to the royal parks of Cyrus the Great
by Xenophon in Anabasis.
Later in Second Temple era Judaism “paradise”came
to be associated with the Garden of Eden and prophesies
of restoration of Eden, and transferred to heaven. The
Septuagint uses the word around 30 times, both of Eden,
(Gen.2:7 etc.) and of Eden restored (Ezek. 28:13, 36:35
etc.). In the Apocalypse of Moses, Adam and Eve are ex-
pelled from paradise (instead of Eden) after having been
tricked by the serpent. Later after the death of Adam,
the Archangel Michael carries the body of Adam to be
buried in Paradise, which is in the Third Heaven.

1.2.2 New Testament Mead Bradock, Paradise According to Three Different Hypothe-
ses, 1747
The New Testament use and understanding of paradise
parallels that of contemporary Judaism. The word is used from heaven. In Against Heresies, he wrote that only
 1.5. ISLAM 3

those deemed worthy would inherit a home in heaven,
while others would enjoy paradise, and the rest live in
the restored Jerusalem (which was mostly a ruin after
the Jewish–Roman wars but was rebuilt beginning with
Constantine the Great in the 4th century). Origen like-
wise distinguished paradise from heaven, describing par-
adise as the earthly “school”for souls of the righteous
dead, preparing them for their ascent through the celestial
spheres to heaven.* [6]
Many early Christians identified Abraham's bosom with
paradise, where the souls of the righteous go until the res-
urrection, others were inconstant in their identification of
paradise, such as St. Augustine whose views varied.* [7]
In Luke 23:43 Jesus has a conversation with one of those
crucified with him, he asks: “Jesus, remember me when
you come into your kingdom”and Jesus answered him,
“Truly I tell you today you will be with me in paradise.”
;* [8] which is often understood to mean, that on that same
day the thief and Jesus would enter the intermediate rest-
ing place of the dead who were waiting for the Resur-
rection.* [9] Divergent views on paradise and when one
enters it may have be responsible for a punctuation dif-
ference in Luke; for example the two early Syriac ver-
sions translate Luke 23:43 differently. The Curetonian
Gospels read “Today I tell you that you will be with me
in paradise”, whereas the Sinaitic Palimpsest reads“I tell
you, today you will be with me in paradise”. Likewise
the two earliest Greek codices with punctuation disagree:
Codex Vaticanus has a pause mark in the original ink af-
ter 'today', whereas Codex Alexandrinus has the “today
in paradise”reading.
In Christian art Fra Angelico's Last Judgement painting
shows Paradise on its left side. There is a tree of life (and
another tree) and a circle dance of liberated souls. In the
middle is a hole. In Muslim art it similarly indicates the
presence of the Prophet or divine beings. It visually says,
“Those here cannot be depicted.”
1.4.1 Slavic Christianity
Main article: Rai (paradise)
Slavic languages, and Romanian which is not Slavic but
Slavic-influenced, have a distinct term for “paradise”,
“raj”(read “rai”) which is generally agreed to derive
from Persian ray and co-exists alongside terms deriving
from the Persian word pardeis.
Eve as caretakers of a global paradise. However, Adam
and Eve rebelled against God's sovereignty and were ban-
ished from the Garden of Eden, driven out of paradise
into toil and misery.
Jehovah's Witnesses believe that disobedient and wicked
people will be destroyed by Christ at Armageddon and
those obedient to Christ will live eternally in a restored
earthly paradise. Joining the survivors will be the resur-
rected righteous and unrighteous people who died prior
to Armageddon. The latter are brought back because
they paid for their sins by their death and/or because they
lacked opportunity to learn of Jehovah's requirements be-
fore dying. These will be judged on the basis of their
post-resurrection obedience to instructions revealed in
new “scrolls”. They believe that resurrection of the
dead to paradise earth is made possible by Christ's blood
and the ransom sacrifice. This provision does not apply to
those whom Christ as Judge deems to have sinned against
God's holy spirit.* [10]* [11]
One of Jesus's last recorded statements before he died
were the words to a man hanging alongside him, “you
will be with me in Paradise.”* [Luke 23:43] The New
World Translation places a comma after the word 'today',
dividing it into two separate phrases, “I tell you today”
and “you will be with me in Paradise”. This differs
from standard translations of this verse as “I tell you to-
day you will be with me in Paradise”.* [12] Based on
scriptures such as Matthew 12:40, 27:63, Mark 8:31 and
9:31, Witnesses believe Jesus' expectation that he would
be bodily resurrected after three days precluded his being
in paradise on the same day that he died.* [13]
1.4.3 Mormonism
In Latter Day Saint theology, paradise usually refers to the
spirit world, the place where spirits dwell following death
and awaiting the resurrection. In that context,“paradise”
is the state of the righteous after death.* [14] In contrast,
the wicked and those who have not yet learned the gospel
of Jesus Christ await the resurrection in spirit prison. Af-
ter the universal resurrection, all persons will be assigned
to a particular kingdom or degree of glory. This may also
be termed “paradise”.
1.5 Islam
Main article: Jannah

1.4.2 Jehovah's Witnesses In the Qur'an, Paradise is denoted as jannah (garden),

with the highest level being called firdaus. The ety-
See also: Jehovah's Witnesses and salvation mologically equivalent word is derived from the origi-
nal Avestan counterpart, and used instead of Heaven to
Jehovah's Witnesses believe, from their interpretation of describe the ultimate pleasurable place after death, ac-
the Book of Genesis, that God's original purpose was, and cessible by those who pray, donate to charity, read the
is, to have the earth filled with the offspring of Adam and Qur'an, believe in: God, the angels, his revealed books,
4 CHAPTER 1. PARADISE

his prophets and messengers, the Day of Judgement and
the afterlife, and follow God's will in their life. Heaven
in Islam is used to describe the Universe. It is also used
in the Qur'an to describe skies in the literal sense, i.e.,
above earth. In Islam, the bounties and beauty of Heaven
are immense, so much so that they are beyond the abilities
of mankindʼs worldly mind to comprehend.
[5] “JewishEncyclopedia.com”. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
[6] Church fathers: De Principiis (Book II) Origen, newad-
vent.org
[7] Jean Delumeau (1995). History of paradise. University
of Illinois Press. pp. 29–. ISBN 978-0-252-06880-5.
Retrieved 3 April 2013.

[8] “Luke 23”. Bible Gateway. Retrieved 2 October 2014.

1.6 The Urantia Book
The Urantia Book portrays Paradise as the "eternal cen-
ter of the universe of universes,”and as “the abiding
place of the Universal Father, the Eternal Son, the Infinite
Spirit, and their divine co-ordinates and associates.”The
book states that paradise is the primal origin and the fi-
nal destiny for all spirit personalities, and for all the as-
cending creatures of the evolutionary worlds of time and
space.* [15]
[9] A. W. Zwiep (1997). The Ascension of the Messiah in
Lukan Christology /. BRILL. pp. 150–. ISBN 978-90-
04-10897-4. Retrieved 3 April 2013.
[10] What Does the Bible Really Teach? (Watchtower Bible &
Tract Society, 2005), Chapter 7
[11] Insight on the Scriptures (Watchtower Bible & Tract Soci-
ety, 1988), 783–92
[12] “Luke 23:43”. Retrieved 2 October 2014.
[13]“Meeting the Challenge of Bible Translation”, The
Watchtower, June 15, 1974, page 362–363

1.7 See also [14] Duane S. Crowther - Life Everlasting Chapter 5 - Paradise
of the Wicked - Retrieved 8 July 2014.

• Baptism [15] “Paper 11 - The Eternal Isle of Paradise”. Retrieved 2

October 2014.
• Dilmun

• Eridu
1.9 External links
• El Dorado
• Etymology of “paradise”, Balashon.com
• Fiddler's Green
• Etymology OnLine, etymonline.com
• Golden Age

• Goloka

• Indulgence

• Nirvana

• Paradise garden

• Purgatory

• Shangri-La

• Valhalla

1.8 References
[1] New Oxford American Dictionary

[2] R. S. P. Beekes, Etymological Dictionary of Greek, Brill,

2009, p. 1151.

[3] “Online Etymology Dictionary”. Retrieved 2 October

2014.

[4] “An Etymological Dictionary of Astronomy and Astro-

physics”. Retrieved 15 January 2015.
Chapter 2

Garden of Eden

Not to be confused with Eden Gardens or Eden Garden. The Lord God made all kinds of trees grow
For other uses, see Garden of Eden (disambiguation). out of the ground̶trees that were pleasing to
The Garden of Eden (Hebrew ‫ַּגן ֵעֶדן‬, Gan ʿEḏen) is the the eye and good for food. In the middle of the
biblical“garden of God”, described most notably in the garden were the tree of life and the tree of the
Book of Genesis chapters 2 and 3, and also in the Book of knowledge of good and evil. ̶Genesis 2:9
Ezekiel.* [2]* [3] The“garden of God”, not called Eden,
is mentioned in Genesis 13, and the“trees of the garden” The man was free to eat from any tree in the garden except
are mentioned in Ezekiel 31. The Book of Zechariah and the tree of the knowledge of good and evil. Last of all,
the Book of Psalms also refer to trees and water in relation
the God made a woman (Eve) from a rib of the man to
to the temple without explicitly mentioning Eden.* [4] be a companion to the man. In chapter 3, the man and
Traditionally, the favored derivation of the name“Eden” the woman were seduced by the serpent into eating the
was from the Akkadian edinnu, derived from a Sumerian forbidden fruit, and they were expelled from the garden
word meaning “plain”or “steppe”. Eden is now be- to prevent them from eating of the tree of life, and thus
lieved to be more closely related to an Aramaic root word living forever. Cherubims were placed east of the garden,
meaning“fruitful, well-watered.”* [3] The Hebrew term “and a flaming sword which turned every way, to keep
is translated“pleasure”in Sarah's secret saying in Genesis him away from the tree of life”. (Gen.3:24)
18:12.* [5] Genesis 2:10–14 lists four rivers in association with the
The story of Eden echoes the Mesopotamian myth of a garden of Eden: Pishon, Gihon, the Tigris, and the
king, as a primordial man, who is placed in a divine gar- Euphrates. It also refers to the land of Cush - trans-
den to guard the tree of life.* [6] In the Hebrew Bible, lated/interpreted as Ethiopia, but thought by some to
Adam and Eve are depicted as walking around the Gar- equate to Cossaea, a Greek name for the land of the
den of Eden naked due to their innocence.* [7] Eden and Kassites.* [10] These lands lie north of Elam, imme-
its rivers may signify the real Jerusalem, the Temple of diately to the east of ancient Babylon, which, unlike
Solomon, or the Promised Land. It may also represent Ethiopia, does lie within the region being described.* [11]
the divine garden on Zion, and the mountain of God, In Antiquities of the Jews, the first-century Jewish histo-
which was also Jerusalem. The imagery of the Garden, rian Josephus identifies the Pishon as what “the Greeks
with its serpent and cherubs, has been compared to the called Ganges" and the Geon (Gehon) as the Nile.* [12]
images of the Solomonic Temple with its copper serpent
(the nehushtan) and guardian cherubs.* [8]
2.1.2 Eden in Ezekiel

Main article: Ezekiel's cherub in Eden

2.1 Biblical narratives
2.1.1 Eden in Genesis
Main articles: Genesis creation narrative and Adam and
Eve
The second part of the Genesis creation narrative,
Genesis 2:4–3:24, opens with Adonai Elohim (the LORD
God, lit. YHWH Elohim, see Names of God in Judaism)
creating the first man (Adam), whom he placed in a gar-
den that he planted “eastward in Eden”.* [9]
In Ezekiel 28:12–19 (NIV) the prophet Ezekiel the“son
of man”sets down God's word against the king of Tyre:
the king was the“seal of perfection”, adorned with pre-
cious stones from the day of his creation, placed by God
in the garden of Eden on the holy mountain as a guardian
cherub. But the king sinned through wickedness and vio-
lence, and so he was driven out of the garden and thrown
to the earth, where now he is consumed by God's fire:
“All the nations who knew you are appalled at you, you
have come to a horrible end and will be no more.”(v.19)
The Eden in Ezekiel appears to be located in

5
6 CHAPTER 2. GARDEN OF EDEN

Expulsion from Paradise, painting by James Jacques Joseph Tis-

sot

The Expulsion illustrated in the English Caedmon manuscript, c.

1000 CE

The Garden of Eden as depicted in the first or left panel of

Bosch's The Garden of Earthly Delights Triptych. The panel
includes many imagined and exotic African animals.* [1]

Lebanon.* [13] "[I]t appears that the Lebanon is an

alternative placement in Phoenician myth (as in Ez
28,13, III.48) of the Garden of Eden”,* [14] and there
are connections between paradise, the garden of Eden Map by Pierre Mortier, 1700, based on theories of Pierre Daniel
Huet, Bishop of Avranches. A caption in French and Dutch
and the forests of Lebanon (possibly used symbolically)
reads: Map of the location of the terrestrial paradise, and of
within prophetic writings.* [15] Edward Lipinski and
the country inhabited by the patriarchs, laid out for the good
Peter Kyle McCarter have suggested that the Garden understanding of sacred history, by M. Pierre Daniel Huet.
of the gods (Sumerian paradise), the oldest Sumerian
version of the Garden of Eden, relates to a mountain
sanctuary in the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon ranges.* [16]
2.3. PARALLEL CONCEPTS
The Garden of Eden by Lucas Cranach der Ältere, a 16th-
century German depiction of Eden
2.3 Parallel concepts
Map showing the rivers in the Middle East known in English as
the Tigris and Euphrates.
2.2 Proposed locations
Although the Garden of Eden is considered to be mytho-
logical by most scholars,* [17]* [18]* [19]* [20]* [21]* [22]
there have been other suggestions for its location:* [23]
for example, at the head of the Persian Gulf, in southern
Mesopotamia (now Iraq) where the Tigris and Euphrates
rivers run into the sea;* [24] in Iranian Azerbaijan, and in
the vicinity of Tabriz;* [25] and in the Armenian Highland
or Armenian Plateau.* [26]* [27]* [28]
According to the Bible, the location of Eden is described
in the Book of Genesis, chapter 2, verse 10-14:
A river flowed from Eden to water the gar-
den, and from there it divided to make four
streams.
The first is named the Pishon, and this
winds all through the land of Havilah where
there is gold. The gold of this country is pure;
bdellium and cornelian stone are found there.
The second river is named the Gihon, and this
winds all through the land of Cush. The third
river is named the Tigris, and this flows to the
east of Ashur. The fourth river is the Eu-
phrates.
According to author Brook Wilensky-Lanford,* [29] pre-
Christian Jews did not consider the Garden of Eden to
be a physical place, and Augustine of Hippo was the
first notable Christian scholar to advance the view that
it was.* [30]
7
• The city of Dilmun in the Sumerian mythologi-
cal story of Enki and Ninhursag is a paradisaical
abode* [31] of the immortals, where sickness and
death were unknown.* [32]
• The garden of the Hesperides in Greek mythology
was somewhat similar to the Christian concept of
the Garden of Eden, and by the 16th century a larger
intellectual association was made in the Cranach
painting (see illustration at top). In this painting, only
the action that takes place there identifies the setting
as distinct from the Garden of the Hesperides, with
its golden fruit.
• The Persian term "paradise" (Hebrew ‫פרדס‬,
pardes), meaning a royal garden or hunting-park,
gradually became a synonym for Eden after c. 500
BCE. The word "pardes" occurs three times in the
Old Testament, but always in contexts other than
a connection with Eden: in the Song of Solomon
iv. 13: “Thy plants are an orchard (pardes) of
pomegranates, with pleasant fruits; camphire, with
spikenard"; Ecclesiastes 2. 5: “I made me gardens
and orchards (pardes), and I planted trees in them
of all kind of fruits"; and in Nehemiah ii. 8: “And
a letter unto Asaph the keeper of the king's orchard
(pardes), that he may give me timber to make
beams for the gates of the palace which appertained
to the house, and for the wall of the city.”In these
examples pardes clearly means “orchard”or
“park”, but in the apocalyptic literature and in the
Talmud, “paradise”gains its associations with the
Garden of Eden and its heavenly prototype, and
in the New Testament “paradise”becomes the
realm of the blessed (as opposed to the realm of the
cursed) among those who have already died, with
literary Hellenistic influences.
 8 CHAPTER 2. GARDEN OF EDEN

2.4 Other views

Spanish-Arabic world map from 1109 CE with Eden in east (at

The Garden of Eden with the Fall of Man by Jan Brueghel the
top)
Elder and Pieter Paul Rubens

Qur'an for the destination of the righteous. There are

2.4.1 Jewish eschatology several mentions of “the Garden”in the Qur'an (2:35,
7:19, 20:117), meaning the Garden of Eden, but with-
In the Talmud and the Jewish Kabbalah,* [33] the schol- out the word "`Adn”.* [39] There are other places that
ars agree that there are two types of spiritual places called talk about events there, without mentioning the location.
“Garden in Eden”. The first is rather terrestrial, of This includes surat Sad, which features 18 verses on the
abundant fertility and luxuriant vegetation, known as the subject (38:71-88), surat al-Baqarah, surat al-A'raf, and
“lower Gan Eden”. The second is envisioned as be- surat al-Hijr. The narrative mainly surrounds the result-
ing celestial, the habitation of righteous, Jewish and non- ing expulsion of Iblis from the garden and his subsequent
Jewish, immortal souls, known as the“higher Gan Eden” tempting of Adam and Eve. After Iblis refuses to fol-
. The Rabbanim differentiate between Gan and Eden. low God's command to bow down to Adam for being
Adam is said to have dwelt only in the Gan, whereas Eden his greatest creation, Allah transforms him into Satan as
is said never to be witnessed by any mortal eye.* [33] a punishment. Despite the Biblical account, the Quran
mentions only one tree in Eden, the tree of immortal-
According to Jewish eschatology,* [34]* [35] the higher ity, which Allah specifically claimed it was forbidden to
Gan Eden is called the “Garden of Righteousness”. It Adam and Eve. Despite this, however, Satan, disguised
has been created since the beginning of the world, and as a serpent, repeatedly told Adam to eat from the tree,
will appear gloriously at the end of time. The righteous and eventually both Adam and Eve did so, resulting in
dwelling there will enjoy the sight of the heavenly chayot disobeying Allah.* [40] These stories are also featured in
carrying the throne of God. Each of the righteous will the Islamic hadith collections, including al-Tabari.* [41]
walk with God, who will lead them in a dance. Its Jewish
and non-Jewish inhabitants are “clothed with garments
of light and eternal life, and eat of the tree of life”(Enoch
58,3) near to God and His anointed ones.* [35] This Jew-
2.4.3 Latter-day Saints
ish rabbinical concept of a higher Gan Eden is opposed
by the Hebrew terms gehinnom* [36] and sheol, figurative See also: Adam and Eve (LDS Church)
names for the place of spiritual purification for the wicked
dead in Judaism, a place envisioned as being at the great-Members of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
est possible distance from heaven.* [37] Saints (also known as Mormons or Latter-day Saints)
In modern Jewish eschatology it is believed that history believe that after Adam and Eve were expelled from
will complete itself and the ultimate destination will be the Garden of Eden they resided in a place known
when all mankind returns to the Garden of Eden.* [38] as Adam-ondi-Ahman, located in present-day Daviess
County, Missouri. It is recorded in the Doctrine and
Covenants that Adam blessed his posterity there and that
2.4.2 Islamic view he will return to that place at the time of the final judge-
ment* [42]* [43] in fulfillment of biblical prophecy.* [44]
Events taking place in the Garden of Eden are spoken Numerous early leaders of the Church, including
about prominently in the Quran and the tafsir (interpre- Brigham Young, Heber C. Kimball, and George Q. Can-
tation). The term “Jannāt `Adni”(“Gardens of Eden” non, taught that the Garden of Eden itself was located
or “Gardens of Perpetual Residence”) is used in the in nearby Jackson County, Missouri,* [45] but there are
 2.6. SEE ALSO
no surviving first-hand accounts of that doctrine being
taught by Joseph Smith himself. LDS doctrine is un-
clear as to the exact location of the Garden of Eden,
but tradition among Latter-Day Saints places it some-
where in the vicinity of Adam-ondi-Ahman, or in Jackson
County.* [46]* [47]
2.5 Art
5th century “Garden of Eden”mosaic in mausoleum of Galla
Placidia in Ravenna, Italy. UNESCO World heritage site.
“The Garden of Eden”by Thomas Cole (c. 1828)
Garden of Eden motifs most frequently portrayed in
illuminated manuscripts and paintings are the “Sleep of
Adam”(“Creation of Eve”), the“Temptation of Eve”
by the Serpent, the "Fall of Man" where Adam takes the
fruit, and the“Expulsion”. The idyll of“Naming Day in
Eden”was less often depicted. Much of Milton's Paradise
Lost occurs in the Garden of Eden. Michelangelo de-
picted a scene at the Garden of Eden in the Sistine Chapel
ceiling. In the Divine Comedy, Dante places the Garden
at the top of Mt. Purgatory. For many medieval writ-
ers, the image of the Garden of Eden also creates a loca-
tion for human love and sexuality, often associated with
the classic and medieval trope of the locus amoenus.* [48]
9
One of oldest depictions of Garden of Eden in made in
Byzantine style in Ravenna, while the city was still un-
der Byzantine control. Excellent preserved blue mosaic
is part of mausoleum of Galla Placidia. Circular motives
are representing flowers of the garden of Eden.
2.6 See also
• Antelapsarianism
• Christian naturism
• Epic of Gilgamesh
• Eridu
• Fertile Crescent
• Golden Age
• Heaven in Judaism
• Jannah
• Persian gardens
• Tamoanchan
• The Summerland
• Utopia
2.7 References
[1] Gibson, Walter S. Hieronymus Bosch. New York:Hudson,
1973. p. 26. ISBN 0-500-20134-X
[2] Metzger, Bruce Manning; Coogan, Michael D (2004).
The Oxford Guide To People And Places Of The Bible. Ox-
ford University Press. p. 62. ISBN 978-0-19-517610-0.
Retrieved 22 December 2012.
[3] Cohen 2011, pp. 228–229
[4] Luttikhuizen 1999, p. 37
[5] H5731 Eden – The same as H5730 (masculine); Eden=
“pleasure”... the first habitat of man after the creation;
site unknown
[6] Davidson 1973, p. 33.
[7] Donald Miller (2007) Miller 3-in-1: Blue Like Jazz,
Through Painted Deserts, Searching for God, Thomas Nel-
son Inc, ISBN 978-1418551179, p. PT207
[8] Stordalen 2000, p. 307–310.
[9] Levenson 2004, p. 13“The root of Eden denotes fertility.
Where the wondrously fertile gard was thought to have
been located (if a realistic location was ever conceived) is
unclear. The Tigris and Euphrates are the two great rivers
of the Mesopotamia (now found in modern Iraq). But the
Piston is unidentified, and the only Gihon in the Bible is a
spring in Jerusalem (1 Kings 1.33, 38).”
10
[10] “The Jewish Quarterly Review”. The Jewish Quarterly
Review (University of Pennsylvania Press). 64-65: 132.
1973. ISSN 1553-0604. Retrieved 2014-02-19. ... as
Cossaea, the country of the Kassites in Mesopotamia [...]
[11] Speiser 1994, p. 38
[12] Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews. Book I, Chapter 1, Sec-
tion 3.
[13] Stordalen 2000, p. 164
[14] Brown 2001, p. 138
[15] Swarup 2006, p. 185
[16] Smith 2009, p. 61
[17] Levenson 2004, p. 11 “How much history lies behind
the story of Genesis? Because the action of the primeval
story is not represented as taking place on the plane of
ordinary human history and has so many affinities with
ancient mythology, it is very far-fetched to speak of its
narratives as historical at all.”
[18] Schwartz, Howard; Loebel-Fried, Caren; Ginsburg, Elliot
K. (2007). Tree of Souls: The Mythology of Judaism. Ox-
ford University Press. p. 704.
[19] George, Arthur; George, Elena (2014). The Mythology of
Eden. Hamilton Books. p. 458.
[20] Delumeau, Jean; O'Connell, Matthew (2000). History of
Paradise: The Garden of Eden in Myth and Tradition.
University of Illinois Press. p. 276.
[21] Graves, Robert; Patai, Raphael (1986). Hebrew Myths:
The Book of Genesis. Random House. p. 315.
[22] Albright, W. F. (October 1922). “The Location of the
Garden of Eden”. The American Journal of Semitic Lan-
guages and Literatures (The University of Chicago Press)
39 (1): 15–31.
[23] Wilensky-Lanford, Brook (2012). Paradise Lust: Search-
ing for the Garden of Eden. Grove Press.
[24] Hamblin, Dora Jane (May 1987). “Has the Garden of
Eden been located at last?" (PDF). Smithsonian (maga-
zine) 18 (2). Retrieved 8 January 2014.
[25] Cline, Eric H. (2007). From Eden to Exile: Unraveling
Mysteries of the Bible. National Geographic. p. 10. ISBN
978-1-4262-0084-7.
[26] Duncan, Joseph E. Miltonʼs Earthly Paradise: A His-
torical Study of Eden. 1972. University Of Minnesota
Press; Minnesota Archive Editions edition (July 6, 1972),
pp. 96, 212.
[27] Scafi, Alessandro. Return to the Sources: Paradise in
Armenia, in: Mapping Paradise: A History of Heaven
on Earth. 2006. London-Chicago: British Library-
University of Chicago Press, pp. 317-322.
[28] Willcocks, Sir William, Hormuzd Rassam.
Mesopotamian Trade. Noahʼs Flood: The Gar-
den of Eden, in: The Geographical Journal 35, No. 4
(April 1910), pp. 459-460.
CHAPTER 2. GARDEN OF EDEN
[29]
[30] http://onpoint.wbur.org/2011/08/11/
searching-for-the-garden-of-eden
[31] Mathews 1996, pp. 96.
[32] Cohen 2011, pp. 229.
[33] Gan Eden – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
[34] Olam Ha-Ba – The Afterlife - JewFAQ.org; 02-22-2010.
[35] Eshatology – JewishEncyclopedia; 02-22-2010.
[36]“Gehinnom is the Hebrew name; Gehenna is Yiddish.”
Gehinnom – Judaism 101 websourced 02-10-2010.
[37]“Gan Eden and Gehinnom”. Jewfaq.org. Retrieved 2011-
06-30.
[38] “End of Days”. End of Days. Aish. Retrieved 1 May
2012.
[39] See list of occurrences.
[40] Leaman, Oliver The Quran, an encyclopedia, p. 11, 2006
[41] Wheeler, Brannon Mecca and Eden: ritual, relics, and ter-
ritory in Islam p. 16, 2006
[42]
[43]
[44]
[45] “Joseph Smith/Garden of Eden in Missouri”, FairMor-
mon Answers
[46] Bruce A. Van Orden, “I Have a Question: What do we
know about the location of the Garden of Eden?", Ensign,
January 1994, pp. 54–55.
[47] http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/
mormonism-101#C18 “Mormonism 101: FAQ”
[48] Curtius 1953, p. 200,n.31
2.8 Bibliography
• Brown, John Pairman (2001). Israel and Hel-
las, Volume 3. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN
9783110168822.
• Cohen, Chaim (2011). “Eden”. In Berlin, Adele;
Grossman, Maxine. The Oxford Dictionary of the
Jewish Religion. Oxford University Press. ISBN
9780199730049.
• Curtius, Ernst Robert; [trans. Willard R. Trask,
1990] (1953). European Literature and the Latin
Middle Ages. Princeton UP. ISBN 978-0-691-
01899-7. Cite uses deprecated parameter |coau-
thors= (help)
 2.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 11

“The Garden of Eden”by Adi Holzer made in the year 2012 .

• Davidson, Robert (1973). Genesis 1-11 (commen-

tary by Davidson, R. 1987 [Reprint] ed.). Cam-
bridge, Eng.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
9780521097604.
• Levenson, Jon D. (2004). “Genesis: introduction
and annotations”. In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc
Zvi. The Jewish study Bible. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 9780195297515.
• Mathews, Kenneth A. (1996). Genesis. Nashville,
Tenn.: Broadman & Holman Publishers. ISBN
9780805401011.
• Smith, Mark S. (2009). “Introduction”. In
Pitard, Wayne T. The Ugaritic Baal Cycle, volume
II. BRILL. ISBN 9004153489.
• Speiser, E.A. (1994). “The Rivers of Paradise”
. In Tsumura, D.T.; Hess, R.S. I Studied Inscrip-
tions from Before the Flood. Eisenbrauns. ISBN
9780931464881.
• Stordalen, Terje (2000). Echoes of Eden. Peeters.
ISBN 9789042908543.
• Swarup, Paul (2006). The self-understanding of the
Dead Sea Scrolls Community. Continuum.
• Willcocks, Sir William, Hormuzd Rassam.
Mesopotamian Trade. Noahʼs Flood: The Garden
of Eden, in: The Geographical Journal 35, No. 4
(April 1910). DOI: 10.2307/1777041

2.9 External links

• Smithsonian article on the geography of the Tigris-
Euphrates region
• Many translations of II Kings 19:12
• "Eden". The American Cyclopædia. 1879.
Chapter 3
Roman gardens
Reconstruction of the garden of the House of the Painters in
Pompeii
Reconstruction of the garden of the House of the Vettii in Pompeii
Roman gardens (Latin: hortus) and ornamental
horticulture became highly developed during the history
of Roman civilization. The Gardens of Lucullus (Horti
Lucullani) on the Pincian Hill at the edge of Rome intro-
duced the Persian garden to Europe, around 60 BC. The
garden was a place of peace and tranquility – a refuge
from urban life – and a place filled with religious and
symbolic meanings. As Roman culture developed and
became increasingly influenced by foreign civilizations
through trade, the use of gardens expanded and gardens
ultimately thrived in Ancient Rome.
12
3.1 Influences
Roman gardens were influenced by Egyptian, Persian,
and Greek gardening techniques. Formal gardens existed
in Egypt as early as 2800 BC. During the eighteenth dy-
nasty of Egypt, gardening techniques were fully devel-
oped and beautified the homes of the wealthy. Porticos
were developed to connect the home with the outdoors
and created outdoor living spaces. Persian gardens de-
veloped according to the needs of the arid land. The
gardens were enclosed to protect from drought and were
rich and fertile in contrast to the dry and arid Persian
terrain. Pleasure gardens originated from Greek farm
gardens, which served the functional purpose of growing
fruit. The Peristyle garden also came from Greek influ-
ence, they were used to beautify temple groves and create
recreational spaces. Open peristyle courts were first de-
signed to fuse homes with the outside world. In Ancient
Latium, a garden was part of every farm. According to
Cato the Elder, every garden should be close to the house
and should have flower beds and ornamental trees Cimon
of Athens is said to have torn down the walls of his garden
to transform it into a public space.* [1] As Alexander the
Great conquered parts of Western Asia, he brought back
with him new varieties of fruits and plants that prompted
a renewed interest in horticulture. .* [2] Horace wrote
that during his time flower gardens became a national in-
dulgence.* [3] Augustus constructed the Porticus Liviae,
a public garden on the Oppian Hill in Rome. Outside
Rome, gardens tended to proliferate at centers of wealth.
3.2 Parts of a Roman Garden
*
[4] Gardens were usually built in one of six structures:
Town House "Domus" - This free-standing structure is
usually one story, containing multiple rooms for every-
day activities, a atrium toward the front of the house to
collect rain water and illuminate the area surrounding it.
Toward the back of the house a hortus or peristylium(an
open courtyard) is found.
*
[5] Rustic Villa "Villa Rustica" - A large farmhouse used
when the land owner would come to visit.
3.3. USES 13

*
[5] Urban Villa "Villa Urbana" - These villas are where 3.3 Uses
roman citizens would go on holiday excursion or they
would stop and rest when traveling late through the night. Roman Gardens were built for a wide range of activities.
Suburban Villa "Villa Suburbana" - A roman take on the In the early beginning, gardens were a common way for
country home, used specifically for recreational use. the less wealthy Romans to support themselves and their
families. The gardens were used to grow mainly herbs
Palace Villa - Reserved for imperial families alone. Very
and vegetables, soon different influences of Greek, Egyp-
large and extravagant.
tian, Italian and Persian gardens leaked into the Romans
Non-Residential Gardens - These would be the public culture. Producing Villas and Palatial pleasure gardens,
parks, pleasure gardens, temple gardens, tombs, etc... along with public parks and Gardens purely meant to ex-
All roman gardens were generally separated into the same ercise in. No type of garden was specifically reserved for
basic parts; depending on the style or type of garden parts wealthy Romans; all a civilian needed was to have their
may be added and/or embellished more, or parts may be own land and/or home. Excavations in Pompeii show
omitted completely.* [4] Even though an atrium is found that gardens attaching to residences were scaled down
inside the house, it is considered part of the garden be- to meet the space constraints of the home of the aver-
cause it is the opening that would allow Romans to col- age Roman. Modified versions of Roman garden designs
lect rain water used to irrigate the plants and gardens lo- were adopted in Roman settlements in Africa, Gaul, and
cated on the property. Peristyle is a Greek word, when Britannia. As town houses were replaced by tall insula
broken down “Peri”means around and “style”means (apartment buildings), these urban gardens were replaced
column. So it is a type of open courtyard connected to the by window boxes or roof gardens.
home, that is surrounded by walls of columns supporting a Roman garden designs were later adopted by
portico.* [6] A Hortus or xystus (garden walk or terrace) is Renaissance, Baroque, Neoclassical, and even 20th
the meat of what is found in Roman gardens. The xystus century landscape architects.
often overlooked a lower garden, or ambulation. The am-
bulation consisted of a variety of flowers, trees, and other
foliage and served as an ideal milieu for a leisurely stroll
after a meal, some mild conversation, or other Roman
3.4 See also
recreation activities. The gestation was a shaded avenue
where the master of a home could ride horseback or be • Gardens of Sallust
carried by his slaves. It generally encircled the ambula-
tion, or was constructed as a separate oval shaped space. • Giardino all'italiana
Paths or walk ways were often constructed for easy routes
• Landscape design history
around the garden. These were made with loose stone,
gravel, sand or packed earth. Gardens featured many or- • Roman Agriculture
namental styles, from sculpture to frescoes to sundials.
These depict nature scenes or were put in place as a shrine •
(aediculae) to the gods or other worldly creatures.
Pleasure gardens would incorporate different designs de-
pending on the taste of those who built them. All gardens 3.5 Notes
of this type have the same basic parts to them; there is a
patio at the entrance, a terrace, an orchard or vineyard,
[1] Semple (1929), p. 431
several water features, a kitchen garden, shrines or grot-
toes and other decorations that would personalize the pre- [2] Semple (1929), p. 435
sentation of the garden tour. The patio would normally be
decorated with outside garden furniture, a type of water [3] Semple (1929), p. 436
basin/fountain and the start of a walk that would show off
all the splendid exhibits to be found there. [4] Turner, Tom. Garden History Reference Encyclopedia:
Historic books etc on garden design and landscape archi-
*
[7] The plants that were grown in these gardens, ranged tecture. Gardenvisit.com.
from a number of flowering ones to herbs and vegeta-
bles for everyday use; and trees. The most popular plants [5] “The Classics Pages: Antony Kamm's 'The Romans': 6.4
found in the typical Roman family garden's are roses, Domestic architecture”. www.the-romans.co.uk. Re-
cypress, rosemary, mulberry, fig trees. A wide variety trieved 2015-11-12.
of dwarf trees, tall trees, marigolds, hyacinths, narcissi,
[6] “What is a Peristyle? Definition of a Peristyle - Quatr.us”
violets, saffron, cassia and thyme. . quatr.us. Retrieved 2015-11-12.

[7] “Elements of a Roman-Style Pleasure Garden | Italy”.

www.lifeinitaly.com. Retrieved 2015-11-11.
14 CHAPTER 3. ROMAN GARDENS

3.6 Bibliography • McManus, Barbara F. “Peristylium.”Peristylium.

3.6.1 Books
• Elisabeth Blair MacDougall and Wilhelmina F.
Jashemski, eds. (1981). Ancient Roman Gar-
dens (Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium on the History
of Landscape Architecture, VII). Washington, DC:
Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection.
• Elisabeth Blair MacDougall, ed. (1987). Ancient
Roman Villa Gardens (Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium
on the History of Landscape Architecture, X). Wash-
ington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and
Collection. ISBN 0-88402-162-9.
N.p., Feb. 2007. Web. 12 Nov. 2015.
• Milani-Santapria, Giovanni. “Ancient Roman
Homes, Houses and Villas.”Ancient Roman Homes,
Houses, Villas and Apartments. N.p., n.d. Web. 12
Nov. 2015.
•“Ancient Roman Homes - Domus, Insulae, Villa -
Crystalinks.”Ancient Roman Homes - Domus, In-
sulae, Villa - Crystalinks. N.p., n.d. Web. 12 Nov.
2015.
• Carr, Karen. “What Is a Peristyle?" Definition of
a Peristyle. Portland State University, Sept. 2012.
Web. 12 Nov. 2015.

• Bowe, Patrick (2004). Gardens of the Roman

World. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. ISBN 3.7 External links
0-89236-740-7.
• Marie-Luise Gothein on the gardens of the Roman
• Henderson, John (2004). Roman Book of Garden-
world
ing. New York: Routlage.

• Turner, Tom, and Marie Luise Schroeter Gothein. [1] “LacusCurtius • The Greek and Roman Garden (Smith's
“Ancient Rome.”Garden History Reference Ency- Dictionary, 1875)". penelope.uchicago.edu. Retrieved
clopedia. London: Gardenvisit. Com, 2004. N. 2015-11-11.
pag. Print.

• MacDougall, Elisabeth B. Ancient Roman Villa Gar-

dens. Washington, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Re-
search Library and Collection, 1987. 200-06. Print.

• Gagarin, Michael, and Elaine Fantham. The Oxford

Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford:
Oxford UP, 2010. Print.

• Gagarin, Michael, and Elaine Fantham. “Gar-

dens.”The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece
and Rome. Vol. 7. Oxford: Oxford UP, 2010. 271-
76. Print.

3.6.2 Articles
• Semple, Ellen Churchill (July 1929). “Ancient
Mediterranean Pleasure Gardens”. Geographical
Review (American Geographical Society) 19 (3):
420–443. doi:10.2307/209149. JSTOR 209149.

• * [1]

3.6.3 Websites
• Admin.“Elements of a Roman-Style Pleasure Gar-
den.”Elements of a Roman-Style Pleasure Garden.
N.p., 1 June 2012. Web. 12 Nov. 2015.

•“The Roman House.”The Roman House. N.p., 10

July 2007. Web. 12 Nov. 2015.
 Chapter 4

Topiary

This article is about the practice of training live plants.

For the planned Shane Carruth film, see A Topiary. For
the hacktivist, see Topiary (hacktivist).
Topiary is the horticultural practice of training live

York Gate Garden* [1] in Leeds

have small leaves or needles, produce dense foliage, and

have compact and/or columnar (e.g., fastigiate) growth
habits. Common species chosen for topiary include culti-
vars of European box (Buxus sempervirens), arborvitae
(Thuja species), bay laurel (Laurus nobilis), holly (Ilex
species), myrtle (Eugenia or Myrtus species), yew (Taxus
species), and privet (Ligustrum species).* [3] Shaped wire
cages are sometimes employed in modern topiary to guide
untutored shears, but traditional topiary depends on pa-
tience and a steady hand; small-leaved ivy can be used
to cover a cage and give the look of topiary in a few
months. The hedge is a simple form of topiary used to
create boundaries, walls or screens.

Squirrel topiary, Rufford Old Hall, Lancashire, England 4.1 History

perennial plants by clipping the foliage and twigs of trees, 4.1.1 Origin
shrubs and subshrubs to develop and maintain clearly
defined shapes,* [2] whether geometric or fanciful. The European topiary dates from Roman times. Pliny's Nat-
term also refers to plants which have been shaped in this
ural History and the epigram writer Martial both credit
way. As an art form it is a type of living sculpture. Cnaeus Matius Calvinus, in the circle of Julius Caesar,
The word derives from the Latin word for an ornamen- with introducing the first topiary to Roman gardens, and
tal landscape gardener, topiarius, a creator of topia orPliny the Younger describes in a letter the elaborate fig-
“places”, a Greek word that Romans also applied to fic- ures of animals, inscriptions, cyphers and obelisks in
tive indoor landscapes executed in fresco. clipped greens at his Tuscan villa (Epistle vi, to Apol-
The plants used in topiary are evergreen, mostly woody, linaris). Within the atrium of a Roman house or villa, a

15
16 CHAPTER 4. TOPIARY

4.1.3 Renaissance topiary

Castelo Branco Portugal.

Topiary at Fingask Castle, Tayside. Second half of the 19th cen-
tury
place that had formerly been quite plain, the art of the
topiarius produced a miniature landscape (topos) which Since its European revival in the 16th century, topiary has
might employ the art of stunting trees, also mentioned, been seen on the parterres and terraces of gardens of the
disapprovingly, by Pliny (Historia Naturalis xii.6). European elite, as well as in simple cottage gardens. Tra-
ditional topiary forms use foliage pruned and/or trained
into geometric shapes such as balls or cubes, obelisks,
pyramids, cones, or tapering spirals. Representational
4.1.2 Far Eastern topiary forms depicting people, animals, and man-made objects
have also been popular.
Topiary at Versailles and its imitators was never compli-
cated: low hedges punctuated by potted trees trimmed as
balls on standards, interrupted by obelisks at corners, pro-
vided the vertical features of flat-patterned parterre gar-
dens. Sculptural forms were provided by stone and lead
sculptures. In Holland, however, the fashion was estab-
lished for more complicated topiary designs; this Franco-
Dutch garden style spread to England after 1660.

4.1.4 Decline in the 18th century

Cloud-pruning in Hallyeo Haesang National Park, Geoje, South

Korea

The clipping and shaping of shrubs and trees in China

and Japan have been practised with equal rigor, but for
different reasons. The goal is to achieve an artful expres-
sion of the“natural”form of venerably aged pines, given
character by the forces of wind and weather. Their most
concentrated expressions are in the related arts of Chi-
nese penjing and Japanese bonsai.
Japanese cloud-pruning (illustration) is closest to the Eu-
ropean art: the cloud-like forms of clipped growth are Levens Hall's Elizabethan topiary in 1833
designed to be best appreciated after a fall of snow.
Japanese Zen gardens (karesansui, dry rock gardens) In England topiary was all but killed as a fashion by
make extensive use of Karikomi (a topiary technique of the famous satiric essay on “Verdant Sculpture”that
clipping shrubs and trees into large curved shapes or Alexander Pope published in the short-lived newspaper
sculptures) and Hako-zukuri (shrubs clipped into boxes The Guardian, 29 September 1713, with its mock cata-
and straight lines). logue descriptions of
4.2. REVIVAL
• Adam and Eve in yew; Adam a little shat-
tered by the fall of the tree of knowledge
in the great storm; Eve and the serpent
very flourishing.
• The tower of Babel, not yet finished.
• St George in box; his arm scarce long
enough, but will be in condition to stick
the dragon by next April.
• A quickset hog, shot up into a porcupine,
by its being forgot a week in rainy
weather.
In the 1720s and 1730s, the generation of Charles Bridge-
man and William Kent swept the English garden clean of
its hedges, mazes, and topiary. Although topiary fell from
grace in aristocratic gardens, it continued to be featured
in cottagers' gardens, where a single example of tradi-
tional forms, a ball, a tree trimmed to a cone in several
cleanly separated tiers, meticulously clipped and perhaps
topped with a topiary peacock, might be passed on as an
heirloom.
4.2 Revival
Beckley Park, Oxfordshire: cottage garden topiary formulas
taken up in an early 20th-century elite English garden in a his-
toric house setting
The revival of topiary in English gardening parallels the
revived "Jacobethan" taste in architecture; John Loudon
in the 1840s was the first garden writer to express a sense
of loss due to the topiary that had been removed from
English gardens. The art of topiary, with enclosed gar-
den “rooms”, burst upon the English gardening public
with the mature examples at Elvaston Castle, Derbyshire,
which opened to public viewing in the 1850s and created
a sensation: “within a few years architectural topiary
was springing up all over the country (it took another 25
years before sculptural topiary began to become popular
as well)".* [4] The following generation, represented by
17
Topiary birds at Hidcote Manor Garden
James Shirley Hibberd, rediscovered the charm of topi-
ary specimens as part of the mystique of the “English
cottage garden", which was as much invented as revived
from the 1870s:
It may be true, as I believe it is, that the nat-
ural form of a tree is the most beautiful possible
for that tree, but it may happen that we do not
want the most beautiful form, but one of our
own designing, and expressive of our ingenuity
The classic statement of the British Arts and Crafts re-
vival of topiary among roses and mixed herbaceous bor-
ders, characterised generally as “the old-fashioned gar-
den”or the“Dutch garden”* [5] was to be found in Topi-
ary: Garden Craftsmanship in Yew and Box by Nathaniel
Lloyd (1867–1933), who had retired in middle age and
taken up architectural design with the encouragement of
Sir Edwin Lutyens. Lloyd's own timber-framed manor
house, Great Dixter, Sussex, remains an epitome of this
stylised mix of topiary with “cottagey”plantings that
was practised by Gertrude Jekyll and Edwin Lutyens in
a fruitful partnership. The new gardening vocabulary in-
corporating topiary required little expensive restructur-
ing: “At Lyme Park, Cheshire, the garden went from
being an Italian garden to being a Dutch garden without
any change actually taking place on the ground,”Brent
Elliot noted in 2000* [5]
Americans in England were sensitive to the renewed
charms of topiary. When William Waldorf Astor bought
Hever Castle, Kent, around 1906, the moat surrounding
the house precluded the addition of wings for servants,
guests and the servants of guests that the Astor manner
required. He accordingly built an authentically styled Tu-
dor village to accommodate the overflow, with an “Old
English Garden”including buttressed hedges and free-
standing topiary.* [5] In the preceding decade, expatri-
ate Americans led by Edwin Austin Abbey created an
Anglo-American society at Broadway, Worcestershire,
where topiary was one of the elements of a “Cotswold”
house-and-garden style soon naturalised among upper-
class Americans at home. Topiary, which had featured
18 CHAPTER 4. TOPIARY

in very few 18th-century American gardens, came into

favour with the Colonial Revival gardens and the grand
manner of the American Renaissance, 1880–1920. In-
terest in the revival and maintenance of historic gardens
in the 20th century led to the replanting of the topiary
maze at the Governor's Palace, Colonial Williamsburg,
in the 1930s.

4.3 20th century

A topiary at Railton, Town of Topiary, Tasmania, Australia

The topiary garden at Manor d'Eyrignac, France Topiary elephants at Bang Pa-In Royal Palace

American portable style topiary was introduced to

Disneyland around 1962. Walt Disney helped bring this
new medium into being - wishing to recreate his car-
toon characters throughout his theme park in the form
of landscape shrubbery. This style of topiary is based
on a suitably shaped steel wire frame through which the
plants eventually extend as they grow. The frame, which
remains as a permanent trimming guide, may be either
stuffed with sphagnum moss and then planted, or placed
around shrubbery. The sculpture slowly transforms into Topiary at Wonderful topiary at Kingston Lacy, UK
a permanent topiary as the plants fill in the frame. This
style has led to imaginative displays and festivals through-
out the Disney resorts and parks, and mosaiculture (mul- 4.4 Notable topiary displays
tiple types and styles of plants creating a mosaic, living
sculpture) worldwide includes the impressive display at 4.4.1 Australia
the 2008 Summer Olympics in China. Living corporate
logos along roadsides, green roof softscapes and living • Railton, Tasmania known as Railton Town of Topi-
walls that biofilter air are offshoots of this technology. ary (Railton, Tasmania)
Artificial topiary is another offshoot similar to the con-
cept of artificial Christmas trees. This topiary mimics the Railton is a part of the Kentish Municipality,
style of living versions and is often used to supply indoor Tasmania's“Outdoor Art Gallery”. Railton's
greenery for home or office decoration. Patents are is- topiary is one facet of the outdoor art gallery.
sued for the style, design, and construction methodology There are many topiaries underway in various
of different types of topiary trees.* [6] stages of growth.* [7]
4.4. NOTABLE TOPIARY DISPLAYS
4.4.3 Central America
4.4.4 South America
St Peter's Church in Henfield the path to Church is guarded by
topiary
4.4.5 Europe
Topiary house
A topiary pig in Halton, Northumberland
4.4.2 Asia
• Mosaiculture 2006 (Shanghai, China)
• The Samban-Lei Sekpil in Manipur, India, begun
in 1983 and recently measuring 18.6 m (61 ft) in
height, is the world's tallest topiary, according to
Guinness Book of World Records. It is clipped of
Duranta erecta, a shrub widely used in Manipuri gar-
dens, into a tiered shape called a sekpil or satra that
19
honours the forest god Umang Lai.
• Royal Palace at Bang Pa-In in Thailand
• The Terrace Garden in Chandigarh, India, has topi-
aries in form of animals by Narinder Kumar Sharma
as an attraction for children.* [8]
• Parque Francisco Alvarado, Zarcero, Costa Rica
• Tulcan Topiary Garden Cemetery, Tulcan, Ecuador
• Cliveden (Buckinghamshire, England)
• Levens Hall (Cumbria, England)
A premier topiary garden started in the late
17th century by M. Beaumont, a French gar-
dener who laid out the gardens of Hampton
Court (which were recreated in the 1980s).
Levens Hall is recognised by the Guinness
Book of Records as having the oldest Topiary
garden in the world.
• Topsham railway station (Devon, England) An ex-
ample of topiary lettering.
• Canons Ashby (Northamptonshire, England) A
16th-century garden revised in 1708
• Stiffkey, (Norfolk, England)
Several informal designs including a line of ele-
phants at Nellie's cottage and a guitar.
• Hidcote Manor Garden (Gloucestershire, England)
• Knightshayes Court (Devon, England)
• Owlpen Manor (Gloucestershire, England) A late
16th-early 17th century terraced garden on a hill-
side, reordered in the 1720s, with “dark, secret
rooms of yew”(Vita Sackville-West).
• Great Dixter Gardens (East Sussex, England): Laid
out by Nathaniel Lloyd, the author of a book on
topiary, and preserved and extended by his son, the
garden-writer Christopher Lloyd.
• Much Wenlock Priory, Shropshire
• Drummond Castle Gardens (Perthshire, Scotland)
20
• Portmeirion (Snowdonia, Wales)
• Parc des Topiares (Durbuy, Belgium)
A large topiary garden (10 000 m2 ) with over
250 figures.
• Château de Villandry, France
• Villa Lante (Bagnaia, Italy)
• Giardino Giusti* [9] (Verona, Italy)
Topiary Château de Hautefort
• Castello Balduino (Montalto Pavese, Italy)
• Guggenheim Museum, (Bilbao, Spain): A huge
sculpture of a West Highland White Terrier de-
signed by the artist Jeff Koons, which is thought by
experts and scientists to be the world's biggest topi-
ary dog.
• The Tsubo-en Zen garden in Lelystad, Nether-
lands is a private modern Japanese Zen (karesan-
sui, dry rock) garden that makes extensive use of
so-called O-karikomi combined with Hako-zukuri
(see above).
All seasons close-up of the Tsubo-en (Netherlands) O-karikomi,
hako-zukuri topiary.
• Gardens of the Palace of Versailles outside Paris,
France
4.4.6 North America
• Hunnewell Arboretum (Wellesley, Massachusetts)
4.5 Popular culture
140-year-old topiary garden of native white
pine and arborvitae.
• Ladew Topiary Gardens (Monkton, Maryland)
CHAPTER 4. TOPIARY
A topiary garden in Maryland established by
award-winning topiary artist Harvey Ladew in
the late 1930s. Located approximately halfway
between the north Baltimore suburbs and the
southern Pennsylvania border. Ladew's most
famous topiary is a hunt, horses, riders, dogs
and the fox, clearing a well-clipped hedge, the
most famous single piece of classical topiary in
North America.
• Topiary Garden at Longwood Gardens (Kennett
Square, Pennsylvania)
• Columbus Topiary Park at Old Deaf School
(Columbus, Ohio)
A public garden in downtown Columbus that
features a topiary tableau of Georges Seurat's
famous painting Sunday Afternoon on the Is-
land of La Grande Jatte
• Pearl Fryar's Topiary Garden, (Bishopville, South
Carolina)
• Green Animals, a topiary garden outside Provi-
dence, Rhode Island. One of the subjects of the
documentary Fast, Cheap and Out of Control (1997)
was George Mendonça, the topiarist at Green Ani-
mals for more than seventy years: “it's just cut and
wait, cut and wait”Mendonça says in a filmed se-
quence..
• Busch Gardens Tampa, established 1959. 365
acre property featuring large, colorful and detailed
sphagnum topiary.
• In the Tim Burton/Johnny Depp film Edward Scis-
sorhands, Edward proves to have a natural gift for
topiary art. Numerous creative works are shown
throughout the movie.
4.8. FURTHER READING 21

• In the Stephen King novel The Shining, topiary ani-
mals that move when people aren't looking frighten
the Torrance family.
• In the children's novel The Children of Green Knowe
by Lucy M. Boston, an overgrown topiary figure of
Noah plays a sinister role.
• A real-life topiary artist is one of the subjects of
Errol Morris's Fast, Cheap and Out of Control.
4.8 Further reading
• Hadfield, Miles. Topiary and Ornamental Hedges:
Their history and cultivation. London: Adam &
Charles Black, 1971. ISBN 0-7136-1193-6
• Francesco Pona. Il Paradiso de' Fiori overo Lo
archetipo de' Giardini. Verona: Angelo Tamo,
1622.

4.6 See also 4.9 External links

• History of gardening • Media related to Topiary at Wikimedia Commons
• Hedge • European Boxwood and Topiary Society
• Tree shaping • How to Care for Topiaries
• Topiary in the United Kingdom
4.7 References and sources
References

[1]
[2] Coombs, Duncan; Blackburne-Maze, Peter; Cracknell,
Martyn; Bentley, Roger (2001),“9”, The Complete Book
of Pruning (illustrated ed.), Sterling Publishing Company,
p. 99, ISBN 978-1-84188-143-0
[3] A list of common subjects, including the now rarely
used Phillyrea common in 17th-century topiary, forms the
second part of Miles Hadfield, Topiary and Ornamental
Hedges (London) 1971.
[4] Brent Elliott, “Historical Revivalism in the Twentieth
Century: A Brief Introduction”Garden History 28.1,
“Reviewing the Twentieth-Century Landscape”(Summer
2000:17-31) p. 19.
[5] Elliott 2000:19.
[6] Decorative display - US Patent 6237882 Full Text, US
Patent 6237882 - Decorative display. US Patent Issued
on May 29, 2001.
[7] Railton Tasmania Town of Topiary
[8] “Leisure Valley - TOPIARY PARK, Sector 35”. Re-
trieved 28 August 2011.
[9] • Francesco Pona: Sileno overo Delle Bellezze del
Luogo dell'Ill.mo Sig. Co. Gio. Giacomo Giusti,
1620 Angelo Tamo, Verona * Francesco Pona: Il
Paradiso de' Fiori overo Lo archetipo de' Giardini,
1622 Angelo Tamo, Verona * Paolo Villa: Giardino
Giusti 1993-94, pdf with maps and 200 photos

Sources

• Curtis, Charles H. and W. Gibson, The Book of Top-

iary (reprinted, 1985 Tuttle), ISBN 0-8048-1491-0
• Lloyd, Nathaniel. Topiary: Garden Art in Yew and
Box (reprinted, 2006)
Chapter 5

Persian gardens

Persian Garden (Persian: ‫ باغ پارسی‬Bāgh-e Parsi),

also called Iranian Garden (Persian: ‫ باغ ایرانی‬Bāgh-
e Irani), is a style of garden emerged in Persia (Iran)
in the early 4000 BCE.* [1]* [2] It had a great influence
from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the
Alhambra show the influence of Persian garden philoso-
phy and style in a Moorish palace scale, from the era of
Al-Andalus in Spain. The Humayun's Tomb and Taj Ma-
hal have some of the largest Persian gardens in the world,
from the era of the Mughal Empire in India.

5.1 Concept and etymology

A schematic diagram of a Persian garden. Note the quadripar-

tite structure with focal water feature, connecting aqueducts, and
surrounding trees, as well as the placement of the palace

Eram Garden is a famous historic Persian garden in Shiraz, Iran

From the time of the Achaemenid Dynasty the idea of

an earthly paradise spread through Persian literature
and example to other cultures, both the Hellenistic gar-
dens of the Seleucids and the Ptolemies in Alexandria.
The Avestan word pairidaēza-, Old Persian *paridaida-
,* [note 1] Median *paridaiza- (walled-around, i.e., a
walled garden), was borrowed into Ancient Greek:
παράδεισος parádeisos, then rendered into the Latin
paradīsus, and from there entered into European lan-
guages, e.g., French paradis, German Paradies, and
English paradise. The word entered Semitic languages
Shazdeh Garden is one of the largest gardens of Kerman
Province.
as well: Akkadian pardesu, Hebrew pardes, and Arabic
firdaws.* [3]
As the word expresses, such gardens would have been
enclosed. The garden's purpose was, and is, to provide

22
5.3. ELEMENTS OF THE PERSIAN GARDEN
a place for protected relaxation in a variety of manners:
spiritual, and leisurely (such as meetings with friends), es-
sentially a paradise on earth. The Common Iranian word
for “enclosed space”was *pari-daiza- (Avestan pairi-
daēza-), a term that was adopted by Christianity to de-
scribe the garden of Eden or Paradise on earth.* [4]
The garden's construction may be formal (with an empha-
sis on structure) or casual (with an emphasis on nature),
following several simple design rules. This allows a max-
imization, in terms of function and emotion, of what may
be done in the garden.
5.2 History
AbbasAbad Garden, Behshahr County, Mazandaran Province.
Persian gardens may originate as early as 4000 BCE.* [5]
Decorated pottery of that time displays the typical cross
plan of the Persian garden. The outline of the Pasargad
Garden, built around 500 BCE, is viewable today.
During the reign of the Sassanids (third to seventh century the courtyard style hayāt in a public garden in Shiraz.
CE), and under the influence of Zoroastrianism, water in
art grew increasingly important. This trend manifested Sunlight and its effects were an important factor of struc-
itself in garden design, with greater emphasis on fountains tural design in Persian gardens. Textures and shapes were
and ponds in gardens.
During the Islamic occupation, the aesthetic aspect of
the garden increased in importance, overtaking utility.
During this time, aesthetic rules that govern the garden
grew in importance. An example of this is the chahār
bāgh (‫)چهارباغ‬, a form of garden that attempts to emu-
late Eden, with four rivers and four quadrants that repre-
sent the world. The design sometimes extends one axis
longer than the cross-axis, and may feature water chan-
nels that run through each of the four gardens and connect
to a central pool.
The invasion of Persia by the Mongols in the thirteenth
century led to a new emphasis on highly ornate structure
in the garden. Examples of this include tree peonies and
chrysanthemums. The Mongol empire then carried a Per-
sian garden tradition to other parts of their empire (no-
tably India).
23
Babur introduced the Persian garden to India. The now
unkempt Aram Bāgh garden in Agra was the first of many
Persian gardens he created. The Taj Mahal embodies the
Persian concept of an ideal, paradise-like garden.
The Safavid Dynasty (seventeenth to eighteenth century)
built and developed grand and epic layouts that went be-
yond a simple extension to a palace and became an in-
tegral aesthetic and functional part of it. In the follow-
ing centuries, European garden design began to influence
Persia, particularly the designs of France, and secondarily
that of Russia and the United Kingdom. Western influ-
ences led to changes in the use of water and the species
used in bedding.
Traditional forms and style are still applied in modern Ira-
nian gardens. They also appear in historic sites, museums
and affixed to the houses of the rich.
5.3 Elements of the Persian Gar-
den
Elements of the Persian garden, such as the shade, the jub, and
specifically chosen by architects to harness the light.* [6]
Iran's dry heat makes shade important in gardens, which
would be nearly unusable without it. Trees and trellises
largely feature as biotic shade; pavilions and walls are also
structurally prominent in blocking the sun.
The heat also makes water important, both in the design
and maintenance of the garden. Irrigation may be re-
quired, and may be provided via a form of underground
tunnel called a qanat, that transports water from a local
aquifer. Well-like structures then connect to the qanat,
enabling the drawing of water. Alternatively, an animal-
driven Persian well would draw water to the surface. Such
wheel systems also moved water around surface water sys-
tems, such as those in the chahar bāgh style. Trees were
often planted in a ditch called a juy, which prevented wa-
ter evaporation and allowed the water quick access to the
tree roots.
24
The Persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with
outdoors through the connection of a surrounding garden
with an inner courtyard. Designers often place architec-
tural elements such as vaulted arches between the outer
and interior areas to open up the divide between them.
5.4 Descriptions
An early description (from the first half of the fourth cen-
tury BCE) of a Persian garden is found in Xenophons
Oeconomicus in which he has Socrates relate the story of
the Spartan general Lysander's visit to the Persian prince
Cyrus the Younger, who shows the Greek his “paradise
at Sardis”. In this story Lysander is “astonished at the
beauty of the trees within, all planted at equal intervals,
the long straight rows of waving branches, the perfect reg-
ularity, the rectangular symmetry of the whole, and the
many sweet scents which hung about them as they paced
the park”* [7]
The oldest representational descriptions and illustrations
of Persian gardens come from travelers who reached Iran
from the west. These accounts include Ibn Battuta in
the fourteenth century, Ruy Gonzáles de Clavijo in the
fifteenth century and Engelbert Kaempfer in the seven-
teenth century. Battuta and Clavijo made only passing
references to gardens and did not describe their design,
but Kaempfer made careful drawings and converted them
into detailed engravings after his return to Europe. They
show chahar bāgh type gardens that featured an enclos-
ing wall, rectangular pools, an internal network of canals,
garden pavilions and lush planting. There are surviv- Naghsh-i Jahan square, the charbagh Royal Square (Maidan) in
ing examples of this garden type at Yazd (Dowlatabad) Isfahan, constructed between 1598 and 1629
and at Kashan (Bāgh-e Fin). The location of the gardens
Kaempfer illustrated in Isfahan can be identified.
5.5 Styles
The garden in the Golestan Palace of Tehran.
The six primary styles of the Persian garden may be seen
in the following table, which puts them in the context of
their function and style. Gardens are not limited to a par-
ticular style, but often integrate different styles, or have
areas with different functions and styles.
CHAPTER 5. PERSIAN GARDENS
5.5.1 Hayāt
Publicly, it is a classical Persian layout with heavy em-
phasis on aesthetics over function. Man-made structures
in the garden are particularly important, with arches and
pools (which may be used to bathe). The ground is of-
ten covered in gravel flagged with stone. Plantings are
typically very simple - such as a line of trees, which also
provide shade.
Privately, these gardens are often pool-centred and, again,
structural. The pool serves as a focus and source of hu-
midity for the surrounding atmosphere. There are few
plants, often due to the limited water available in urban
areas.
5.5.2 Meidān
Main article: Meidan
This is a public, formal garden that puts more emphasis
on the biotic element than the hayāt and that minimises
structure. Plants range from trees, to shrubs, to bedding
plants, to grasses. Again, there are elements such as a
pool and gravel pathways which divide the lawn. When
structures are used, they are often built, as in the case of
pavilions, to provide shade.
5.5.3 Chahar Bāgh
Main article: Charbagh
These gardens are private and formal. The basic structure
consists of four quadrants divided by waterways or path-
ways. Traditionally, the rich used such gardens in work-
related functions (such as entertaining ambassadors).
These gardens balance structure with greenery, with the
plants often around the periphery of a pool and path
based structure.
5.7. SEE ALSO
5.5.4 Park
8
Much like many other parks, the Persian park serves a
casual public function with emphasis on plant life. They 9
provide pathways and seating, but are otherwise usually
limited in terms of structural elements. The purpose of 10
such places is relaxation and socialisation.
11
5.5.5 Bāgh
Main article: Bagh (garden)
Like the other casual garden, the park, bāgh emphasizes
the natural and green aspect of the garden. Unlike the
park it is a private area often affixed to houses and often
consisting of lawns, trees, and ground plants. The water-
ways and pathways stand out less than in the more for-
mal counterparts and are largely functional. The primary
function of such areas is familial relaxation.
5.6 World Heritage Sites
6
7
25
12
Location of Persian Garden World Heritage Sites
1. The Persian Gardens:
(a) Pasargad Persian Garden at Pasargadae, Iran
(b) Chehel Sotoun, Isfahan,Iran
(c) Fin Garden, Kashan, Iran
(d) Eram Garden, Shiraz, Iran
(e) Shazdeh Garden, Mahan, Kerman, Iran
(f) Dolatabad Garden, Yazd, Iran
(g) Abbasabad Garden, Abbasabad, Mazandaran,
Iran
(h) Akbarieh Garden. South Khorasan Province,
Iran
(i) Pahlevanpour Garden Iran* [8]
2. Taj Mahal, Agra, India
3. Humayun's Tomb, New Delhi, India
4. Shalimar Gardens, Lahore, Pakistan
5. Generalife, Granada, Spain
5.7 See also
View of the garden at the Taj Mahal, Agra, India.
26
• Humayun's Tomb
• Taj Mahal
• Bāgh and caravansarai
• Charbagh
• Mughal gardens
• Paradise garden
• Persian architecture
• Persian Inscriptions on Indian Monuments
5.8 Notes
[1] Although the genuine Old Persian form must have been
*paridaida-, Modern Persian palīz 'garden' from Mid-
dle Persian palēz presupposes a variant *pardaiza- (with
syncope of -i-), which seems to be the cognate of
*paridaida- from a different Iranian language (Avestan,
Median or Parthian) borrowed into Persian still in an early
period.
5.9 References
[1] “Was the Persian Garden at Pasargadae a model for
the Garden of Eden?". About.com Education. Retrieved
2016-02-09.
[2] Centre, UNESCO World Heritage.“The Persian Garden
- UNESCO World Heritage Centre”. whc.unesco.org.
Retrieved 2016-02-09.
[3] Fakour M., Achaemenid Gardens ; CAIS-Online - ac-
cessed Jan 15, 2007
[4] Persians: Masters of Empire, p 62, ISBN 0-8094-9104-4
[5] Khansari, Mehdi; Moghtader, M. R.; Yavari, Minouch
(2003-12-31). The Persian Garden: Echoes of Par-
adise. Washington, DC: Mage Publishers. ISBN
9780934211758.
[6] “Pasargadae: The Persian Gardens | Kaveh Farrokh”.
kavehfarrokh.com. Retrieved 2016-02-09.
[7] Xenephon.“Oeconomicus”. Gutenberg Press. Retrieved
11 June 2015.
[8] UNESCO official website
5.10 Further reading
• Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khosh-
nava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2014). “The
Role of Historical Persian Gardens on the Health
Status of Contemporary Urban Residents”. Journal
of EcoHealth, 11 (3), 308-321.
CHAPTER 5. PERSIAN GARDENS
• Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khosh-
nava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2015).Sustain-
able Cities and the Contribution of Historical Urban
Green Spaces: A Case Study of Historical Persian
Gardens, Journal of Sustainability, 7, 13290-13316.
• Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khosh-
nava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2015).Success-
ful Public Places, A case Study of Historical Persian
Gardens, Journal of Urban Forestry & Urban Green-
ing, In Press, doi:10.1016/j.ufug.2015.08.011
• Rostami, Raheleh., Hasanuddin, Lamit., Khosh-
nava, S. Meysam., Rostami, Rasoul (2011). “Con-
tribution of Historical Persian Gardens for Sustain-
able Urban and Environment: Lessons from Hot
Arid Region of IRAN”. American Transaction on
Engineering and Applied Sciences 1(3), 281-294.
• Khonsari, Mehdi; Moghtader, M. Reza; Yavari, Mi-
nouch (1998). The Persian Garden: Echoes of Par-
adise. Mage Publishers. ISBN 0-934211-46-9.
• Multiple authors (2010).“Garden”. Encyclopædia
Iranica.
• Newton Wilber, D (1979). Persian Gardens and
Garden Pavilions. Washington.
• Michel Conan, Dumbarton Oaks (2007). Middle
East Garden Traditions: Unity and Diversity.
5.11 External links
• Isfahan“Persian Garden Design”website. Retrieved
3 January 2012.
• Babur's Garden - video from the Asia Society, US
• Animated film inspired by the Persian Architecture
• Farnoush Tehrāni, The Meaning of the Persian Gar-
den, in Persian, Jadid Online, 12 Novembre 2009.
• Audio slideshow: (5 min 58 sec).
• Farnoush Tehrāni, The Face of the Persian Garden,
in Persian, 13 November 2009.
• Audio slideshow: (6 min 16 sec).
Chapter 6
Hortus conclusus
Martin Schongauer, 1473
Hortus conclusus is a Latin term, meaning literally“en-
closed garden”.“The word 'garden' is at root the same as
the word 'yard'. It means an enclosure”, observed Derek
Clifford, at the outset of a series of essays on garden de-
sign, in which he skirted the conventions of the hortus
conclusus.* [1] Thus, at their root, both of the words in
hortus conclusus refer linguistically to enclosure.
Hortus conclusus is both an emblematic attribute and a
title of the Virgin Mary in Medieval and Renaissance
poetry* [2] and art, suddenly appearing in paintings and
manuscript illuminations about 1400,* [3] as well as a
genre of actual garden that was enclosed both symbol-
ically and as a practical concern, a major theme in the
history of gardening.* [4]
27
6.1 The Virgin Mary as hortus con-
clusus
The Annunciation - Convent of San Marco, Florence
The term hortus conclusus is derived from the Vulgate
Bible's Canticle of Canticles (also called the Song of Songs
or Song of Solomon) 4:12, in Latin: "Hortus conclusus
soror mea, sponsa, hortus conclusus, fons signatus" (“A
garden enclosed is my sister, my spouse; a garden en-
closed, a fountain sealed up.”* [5] This provided the
shared linguistic culture of Christendom, expressed in
homilies expounding the Song of Songs as allegory where
the image of King Solomon's nuptial song to his bride
was reinterpreted as the love and union between Christ
and the Church, the mystical marriage with the Church
as the Bride of Christ.
The verse “Thou art all fair, my love; there is no spot in
thee”(4.7) from the Song was also regarded as a scrip-
tural confirmation of the developing and still controver-
sial doctrine of Mary's Immaculate Conception - being
born without Original Sin (“macula”is Latin for spot).
Christian tradition states that Jesus Christ was conceived
to Mary miraculously and without disrupting her virginity
by the Holy Spirit, the third person of the Holy Trinity.
As such, Mary in late medieval and Renaissance art, illus-
trating the long-held doctrine of the Perpetual virginity of
Mary, as well as the Immaculate Conception, was shown
in or near a walled garden or yard. This was a represen-
tation of her “closed off”womb, which was to remain
untouched, and also of her being protected, as by a wall,
28 CHAPTER 6. HORTUS CONCLUSUS

Hortus conclusus depicted by Meister des Frankfurter Paradies-

gärtleins

columns, low hedges or fences. An actual walled garden,

literally surrounded by a wall, is a subset of gardens. The
meaning of hortus conclusus suggests a more private style
of garden.
In the history of gardens the High Medieval hortus con-
clusus typically had a well or fountain at the center, bear-
ing its usual symbolic freight (see "Fountain of Life") in
addition to its practical uses. The convention of four
paths that divided the square enclosure into quadrants,
The Madonna on a Crescent Moon in Hortus Conclusus by an was so strong that the pattern was employed even where
anonymous painter. the paths led nowhere. All medieval gardens were en-
closed, protecting the private precinct from public intru-
sion, whether by folk or by stray animals. The enclosure
from sin. In the Grimani Breviary, scrolling labels iden- might be as simple as woven wattle fencing or of stout or
tify the emblemmatic objects betokening the Immaculate decorative masonry; or it might be enclosed by trelliswork
Conception: the enclosed garden (hortus conclusus), the tunneled pathways in a secular garden or by an arcaded
tall cedar (cedrus exalta), the well of living waters (pu- cloister, for communication or meditative pacing.
teus aquarum viventium), the olive tree (oliva speciosa), The origin of the cloister is in the Roman colonnaded
the fountain in the garden (fons hortorum), the rosebush peristyle, as every garden history notes; the ruined and
(plantatio rosae).* [6] Not all actual medieval horti con- overgrown Roman villas that were so often remade as the
clusi even strove to include all these details, the olive tree site of Benedictine monasteries had lost their planted gar-
in particular being insufficiently hardy for northern Eu- den features with the first decades of abandonment:“gar-
ropean gardens. dening, more than architecture, more than painting, more
The enclosed garden is recognizable in Fra Angelico's than music, and far more than literature, is an ephemeral
Annunciation (illustration, above right), dating from art; its masterpieces disappear, leaving little trace.”* [7]
1430-32. Though“when, in 1070, the abbey of Cassino* [8] was re-
built,”Georgina Masson observed,* [9]“the garden was
Two pilgrimage sites are dedicated to Mary of the En-
described as 'a paradise in the Roman fashion'", it may
closed Garden in the Dutch-Flemish cultural area. One
have been merely “the aura of the great classical tradi-
is the statue at the hermitage-chapel in Warfhuizen: "Our
tion”alone that had survived. The ninth-century idealised
Lady of the Enclosed Garden". The second,“Onze Lieve
plan of Saint Gall (illustration) shows an arcaded cloister
Vrouw van Tuine”(literally “Our Lady of the Garden”
with a central well and cross paths from the centers of
), is venerated at the cathedral of Ypres.
each range of arcading, but when a consciously patterned
garden was revived for the medieval cloister, the pattern-
ing came through Norman Sicily and its hybrid culture
6.2 Actual gardens that adapted many Islamic elements, in this case the en-
closed North African courtyard gardens, ultimately based
All gardens are by definition enclosed or bounded spaces, on the Persian garden tradition.
but the enclosure may be somewhat open, and consist of The practical enclosed garden was laid out in the trea-
6.3. IN ART
tise by Pietro Crescenzi of Bologna, Liber ruralium com-
modorum, a work that was often copied, as the many sur-
viving manuscripts of its text attest, and often printed in
the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Late medieval paint-
ings and illuminations in manuscripts such as for The Ro-
mance of the Rose̶where the garden in the text is largely
allegorical̶often show a turfed bank for a seat as a fea-
ture of the hortus conclusus. Only in the fifteenth century,
at first in Italy, did some European gardens begin to look
outward.
Virgin and Child with saints and donor family, Cologne, c. 1430
Sitting, walking and playing music were the activities
most often portrayed in the numerous fifteenth-century
paintings and illuminated manuscripts, where strenuous
activities were inappropriate. In Rome, a late fifteenth-
century cloister at San Giovanni dei Genovesi was con-
structed for the use of the Genoese natio, an Ospitium
Genoensium, as a plaque still proclaims, which provided
shelter in cubicles off its vaulted encircling arcades, and a
meeting place and shelter reuniting those from the distant
home city.* [10]
Somewhat earlier, Pietro Barbo, who became Pope Paul
II in 1464, began the construction of a hortus conclusus,
the Palazzetto del Giardino di San Marco, attached
to the Venetian Cardinals' Roman seat, the Palazzo
Venezia.* [11] It served as Paul's private garden during
his papacy; inscriptions stress its secular functions as sub-
limes moenibus hortos...ut relevare animum, durasque re-
pellere curas, a garden of sublime delights, a retreat from
cares, and praise it in classicising terms, as the home
of the dryads, suggesting that there was a central grove
of trees, and mentioning its snowy-white stuccoed por-
ticoes. An eighteenth-century engraving shows a tree-
covered central mount, which has been recreated in the
modern replanting, with box-bordered cross and saltire
29
gravelled paths.* [12]
The Farnese Gardens (Orti Farnesiani sul Palatino̶or
“Gardens of Farnese upon the Palatine”) were created
by Vignola in 1550 on Rome's northern Palatine Hill, for
Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (1520–89). These become
the first private botanical gardens in Europe (the first
botanical gardens of any kind in Europe being started by
Italian universities in the mid-16th century, only a short
time before). Alessandro called his summer home at the
site Horti Farnesiani, probably in reference to the hortus
conclusus. These gardens were also designed in the Ro-
man peristylium style with a central fountain.* [13]
Again in the age of the automobile, the enclosed garden
that had never disappeared in Islamic society, became an
emblem of serenity and privacy in the Western world.
6.3 In art
Hunt of the Unicorn Annunciation (ca. 1500) from a Netherlan-
dish Book of Hours. In this example Gideon's fleece is worked
in as well, and the altar at the rear has Aaron's rod that mirac-
ulously flowered in the centre. Both are types for the Annuncia-
tion.* [14]
The hortus conclusus was one of a number of depictions
of the Virgin in the late Middle Ages developed to be
more informal and intimate than the traditional hieratic
enthroned Virgin adopted from Byzantine icons, or the
30 CHAPTER 6. HORTUS CONCLUSUS

Coronation of the Virgin. Germany and the Netherlands ments and those that seemingly treat the garden as a sub-
in the 15th century saw the peak popularity of this de- ject in itself"; in reviewing it Timothy Husband, warned
piction of the Virgin, usually with Child, and very often a against uncritical interpretation of the refined detail in
crowd of angels, saints and donors, in the garden - the gar- manuscript illuminations'“seemingly objective represen-
den by itself, to represent the Virgin, was much rarer. Of- tation”. “Late medieval garden imagery, by subjugating
ten walls, or trellises close off the sides and rear, or it may direct observation to symbolic or allegorical intention, re-
be shown as open, except for raised banks, to a landscape flects more a state of mind than reality,”* [21] if a disjunct
beyond. Sometimes, as with a Gerard David in London, can be detected where the objects of the world shim-
the garden is very fully depicted; at other times, as in mered with pregnant allegorical meaning. South Nether-
engravings by Martin Schongauer, only a wattle fence and landish illuminations and painting appear to document
a few sprigs of grass serve to identify the theme. Italian the “turf benches, fountains, raised beds, 'estrade'* [22]
painters typically also keep plants to a minimum, and do trees, potted plants, walkways, enclosing walls, trellises,
not have grass benches. A sub-variety of the theme was wattle fences and bowers" familiar to contemporary view-
the German “Madonna of the Roses”, sometimes at- ers, but assembled into an illusion of reality.* [23]
tempted in sculptured altarpieces. The image was rare in
Orthodox icons, but there are at least some Russian ex- • Gentile da Fabriano
amples.* [15]
• Fra Angelico
One type of depiction, not usually compatible with cor-
rect perspective, concentrates on showing the whole wall, • Gerard David
and several garden structures or features that symbolize • Stefan Lochner
the mystery of Christ's conception, mostly derived from
the Song of Songs or other Biblical passages, as inter- • Bartolomé Bermejo, Virgen de Montserrat altar-
preted by theological writers. These may include one piece, 1485
or more temple or church-like buildings, an Ivory Tower • Cologne, ca. 1520
(SS 7.4), an open-air altar with Aaron's rod flowering,
surrounded by the bare rods of the other tribes, a gate- • Juan de Juanes, after 1530
house“tower of David, hung with shields”(SS 7.4),* [16]
with the gate closed, the Ark of the Covenant, a well (of-
ten covered), a fountain, and the morning sun above (SS 6.4 Modern cultural references
6.10).* [17] This type of depiction usually shows the An-
nunciation, although sometimes the child Jesus is held by
The concept for the 2011 Serpentine Gallery Pavilion
Mary.* [18] The miniature at right shows a relatively sim-
was the hortus conclusus, a contemplative room, a gar-
ple example; below a large Spanish altarpiece is able to
den within a garden. Designed by Swiss architect Peter
combine many of the usual features (others no doubt con-
Zumthor and with a garden created by Piet Oudolf, the
tained in the many chapels) with correct perspective.
Pavilion was a place abstracted from the world of noise
A rather rare, late 15th century, variant of this depiction and traffic and the smells of London – an interior space
was to combine the Annunciation in the hortus conclusus within which to sit, to walk, to observe the flowers.* [24]
with the Hunt of the Unicorn and Virgin and Unicorn, so
popular in secular art. The unicorn already functioned as
a symbol of the Incarnation and whether this meaning is 6.5 See also
intended in many prima facie secular depictions can be
a difficult matter of scholarly interpretation. There is no • Gaston Bachelard
such ambiguity in the scenes where the archangel Gabriel
is shown blowing a horn, as hounds chase the unicorn into • Locus amoenus
the Virgin's arms, and a little Christ Child descends on
• Topophilia
rays of light from God the Father. The Council of Trent
finally banned this somewhat over-elaborated, if charm-
ing, depiction,* [19] partly on the grounds of realism, as
no one now believed the unicorn to be a real animal. In 6.6 References
the 16th century the subject of the hortus conclusus drifts
into the open air Sacra Conversazione and the Madonnas [1] Clifford, A History of Garden design, (New York:Praeger)
in a landscape of Giovanni Bellini, Albrecht Dürer and 1963:17.
Raphael, where it is hard to say if an allusion is intended. [2] Stanley Stewart, The Enclosed Garden: The Tradition and
An exhibition of later medieval visual representations of Image in Seventeenth-Century Poetry (Madison: Univer-
sity of Wisconsin Press) 1966, discussed late sixteenth
hortus inclusus was mounted at Dumbarton Oaks, Wash-
and seventeenth-century poetry in English; its four first
ington DC;* [20] the exhibition drew a distinction be- chapters trace the hortus conclusus theme in European lit-
tween “garden representations as thematic reinforce- eratures and the visual arts.
6.7. FURTHER READING 31

[3] Brian E. Daley, “The 'Closed Garden'and the 'Sealed 6.7 Further reading
Fountain': Song of Songs 4:12 in the Late Medieval
Iconography of Mary”, Elizabeth B. Macdougall, editor, • D'Ancona, Mirella Levi (1977). Garden of the
Medieval Gardens, Dumbarton Oaks Colloquium 9) 1986,
Renaissance: Botanical Symbolism in Italian Paint-
traced the sudden development about 1400 of painted im-
ages of the Virgin Mary in a hortus conclusus.
ing. Firenze: Casa Editrice Leo S.Olschki. ISBN
9788822217899.
[4] Rob Aben and Saskia de Wit, The Enclosed Garden: His-
tory and Development of the Hortus Conclusus and its Re-
Introduction into the Present-Day Urban Landscape (Rot-
terdam) 1999. A typological catalogue of design features 6.8 External links
and a design manual.
• Hortus conclusus as one of a number of Devotional
[5] The whole text
Images
[6] Timothy Husband, reporting the exhibition and its cata-
logue in The Burlington Magazine, 125, No. 967 (October • The Garden of Eden, a hortus conclusus by the Mas-
1983:643). ter of the Upper Rhineland
[7] Clifford 1963, eo. loc.. • Early Delights, excellent piece by Jemima Montagu
[8] The site was that of a Roman imperial villa, as was the on the symbolism of the garden
site of Benedict's monastery at Subiaco, occupying Nero's
former villa.
[9] Masson, Italian Gardens (New York: Abrams) 1961:46.
[10] Wolfgang Lotz, “Bramante and the Quattrocento Clois-
ter”Gesta 12.1/2 (1973):111-121) p. 113.
[11] It was dismantled and re-erected in 1910 to make space
for Piazza Venezia.
[12] Hinc hortos dryadumque domos et amena vireta/ Porti-
cibus circum et niveis lustrata columnisLotz 1973 eo. loc.
and figs 10 and 11.
[13] History of the Farneses and the garden.
[14] Schiller, 54
[15] Russian example, Tretyakov Gallery Moscow.
[16]“Thy neck is like the tower of David built for an armoury,
whereon there hang a thousand bucklers, all shields of
mighty men.
[17]“Who is she that looketh forth as the morning, fair as the
moon, clear as the sun, and terrible as an army with ban-
ners?"
[18] Schiller,pp 53-54
[19] G Schiller, Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. I,1971 (En-
glish trans from German), Lund Humphries, London, pp.
52-4 & figs 126-9, ISBN 0-85331-270-2, another image
[20] Exhibition catalogue, Marilyn Stokstad and Jerry Stan-
nard, Gardens of the Middle Ages, Dumbarton Oaks and
Spencer Museum of Art, University of Kansas (University
of Kansas) 1983.
[21] Husband 1983:644.
[22] An estrade tree was pruned into a series of diminish-
ing horizontal tiers like a sweetmeat stand, the French
estrade coming from Spanish estrado, denoting the car-
peted and raised section of a room (cf OED, s.v.“estrade”
, “estrado”).
[23] Husband, eo. loc..
[24]
Chapter 7
Botanical garden
This article is about a particular type of garden. For other Botanical gardens are often run by universities or other
uses, see Botanical garden (disambiguation).
A botanical garden or botanic garden* [nb 1] is a ated herbaria and research programmes in plant taxon-
Orto botanico di Pisa operated by the University of Pisa: The
first botanic garden, established in 1544 under botanist Luca
Ghini, it was relocated in 1563 and again in 1591
garden dedicated to the collection, cultivation and dis-
play of a wide range of plants labelled with their botanical
names. It may contain specialist plant collections such
as cacti and succulent plants, herb gardens, plants from
particular parts of the world, and so on; there may be
greenhouses, shadehouses, again with special collections
such as tropical plants, alpine plants, or other exotic
plants. Visitor services at a botanical garden might in-
clude tours, educational displays, art exhibitions, book
rooms, open-air theatrical and musical performances, and
other entertainment.
scientific research organizations, and often have associ-
omy or some other aspect of botanical science. In prin-
ciple, their role is to maintain documented collections of
living plants for the purposes of scientific research, con-
servation, display, and education, although this will de-
pend on the resources available and the special interests
pursued at each particular garden.
The origin of modern botanical gardens can be traced to
European medieval medicinal gardens known as physic
gardens, the first of these being founded during the Italian
Renaissance in the 16th century. This early concern with
medicinal plants changed in the 17th century to an in-
terest in the new plant imports from explorations outside
Europe as botany gradually established its independence
from medicine. In the 18th century, systems of nomen-
clature and classification were devised by botanists work-
ing in the herbaria and universities associated with the
gardens, these systems often being displayed in the gar-
dens as educational “order beds". With the rapid rise of
European imperialism in the late 18th century, botanic
gardens were established in the tropics, and economic
botany became a focus with the hub at the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew, near London.
Over the years, botanical gardens, as cultural and sci-
entific organisations, have responded to the interests of
botany and horticulture. Nowadays, most botanical gar-
dens display a mix of the themes mentioned and more;
having a strong connection with the general public, there
is the opportunity to provide visitors with information re-
lating to the environmental issues being faced at the start
of the 21st century, especially those relating to plant con-
servation and sustainability.
7.1 Definitions
The role of major botanical gardens worldwide has been
considered so broadly similar as to fall within textbook
definitions. The following definition was produced by
staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortorium of Cornell
University in 1976. It covers in some detail the many
32
7.1. DEFINITIONS
Cacti at the Marsh Botanical Garden.
“A botanic garden is a garden containing scientifically or-
Braunschweig Botanical Garden, Braunschweig, Germany
Victoria amazonica, giant Amazon water lily
functions and activities generally associated with botani- tion International to the following definition which
*
cal gardens: [1]
A botanical garden is a controlled and
staffed institution for the maintenance of a liv-
ing collection of plants under scientific man-
agement for purposes of education and re-
search, together with such libraries, herbaria,
laboratories, and museums as are essential to
its particular undertakings. Each botanical gar-
den naturally develops its own special fields
of interests depending on its personnel, loca-
tion, extent, available funds, and the terms
of its charter. It may include greenhouses,
test grounds, an herbarium, an arboretum, and
other departments. It maintains a scientific as
well as a plant-growing staff, and publication is
one of its major modes of expression.
This broad outline is then expanded:* [1]
The botanic garden maybe an independent
institution, a governmental operation, or affili-
ated to a college or university. If a department
of an educational institution, it may be related
33
to a teaching program. In any case, it exists
for scientific ends and is not to be restricted or
diverted by other demands. It is not merely a
landscaped or ornamental garden, although it
may be artistic, nor is it an experiment station
or yet a park with labels on the plants. The
essential element is the intention of the enter-
prise, which is the acquisition and dissemina-
tion of botanical knowledge.
A contemporary botanic garden is a strictly protected
natural urban green area, where a managing organiza-
tion creates landscaped gardens and holds documented
collections of living plants and/or preserved plant acces-
sions containing functional units of heredity of actual or
potential value for purposes such as scientific research,
education, public display, conservation, sustainable use,
tourism and recreational activities, production of mar-
ketable plant-based products and services for improve-
ment of human well-being.
The “New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of
Gardening”(1999) points out that among the various
kinds of organisations now known as botanical gardens
are many public gardens with little scientific activity, and
it cites a more abbreviated definition that was published
by the World Wildlife Fund and IUCN when launching
the ʼʼBotanic Gardens Conservation Strategyʼʼin 1989:
dered and maintained collections of plants, usually docu-
mented and labelled, and open to the public for the pur-
poses of recreation, education and research.”* [2] This
has been further reduced by Botanic Gardens Conserva-
“en-
*
compasses the spirit of a true botanic garden": [3] “A
botanic garden is an institution holding documented col-
lections of living plants for the purposes of scientific re-
search, conservation, display and education.”* [4]
7.1.1 The botanical gardens network
Botanical garden at Ooty, a hill station in India
Worldwide, there are now about 1800 botanical gardens
and arboreta in about 150 countries (mostly in temperate
34 CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN

regions) of which about 550 are in Europe (150 of which 7.2.1 Precursors
are in Russia), 200 in North America,* [5] and an increas-
ing number in East Asia.* [6] These gardens attract about The idea of“scientific”gardens used specifically for the
150 million visitors a year, so it is hardly surprising that study of plants dates back to antiquity.* [14]
many people gained their first exciting introduction to the
wonders of the plant world in a botanical garden.* [2]
Historically, botanical gardens exchanged plants through
the publication of seed lists (these were called Latin: In-
Grand gardens of ancient history
dices Seminae in the 18th century). This was a means of
transferring both plants and information between botan-
ical gardens. This system continues today, although
the possibility of genetic piracy and the transmission of
invasive species has received greater attention in recent
times.* [7]
The International Association of Botanic Gardens* [8]
was formed in 1954 as a worldwide organisation affiliated
to the International Union of Biological Sciences. More
recently, coordination has also been provided by Botanic
Gardens Conservation International (BGCI), which has
the mission “To mobilise botanic gardens and engage
partners in securing plant diversity for the well-being of
people and the planet”.* [9] BGCI has over 700 members
– mostly botanic gardens – in 118 countries, and strongly
supports the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation by
producing a range resources and publications, and by or- The Hanging Gardens of Babylon* [15] with the Tower of
ganizing international conferences and conservation pro- Babel in the background, a 16th-century hand-coloured
grams. engraving by Martin Heemskerck

Communication also happens regionally. In the United

States, there is the American Public Gardens Associa-
tion* [10] (formerly the American Association of Botanic Near-eastern royal gardens set aside for economic use
Gardens and Arboreta), and in Australasia there is or display and containing at least some plants gained
the Botanic Gardens of Australia and New Zealand by special collecting trips or military campaigns abroad,
(BGANZ).* [11] are known from the second millennium BCE in ancient
Egypt, Mesopotamia, Crete, Mexico and China.* [16] In
about 2800 BCE, the Chinese Emperor Shen Nung sent
collectors to distant regions searching for plants with
economic or medicinal value.* [17] It has also been sug-
gested that the Spanish conquest of Mesoamerica influ-
7.2 Historical development enced the history of the botanical garden* [14] as gardens
in Tenochtitlan established by king Nezahualcoyotl,* [18]
also gardens in Chalco (altépetl) and elsewhere, greatly
Main article: History of botany impressed the Spanish invaders, not only with their ap-
pearance, but also because the indigenous Aztecs em-
The history of botanical gardens is closely linked to the ployed many more *
medicinal plants than did the classical
*
history of botany itself. The botanical gardens of the 16th world of Europe. [19] [20]
and 17th centuries were medicinal gardens, but the idea Early medieval gardens in Islamic Spain resembled
of a botanical garden changed to encompass displays of botanic gardens of the future, an example being the 11th-
the beautiful, strange, new and sometimes economically century Huerta del Ray garden of physician and author
important plant trophies being returned from the Euro- Ibn Wafid (999–1075 CE) in Toledo. This was later taken
pean colonies and other distant lands.* [12] Later, in the over by garden chronicler Ibn Bassal (fl. 1085 CE) un-
18th century, they became more educational in function, til the Christian conquest in 1085 CE. Ibn Bassal then
demonstrating the latest plant classification systems de- founded a garden in Seville, most of its plants being col-
vised by botanists working in the associated herbaria as lected on a botanical expedition that included Morocco,
they tried to order these new treasures. Then, in the 19th Persia, Sicily, and Egypt. The medical school of Mont-
and 20th centuries, the trend was towards a combination pelier was also founded by Spanish Arab physicians, and
of specialist and eclectic collections demonstrating many by 1250 CE, it included a physic garden, but the site was
aspects of both horticulture and botany.* [13] not given botanic garden status until 1593.* [21]
7.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
Physic gardens
Botanical gardens, in the modern sense, developed from
physic gardens, whose main purpose was to cultivate
herbs for medical use as well as research and experimen-
tation. Such gardens have a long history. In Europe,
for example, Aristotle (384 BCE – 322 BCE) is said to
have had a physic garden in the Lyceum at Athens, which
was used for educational purposes and for the study of
botany, and this was inherited, or possibly set up, by his
pupil Theophrastus, the“Father of Botany”.* [22]* [23]
There is some debate among science historians whether
this garden was ordered and scientific enough to be con-
sidered “botanical”, and suggest it more appropriate
to attribute the earliest known botanical garden in Eu-
rope to the botanist and pharmacologist Antonius Castor,
mentioned by Pliny the Elder in the 1st century.* [24]
Though these ancient gardens shared some of the charac-
teristics of present-day botanical gardens, the forerunners
of modern botanical gardens are generally regarded as be-
ing the medieval monastic physic gardens that originated
after the decline of the Roman Empire at the time of
Emperor Charlemagne (742–789 CE).* [25] These con-
tained a hortus, a garden used mostly for vegetables, and
another section set aside for specially labelled medicinal
plants and this was called the herbularis or hortus medi-
cus̶more generally known as a physic garden, and a vi-
ridarium or orchard. These gardens were probably given
impetus when Charlemagne issued a capitulary, the Ca-
pitulary de Villis, which listed 73 herbs to be used in the
physic gardens of his dominions. Many of these were
found in British gardens even though they only occurred
naturally in continental Europe, demonstrating earlier
plant introduction.* [26] Pope Nicholas V set aside part
of the Vatican grounds in 1447, for a garden of medicinal
plants that were used to promote the teaching of botany,
and this was a forerunner to the University gardens at
Padua and Pisa established in the 1540s.* [27] Certainly
the founding of many early botanic gardens was instigated
by members of the medical profession.* [28]
7.2.2 16th- and 17th-century European
gardens
Further information: Herbal and Physic garden
In the 17th century, botanical gardens began their con-
tribution to a deeper scientific curiosity about plants. If
a botanical garden is defined by its scientific or academic
connection, then the first true botanical gardens were es-
tablished with the revival of learning that occurred in the
European Renaissance. These were secular gardens at-
tached to universities and medical schools, used as re-
sources for teaching and research. The superintendents of
these gardens were often professors of botany with inter-
national reputations, a factor that probably contributed to
the creation of botany as an independent discipline rather
than a descriptive adjunct to medicine.* [29]
35
A 16th-century print of the Botanical Garden of Padua̶the
oldest academic botanic garden still at its original location
Origins in the Italian Renaissance
The botanical gardens of Southern Europe were asso-
ciated with university faculties of medicine and were
founded in Northern Italy at Orto botanico di Pisa
(1544), Orto botanico di Padova (1545), Orto Botanico
di Firenze (1545), Orto Botanico dell'Università di Pavia
(1558) and Orto Botanico dell'Università di Bologna
(1568).* [nb 2] Here the physicians (referred to in English
as apothecaries) delivered lectures on the Mediterranean
“simples”or "officinals" that were being cultivated in the
grounds. Student education was no doubt stimulated by
the relatively recent advent of printing and the publication
of the first herbals.* [30] All of these botanical gardens
still exist, mostly in their original locations.
Northern Europe
The tradition of these Italian gardens passed into Spain
(Botanical Garden of Valencia, 1567) and Northern Eu-
rope, where similar gardens were established in the
Netherlands (Hortus Botanicus Leiden, 1587; Hortus
Botanicus (Amsterdam), 1638), Germany (Alter Botanis-
cher Garten Tübingen, 1535; Leipzig Botanical Garden,
1580; Botanischer Garten Jena, 1586; Botanischer Garten
Heidelberg, 1593; Herrenhäuser Gärten, Hanover, 1666;
Botanischer Garten der Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu
Kiel, 1669; Botanical Garden in Berlin, 1672), Switzer-
land (Old Botanical Garden, Zürich, 1560; Basel, 1589);
England (University of Oxford Botanic Garden, 1621;
Chelsea Physic Garden, 1673); Scotland (Royal Botanic
Garden Edinburgh, 1670); and in France (Jardin des
plantes de Montpellier, 1593; Faculty of Medicine Gar-
den, Paris, 1597; Jardin des Plantes, Paris, 1635),
Denmark (University of Copenhagen Botanical Garden,
1600); Sweden (Uppsala University, 1655).
 36
The Chelsea Physic Garden was established in 1673, shown
here in summer of 2006.
Beginnings of botanical science
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the first plants were
being imported to these major Western European gar-
dens from Eastern Europe and nearby Asia (which pro-
vided many bulbs), and these found a place in the new
gardens, where they could be conveniently studied by the
plant experts of the day. For example, Asian introduc-
tions were described by Carolus Clusius (1526–1609),
who was director, in turn, of the Botanical Garden of
the University of Vienna and Hortus Botanicus Leiden.
Many plants were being collected from the Near East,
especially bulbous plants from Turkey. Clusius laid the
foundations of Dutch tulip breeding and the bulb indus-
try, and he helped create one of the earliest formal botani-
cal gardens of Europe at Leyden where his detailed plant-
ing lists have made it possible to recreate this garden near
its original site. The hortus medicus of Leyden in 1601
was a perfect square divided into quarters for the four
continents, but by 1720, though, it was a rambling sys-
tem of beds, struggling to contain the novelties rushing
in,* [31] and it became better known as the hortus aca-
demicus. His Exoticorum libri decem (1605) is an im-
portant survey of exotic plants and animals that is still
consulted today.* [32] The inclusion of new plant intro-
ductions in botanic gardens meant their scientific role was
now widening, as botany gradually asserted its indepen-
dence from medicine.
In the mid to late 17th century, the Paris Jardin des
Plantes was a centre of interest with the greatest number
of new introductions to attract the public. In England,
the Chelsea Physic Garden was founded in 1673 as the
“Garden of the Society of Apothecaries”. The Chelsea
garden had heated greenhouses, and in 1723 appointed
Philip Miller (1691–1771) as head gardener. He had a
wide influence on both botany and horticulture, as plants
poured into it from around the world. The garden's golden
age came in the 18th century, when it became the world's
CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN
most richly stocked botanical garden. Its seed-exchange
programme was established in 1682 and still continues
today.* [33]
7.2.3 18th century
Lake in the Calcutta Botanical Garden, circa 1905
Further information: Glasshouse and Conservatory
With the increase in maritime trade, ever more plants
were being brought back to Europe as trophies from dis-
tant lands, and these were triumphantly displayed in the
private estates of the wealthy, in commercial nurseries,
and in the public botanical gardens. Heated conservato-
ries called "orangeries", such as the one at Kew, became a
feature of many botanical gardens.* [34] Industrial expan-
sion in Europe and North America resulted in new build-
ing skills, so plants sensitive to cold were kept over winter
in progressively elaborate and expensive heated conserva-
tories and glasshouses.* [nb 3]
The Cape, Dutch East Indies
The 18th century was marked by introductions from
the Cape of South Africa – including ericas, geraniums,
pelargoniums, succulents, and proteaceous plants – while
the Dutch trade with the Dutch East Indies resulted in a
golden era for the Leiden and Amsterdam botanical gar-
dens and a boom in the construction of conservatories.
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
Main article: Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew
The Royal Gardens at Kew were founded in 1759, ini-
tially as part of the Royal Garden set aside as a physic gar-
den. William Aiton (1741–1793), the first curator, was
taught by garden chronicler Philip Miller of the Chelsea
Physic Garden whose son Charles became first curator
of the original Cambridge Botanic Garden (1762).* [35]
In 1759, the “Physick Garden”was planted, and by
1767, it was claimed that “the Exotick Garden is by far
7.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 37

of plants were authenticated by dried plant specimens

mounted on card (a hortus siccus or garden of dried
plants) that were stored in buildings called herbaria, these
taxonomic research institutions being frequently associ-
ated with the botanical gardens, many of which by then
had “order beds”to display the classification systems
being developed by botanists in the gardens' museums
and herbaria. Botanical gardens had now become scien-
tific collections, as botanists published their descriptions
of the new exotic plants, and these were also recorded
for posterity in detail by superb botanical illustrations. In
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London, established 1759 this century, botanical gardens effectively dropped their
The Palm House built 1844–1848 by Richard Turner to medicinal function in favour of scientific and aesthetic
Decimus Burton's designs priorities, and the term “botanic garden”came to be
more closely associated with the herbarium, library (and
later laboratories) housed there than with the living col-
the richest in Europe”.* [36] Gardens such as the Royal lections – on which little research was undertaken.* [43]
Botanic Gardens, Kew (1759) and Orotava Acclimati-
zation Garden (Spanish), Tenerife (1788) and the Real
Jardín Botánico de Madrid (1755) were set up to culti- 7.2.4 19th century
vate new species returned from expeditions to the tropics;
they also helped found new tropical botanical gardens.
From the 1770s, following the example of the French and
Spanish, amateur collectors were supplemented by offi-
cial horticultural and botanical plant hunters.* [37] This
was the great era of European, and especially British, im-
perialism which was “the means by which ideas, knowl-
edge, styles of economy, politics and goods were given
international reach”* [38] and justified as the spreading
of“civilisation”through“development”and“improve-
ment”.* [39]
At this time, England was importing many woody plants
from North America, and the popularity of horticulture
had increased enormously, encouraged by the horticul-
tural and botanical collecting expeditions overseas fos-
Mexican Hothouse, Jardin des Plantes
tered by the directorship of Sir William Hooker and his
built 1834–36 by Charles Rohault de Fleury
keen interest in economic botany. At the end of the Example of French glass and metal architecture
18th century, Kew, under the directorship of Sir Joseph
Banks, enjoyed a golden age of plant hunting, sending
out collectors to the Southern African Cape, Australia, Further information: acclimatization
Chile, China, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka), Brazil, and else-
where,* [40] and acting as “the great botanical exchange
The late 18th and early 19th centuries were marked by the
house of the British Empire".* [41] From its earliest days
establishment of tropical botanical gardens as a tool of
to the present, Kew has in many ways exemplified botanic
colonial expansion (for trade and commerce and, secon-
garden ideals, and is respected worldwide for the pub-
darily, science) mainly by the British and Dutch, in India,
lished work of its scientists, the education of horticultural
South-east Asia and the Caribbean.* [44] This was also
students, its public programmes, and the scientific under-
the time of Sir Joseph Banks's botanical collections dur-
pinning of its horticulture.* [42]
ing Captain James Cook's circumnavigations of the planet
and his explorations of Oceania, which formed the last
Plant classification phase of plant introduction on a grand scale.

Further information: Plant classification and Herbarium

Tropical botanical gardens

The large number of plants needing description were of- There are currently about 230 tropical botanical gar-
ten listed in garden catalogues; and at this time Carl dens with a concentration in southern and south-eastern
Linnaeus established the system of binomial nomencla- Asia.* [45] The first botanical garden founded in the
ture which greatly facilitated the listing process. Names tropics was the Pamplemousses Botanical Garden in
38 CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN

Mauritius, established in 1735 to provide food for ships

using the port, but later trialling and distributing many
plants of economic importance. This was followed by
the West Indies (Botanic Gardens St. Vincent, 1764)
and in 1786 by the Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose
Botanical Garden in Calcutta, India founded during a
period of prosperity when the city was a trading cen-
tre for the Dutch East India Company.* [46] Other gar-
dens were constructed in Brazil (Rio de Janeiro Botan-
ical Garden, 1808), Sri Lanka (Botanical Garden of
Peradeniya, 1821 and on a site dating back to 1371),
Indonesia (Bogor Botanical Gardens, 1817 and Kebun Auburn Botanical Gardens, with a view of its lake
Raya Cibodas, 1852), and Singapore (Singapore Botan-
ical Gardens, 1822). These had a profound effect on
the economy of the countries, especially in relation to Gardens, 1855. These were established essentially as
the foods and medicines introduced. The importation of colonial gardens of economic botany and acclimatisa-
rubber trees to the Singapore Botanic Garden initiated tion.* [51] The Auburn Botanical Gardens, 1977, located
the important rubber industry of the Malay Peninsula. At in Sydney's western suburbs, are one of the popular and
this time also, teak and tea were introduced to India and diverse botanical gardens in the Greater Western Sydney
breadfruit, pepper and starfruit to the Caribbean.* [5] area.* [52]

New Zealand

Major botanical gardens in New Zealand include Dunedin

Singapore Botanic Gardens established 1822. Eco-lake at the Botanic Gardens, 1863; Christchurch Botanic Gardens,
Bukit Timah 1863; and Wellington Botanic Gardens, 1868.

Included in the charter of these gardens was the investi-

Hong Kong
gation of the local flora for its economic potential to both
the colonists and the local people. Many crop plants were
Hong Kong Botanic Gardens, 1871 (renamed Hong Kong
introduced by or through these gardens – often in asso-
Zoological and Botanical Gardens in 1975), up from the
ciation with European botanical gardens such as Kew or
Government Hill in Victoria City, Hong Kong Island.
Amsterdam – and included cloves, tea, coffee, breadfruit,
cinchona, sugar, cotton, palm oil and Theobroma cacao
(for chocolate).* [44] During these times, the rubber plant Sri Lanka
was introduced to Singapore.* [47] Especially in the trop-
ics, the larger gardens were frequently associated with a In Sri Lanka major botanical gardens include the
herbarium and museum of economy.* [48] The Botanical Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya (formally estab-
Garden of Peradeniya had considerable influence on the lished in 1843), Hakgala Botanical Gardens (1861) and
development of agriculture in Ceylon where the Para rub- Henarathgoda Botanical Garden (1876).
ber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was introduced from Kew,
which had itself imported the plant from South Amer-
ica.* [44] Other examples include cotton from the Chelsea Egypt
Physic Garden to the Province of Georgia in 1732 and tea
into India by Calcutta Botanic Garden.* [49] The transfer The Orman Garden, one of the most famous botanical
of germplasm between the temperate and tropical botan- gardens in Egypt, is located at Giza, in Cairo, and dates
ical gardens was undoubtedly responsible for the range of back to 1875.
agricultural crops currently used in several regions of the
tropics.* [50]
South Africa

Australia The oldest botanical garden in South Africa is the Durban

The first botanical gardens in Australia were founded
early in the 19th century. The Royal Botanic Gardens,
Sydney, 1816; the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens,
1818; the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne, 1845;
Adelaide Botanic Gardens, 1854; and Brisbane Botanic
Botanic Gardens which has been located on the same
site since 1851. The Kirstenbosch National Botanical
Garden, established in 1913, has a site dating to 1848.
Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden is the oldest
university botanical garden in South Africa, and was es-
tablished in 1922.
7.2. HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
United States
The first botanical garden in the United States, Bartram's
Garden, was founded in 1730 near Philadelphia, and in
the same year, the Linnaean Botanic Garden at Philadel-
phia itself.* [53] President George Washington, Thomas
Jefferson and James Madison, all experienced farmers,
shared the dream of a national botanic garden for the col-
lection, preservation and study of plants from around the
world to contribute to the welfare of the American peo-
ple paving the way for establishing the US Botanic Gar-
den,* [54] right outside the nation's Capitol in Washington
DC in 1820. In 1859, the Missouri Botanical Garden
was founded at St Louis; it is now one of the worldʼs
leading gardens specializing in tropical plants.* [53] This
was one of several popular American gardens, including
Longwood Gardens (1798), Arnold Arboretum (1872),
New York Botanical Garden (1891), Huntington Botan-
ical Gardens (1906), Brooklyn Botanic Garden (1910),
International Peace Garden (1932), and Fairchild Tropi-
cal Botanic Garden (1938).
Russia
The palm greenhouse of the Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden
Russia has more botanical gardens than any other coun-
try, with a major garden in every republic, each with
many satellite gardens. Better-known gardens are Batumi
Botanical Garden, Saint Petersburg Botanical Garden,
(1714); and Moscow Botanical Garden of Academy of
Sciences, (1945).
These gardens are notable for their structures that
include sculptures, pavilions, bandstands, memorials,
Plant conservation
shadehouses, tea houses and such.
Among the smaller gardens within Russia, one that is
increasingly gaining prominence, is the Botanical Gar-
den of Tver State University, (1879) ̶the northernmost
botanical Garden with an exhibition of steppe plants, only
one of its kind in the Upper Volga.
39
Ukraine
Ukraine has a well-respected collection at Nikitsky
Botanical Garden, Yalta, founded in 1812. M.M.
Gryshko National Botanical Garden is a botanical garden
of the Academy of Sciences of Ukraine founded in 1936,
is located in Kiev, the capital of Ukraine.
7.2.5 20th century
Civic and municipal botanical gardens
A large number of civic or municipal botanical gardens
were founded in the 19th and 20th centuries. These did
not develop scientific facilities or programmes, but the
horticultural aspects were strong and the plants often la-
belled. They were botanical gardens in the sense of build-
ing up collections of plants and exchanging seeds with
other gardens around the world, although their collection
policies were determined by those in day-to-day charge of
them. They tended to become little more than beautifully
maintained parks and were, indeed, often under general
parks administrations.* [55]
Community engagement
The second half of the 20th century saw increasingly so-
phisticated educational, visitor service, and interpreta-
tion services. Botanical gardens started to cater for many
interests and their displays reflected this, often includ-
ing botanical exhibits on themes of evolution, ecology or
taxonomy, horticultural displays of attractive flowerbeds
and herbaceous borders, plants from different parts of
the world, special collections of plant groups such as
bamboos or roses, and specialist glasshouse collections
such as tropical plants, alpine plants, cacti and orchids, as
well as the traditional herb gardens and medicinal plants.
Specialised gardens like the Palmengarten in Frankfurt,
Germany (1869), one of the world's leading orchid and
succulent plant collections, have been very popular.* [7]
There was a renewed interest in gardens of indigenous
plants and areas dedicated to natural vegetation.
With decreasing financial support from governments,
revenue-raising public entertainment increased, includ-
ing music, art exhibitions, special botanical exhibitions,
theatre and film, this being supplemented by the advent
of “Friends”organisations and the use of volunteer
guides.* [56]
Plant conservation and the heritage value of exceptional
historic landscapes were treated with a growing sense of
urgency. Specialist gardens were sometimes given a sep-
arate or adjoining site, to display native and indigenous
plants.<ref name=Hux92375 / />
40 CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN

In the 1970s, gardens became focused on the plant con- 7.4 Future
servation. The Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat
was established by the IUCN, and the World Conser- Main article: Sustainability
vation Union in 1987 with the aim of coordinating the Botanical gardens are still being built, such as the first
plant conservation efforts of botanical gardens around the
world. It maintains a database of rare and endangered
species in botanical gardens' living collections. Many gar-
dens hold ex situ conservation collections that preserve
genetic variation. These may be held as: seeds dried and
stored at low temperature, or in tissue culture (such as the
Kew Millennium Seedbank); as living plants, including
those that are of special horticultural, historical or sci-
entific interest (such as those held by the NCCPG in the
United Kingdom); or by managing and preserving areas
of natural vegetation. Collections are often held and cul-
tivated with the intention of reintroduction to their orig-
inal habitats.* [57] The Center for Plant Conservation at
St Louis, Missouri coordinates the conservation of native
North American species.* [58]* [59]
The Eden Project, established in 2000 in Cornwall, England,
includes a modern botanical garden exploring the theme of
7.3 Role and functions sustainability.

Many of the functions of botanical gardens have already botanical garden in Oman, which will be one of the largest
been discussed in the sections above, which emphasise gardens in the world. Once completed, it will house the
the scientific underpinning of botanical gardens with their first large-scale cloud forest in a huge glasshouse.* [5] De-
focus on research, education and conservation. However, velopment of botanical gardens in China over recent years
as multifaceted organisations, all sites have their own spe- has been a remarkable, including the Hainan Botanical
cial interests. In a remarkable paper on the role of botan- Garden of Tropical Economic Plants* [62] South China
ical gardens, Ferdinand Mueller (1825–1896), the direc- Botanical Garden at Guangzhou, the Xishuangbanna
tor of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Melbourne (1852– Botanical Garden of Tropical Plants and the Xiamen
1873), stated, “in all cases the objects [of a botanical Botanic Garden,* [63] but in developed countries, many
garden] must be mainly scientific and predominantly in- have closed for lack of financial support, this being es-
structive”. He then detailed many of the objectives being pecially true of botanical gardens attached to universi-
pursued by the world's botanical gardens in the middle of ties.* [2]
the 19th century, when European gardens were at their Botanical gardens have always responded to the interests
height. Many of these are listed below to give a sense of
and values of the day. If a single function were to be
the scope of botanical gardens' activities at that time, and chosen from the early literature on botanical gardens, it
the ways in which they differed from parks or what he
would be their scientific endeavour and, flowing from this,
called “public pleasure gardens":* [60] their instructional value. In their formative years, botan-
Botanical gardens must find a compromise between the ical gardens were gardens for physicians and botanists,
need for peace and seclusion, while at the same time sat- but then they progressively became more associated with
isfying the public need for information and visitor ser- ornamental horticulture and the needs of the general pub-
vices that include restaurants, information centres and lic. The scientific reputation of a botanical garden is now
sales areas that bring with them rubbish, noise, and judged by the publications coming out of herbaria and
hyperactivity. Attractive landscaping and planting de- similar facilities, not by its living collections.* [64] The
sign sometimes compete with scientific interests ̶with interest in economic plants now has less relevance, and
science now often taking second place. Some gardens the concern with plant classification systems has all but
are now heritage landscapes that are subject to constant disappeared, while a fascination with the curious, beauti-
demand for new exhibits and exemplary environmental ful and new seems unlikely to diminish.
management.* [61] In recent times, the focus has been on creating an
Many gardens now have plant shops selling flowers, herbs, awareness of the threat to ecosystems from human
and vegetable seedlings suitable for transplanting; many, overpopulation and its consequent need for biological and
like the UBC Botanical Garden and Centre for Plant physical resources. Botanical gardens provide an excel-
Research and the Chicago Botanic Garden, have plant- lent medium for communication between the world of
breeding programs and introduce new plants to the horti- botanical science and the general public. Education pro-
cultural trade. grams can help the public develop greater environmental
7.7. FOOTNOTES
awareness by understanding the meaning and importance
of ideas like conservation and sustainability.* [65]
7.5 Photo gallery
• Interior of a greenhouse in The Botanic garden in
Lund / Sweden 2007.
• Seiwa-en Japanese Garden, Missouri Botanical Gar-
den, USA
• Inside Kew Gardens Palm House, London, England
• The Botanical Garden of Curitiba, Southern Brazil
• The New Brunswick Botanical Garden, Canada
• A botanical garden of Kitchener's Island, Aswan,
Egypt
• University of British Columbia Botanical Garden,
Canada
• Inside the Botanical Garden of the University of
Coimbra, Portugal
• The Harry P. Leu Gardens in Orlando, Florida, USA
• The Palm House, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edin-
burgh, Scotland
• Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, South
Africa
• Butchart Gardens, British Columbia, Canada
• A sculpture in a botanical garden.
• a wild and exotic botanical garden, Le Jardin Jungle
Karlostachys, France
• Buenos Aires Botanical Garden, Argentina
• Antarctic Garden, Hobart Botanical Garden,
Tasmania, Australia
7.6 See also
• Herb farm
• List of botanical gardens
• List of botanical gardens in Canada
• List of botanical gardens in the United States
• List of botanical gardens in the United Kingdom
• Plant collecting
• PlantCollections (a database)
• National Public Gardens Day
• Botanical and horticultural library
• List of botanical gardens in Australia
41
7.7 Footnotes
[1] The terms botanic and botanical and garden or gardens
are used more-or-less interchangeably, although the word
botanic is generally reserved for the earlier, more tradi-
tional gardens.
[2] Precisely dating the foundation of botanical gardens is of-
ten difficult because government decrees may be issued
some time before land is acquired and planting begins, or
existing gardens may be relocated to new sites, or previ-
ously existing gardens may be taken over and converted.
[3] Glasshouses built to overwinter tender evergreen shrubs,
known as 'greens', were called greenhouses, a name that
is still used today.
7.8 References
[1] Bailey & Bailey 1978, p. 173
[2] Huxley 1992, p. 375
[3] Wyse Jackson & Sutherland 2000, p. 12
[4] Wyse Jackson 1999, p. 27
[5] “The History of Botanic Gardens”. BGCI.org. BGCI.
Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[6] " 植物 ". East Asia Botanic Gardens Network.
Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[7] Heywood 1987, p. 11
[8] “International Association of Botanic Gardens (IABG)".
BGCI.org. Botanic Gardens Conservation International.
Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[9] “Mission statement”. BGCI.org. Botanic Gardens Con-
servation International. Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[10] “American Public Gardens Association”. publicgar-
dens.org. American Public Gardens Association. Re-
trieved 8 November 2011.
[11] “Welcome to BGANZ”. BGANZ.org.au. Botanic Gar-
dens Australia and New Zealand Inc. 2011. Retrieved 8
November 2011.
[12] Hill 1915, p. 210
[13] Hill 1915, pp. 219–223
[14] Hyams & MacQuitty 1969, p. 12
[15] Dalley 1993, p. 113
[16] Day 2010, pp. 65–78
[17] Hill 1915, pp. 185–186
[18] Toby Evans 2010, pp. 207–219
[19] Guerra 1966, pp. 332–333
[20] Hill 1915, p. 187
42 CHAPTER 7. BOTANICAL GARDEN

[21] Taylor 2006, p. 57 [56] Looker in Aitken & Looker 2002, pp. 99–100

[22] Young 1987, p. 7 [57] See Simmons 1976

[23] Thanos 2005 [58] Huxley 1992, p. 377

[24] Sarton, George (1952). Ancient Science Through the
Golden Age of Greece. Dover classics of science and
mathematics. Dover Publications. p. 556. ISBN
9780486274959. Retrieved 2016-02-13.
[25] Hill 1915, p. 188
[26] Holmes 1906, pp. 49–50
[59] “North American Botanic Garden Strategy for Plant Con-
servation” (PDF). Botanic Gardens Conservation Inter-
national. 2006. Retrieved 14 November 2011.
[60] Mueller 1871
[61] “Environmental management”. Royal Botanic Gardens
Melbourne. 8 June 2010. Retrieved 6 August 2010.

[27] Hyams & MacQuitty 1969, p. 16 [62] “Hainan Botanical Garden of Tropical Economic Plants”
. BGCI.org. Botanic Gardens Conservation International.
[28] Holmes 1906, p. 54 Retrieved 8 November 2011.

[29] Williams 2011, p. 148 [63] Heywood 1987, p. 12

[30] Hill 1915, pp. 190–197 [64] Heywood 1987, p. 16

[31] Drayton 2000, p. 24 [65] Drayton 2000, pp. 269–274

[32] See Ogilvie 2006

[33] See Minter 2000 7.9 Bibliography

[34] Hill 1915, p. 200
• Aitken, Richard & Looker, Michael (2002). The
[35] Hill 1915, p. 205 Oxford Companion to Australian Gardens. Mel-
bourne: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
[36] Bute in Drayton 2000, p. 43 553644-4.
[37] Drayton 2000, p. 46 • Bailey, Liberty Hyde & Bailey, Ethel Z. (1978).
[38] Drayton 2000, p. xi Hortus Third. New York: Macmillan. ISBN 0-02-
505470-8.
[39] Drayton 2000, pp. 93–94
• Conan, Michel, ed. (2005). Baroque garden cul-
[40] Hill 1915, p. 207 tures: emulation, sublimation, subversion. Washing-
[41] Drayton 2000, p. xiii ton, D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and
Collection. ISBN 9780884023043. Retrieved 21
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[43] Heywood 1987, p. 7 • Johnson, Dale E. 1985. Literature on the history of
[44] Heywood 1987, p. 9 botany and botanic gardens 1730–1840: A bibliog-
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[45] Heywood 1987, p. 13
• Dalley, Stephanie (1993).“Ancient Mesopotamian
[46] Heywood 1987, p. 8 Gardens and the Identification of the Hanging Gar-
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[47] Hill 1915, pp. 212–213
113. doi:10.2307/1587050.
[48] Hill 1915, p. 213
• Day, Jo (2010). “Plants, Prayers, and Power: the
[49] Hill 1915, p. 222 story of the first Mediterranean gardens”. In Oʼ
Brien, Dan. Gardening Philosophy for Everyone.
[50] Heywood 1987, p. 10
Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 65–78. ISBN
[51] Looker in Aitken & Looker 2002, p. 98 978-1-4443-3021-2.
[52] “Plan of Management for Auburn Botanic Gardens • Desmond, Ray (2007). The History of the Royal
Precinct” (PDF). Retrieved 2012-12-12. Botanic Gardens Kew. London: Kew Publishing.
ISBN 978-1-84246-168-6.
[53] Huxley 1992, p. 376
• Drayton, Richard (2000). Nature's Government:
[54] “Brief History of the U.S. Botanic Garden”. usbg.gov.
Science, Imperial Britain, and the 'Improvement' of
United States Botanic Garden. Retrieved 10 June 2013.
the World. London: Yale University Press. ISBN
[55] Heywood 1987, pp. 10–16 0-300-05976-0.
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al. (eds). Botanic Gardens and the World Conserva- trieved 30 November 2011.
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Chapter 8

Giardino all'italiana

Garden of Villa d'Este. Statues in the gardens of the Palace of Caserta.

garden are based on those of the Italian garden, but André

le Nôtre ultimately eclipsed it in scale and concept at
the gardens of Vaux-le-Vicomte and Versailles during the
17th Century. The formal early English garden was influ-
enced by the fountains and cascades that were elements of
the Italian Renaissance garden, and though there are later
water features - for example, the 300-year-old cascade
at Chatsworth House - Italian influence was superseded
in England by Seventeenth-century formal Franco-Dutch
parterres and avenues, and from the early eighteenth cen-
tury onward thanks to gardeners like Charles Bridgeman,
William Kent, Capability Brown and Humphry Repton
garden design in England took a completely different, ro-
mantic and informal turn.
Palace of Caserta garden cascades.

The Giardino all'italiana (Italian pronunciation: 8.1.1 Roman influence

[dʒarˈdiːno alˌlitaˈljaːna]) or Italian garden is stylis-
tically based on symmetry, axial geometry and on the Main article: Roman gardens
principle of imposing order over nature. It influenced Roman gardens (Latin: horti) were greatly inspired by
the history of gardening, especially French gardens and Greek gardens and were usually in the peristyles. Ro-
English gardens. man Gardens were indoor. Ornamental horticulture be-
came highly developed during the development of Roman
civilisation. The administrators of the Roman Empire
(c.100 BC – AD 500) actively exchanged information on
8.1 History and influence agriculture, horticulture, animal husbandry, hydraulics,
and botany. Seeds and plants were widely shared. The
The Italian garden was influenced by Roman gardens and Gardens of Lucullus (Horti Lucullani) on the Pincian Hill
Italian Renaissance gardens. The principles of the French at the edge of Rome introduced the Persian garden to Eu-

44
8.2. ITALIAN VILLAS WITH NOTABLE GARDENS 45

cellarerʼs garden or private gardens for obedientiaries,

monks who held specific posts within the monastery.

8.1.3 Italian Renaissance gardens

Main article: Italian Renaissance garden

The Italian Renaissance garden emerged in the late fif-

teenth century at villas in Rome and Florence, inspired
by classical ideals of order and beauty, and intended for
the pleasure of the view of the garden and the landscape
beyond, for contemplation, and for the enjoyment of the
sights, sounds and smells of the garden itself.
Reconstruction of the garden of the House of the Painters in
Pompeii During the late Renaissance, gardens became larger and
even more symmetrical, and were filled with fountains,
statues, grottoes, water organs and other features designed
rope, around 60 BC. The garden was a place of peace and to delight their owners and amuse and impress visitors.
tranquillity̶a refuge from urban life̶and a place filled
While the early Italian Renaissance gardens were de-
with religious and symbolic meanings. As Roman culture
signed for contemplation and pleasure with tunnels of
developed and became increasingly influenced by foreign
greenery, trees for shade, an enclosed giardino segreto
civilizations through trade, the use of gardens expanded
(secret garden) and fields for games and amusements, the
and gardens ultimately thrived in Ancient Rome.
Medici, the ruling dynasty of Florence, used gardens to
The principle styles of the Giardino all'italiana emerged demonstrate their own power and magnificence.“During
from the rediscovery by Renaissance scholars of Roman the first half of the sixteenth century, magnificence came
models. They were inspired by the descriptions of Ro- to be perceived as a princely virtue, and all over the Italian
man gardens given by Ovid in his Metamorphoses; in the peninsula architects, sculptors, painters, poets, historians
letters of Pliny the Younger, in Pliny the Elder's Natu- and humanist scholars were commissioned to concoct a
ralis Historia; and in Rerum Rusticanum by Varro, all of magnificent image for their powerful patrons.”* [5] The
which gave detailed and lyrical description of the gardens central fountain at Villa Castello featured a statue of Her-
of Roman villas.* [1] cules, symbolizing Cosimo de Medici, the ruler of Flo-
Pliny the Younger described his life at his villa at Lau- rence, and the fish-tailed goat that was an emblem of the
rentum: " ...a good life and a genuine one, which is happy Medicis; the garden represented the power, wisdom, or-
and honourable, more rewarding than any“business”can der, beauty and glory that the Medici had brought to Flo-
be. You should take the first opportunity to leave the din, rence.
the futile bustle and useless occupations of the city and
devote yourself to literature or to leisure.”.* [2] The pur-
pose of a garden, according to Pliny, was“otium,”which 8.2 Italian villas with notable gar-
could be translated as seclusion, serenity, or relaxion. A
garden was a place to think, read, write and relax.* [3] dens
Pliny described shaded paths bordered with hedges, orna-
mental parterres, fountains, and trees and bushes trimmed 8.2.1 The Medici Villa at Fiesole (1455–
to geometric or fantastic shapes; all features which would 1461)
become part of the future Renaissance garden.* [4]
The oldest existing Italian Renaissance garden is at the
Villa Medici in Fiesole, north of Florence. It was cre-
8.1.2 Italian Medieval gardens ated sometime between 1455 and 1461 by Giovanni de'
Medici (1421–1463) the son of Cosimo de' Medici, the
Italian Medieval gardens were enclosed by walls, and founder of the Medici dynasty. Unlike other Medici fam-
were devoted to growing vegetables, fruits and medici- ily villas that were located on flat farmland, this villa was
nal herbs, or, in the case of monastery gardens, for silent located on a rocky hillside with a view over Florence.
meditation and prayer. Generally, monastic garden types The Villa Medici followed Alberti's precepts that a villa
consisted of kitchen gardens, infirmary gardens, ceme- should have a view 'that overlooks the city, the owner's
tery orchards, cloister garths and vineyards. Individual land, the sea or a great plain, and familiar hills and moun-
monasteries might also have had a “green court,”a plot tains,' and that the foreground have 'the delicacy of gar-
of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a dens.'.* [6] The garden has two large terraces, one at the
46 CHAPTER 8. GIARDINO ALL'ITALIANA

der the name of Pius II. He was a scholar of Latin and

wrote extensively on education, astronomy and social cul-
ture.* [8] In 1459, he constructed a palace for himself and
his Cardinals and court in his small native town of Pienza.
Like the Villa Medici, a major feature of the house was
the commanding view to be had from the loggia over
the valley, the Val d'Orcia, to the slopes of Monte Ami-
ata. Closer to the house, there were terraces with geo-
metric flowerbeds surrounding fountains and ornamented
with bushes trimmed into cones and spheres similar to the
garden of Pliny described in Alberti's De Re Aedificato-
ria.* [9] The garden was designed to open to the town, the
palace and the view.

Villa Medici in Fiesole.

ground floor level and the other at the level of the first
floor. From the reception rooms on the first floor, guests
could go out to the loggia and from there to the garden so 8.2.3 The Cortile del Belvedere in the Vat-
the loggia was a transition space connecting the interior ican Palace, Rome, (1504–1513)
with the exterior. Unlike later gardens, the Villa Medici
did not have a grand staircase or other feature to link the
two levels. In 1504 Pope Julius II commissioned the architect Donato
The garden was inherited by his nephew, Lorenzo de' Bramante to recreate a classical Roman pleasure gar-
Medici, who made it a meeting place for poets, artists, den in the space between the old papal Vatican palace in
writers and philosophers. In 1479, the poet Angelo Rome and the nearby Villa Belvedere. His model was the
Poliziano, tutor to the Medici children, described the gar- ancient sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia at Palestrina or
den in a letter: "..Seated between the sloping sides of the ancient Praeneste, and he used the classical ideals of pro-
mountains we have here water in abundance and being portion, symmetry and perspective in his design. He cre-
constantly refreshed with moderate winds find little in- ated a central axis to link the two buildings, and a series of
convenience from the glare of the sun. As you approach terraces connected by double ramps, modelled after those
the house it seems embosomed in the wood, but when you at Palestrina. The terraces were divided into squares and
reach it you find it commands a full prospect of the city.” rectangles by paths and flowerbeds, and served as an out-
*
[7] door setting for Pope Julius's extraordinary collection of
classical sculpture, which included the famous Laocoön
and the Apollo Belvedere. The heart of the garden was
8.2.2 The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, a courtyard surrounded by a three-tiered loggia, which
Tuscany, (1459) served as a theater for entertainments. A central exedra
formed the dramatic conclusion of the long perspective
up the courtyard, ramps and terraces.* [10]
The Venetian Ambassador described the Cortile del
Belvedere in 1523: “One enters a very beautiful garden,
of which half is filled with growing grass and bays and
mulberries and cypresses, while the other half is paved
with squares of bricks laid upright, and in every square a
beautiful orange tree grows out of the pavement, of which
there are a great many, arranged in perfect order....On one
side of the garden is a most beautiful loggia, at one end of
which is a lovely fountain that irrigates the orange trees
and the rest of the garden by a little canal in the center of
the loggia.”* [11]
Unfortunately the construction of the Vatican Library in
the late sixteenth century across the centre of the cor-
Gardens of the Palazzo Piccolomini tile means that Bramante's design is now obscured but his
ideas of proportion, symmetry and dramatic perspectives
The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, was built by Enea Sil- were used in many of the great gardens of the Italian Re-
vio Piccolomini, who was Pope from 1458 to 1464, un- naissance.* [12]
8.2. ITALIAN VILLAS WITH NOTABLE GARDENS 47

Villa Madama (1516)

8.2.4 The Villa Madama, Rome (1516)

The Villa Madama, situated on the slopes of Monte Mario

and overlooking Rome, was begun by Pope Leo X and
continued by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (1478–1534).
In 1516 Leo X gave the commission to Raphael who was
at that time the most famous artist in Rome. Using the One niche inside the grotto of the Villa Castello, Florence
ancient text of De Architectura by Vitruvius and the writ-
ings of Pliny the Younger, Raphael imagined his own ver-
and the hill of Monte Morello. Tribolo first built a wall
sion of an ideal classical villa and garden. His villa had
across the slope, dividing it into an upper garden filled
a great circular courtyard, and was divided into a winter
with orange trees, and a lower garden that was subdivided
apartment and a summer apartment. Passages led from
into garden rooms with walls of hedges, rows of trees and
the courtyard to the great loggia from which views could
tunnels of citrus trees and cedars. A central axis, articu-
be gained of the garden and Rome. A round tower on the
lated by a series of fountains, extended from the villa up
east side was intended as garden room in winter, warmed
to the base of Monte Morello. In this arrangement, the
by the sun coming through glazed windows. The villa
garden had both grand perspectives and enclosed, private
overlooked three terraces, one a square, one a circle, and
spaces
one an oval. The top terrace was to be planted in chest-
nut trees and firs while the lower terrace was intended for
plant beds.* [13]
Work on the Villa Madama stopped in 1520 after the
death of Raphael but was then continued by other artists
until 1534. They finished one-half of the villa includ-
ing half of the circular courtyard, and the northwest log-
gia that was decorated with grotesque frescoes by Giulio
Romano and stucco by Giovanni de Udine. Fine surviv-
ing features include a fountain of the head of an elephant
by Giovanni da Udine and two gigantic stucco figures
by Baccio Bandinelli at the entrance of the giardino seg-
reto, the secret garden.* [14] The villa is now a state guest
house for the Government of Italy. Villa Castello as it looked in 1598. Lunette by Giusto Utens

The lower garden had a large marble fountain that was

8.2.5 Villa Castello, Tuscany, (1538)
Villa Castello was the project of Cosimo de' Medici, first
Duke of Tuscany, begun when he was only seventeen. It
was designed by Niccolò Tribolo who designed two other
gardens: the Giardino dei Semplici (1545) and the Boboli
Gardens (1550) for Cosimo.
The garden was laid out on a gentle slope between the villa
meant to be seen against a backdrop of dark cypresses,
with figures of Hercules and Antaeus. Just above this
fountain, in the center of the garden, was a labyrinth
formed by cypress, laurel, myrtle, roses and box hedges.
Concealed in the middle of the labyrinth was another
fountain, with a statue of Venus. Around this fountain,
Cosimo had bronze pipes installed under the tiles for
giochi d'acqua (“water tricks”), which were concealed
48 CHAPTER 8. GIARDINO ALL'ITALIANA

Statue of January, Villa Castello Alley of one hundred fountains, Villa d'Este

conduits which could be turned on with a key to drench took over a former Franciscan convent, and for the gar-
unsuspecting guests. Another unusual feature was a tree- den he bought the adjoining steep hillside and the valley
house concealed in an ivy-covered oak tree, with a square below. His chosen architect was Pirro Ligorio, who had
dining room inside the tree.* [15] been carrying out excavations for Ippolito at the nearby
ruins of the ancient Villa Adriana, or Hadrian's Villa, the
At the far end of the garden and set against a wall, Tri- extensive country residence of the Emperor Hadrian that
bolo created an elaborate grotto, decorated with mosaics, had numerous elaborate water features.* [18]
pebbles, sea shells, imitation stalactites, and niches with
groups of statues of domestic and exotic animals and
birds, many with real horns, antlers and tusks. The ani-
mals symbolized the virtues and accomplishments of past
members of Medici family. Water flowed from the beaks,
wings and claws of the animals into marble basins below
each niche. A gate could close suddenly behind visitors,
and they would be soaked by hidden fountains.* [16]
Above the grotto, on the hillside, was small wood, or
bosco, with a pond in the center. In the pond is a bronze
statue of a shivering giant, with cold water running down
over his head, which represents either the month of Jan-
uary or the Apennine Mountains.
When the last of the Medicis died in 1737, the garden
began to be altered by its new owners, the House of
Lorraine; the labyrinth was demolished and the statue The Neptune Fountain (foreground) and Water Organ (back-
of Venus was moved to the Villa Petraia. But long be- ground) in the gardens at the Villa d'Este.
fore then, the garden had been described by many am-
bassadors and foreign visitors and had become famous Ligorio created the garden as a series of terraces descend-
throughout Europe. Its principles of perspective, propor- ing the steep hillside at the edge of the mountains over-
tion and symmetry, its geometric planting beds and rooms looking the plain of Latium. The terraces were connected
with walls of trees and hedges, were adapted in both the by gates and grand stairways starting from a terrace below
gardens of the French Renaissance and the garden à la the villa and traversing down to the Fountain of Dragons
française which followed.* [17] at the foot of the garden. The stairway was crossed by
five traversal alleys on the different levels, which were
divided into rooms by hedges and trellises covered with
8.2.6 Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550–1572) vines. At the crossing points of the stairway and the al-
leys there were pavilions, fruit trees, and aromatic plants.
The Villa d'Este at Tivoli is one of the grandest and At the top, the promenade used by the Cardinal passed
best-preserved of the Italian Renaissance gardens. It was below the villa and led in one direction to the grotto of
created by Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, son of Alfonso I Diana, and in the other to the grotto of Aesclepius.
d'Este, the Duke of Ferrara, and Lucretia Borgia. He was The glory of the Villa d'Este was the system of fountains,
made a Cardinal at the age of twenty-nine and became fed by two aqueducts that Ligorio constructed from the
governor of Tivoli in 1550. To develop his residence, he River Aniene. In the center of the garden, the alley of one
8.2. ITALIAN VILLAS WITH NOTABLE GARDENS 49

hundred fountains (which actually had two hundred foun- 8.2.8 Sacro Bosco at Bomarzo, Lazio
tains), crossed the hillside, connecting the Oval Fountain (1552–1585)
with the Fountain of Rome, which was decorated with
models of the famous landmarks of Rome. On a lower
level, another alley passed by the Fountain of Dragons
and joined the fountain of Proserpine with the Fountain
of the Owl. Still lower, an alley of fishponds connected
the Fountain of the Organ to the site of a proposed Foun-
tain of Neptune.* [19]
Each fountain and path told a story, linking the d'Este
family to the legends of Hercules and Hippolytus or
Ippolito, the mythical son of Theseus and the Queen of
the Amazons. The central axis led to the Fountain of
Dragons, which illustrated one of the labors of Hercules,
and three other statues of Hercules were found in the gar-
den. The myth of Ippolito, the mythical namesake of the
owner, was illustrated by two grottos, that of Aesclepius
and Diana.* [20] Sacro Bosco, Mouth of Orcus.
The Fountain of the Owl used a series of bronze pipes
like flutes to make the sound of birds but the most fa- The Sacro Bosco or “Sacred Wood,”near the village
mous feature of the garden was the great Organ Fountain. of Bomarzo, is the most famous and extravagant of the
It was described by the French philosopher Montaigne, Manieristic gardens. It was created for Pier Francesco
who visited the garden in 1580: “The music of the Or- Orsini (1523–85). It was witty and irreverent, and vio-
gan Fountain is true music, naturally created...made by lated all the rules of Renaissance gardens; it has no sym-
water which falls with great violence into a cave, rounded metry, no order, and no focal point. An inscription in the
and vaulted, and agitates the air, which is forced to exit garden says:“You who have travelled the world in search
through the pipes of an organ. Other water, passing of great and stupendous marvels, come here, where there
through a wheel, strikes in a certain order the keyboard of are horrendous faces, elephants, lions, orcies and drag-
*
the organ. The organ also imitates the sound of trumpets, ons.” [23]
the sound of cannon, and the sound of muskets, made by The garden is filled with enormous statues, reached by
the sudden fall o water ...* [21] wandering paths. It included a mouth of Death, a house
The garden was substantially changed after the death of that seemed to be falling over, fantastic animals and fig-
the Cardinal and in the 17th century, and many statues ures, many of them carved of rough volcanic rock in place
were sold, but the basic features remain, and the Organ in the garden. Some of the scenes were taken from the ro-
fountain has recently been restored and plays music once mantic epic poem Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto,
again. others from works by Dante Alighieri and Francesco Pe-
trarch. As one inscription in the garden notes, the Sacro
Bosco “resembles only itself, and nothing else.”* [24]

8.2.7 Villa della Torre (1559) 8.2.9 Villa Lante

The Villa della Torre, built for Giulio della Torre (1480–
1563), a law professor and humanist scholar in Verona,
was a parody of the classical rules of Vitruvius; the
peristyle of the building was in the perfectly harmonious
Vitruvius style, but some of the stones were rough-cut
and of different sizes and decorated with masks which
sprayed water, which jarred the classical harmony.“The
building was deformed: it seemed to be caught in a
strange, amorphous condition, somewhere crude rustic
simplicity and classical perfection.”.* [22] The fireplaces
inside were in the forms of the mouths of gigantic masks.
Outside, the garden was filled with disturbing architec-
tural elements, including a grotto whose entrance repre- Gardens of the Villa Lante
sented the mouth of hell, with eyes that showed fires burn-
ing inside. Villa Lante at Bagnaia near Viterbo, attributed to
50 CHAPTER 8. GIARDINO ALL'ITALIANA

Giacomo Barozzi da Vignola (there is no contempo- 8.2.11 Giardino Giusti

rary documentation * [25]) is, with the famous garden at
Bomarzo, one of the most famous Italian 16th century The Giardini di Giusti (English: Giusti Gardens) were
Mannerist gardens of surprises. The first surprise to a planted in 1580 to surround the Palazzo Giusti, in Verona,
visitor coming fresh from Villa Farnese at Caprarola is Italy. They are regarded as some of the most beautiful
the difference between the two villas in the same area, Renaissance gardens in Europe.* [26]
period, architectural mannerist style and possibly by the
same architect: there is little if any similarity. Villa Lante
is arranged not as a dominant single building with adja- 8.2.12 Giardino Bardini
cent gardens as at Caprarola, but with the gardens as the
principal feature, set on the main axis and stepping up the
hillslope as a series of terraces between the two small and
relatively subservient casinos.
The villa is known as the “Villa Lante”. However, it
did not become known as this until the villa was passed
to Ippolito Lante Montefeltro della Rovere, Duke of Bo-
marzo, in the 17th century, when it was already 100 years
old.

8.2.10 Boboli Gardens

Giardino Bardini

The Giardino Bardini is a Renaissance garden in

Florence, Italy. Only opened recently to the public, it
is relatively little-known. Access is gained via the Via
de' Bardi, just over the road from the Museo Bardini in
the Oltrarno district of the city, although the gardens exit
onto the Costa di San Giorgio, onto which the Forte di
Belevedere and the Giardino di Boboli connect in turn.

8.2.13 Villa d'Este

The main axis through the anfiteatro centered on Palazzo Pitti

The Boboli Gardens, in Italian Giardino di Boboli, form

a famous park in Florence, Italy, that is home to a distin-
guished collection of sculptures dating from the sixteenth
through the eighteenth centuries, with some Roman an-
tiquities.
The Gardens, behind the Pitti Palace, the main seat of the
Medici grand dukes of Tuscany at Florence, are some of
the first and most familiar formal sixteenth-century Italian
gardens. The mid-16th-century garden style, as it was
developed here, incorporated longer axial developments,
wide gravel avenues, a considerable “built”element of The Fontana dell'Ovato (“Oval Fountain”) cascades from its
stone, the lavish employment of statuary and fountains, egg-shaped basin into a pool set against a rustic nymphaeum.
and a proliferation of detail, coordinated in semi-private
and public spaces that were informed by classical accents: The Villa d'Este is a villa situated at Tivoli, near Rome,
grottos, nympheums, garden temples and the like. The Italy. Listed as a UNESCO world heritage site, it is a
openness of the garden, with an expansive view of the fine example of Renaissance architecture and the Italian
city, was unconventional for its time. Renaissance garden.
8.3. INFLUENCES ON OTHER GARDENING STYLES
The garden plan is laid out on a central axis with sub-
sidiary cross-axes of carefully varied character, refreshed
by some five hundred jets in fountains, pools and water
troughs. The copious water is supplied by the Aniene,
which is partly diverted through the town, a distance of
a kilometer, and by the Rivellese spring, which supplies
a cistern under the villa's courtyard. The garden is now
part of the Grandi Giardini Italiani.
The Villa's uppermost terrace ends in a balustraded bal-
cony at the left end, with a sweeping view over the plain
below. Symmetrical double flights of stairs flanking the
central axis lead to the next garden terrace, with the
Grotto of Diana, richly decorated with frescoes and peb-
ble mosaic to one side and the central Fontana del Bic-
chierone “Fountain
( of the Great Cup”) loosely attributed
to Bernini, where water issues from a seemingly natural
rock into a scrolling shell-like cup.
8.2.14 Villa Aldobrandini
Villa Aldobrandini is a villa in Frascati, Italy, property
of Aldobrandini family. Also known as Belvedere for
its charming location overlooking the whole valley up to
Rome, it was built on the order of Cardinal Pietro Aldo-
brandini, Pope Clement VIII's nephew over a pre-existing
edifice built by the Vatican prelate Alessandro Rufini in
1550.
The villa was rebuilt in the current form by Giacomo
della Porta from 1598 to 1602, and then completed by
Carlo Maderno and Giovanni Fontana. Particularly fa-
mous is the Teatro delle Acqua (“Water Theater”), by
Carlo Maderno and Orazio Olivieri. Other noted villas
with water-play structure are the Villa d'Este in Tivoli and
Villa Torlonia also in Frascati.
8.2.15 Palace of Caserta
The Palace of Caserta.
The Royal Palace of Caserta (Italian: Reggia di Caserta) Italian craftsmen and garden designers, such as Pacello da
is a former royal residence in Caserta, constructed for the Mercogliano, from Naples and ordered the construction
Bourbon kings of Naples.
51
The garden, a typical example of the baroque extension
of formal vistas, stretch for 120 ha, partly on hilly terrain.
It is inspired by the park of Versailles, but it is commonly
regarded as superior in beauty. The park starts from the
back façade of the palace, flanking a long alley with arti-
ficial fountains and cascades. There is an English garden
in the upper part designed in the 1780s by Carlo Van-
vitelli and the London-trained plantsman-designer John
Graefer, recommended to Sir William Hamilton by Sir
Joseph Banks.* [27] It is an early Continental example of
an “English garden”in the svelte naturalistic taste of
Capability Brown.
The fountains and cascades, each filling a vasca (“basin”
), with architecture and hydraulics by Luigi Vanvitelli at
intervals along a wide straight canal that runs to the hori-
zon, rivalled those at Peterhof outside St. Petersburg.
These include:
• The Fountain of Diana and Actaeon (sculptures by
Paolo Persico, Brunelli, Pietro Solari);
• The Fountain of Venus and Adonis (1770–80);
• The Fountain of the Dolphins (1773–80);
• The Fountain of Aeolus;
• The Fountain of Ceres.
A large population of figures from classical Antiquity
were modelled by Gaetano Salomone for the gardens of
the Reggia, and executed by large workshops.
8.2.16 Isola Bella (Lake Maggiore)
The Isola Bella (Lago Maggiore) is one of the Borromean
Islands of Lago Maggiore in north Italy. The island is sit-
uated in the Borromean Gulf 400 meters from the lake-
side town of Stresa. Isola Bella is 320 meters long by
400 meters wide and is entirely occupied by the Palazzo
Borromeo and its Italian garden
8.3 Influences on other gardening
styles
8.3.1 French garden
The form of the French garden was strongly influenced
by the Italian gardens of the Renaissance, and was largely
fixed by the middle of the 17th century.
Following his campaign in Italy in 1495, where he saw the
gardens and castles of Naples, King Charles VIII brought
of Italian-style gardens at his residence at the Château
52 CHAPTER 8. GIARDINO ALL'ITALIANA

Evelyn (1620–1706) and his elder brother George.* [32]

is that house's best-known feature.* [33]

8.4 Glossary of the Italian Renais-

Gardens of the Palace of Versailles (Île-de-France). The geo-
metrical patterns of these gardens were highly influenced by the
Giardino all'italiana gardening techniques.
d'Amboise. His successor Henry II, who had also trav-
eled to Italy and had met Leonardo da Vinci, created an
Italian nearby at the Château de Blois.* [28] Beginning in
1528, King Francis I of France created new gardens at
the Palace of Fontainebleau, which featured fountains,
parterres, a forest of pine trees brought from Provence
and the first artificial grotto in France.* [29] The Chateau
de Chenonceau, had two gardens in the new style, one
created for Diane de Poitiers in 1551, and a second for
Catherine de Medici in 1560.* [30]
8.5 Notes
In 1536 the architect Philibert de l'Orme, upon his return
from Rome, created the gardens of the Château d'Anet
following the Italian rules of proportion. The carefully
prepared harmony of Anet, with its parterres and surfaces
of water integrated with sections of greenery, became one
of the earliest and most influential examples of the classic
French garden.* [31]
8.3.2 English garden
sance Garden
• fontaniere. The fountain-maker, a hydraulic engi-
neer who designed the water system and fountains.
• giochi d'acqua. water tricks. Concealed fountains
which drenched unsuspecting visitors.
• Bosco Sacro. Sacred wood. A grove of trees in-
spired by the groves where pagans would worship. In
Renaissance and especially mannerist gardens, this
section was filled with allegorical statues of animals,
giants and fantastic creatures.
• Giardino Segreto. The Secret Garden. An en-
closed private garden within the garden, inspired by
the cloisters of Medieval monasteries. A place for
reading, writing or quiet conversations.
• Semplici.“Simples,”or medicinal plants and herbs.
[1] Attlee, Helen. Italian Gardens – A Cultural History, 2006:
10.
[2] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 13.
[3] Attlee, 2006: 13
[4] Allain and Christiany, L'Art des jardins en Europe, Paris,
2006: 132.
[5] Attlee, 2006: 28

[6] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 14

[7] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 18

[8] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 138

[9] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 140.

[10] Attlee, 2006: 21

[11] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 21.

[12] Attlee, 2006: 22

[13] Attlee, 2006: 26

[14] Attlee, 2006: 27

[15] Attlee, 2006: 30

Wotton House and garden.
[16] Attlee, 2006: 33
There is some Italian influence in the Elizabethan part of
[17] Allain and Christiany, 2006
the garden at Hardwick Hall. An Italian garden at Wotton
House in Surrey, planted between 1643 and 1652 by John [18] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 178.
8.6. REFERENCES 53

[19] The present Fountain of Neptune was built in 1927

[20] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 182

[21] Montaigne, M. E.. de, Journal de voyage en Italie, Le

Livre de poche, 1974.

[22] Attlee, 2006: 79.

[23] Cited by Attlee, 2006: 85

[24] Cited by Attlee, 2006: 87

[25] Coffin, David The Villa in the Life of Renaissance Rome,

Princeton University Press, 1979, p. 140

[26] • Francesco Pona: Sileno overo Delle Bellezze del

Luogo dell'Ill.mo Sig. Co. Gio. Giacomo Giusti,
1620 Angelo Tamo, Verona * Francesco Pona: Il
Paradiso de' Fiori overo Lo archetipo de' Giardini,
1622 Angelo Tamo, Verona

[27] Alice M. Coats,“Forgotten Gardeners, II: John Graefer”

The Garden History Society Newsletter No. 16 (February
1972), pp. 4–7.

[28] Wenzler, Architecture du jardin, pg. 12

[29] Philippe Prevot, Histoire des jardins, pg. 107

[30] Prevot, Histoire des Jardins, 114

[31] Bernard Jeannel, Le Nôtre, Éd. Hazan, p. 17

[32] Nairn, Pevsner & Cherry 1971, p. 42.

[33] English Heritage.

8.6 References
• Pona, Francesco (1622), Il Paradiso de' Fiori overo
Lo archetipo de' Giardini, Angelo Tamo in Verona

• English Heritage, Wotton House - Wotton - Surrey

- England, BritishListedBuildings.co.uk, retrieved
September 2011 External link in |publisher= (help)
• Nairn, Ian; Pevsner, Nikolaus; Cherry, Bridget
(1971) [1962], Cherry, Bridget, ed., Surrey, Build-
ings of England (2, illustrated, revised, reprint ed.),
Penguin
Chapter 9

Italian Renaissance garden

The Italian Renaissance garden was a new style of gar-

den which emerged in the late 15th century at villas in
Rome and Florence, inspired by classical ideals of order
and beauty, and intended for the pleasure of the view of
the garden and the landscape beyond, for contemplation,
and for the enjoyment of the sights, sounds and smells of
the garden itself.
In the late Renaissance, the gardens became larger,
grander and more symmetrical, and were filled with foun-
tains, statues, grottoes, water organs and other features
designed to delight their owners and amuse and impress
visitors. The style was imitated throughout Europe, in-
fluencing the gardens of the French Renaissance and the
English garden.

9.1 The classical influence on the

Italian Renaissance garden

Gardens of Villa Garzoni

sance scholars of classical Roman models. They were

The Fontana dell'Ovato (“Oval Fountain”) at the Villa d'Este
at Tivoli (1572)
Prior to the Italian Renaissance, Italian Medieval gar-
dens were enclosed by walls, and were devoted to growing
vegetables, fruits and medicinal herbs, or, in the case of
monastery gardens, for silent meditation and prayer. The
Italian Renaissance garden broke down the wall between
the garden, the house, and the landscape outside.* [1]
The Italian Renaissance garden, like Renaissance art and
architecture, emerged from the rediscovery by Renais-
inspired by the descriptions of ancient Roman gardens
given by Ovid in his Metamorphoses; by the letters of
Pliny the Younger, by Pliny the Elder's Naturalis Histo-
ria; and in Rerum Rusticanum by Varro, all of which gave
detailed and lyrical description of the gardens of Roman
villas.* [2]
Pliny the Younger described his life at his villa at Lauren-
tum: " ...a good life and a genuine one, which is happy and
honourable, more rewarding than any“business”can be.
You should take the first opportunity to leave the din, the
futile bustle and useless occupations of the city and de-
vote yourself to literature or to leisure.”* [3] The purpose
of a garden, according to Pliny, was "otium,”which could
be translated as seclusion, serenity, or relaxation, which
was the opposite of the idea of “negotium”that often
classified busy urban life. A garden was a place to think,

54
9.4. POWER AND MAGNIFICENCE - THE POLITICAL SYMBOLISM OF THE RENAISSANCE GARDEN 55

relax, and escape.* [3]

Pliny described shaded paths bordered with hedges, orna-
mental parterres, fountains, and trees and bushes trimmed
to geometric or fantastic shapes; all features which would
become part of the future Renaissance garden.* [4]

9.2 Alberti and the principles of

the Renaissance Garden

The first Renaissance text to include garden design was

De Re Aedificatoria ('The Ten Books of Architecture'),
by Leon Battista Alberti (1404–1472). He drew upon the
architectural principles of Vitruvius,* [5] and used quota-
tions from Pliny the Elder and Pliny the Younger to de-
scribe what a garden should look like and how it should The Apennine Colossus by Giambologna in the gardens of Villa
be used. He argued that a villa should both be looked at di Pratolino, about 1580
and a place to look from; that the house should be placed
above the garden, where it could be seen and the owner
could look down into the garden.* [3]
Alberti wrote:“The construction will give pleasure to the
visitor if, when they leave the city, they see the villa in all
its charm, as if to seduce and welcome the new arrivals.
Toward this end, I would place it on a slightly elevated
place. I would also have the road climb so gently that
it fools those who take it to the point that they do not
realize how high they have climbed until they discover
the countryside below.”* [6]
Within the garden, Alberti wrote: "...You should place
porticos for giving shade, planters where vines can climb,
placed on marble columns; vases and amusing statues,
provided they are not obscene. You should also have rare
plants.... Trees should be aligned and arranged evenly,
each tree aligned with its neighbours.”* [6]
9.3 The literary influence on the
Italian Renaissance Garden
A popular romance, The Hypnerotomachia Poliphili,
(Poliphilo's Strife of Love in a Dream), published in 1499
in Venice by the monk Francesco Colonna, also had an
important influence on the gardens of the Renaissance.
It described the voyage and adventures of a traveller,
Poliphile, through fantastic landscapes, looking for his
love, Polia. The scenes described in the book and the
accompanying woodcut illustrations influenced many Re-
naissance gardens; they included a lake-island (as at the
Boboli Gardens), giants emerging from the earth (as at
Villa di Pratolino), the labyrinth, and the fountain of
Venus (as at Villa di Castello) where Poliphile and Po-
lia were reconciled.* [7]
9.4 Power and magnificence - the
political symbolism of the Re-
naissance garden
While the early Italian Renaissance gardens were de-
signed for contemplation and pleasure with tunnels of
greenery, trees for shade, an enclosed giardino segreto
(secret garden) and fields for games and amusements, the
Medici, the ruling dynasty of Florence, used gardens to
demonstrate their own power and magnificence. “Dur-
ing the first half of the sixteenth century, magnificence
came to be perceived as a princely virtue, and all over
the Italian peninsula architects, sculptors, painters, poets,
historians and humanist scholars were commissioned to
concoct a magnificent image for their powerful patrons.”
*
[8] The central fountain at Villa di Castello featured a
statue of Hercules defeating Antaeus, alluding to the tri-
umph of the garden's builder, Cosimo de' Medici. over a
faction of Florentine nobles who had tried to overthrow
him. * [9] The garden was a form of political theater, pre-
senting the power, wisdom, order, beauty and glory that
the Medici had brought to Florence.
9.5 Glossary of the Italian Renais-
sance Garden
• fontaniere. The fountain-maker, a hydraulic engi-
neer who designed the water system and fountains.
• giochi d'acqua. water tricks. Concealed fountains
which drenched unsuspecting visitors.
• Bosco Sacro. Sacred wood. A grove of trees in-
spired by the groves where pagans would worship. In
56 CHAPTER 9. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDEN

Renaissance and especially mannerist gardens, this Poliziano, tutor to the Medici children, described the gar-
section was filled with allegorical statues of animals, den in a letter: "..Seated between the sloping sides of the
giants and fantastic creatures. mountains we have here water in abundance and being
constantly refreshed with moderate winds find little in-
• Giardino Segreto. The Secret Garden. An en- convenience from the glare of the sun. As you approach
closed private garden within the garden, inspired by the house it seems embosomed in the wood, but when you
the cloisters of Medieval monasteries. A place for reach it you find it commands a full prospect of the city.”
reading, writing or quiet conversations. *
[11]
• Semplici.“Simples,”or medicinal plants and herbs.
9.6.2 The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza,
Tuscany (1459)
9.6 Gardens of the Early Italian
Renaissance

9.6.1 The Medici Villa at Fiesole (1455-

1461)

Gardens of the Palazzo Piccolomini

The Palazzo Piccolomini at Pienza, was built by Enea

Silvio Piccolomini, who was Pope from 1458 to 1464,
under the name of Pius II. He was a scholar of Latin
and wrote extensively on education, astronomy and so-
cial culture.* [12] In 1459, he constructed a palace for
Villa Medici in Fiesole.
himself and his Cardinals and court in his small native
town of Pienza. Like the Villa Medici, a major feature
The oldest existing Italian Renaissance garden is at the
of the house was the commanding view to be had from
Villa Medici in Fiesole, north of Florence. It was cre-
the loggia over the valley, the Val d'Orcia, to the slopes of
ated sometime between 1455 and 1461 by Giovanni de'
Mount Amiata. Closer to the house, there were terraces
Medici (1421–1463) the son of Cosimo de' Medici, the
with geometric flowerbeds surrounding fountains and or-
founder of the Medici dynasty. Unlike other Medici fam-
namented with bushes trimmed into cones and spheres
ily villas that were located on flat farmland, this villa was
similar to the garden of Pliny described in Alberti's De
located on a rocky hillside with a view over Florence.
Re Aedificatoria.* [13] The garden was designed to open
The Villa Medici followed Alberti's precepts that a villa to the town, the palace and the view.
should have a view 'that overlooks the city, the owner's
land, the sea or a great plain, and familiar hills and moun-
tains,' and that the foreground have 'the delicacy of gar- 9.6.3 The Cortile del Belvedere in the Vat-
dens.'* [10] The garden has two large terraces, one at the ican Palace, Rome (1504-1513)
ground floor level and the other at the level of the first
floor. From the reception rooms on the first floor, guests Main article: Cortile del Belvedere
could go out to the loggia and from there to the garden so
the loggia was a transition space connecting the interior
In 1504, Pope Julius II commissioned the architect
with the exterior. Unlike later gardens, the Villa Medici
Donato Bramante to recreate a classical Roman plea-
did not have a grand staircase or other feature to link the
sure garden in the space between the old papal Vatican
two levels. palace in Rome and the nearby Villa Belvedere. His
The garden was inherited by his nephew, Lorenzo de' model was the ancient sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia
Medici, who made it a meeting place for poets, artists, at Palestrina or ancient Praeneste, and he used the classi-
writers and philosophers. In 1479, the poet Angelo cal ideals of proportion, symmetry and perspective in his
9.7. GARDENS OF THE HIGH RENAISSANCE
design. He created a central axis to link the two buildings,
and a series of terraces connected by double ramps, mod-
elled after those at Palestrina. The terraces were divided
into squares and rectangles by paths and flowerbeds, and
served as an outdoor setting for Pope Julius's extraordi-
nary collection of classical sculpture, which included the
famous Laocoön and the Apollo Belvedere. The heart of
the garden was a courtyard surrounded by a three-tiered
loggia, which served as a theater for entertainments. A
central exedra formed the dramatic conclusion of the long
perspective up the courtyard, ramps and terraces.* [14]
The Venetian Ambassador described the Cortile del
Belvedere in 1523: “One enters a very beautiful garden,
of which half is filled with growing grass and bays and
mulberries and cypresses, while the other half is paved
with squares of bricks laid upright, and in every square a
beautiful orange tree grows out of the pavement, of which
there are a great many, arranged in perfect order....On one
side of the garden is a most beautiful loggia, at one end of
which is a lovely fountain that irrigates the orange trees
and the rest of the garden by a little canal in the center of
the loggia.”* [14]
Unfortunately, the construction of the Vatican Library
in the late 16th century across the centre of the cortile
means that Bramante's design is now obscured but his
ideas of proportion, symmetry and dramatic perspectives
were used in many of the great gardens of the Italian Re-
naissance.* [15]
9.6.4 The Villa Madama, Rome (1516)
Villa Madama (1516)
The Villa Madama, situated on the slopes of Monte Mario
and overlooking Rome, was begun by Pope Leo X and
continued by Cardinal Giulio de' Medici (1478–1534).
In 1516 Leo X gave the commission to Raphael who was
at that time the most famous artist in Rome. Using the
ancient text of De Architectura by Vitruvius and the writ-
ings of Pliny the Younger, Raphael imagined his own ver-
sion of an ideal classical villa and garden. His villa had
a great circular courtyard, and was divided into a winter
57
apartment and a summer apartment. Passages led from
the courtyard to the great loggia from which views could
be gained of the garden and Rome. A round tower on the
east side was intended as garden room in winter, warmed
by the sun coming through glazed windows. The villa
overlooked three terraces, one a square, one a circle, and
one an oval. The top terrace was to be planted in chest-
nut trees and firs while the lower terrace was intended for
plant beds.* [16]
Work on the Villa Madama stopped in 1520, after the
death of Raphael, but was then continued by other artists
until 1534. They finished one-half of the villa includ-
ing half of the circular courtyard, and the northwest log-
gia that was decorated with grotesque frescoes by Giulio
Romano and stucco by Giovanni da Udine. Fine surviv-
ing features include a fountain of the head of an elephant
by Giovanni da Udine and two gigantic stucco figures
by Baccio Bandinelli at the entrance of the giardino seg-
reto, the secret garden.* [17] The villa is now a state guest
house for the Government of Italy.
9.7 Gardens of the High Renais-
sance
One niche inside the grotto of the Villa di Castello, Florence
The middle of the 16th century saw the construction by
the Medicis and other wealthy families and individuals,
of a series of magnificent gardens that followed the prin-
ciples of Alberti and Bramante; they were usually sited on
a hilltop or slopes of a mountain; had a series of symmet-
rical terraces, one above the other, along a central axis;
the house looked over the garden and landscape beyond
58
Statue of January, Villa di Castello
Garden of Villa d'Este. Fish ponds.
and it could itself be seen from the bottom of the gar-
den. Developments in hydrology meant that the gardens
were equipped with increasingly elaborate and majestic
cascades and fountains, and statues which recalled the
grandeur of Ancient Rome.* [18]
9.7.1 Villa di Castello, Tuscany (1538)
Villa di Castello was the project of Cosimo I de' Medici,
first Duke of Tuscany, begun when he was only seven-
teen. It was designed by Niccolò Tribolo who designed
two other gardens: the Giardino dei Semplici (1545) and
the Boboli Gardens (1550) for Cosimo.
The garden was laid out on a gentle slope between the villa
and the hill of Monte Morello. Tribolo first built a wall
across the slope, dividing it into an upper garden filled
with orange trees, and a lower garden that was subdivided
into garden rooms with walls of hedges, rows of trees and
tunnels of citrus trees and cedars. A central axis, articu-
lated by a series of fountains, extended from the villa up
to the base of Monte Morello. In this arrangement, the
garden had both grand perspectives and enclosed, private
When the last of the Medicis died in 1737, the garden
spaces began to be altered by its new owners, the House of Lor-
The lower garden had a large marble fountain that was raine; the labyrinth was demolished and the statue of
CHAPTER 9. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDEN
Fountain of Diana, Villa d'Este
meant to be seen against a backdrop of dark cypresses,
with figures of Hercules and Antaeus. Just above this
fountain, in the centre of the garden, was a labyrinth
formed by cypress, laurel, myrtle, roses and box hedges.
Concealed in the middle of the labyrinth was another
fountain, with a statue of Venus. Around this fountain,
Cosimo had bronze pipes installed under the tiles for
giochi d'acqua (“water tricks”), which were concealed
conduits which could be turned on with a key to drench
unsuspecting guests. Another unusual feature was a tree
house concealed in an ivy-covered oak tree, with a square
dining room inside the tree.* [19]
At the far end of the garden and set against a wall, Tri-
bolo created an elaborate grotto, decorated with mosaics,
pebbles, sea shells, imitation stalactites, and niches with
groups of statues of domestic and exotic animals and
birds, many with real horns, antlers and tusks. The ani-
mals symbolized the virtues and accomplishments of past
members of Medici family. Water flowed from the beaks,
wings and claws of the animals into marble basins below
each niche. A gate could close suddenly behind visitors,
and they would be soaked by hidden fountains.* [20]
Above the grotto, on the hillside, was small wood, or
bosco, with a pond in the center. In the pond is a bronze
statue of a shivering giant, with cold water running down
over his head, which represents either the month of Jan-
uary or the Apennine Mountains.
9.8. MANNERISM AND THE GARDENS OF THE LATE RENAISSANCE 59

Venus was moved to the Villa La Petraia. But long be- in the garden. The myth of Ippolito, the mythical name-
fore then, the garden had been described by many am- sake of the owner, was illustrated by two grottos, that of
bassadors and foreign visitors and had become famous Asclepius and Diana.* [24]
throughout Europe. Its principles of perspective, propor- The Fountain of the Owl used a series of bronze pipes
tion and symmetry, its geometric planting beds and rooms like flutes to make the sound of birds but the most fa-
with walls of trees and hedges, were adapted in both the mous feature of the garden was the great Organ Foun-
gardens of the French Renaissance and the garden à la tain. It was described by the French philosopher Michel
française which followed.* [21] de Montaigne, who visited the garden in 1580: “The
music of the Organ Fountain is true music, naturally cre-
ated...made by water which falls with great violence into
9.7.2 Villa d'Este at Tivoli (1550-1572) a cave, rounded and vaulted, and agitates the air, which is
forced to exit through the pipes of an organ. Other water,
The Villa d'Este at Tivoli is one of the grandest and passing through a wheel, strikes in a certain order the key-
best-preserved of the Italian Renaissance gardens. It was board of the organ. The organ also imitates the sound of
created by Cardinal Ippolito II d'Este, son of Alfonso I trumpets, the sound of cannon, and the sound of muskets,
d'Este, the Duke of Ferrara, and Lucrezia Borgia. He made by the sudden fall of water ...* [25]
was made a Cardinal at the age of twenty-nine and be-
The garden was substantially changed after the death of
came governor of Tivoli in 1550. To develop his res-
the Cardinal and in the 17th century, and many statues
idence, he took over a former Franciscan convent, and
were sold, but the basic features remain, and the Organ
for the garden he bought the adjoining steep hillside and
Fountain has recently been restored and plays music once
the valley below. His chosen architect was Pirro Ligorio,
again.
who had been carrying out excavations for Ippolito at the
nearby ruins of the ancient Villa Adriana, or Hadrian's
Villa, the extensive country residence of the Roman Em-
peror, Hadrian, that had numerous elaborate water fea-
tures.* [22]
Ligorio created the garden as a series of terraces descend- 9.8 Mannerism and the gardens of
ing the steep hillside at the edge of the mountains over- the Late Renaissance
looking the plain of Latium. The terraces were connected
by gates and grand stairways starting from a terrace below
the villa and traversing down to the Fountain of Dragons Mannerism was a style which developed in painting in the
at the foot of the garden. The stairway was crossed by 1520s, which defied the traditional rules of Renaissance
five traversal alleys on the different levels, which were painting. “Mannerist paintings were intensely stylish,
divided into rooms by hedges and trellises covered with polished and complex, their composition bizarre, the sub-
vines. At the crossing points of the stairway and the al- ject matter fantastic.”* [26] This also describes other
leys there were pavilions, fruit trees, and aromatic plants. mannerist gardens which appeared beginning about 1560.
At the top, the promenade used by the Cardinal passed
below the villa and led in one direction to the grotto of
Diana, and in the other to the grotto of Asclepius.
The glory of the Villa d'Este was the system of fountains,
fed by two aqueducts that Ligorio constructed from the 9.8.1 Villa della Torre (1559)
River Aniene. In the centre of the garden, the alley of one
hundred fountains (which actually had two hundred foun- The Villa della Tore, built for Giulio della Torre (1480–
tains), crossed the hillside, connecting the Oval Fountain 1563), a law professor and humanist scholar in Verona,
with the Fountain of Rome, which was decorated with was a parody of the classical rules of Vitruvius; the
models of the famous landmarks of Rome. On a lower peristyle of the building was in the perfectly harmonious
level, another alley passed by the Fountain of Dragons Vitruvius style, but some of the stones were rough-cut
and joined the Fountain of Proserpina with the Fountain and of different sizes and decorated with masks which
of the Owl. Still lower, an alley of fishponds connected sprayed water, which jarred the classical harmony.“The
the Fountain of the Organ to the site of a proposed Foun- building was deformed: it seemed to be caught in a
tain of Neptune.* [23] strange, amorphous condition, somewhere crude rustic
Each fountain and path told a story, linking the d'Este simplicity and classical perfection.”* [27] The fireplaces
family to the legends of Hercules and Hippolytus or Ip- inside were in the forms of the mouths of gigantic masks.
polito, the mythical son of Theseus and Hippolyta, the Outside, the garden was filled with disturbing architec-
Queen of the Amazons. The central axis led to the Foun- tural elements, including a grotto whose entrance repre-
tain of Dragons, which illustrated one of the labours of sented the mouth of hell, with eyes that showed fires burn-
Hercules, and three other statues of Hercules were found ing inside.
60 CHAPTER 9. ITALIAN RENAISSANCE GARDEN

The Italian Renaissance also saw a revolution in the study

of botany through the systematic classification of plants
and the creation of the first botanical gardens. During
the Middle Ages, plants were studied for the medicinal
uses. Until the 16th century, the standard work on botany
was De Materia Medica written in the 1st century AD by
a Greek physician, Pedanius Dioscorides, that described
six hundred plants but lacked many of the native plants
of Italy and had vague descriptions with stylized and in-
exact illustrations.* [30] In 1533, the University of Padua
created the first chair of botany and appointed Francesco
Bonafede as the first Professor Simplicium- professor of
'simples,' or medicinal plants. In 1545, a scholar from the
medical school of the University of Padua, Pietro Andrea
Sacro Bosco, the ogre at the mouth of hell (1552-1584) Mattioli, wrote a new book on medicinal herbs, Commen-
tarii in libros sex Pedanii Dioscoridis, which, in successive
editions, systematically described and gave the medicinal
9.8.2 Sacro Bosco at Bomarzo, Lazio uses of twelve hundred different plants. Such scientific
(1552-1584) work was aided by sailors and explorers returning from
the New World, Asia and Africa, who brought back sam-
The Sacro Bosco, or “Sacred Wood,”was the most fa- ples of plants unknown in Europe.
mous and extravagant of the Mannerist gardens. It was In June 1543, the University of Padua created the world's
created for Pier Francesco Orsini (1523–84) near the vil- first botanical garden, the Orto botanico di Padova, and
lage of Bomarzo. It was witty and irreverent, and violated the University of Pisa followed with its own garden, the
all the rules of Renaissance gardens; it had no symmetry, Orto botanico di Pisa, in 1545.* [31] By 1591, the gar-
no order, and no focal point. An inscription in the garden den at Padua had over 1,168 different plants and trees,
said:“You who have travelled the world in search of great including a fan palm tree brought from Egypt. In 1545,
and stupendous marvels, come here, where there are hor- in Florence, Cosimo de' Medici founded the Giardino dei
rendous faces, elephants, lions, ogres and dragons.”* [28] Semplici, the garden of medicinal herbs. Soon the med-
The garden was filled with enormous statues, reached by ical schools of the universities of Bologna, Ferrara and
wandering paths. It included a mouth of hell, a house that Sassari all had their own botanical gardens filled with ex-
seemed to be falling over, fantastic animals and figures, otic plants from around the world.* [32]
many of them carved of rough volcanic rock in place in
the garden. Some of the scenes were taken from the ro-
mantic epic poem Orlando Furioso by Ludovico Ariosto, 9.10 Other gardens of the Italian
others from works by Dante Alighieri and Francesco Pe-
trarch. As one inscription in the garden notes, the Sacro Renaissance
*
Bosco “resembles only itself, and nothing else.” [29]
• Giardini di Giusti (1580)

9.9 The first botanical gardens

9.11 Gallery

9.12 See also

• Giardino all'italiana
• Grandi Giardini Italiani
• List of gardens in Italy
• Villa di Castello

9.13 Notes
The Botanical Gardens of Padua (1543), from a contemporary [1] Prevot, Philippe. Histoire des Jardins, Editions Sud-
engraving in the Basilica di Sant'Antonio. Ouest, Bordeaux, 2002
9.14. REFERENCES 61

[2] Attlee, Helen. Italian Gardens - A Cultural History, 2006: 9.14 References
10.

[3] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 13. • Attlee, Helena. Italian Gardens - A Cultural History,
Francis Lincoln Limited Publishers, 2006
[4] Allain and Christiany, L'Art des jardins en Europe, Paris,
2006: 132. • Impelluso,Lucia. Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes,
Editions Hazan, Paris, 2007
[5] Prevot, 2005
• Allain, Yves-Marie and Christiany, Janine L'art des
[6] Alberti, Leon Battista. Édifices destinés aux catégories
jardins en Europe, Citadelles and Mazenod, Paris,
particulières de citoyens, in L'art d'édifier, translated from
the Latin by Pierre Caye and Françoise Choay, Book I, 2006
Paris, 2004: 429.

[7] See Prevot,2005; Allain and Christiany, 2006

[8] Attlee, 2006: 28

[9] Isabella Ballerini, The Medici Villas: The Complete Guide,

p. 33

[10] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 14

[11] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 18

[12] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 138

[13] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 140.

[14] Cited in Attlee, 2006: 21.

[15] Attlee, 2006: 22

[16] Attlee, 2006: 26

[17] Attlee, 2006: 27

[18] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 145

[19] Attlee, 2006: 30

[20] Attlee, 2006: 33

[21] Allain and Christiany, 2006

[22] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 178.

[23] The present Fountain of Neptune was built in 1927

[24] Allain and Christiany, 2006: 182

[25] Montaigne, M. E.. de, Journal de voyage en Italie, Le

Livre de poche, 1974.

[26] Attlee, 2006: 75.

[27] Attlee, 2006: 79.

[28] Cited by Attlee, 2006: 85

[29] Cited by Attlee, 2006: 87

[30] Attlee, 2006: 40

[31] Attlee, 2006: 46. The University of Pisa claims that its
botanical garden was founded in 1543 and that of Padua,
the Orto botanico di Padova, was founded in 1545, giving
them the oldest garden, but according to Helena Attlee,
the claim of Padua is better documented in the archives
of the Republic of Venice

[32] Attlee, 2006: 49

Chapter 10

French formal garden

The French formal garden, also called the jardin à la

française (literally, “garden in the French manner”in
French), is a style of garden based on symmetry and the
principle of imposing order on nature. Its epitome is
generally considered to be the Gardens of Versailles de-
signed during the 17th century by the landscape architect
André Le Nôtre for Louis XIV and widely copied by other
European courts.* [1]

The “Basin of Apollo”in the Gardens of Versailles.

Gardens of the Palace of Versailles.

Parterres of the Orangerie at the Palace of Versailles.

Gardens of the Château de Chantilly.

Gardens of the Grand Trianon at the Palace of Versailles.

10.1 History

62
10.1. HISTORY
Parterres of Vaux-le-Vicomte.
17th-century engraving of Vaux-le-Vicomte.
Parterre of broderies (embroidery-like patterning) at Vaux-le-
Vicomte.
10.1.1 Renaissance Influence
Main article: Gardens of the French Renaissance
The Garden à la française evolved from the French Re-
naissance garden, a style which was inspired by the Italian
Renaissance garden at the beginning of the 16th century.
The Italian Renaissance garden, typified by the Boboli
Gardens in Florence and the Villa Medici in Fiesole, was
characterized by planting beds, or parterres, created in
geometric shapes, and laid out symmetrical patterns; the
63
use of fountains and cascades to animate the garden; stair-
ways and ramps to unite different levels of the garden;
grottos, labyrinths, and statuary on mythological themes.
The gardens were designed to represent harmony and or-
der, the ideals of the Renaissance, and to recall the virtues
of Ancient Rome.
Following his campaign in Italy in 1495, where he saw the
gardens and castles of Naples, King Charles VIII brought
Italian craftsmen and garden designers, such as Pacello
da Mercogliano, from Naples and ordered the construc-
tion of Italian-style gardens at his residence at the Château
d'Amboise and at château Gaillard another private's king
résidence in Amboise. His successor Henry II, who had
also traveled to Italy and had met Leonardo da Vinci, cre-
ated an Italian nearby at the Château de Blois.* [2] Be-
ginning in 1528, King Francis I of France created new
gardens at the Château de Fontainebleau, which featured
fountains, parterres, a forest of pine trees brought from
Provence and the first artificial grotto in France.* [3] The
Château de Chenonceau had two gardens in the new style,
one created for Diane de Poitiers in 1551, and a second
for Catherine de' Medici in 1560.* [4]
In 1536 the architect Philibert de l'Orme, upon his return
from Rome, created the gardens of the Château d'Anet
following the Italian rules of proportion. The carefully
prepared harmony of Anet, with its parterres and surfaces
of water integrated with sections of greenery, became one
of the earliest and most influential examples of the classic
French garden.* [5]
While the gardens of the French Renaissance were much
different in their spirit and appearance than those of the
Middle Ages, they were still not integrated with the ar-
chitecture of the châteaux, and were usually enclosed by
walls. The different parts of the gardens were not har-
moniously joined together, and they were often placed
on difficult sites chosen for terrain easy to defend, rather
than for beauty. All this was to change in the middle of
the 17th century with the development of the first real
Garden à la française.
10.1.2 Vaux-le-Vicomte
The first important garden à la française was the Chateau
of Vaux-le-Vicomte, created by Nicolas Fouquet, the
superintendent of Finances to Louis XIV, beginning in
1656. Fouquet commissioned Louis Le Vau to design the
chateau, Charles Le Brun to design statues for the gar-
den, and André Le Nôtre to create the gardens. For the
first time, that garden and the chateau were perfectly in-
tegrated. A grand perspective of 1500 meters extended
from the foot of the chateau to the statue of the Hercules
of Farnese; and the space was filled with parterres of ever-
green shrubs in ornamental patterns, bordered by colored
sand, and the alleys were decorated at regular intervals
by statues, basins, fountains, and carefully sculpted topi-
aries. “The symmetry attained at Vaux achieved a degee
64 CHAPTER 10. FRENCH FORMAL GARDEN

of perfection and unity rarely equalled in the art of classic elements of the gardens at Versailles, Choisy (Val-de-
gardens. The chateau is at the center of this strict spatial Marne), and Compiègne.
organization which symbolizes power and success.”* [6] Nonetheless, a few variations in the strict geometry of the
garden à la française began to appear. Elaborate parterres
of broderies, with their curves and counter-curves, were
10.1.3 Gardens of Versailles replaced by parterres of grass bordered with flowerbeds,
which were easier to maintain. Circles became ovals,
The Gardens of Versailles, created by André Le Nôtre called rotules, with alleys radiating outward in the shape
between 1662 and 1700, were the greatest achievement of an 'x', and irregular octagon shapes appeared. Gardens
of the Garden à la francaise. They were the largest gar- began to follow the natural landscape, rather than moving
dens in Europe - with an area of 15000 hectares, and were earth to shape the ground into artificial terraces.
laid out on an east-west axis followed the course of the
In the middle of the 18th century, the influence of the
sun: the sun rose over the Court of Honor, lit the Marble
new English garden created by British aristocrats and
Court, crossed the Chateau and lit the bedroom of the
landowners, and the popularity of the Chinese style,
King, and set at the end of the Grand Canal, reflected in
brought to France by Jesuit priests from the Court of the
the mirrors of the Hall of Mirrors.* [7] In contrast with
Emperor of China, a style which rejected symmetry in
the grand perspectives, reaching to the horizon, the gar-
favor of nature and rustic scenes, brought an end to the
den was full of surprises - fountains, small gardens fill
reign of the symmetrical garden à la française. In many
with statuary, which provided a more human scale and
French parks and estates, the garden closest to the house
intimate spaces.
was kept in the traditional à la française style, but the rest
of the park was transformed into the new style, called var-
iously jardin a l'anglaise (the English garden), “anglo-
chinois”, exotiques, or“pittoresques”. This marked the
end of the age of the garden à la française and the arrival
in France of the Jardin Paysager, or landscape garden,
which was inspired not by architecture but by painting,
literature and philosophy.* [10]

10.2 Theorists and Gardeners

Jacques Boyceau, sieur de la Barauderie (c. 1560 – 1633)
the superintendent of royal gardens under Louis XIII,
The Fountain de Latone, Versailles (1678)
became the first theorist of the new French style. His
book, Traité du jardinage selon les raisons de la nature et
The central symbol of the Garden was the sun; the em-
de l'art. Ensemble divers desseins de parterres, pelouzes,
blem of Louis XIV, illustrated by the statue of Apollo in
bosquets et autres ornements was published after his death
the central fountain of the garden. “The views and per-
in 1638. Its sixty-one engravings of designs for parterres
spectives, to and from the palace, continued to infinity.
and bosquets made it a style book for gardens, which in-
The king ruled over nature, recreating in the garden not
fluenced the design the Palais du Luxembourg, the Jardin
only his domination of his territories, but over the court
des Tuileries, and the gardens of Saint Germain-en-Laye.
and his subjects.”* [8]
Claude Mollet (ca 1564-shortly before 1649), was the
chief gardener of three French Kings; Henry IV, Louis
10.1.4 Decline XIII and the young Louis XIV. His father was head gar-
dener at the château d'Anet, where Italian formal garden-
Andre Le Nôtre died in 1700, but his pupils and his ing was introduced to France and where Claude appren-
ideas continued to dominate the design of gardens in ticed, and his son was André Mollet, who took the French
France through the reign of Louis XV. His nephew style to the Netherlands, Sweden and England.
Degots created the garden at Bagnolet (Seine-Saint- André Le Nôtre (1613–1700) was the most important fig-
Denis) for Philippe II, Duke of Orléans (1717) and at ure the history of the French garden The son of the gar-
Champs (Seine-et-Marne), and another relative, Jean- dener of Louis XIII, he worked on the plans of Vaux-le-
Charles Garnier d'Isle, created gardens for Madame de Vicomte, before becoming the chief gardener of Louis
Pompadour at Crécy (Eure-et-Loire) in 1746 and Belle- XIV between 1645 and 1700, and the designer of the
vue (Hauts-de-Seine) in 1748-1750.* [9] The major in- Gardens of Versailles, the greatest garden project of the
spiration for gardens continued to be architecture, rather age. The gardens he created became the symbols of
than nature - the architect Ange-Jacques Gabriel designed French grandeur and rationality, setting the style for Eu-
10.3. PRINCIPLES 65

ropean gardens until the arrival of the English landscape
park in the 18th century.
Joseph-Antoine Dezallier d'Argenville (1680–1765)
wrote Theorie et traite de jardinage, laid out the princi-
ples of the Garden à la francaise, and included drawings
and designs of gardens and parterres. It was reprinted
many times, and was found in the libraries of aristocrats
across Europe.
10.3 Principles
A French estate, 18th century
Jacques Boyceau de La Barauderie wrote in 1638 in his
Traite du jardinage selon les raisons de la nature et d'art
that “the principal reason for the existence of a garden
is the esthetic pleasure which it gives to the spectator.”
*
[12]
The form of the French garden was largely fixed by the
middle of the 17th century. It had the following elements,
which became typical of the formal French garden:
• The residence serves as the central point of the gar-
den, and its central ornament. No trees are planted
close to the house; rather, the house is set apart by
low parterres and trimmed bushes.* [15]
• A central axis, or perspective, perpendicular to the
facade of the house, on the side opposite the front
entrance. The axis extends either all the way to
the horizon (Versailles) or to piece of statuary or
architecture (Vaux-le-Vicomte). The axis faces ei-
ther South (Vaux-le-Vicomte, Meudon) or east-west
(Tuileries, Clagny, Trianon, Sceaux). The principal
axis is composed of a lawn, or a basin of water, bor-
dered by trees. The principal axis is crossed by one
or more perpendicular perspectives and alleys.
• The most elaborate parterres, or planting beds, in the
shape of squares, ovals, circles or scrolls, are placed
in a regular and geometric order close to the house,
to complement the architecture and to be seen from
above from the reception rooms of the house.
• The parterres near the residence are filled with
broderies, designs created with low boxwood to re-
semble the patterns of a carpet, and given a poly-
chrome effect by plantings of flowers, or by colored
brick, gravel or sand.
• Farther from the house, the broderies are replaced
with simpler parterres, filled with grass, and of-
ten containing fountains or basins of water. Be-
yond these, small carefully created groves of trees
(), serve as an intermediary between the formal gar-
den and the masses of trees of the park. “The per-
fect place for a stroll, these spaces present alleys,
stars, circles, theaters of greenery, galleries, spaces
for balls and for festivities.”* [16]
• Bodies of water (canals, basins) serve as mirrors,
doubling the size of the house or the trees.
• The garden is animated with pieces of sculpture,
usually on mythological themes, which either under-
line or punctuate the perspectives, and mark the in-
tersections of the axes, and by moving water in the
form of cascades and fountains.

• A geometric plan using the most recent discoveries

of perspective and optics. 10.3.1 Colors, Flowers and Trees

• A terrace overlooking the garden, allowing the visi- Ornamental flowers were relatively rare in French gardens
in the 17th century, and there was a limited range of col-
tor to see all at once the entire garden. As the French
landscape architect Olivier de Serres wrote in 1600, ors; blue, pink, white and mauve. Brighter colors (yellow,
“It is desirable that the gardens should be seen from red, orange) would not arrive until about 1730, because
above, either from the walls, or from terraces raisedof botanical discoveries from around the world brought
above the parterres.* [13] to Europe. Bulbs of tulips and other exotic flowers came
from Turkey and the Netherlands.;* [17] An important or-
• All vegetation is constrained and directed, to namental feature in Versailles and other gardens was the
demonstrate the mastery of man over nature.* [14] topiary, a tree or bush carved into geometric or fantastic
Trees are planted in straight lines, and carefully shapes, which were placed in rows along the main axes of
trimmed, and their tops are trimmed at a set height. the garden, alternating with statues and vases.
66
At Versailles flower beds were found only at the Grand
Trianon and in parterres on the north side of the palace.
Flowers were usually brought from Provence, kept in
pots, and changed three or four times a year. Palace
records from 1686 show that the Palace used 20,050
jonquil bulbs, 23000 cyclamen, and 1700 lily plants.* [18]
Most of the trees at Versailles were taken from the for-
est; they included hornbeam, elm, linden, and beech
trees. There were also chestnut trees from Turkey and
acacia trees. Large trees were dug up from the forests
of Compiègne and Artois and transplanted to Versailles.
Many died in transplanting and had to be regularly re-
placed.
The trees in the park were trimmed both horizontally and
flattened at the top, giving them the desired geometric
form. Only in the 18th century were they allowed to grow
freely.* [19]
Belvedere Palace's Gardens in Vienna, designed by Dominique dens, with cavalcades, comedies, ballets, and fireworks.
Girard, pupil of André Le Nôtre
10.4 Architecture
Broderies in the gardens of the château de Villandry (Indre-et-
Loire)
The designers of the French garden saw their work as a Another trick used by French garden designers was the
branch of architecture, which simply extended the space Ha-ha (fr: saute-de loup). This was a method used to
of the building to the space outside the walls, and ordered conceal fences which crossed long alleys or perspectives.
CHAPTER 10. FRENCH FORMAL GARDEN
nature according to the rules of geometry, optics and per-
spective. Gardens were designed like buildings, with a
succession of rooms which a visitor could pass through
following an established route, hallways, and vestibules
with adjoining chambers. They used the language of ar-
chitecture in their plans; the spaces were referred to as
salles, chambres and théâtres of greenery. The “walls”
were composed of hedges, and “stairways”of water.
On the ground were tapis, or carpets, of grass, brodés,
or embroidered, with plants, and the trees were formed
into rideaux, or curtains, along the alleys. Just as archi-
tects installed systems of water into the chateux, they laid
out elaborate hydraulic systems to supply the fountains
and basins of the garden. Long basins full of water re-
placed mirrors, and the water from fountains replaced
chandeliers. In the bosquet du Marais in the gardens of
Versailles, André Le Nôtre placed tables of white and
red marble for serving meals. The flowing water in the
basins and fountains imitated water pouring into carafes
and crystal glasses.* [20] The dominant role of architec-
ture in the garden did not change until the 18th century,
when the English garden arrived in Europe, and the inspi-
ration for gardens began to come not from architecture
but from romantic painting.
10.5 Theatre
The Garden à la francaise was often used as a setting for
plays, spectacles, concerts, and displays of fireworks. In
1664, Louis XIV celebrated a six-day festival in the gar-
Gardens of Versailles included a theatre of water, dec-
orated with fountains and statues of the infancy of the
gods (destroyed between 1770 and 1780). Full-size ships
were constructed for sailing on the Grand Canal, and the
garden had an open-air ballroom, surrounded by trees; a
water organ, a labyrinth, and a grotto.* [21]
10.6 Perspective
The architects of the garden à la française did not stop
at applying the rules of geometry and perspective to their
work – in the first published treatises on gardens, in the
17th century, they devoted chapters to the subject of how
to correct or improve perspective, usually to create the il-
lusion of greater distance. This was often done by having
alleys become narrower, or having rows of trees that con-
verged, or were trimmed so that they became gradually
shorter, as they went farther away from the center of the
garden or from the house. This created the illusion that
the perspective was longer and that the garden was larger
than it actually was.
10.8. LIST 67

A deep and wide trench with vertical wall of stone on one
side was dug wherever a fence crossed a view, or a fence
was placed in bottom of the trench, so that it was invisible
to the viewer.
As gardens became more and more ambitious and elabo-
rate through the 17th century, the garden no longer served
as a decoration for the chateau; At Chantilly and at Saint-
Germain, the chateau became a decorative element of the
much larger garden.
randole(centerpiece) candélabre (candelabra), and cor-
beille (bouquet), La Boule en l'air (Ball in the air), and
L'Evantail (the fan). This art was closely associated with
the fireworks of the time, which tried to achieve similar
effects with fire instead of water. Both the fountains and
fireworks were often accompanied by music, and were
designed to show how nature (water and fire) could be
shaped by the will of man.* [24]
Another important development was in horticulture, in
the ability to raise plants from warmer climates in the
northern European climate by protecting them inside
buildings and bringing them outdoors in pots. The first
orangerie were built in France in the 16th century follow-
ing the introduction of the orange tree after the Italian
Wars. The orangerie at Versailles has walls five meters
thick, with a double wall that maintains temperatures in
winter between 5 and 8 degrees Celsius (41 and 46 °F).
Today it can shelter 1055 trees.

10.8 List
Garden à la française of the Branicki Palace in Białystok
10.8.1 Predecessors in the Renaissance
Style

10.7 Technologies • Château d'Anet (1536)

• Château de Villandry (1536, destroyed in the 19th

The appearance of the French garden in the 17th and 18th
century and recreated beginning in 1906)
centuries was a result of the development of several new
technologies. The first was géoplastie, the science of • Chateau Fontainebleau (1522–1540)
moving large amounts of earth. This science had sev-
eral technological developments. This science had come • Château de Chenonceau, gardens of Diane de
from the military, following the introduction of cannon Poitiers and Catherine de Medici (1559–1570)
and modern siege warfare, when they were required to dig
trenches and build walls and earth fortifications quickly.
This led to the development of baskets for carrying earth 10.8.2 Gardens Designed by André Le
on the back, wheelbarrows, carts and wagons. Andre Nôtre* [25]
LeNotre adapted these methods to build the level ter-
races, and to dig canals and basins on a grand scale.* [22]
A second development was in hydrology, bringing water
to the gardens for the irrigation of the plants and for use in
the many fountains. This development was not fully suc-
cessful at Versailles, which was on a plateau; even with
221 pumps and a system of canals bringing water from
the Seine, and the construction in 1681 of a huge pump-
ing machine at Marly, there was still not enough water
pressure for all the fountains of Versailles to be turned on
at once. Fontainiers were placed along the routes of the
King's promenades, and turned on the fountains at each
site just before he arrived.* [23]
A related development took place in hydroplasie, the art
and science of shaping water into different shapes as it
came out the fountain. The shape of the water depended
upon the force of the water and the shape of the noz-
zle. New forms created through this art were named Plan of the Château de Clagny and its gardens
tulipe (the tulip), double gerbe (the double sheaf), Gi-
68 CHAPTER 10. FRENCH FORMAL GARDEN

• Vaux-le-Vicomte (1658–1661)

• Château de Versailles (1662–1700)

• Château de Chantilly (1663–1684)

• Château de Fontainebleau (1645–1685)

• Château de Saint-Cloud (1664–65)

• Gardens of the Tuileries Palace (1664)

• Grand Canal of Gardens of Versailles (1668–1669)

• Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1669–1673)

• Parc de Sceaux (1670) A contemporary garden à la française in Provence: Le Pavillon

de Galon
• Château de Dampierre (1673–1783)

• Grand Trianon at Versailles (1687–1688)

• Château de Clagny (1674–1680)

• Château de Meudon

• Château de Cordès (1695)

• Château de Montmirail

• Château de Pontchartrain

Peterhof Palace, St. Petersburg, Russia

10.8.3 Gardens Attributed to André Le
Nôtre
10.8.6 Gardens à la française outside
• Château du Raincy France
• Château de Valgenceusel • Peterhof Gardens, St. Petersburg, Russia (1714–
1725)
• Château de Fages
• Summer Garden, St. Petersburg (1712–1725)
• Château de Courances

• Château de Castres • Tsarskoe Selo Old Garden, Pushkin, Russia (1717–

1720)
• Château de Castries
• Kuskovo Estate, Moscow, Russia (1750–1780)
• Castle of Racconigi
• Blenheim Palace, England (1705–1724)

10.8.4 Later gardens • Herrenhausen Gardens, Hanover, Germany (1676–

1680)
• Château de Breteuil (1730–1784)
• Racconigi Palace, Italy (1755)

10.8.5 19th - 21st century • Branicki Palace, Białystok, Poland (1737–1771)

• Jardin de la Magalone, Marseille, garden by Eduard
Andre, 1891.
• Nemours Mansion and Gardens - du Pont estate,
early 20th century.
• Pavillon de Galon in Cucuron, created in 2004
• Karlsaue, Kassel, Germany (built until 1785)
• Belvedere Palace, Vienna, Austria (designed by
Dominique Girard)
• Schönbrunn Palace, Vienna, Austria (designed by
Jean Trehet)
10.11. REFERENCES 69

10.9 See also 10.11 References

• History of Parks and Gardens of Paris
• Notable Gardens of France
• French gardens in England (The English House)
• Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, L'art des
jardins en Europe, Citadelles et Mazenod, Paris,
2006
• Claude Wenzler, Architecture du jardin, Editions
Ouest-France, 2003

10.10 Notes • Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes,

Hazan, Paris, 2007.
[1] Éric Mension-Rigau,“Les jardins témoins de leur temps”
in Historia, n° 7/8 (2000).
• Philippe Prevot, Histoire des jardins, Editions Sud
Ouest, 2006
[2] Wenzler, Architecture du jardin, pg. 12

[3] Philippe Prevot, Histoire des jardins, pg. 107

[4] Prevot, Histoire des Jardins, 114

[5] Bernard Jeannel, Le Nôtre, Éd. Hazan, p. 17

[6] Prevot, Histoire des jardins, pg. 146

[7] Prevot, Histoire des jardins, pg. 152

[8] Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes, pg. 64.

[9] Wenzer, Architecture du jardin, (pg. 27)

[10] Wenzel, pg. 28.

[11] See Harrap's standard French-English Dictionary, 1934

edition.

[12] Jacques Boyceau de La Barauderie, Traite du jardinage

selon les raisons de la nature et de l'art, Paris, Michel Van-
lochon, 1638.

[13] « Il est à souhaiter que les jardins soient regardés de haut

en bas, soit depuis des bâtiments, soit depuis des terrasses
rehaussées à l'entour des parterres », Olivier de Serres in
Théatre d'architecture ou Mesnage des champs, 1600, cité
par Bernard Jeannel, Le Nôtre, Éd. Hazan, p. 26

[14] Claude Wenzler, Architecture du Jardin, pg. 22

[15] Wenzler, pg. 22.

[16] Wenzler pg. 24

[17] Philippe Prévôt, Histoire des jardins, pg. 164

[18] Philippe Prévôt, Histoire des jardins, pg. 166

[19] Philippe Prévôt, Histoire des jardins, pg. 165

[20] Jean-Marie Constant, Une nature domptée sur ordre du Roi

Soleil in Historia, n° 7/8, 2000, p. 39

[21] Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, L'art des jardins

en Europe.' (pg. 234)

[22] Philippe Prévôt, Histoire des jardins, pg. 167

[23] Philippe Prévôt, Histoire des jardins, pg. 155

[24] Philippe Prévôt, Histoire des jardins, pg. 156

[25] According to the chronology of Yves-Marie Allian, Janine

Christiany, L'art des jardins in Europe, pg. 612
Chapter 11
French landscape garden
Temple d'amour created for Marie Antoinette and the Jardin de
la reine at Versailles
Marie Antoinette's idyllic “hameau de la reine”at Versailles
The French landscape garden (French: jardin paysa-
ger, jardin a l'anglaise, jardin pittoresque, jardin anglo-
chinois) is a style of garden inspired by idealized ro-
mantic landscapes and the paintings of Hubert Robert,
Claude Lorrain and Nicolas Poussin, European ideas
about Chinese gardens, and the philosophy of Jean-
Jacques Rousseau. The style originated in England, as the
"English landscape garden", in the early 18th century and
spread to France, where, in the late 18th and early 19th
century, it gradually replaced the symmetrical French for-
mal garden (jardin à la française).* [1]* [2]
70
11.1 The decline of the jardin à la
française
Main article: French formal garden
Even during the lifetime of Louis XIV and his gardens
of Versailles, the formal, symmetrical jardin à la fran-
çaise was criticized by writers La Fontaine, Madame de
Sévigné, Fénelon and Saint-Simon for imposing tyranny
over nature. In 1709, in his influential book on garden
design, Dezallier d'Argenville called for garden design-
ers to pay more attention to nature than to art. Signs of
a new, more natural style were seen in the design of the
bousquet des Sources at the Trianon, created by André
Le Nôtre, and in the bousquets of the Château de Marly,
created by Hardouin-Mansart.* [3] After the military de-
feats of France at the beginning of the 18th century and
the freezing winter of 1709, the royal treasury was un-
able to finance upkeep of the elaborate gardens of Ver-
sailles. Trees were untrimmed, gardens and paths were
overgrown. France was ready for the introduction of a
new style of gardens.
11.2 The influence of the English
garden
Main article: English landscape garden
The French landscape garden was influenced first of all
by the new style of English landscape garden, particu-
larly those of William Kent at Stowe (1730–1748) and
Rousham (1738–1741), and the garden by Henry Hoare
at Stourhead (begun in 1741), which were themselves
inspired by trips to Italy and filled with recreations of
antique temples. A later influence was the gardens of
Horace Walpole at Strawberry Hill (beginning 1750),
where Gothic ruins replaced antique temples.* [4] Later,
the gardens of Capability Brown, who had studied with
William Kent, had an important influence in France,
particularly his work at Stowe (1748), Petworth (1752),
Chatsworth (1761), Bowood (1763) and Blenheim Palace
11.4. ROUSSEAU'S PHILOSOPHY OF THE LANDSCAPE GARDEN 71

(1769).* [5]
Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to
France by the Abbé LeçBlanc, who published accounts
of his voyage in 1745 and 1751. A treatise on the En-
glish garden, Observations on Modern Gardening, written
by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770,
was translated into French in 1771. After the end of the
Seven Years' War in 1763, French noblemen were able
to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves.
During the French Revolution, many French nobles went
into exile in England, and brought back with them the
new style of gardening.* [6]
11.3 The Chinese influence on the
French landscape garden
gardens. The book was quickly translated into French.
Chambers brought to Europe the Chinese idea that gar-
dens should be composed of a series of scenes which
evoke different emotions, ranging from enchantment to
horror to laughter. Chambers wrote, “The enchanted or
romanesque scenes abound in the marvelous. They pro-
voke a series of violent or opposing sensations; footpaths
leading down to underground passages where mysterious
lights reveal strange groupings; winding roads which pass
through beautiful forests leading to precipices or melan-
choly rivers lined with funerary monuments shaded by
laurels and willows. The horrible scenes present hanging
rocks, cataracts, caverns, dead tree broken by the storm,
burnt or shattered by lightning, and buildings in ruins...
The scenes of horror are only one act in a theatrical pro-
duction that usually ends in a soothing extended perspec-
tive, simple forms and beautiful colors. The laughing
scenes make one forget the enchantment and the horror
of the landscapes that one has passed through.”* [8]
Chambers became the creator of the first Chinese gar-
den in Europe, complete with a Chinese pagoda, at the
Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, in the southwest of Lon-
don. Chambers' book and the Chinese garden he created
at Kew Gardens brought Chinese gardens into fashion in
both England and France. Landscape gardens in France
began to include artificial hills, pagodas, and promenades
designed to provoke emotions ranging from melancholy
to sadness to joy.* [9]

11.4 Rousseau's philosophy of the

Chinese pagoda in the gardens of Chanteloup
landscape garden
Main article: Chinese garden

In 1743, Father Attiret, a French Jesuit priest and painter

in service to the Emperor of China, wrote a series of
letters describing the Chinese gardens he had seen. In
particular he described the Emperor's summer residence,
Yuanming Yuan near Beijing:

A beautiful disorder reigns almost every-

where. An anti-symmetry. Everything works
on this principle: it is a pastoral and natural
countryside that one wants to represent: a soli-
tude and not a well-ordered palace following all
the rules of symmetry and proportions.”* [7]
The Parc Jean Jacques Rousseau at Ermenonville, created 1764
Attiret's letters were a success in both France and in Eng- – 1776 by the Marquis de Vauvray
land, where they were translated and published in 1752.
They had an important influence on what became known The ideas of the French philosopher Jean-Jacques
as the Anglo-Chinese garden. Rousseau (1712 – 1778) had a major influence on the
In 1757 Sir William Chambers, an English writer and landscape garden, and he himself was buried in the
traveler who made three trips to China, published a book first important such garden in France, at Ermenonville.
called The Drawings, buildings, furniture, habits, ma- Rousseau wrote in 1762, on the “nobility of nature":
chines and utensils of the Chinese, with a chapter about “Everything is good when it leaves the hand of the cre-
72 CHAPTER 11. FRENCH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

let the viewer delight the scene from different angles and
light. Girardin described the purpose of his garden in a
book called De la composition des paysages (1777) (“On
the Composition of Landscapes":
The principles taken from Rousseau and transformed
into avenues and landscapes by Girardin and other gar-
den designers were copied in landscape gardens around
France.* [14]

11.5 Painters and the symbolism of

the landscape garden
Rousseau's cenotaph, on a lake island at Ermenonville

ator"; “Everything degenerates in Man's hands.”* [10]

In his novel La Nouvelle Helois Rousseau imagined a per-
fect landscape, where people could be true to themselves.
This imaginary garden became a model for French land-
scape gardens. The French historian Jurgis wrote: “the
theme of this Paradise, once restored by setting free flow-
ers, earth and water, was the guiding principle in the de-
velopment of landscape gardens. It was a glorification of
that which had long been denatured by artifice.”In op-
posing his Elysian Fields, the Orchard at Clarens to the
serried trees sculpted into parasols, fans, marmosets, and
dragons, Rousseau reawakes this myth with its new liber-
Claude Lorrain's paintings influenced the appearance of the
ties.* [11]
landscape gardens in England and France
Rousseau visited England in 1761 and saw the famous
gardens, including that at Stowe, but he criticized the The views in landscape gardens were rarely copied from
mish-mash of different styles there. “It is composed of real nature; they were more often inspired by romantic
very beautiful and picturesque places, of which different paintings, particularly those of Nicolas Poussin, Salvator
features have been chosen from different countries,”he Rosa and Claude Lorrain, who depicted Arcadian land-
wrote.“It all seems natural, except the assembly.”* [12] scapes with mythological scenes.* [15] In France they
were influenced by the paintings and drawings of Hubert
René Louis de Girardin, who created the garden at Er-
menonville, was an avid pupil of Rousseau. He designed Robert, who depicted romantic scenes of crumbling an-
tique ruins seen during his visits to Italy. Robert him-
the garden to illustrate the idyllic landscapes described
in Rousseau's books. He travelled to Paris, was intro- self became a garden designer himself, contributing to
the landscape garden at Betz and the Hameau de la reine
duced to Rousseau, and persuaded him to visit the gar-
den and stay in a small cottage designed to resemble the at Versailles.
house of Julie, called Elysee, described in Rousseau's Landscape Gardens were designed to be allegories, taken
novel La Nouvelle Heloise (“Julie, or the new Heloise"). from literature and painting, and filled with symbols and
Rousseau came to visit in May 1778 and returned fre- messages. They were usually either recreations of the
quently. He stayed at the estate frequently, and was writ- Garden of Paradise, or of the pastoral Arcadia of Roman
ing Les Confessions and the Les Rêveries du promeneur myths, or they were designed to offer a visual tour of the
solitaire (Reveries of a Solitary Walker), and died there history of mankind or of all the world. The landscape was
that year. His remains were placed in a tomb in a grove not enough – it had to have architecture. The French gar-
of poplar trees on a small island in the lake.* [Note 1] dens were filled with fabriques, imitations of Roman tem-
Girardin made the park at Ermenonville a living illustra- ples or ruins or tombs. At Ermenonville, the gardens were
tion of Rousseau's ideas; making carefully constructed ornamented with fabriques representing a Gothic tower,
landscapes, like paintings, designed to invite the visi- an obelisk, the Temple of Philosophy (left unfinished to
tor to take long walks and to feel pure and simple emo- represent the incompleteness of human knowledge), and
tions.* [Note 2] The paths were designed to follow the hill- a hermit's hut.* [16]
sides, climbing up and down, to give a various view, from The gardens at Betz, created by the Duc d'Harcourt and
shadows of groves of trees to sunlight, and meandering to the painter Hubert Robert for the Princess of Monaco,
11.7. CHRONOLOGY OF NOTABLE LANDSCAPE GARDENS IN FRANCE
Model of an Egyptian pyramid in Parc Monceau Gardens
were supposed to be a journey around the world. The dif-
ferent parts of the world were represented by an obelisk,
a Doric temple, a Chinese kiosk, a Druid temple and the
ruins of a medieval chapel. The gardens of the Bagatelle
at Paris contained fabriques in the form of the temple of
the God Pan, the house of the Chinese philosopher, a
Pharaoh's tomb, and a hermit's cell.* [16] As the archi-
tect Carmontelle wrote about the garden he created at
Monceau, “Let us vary the regions so that we may for-
get where we are. Let us change the scenes of a garden
like the decors at the Opera; let us show what the most
able painters can offer as decoration; all periods and all
places.”* [16]
11.6 The influence of explorers and
botanists on the French land-
scape garden
The 18th and early 19th century was an age of discov-
ery and enormous activity in the natural sciences, botany
and horticulture. Explorers, diplomats and missionaries
were instructed to bring new species of plants to France,
where they were acclimated in special gardens at the sea-
ports. In 1764 the larch tree was imported from Eng-
land to France, soon after the cedar of Lebanon. The
dahlia and the chrysanthemum, hydrangea and mimosa
73
were imported from Mexico to France.* [17] The rev-
erend Charles Plumier (1646–1704) brought back the
magnolia, the fuchsia and the begonia from Latin Amer-
ica. Louis Feuilée (1660–1732) brought the calceolaria,
oxalis, opuntia and papaya. Pierre Nicholas Le Chéron
d'Incarville (1706–1757) introduced Sophora japonica.
Bernard de Jussieu (1699–1777) brought the first cedar to
be planted in France (1734), while his brother Joseph de
Jussieu (1704–1779) introduced heliotrope. The explor-
ers Bougainville (1729–1811) and La Pérouse (1741–
1788) brought back numerous plants which made their
way into French gardens. Thanks to their discoveries,
French landscape gardens were soon ornamented with
exotic trees and colorful flowers not seen before in Eu-
rope.* [18]
11.7 Chronology of notable land-
scape gardens in France
11.7.1 The Moulin Joli (1754-1772)
The Moulin Joli (“the pretty mill”), designed by the
landscape architect Claude-Henri Watelet, was probably
the first garden in France designed in the new style.* [19]
It was located along the Seine between Colombes and
Argenteuil. Watelet discovered the site during a walk,
bought it, and created a garden which preserved its natural
beauty. It consisted of three islands, with a rustic house,
a grotto, shelters for animals, a Chinese bridge, a Dutch
bridge and a floating bridge, a mill, and a garden with a
traditional layout. Watelet, who called the garden“L'isle
enchantée”, wrote that his garden was“in a pastoral style
following the long tradition born in antiquity and carried
on by the Italian and French Renaissance.”* [20] Visi-
tors to the garden included the painters Boucher, Hubert
Robert and Elisabeth Vigée-Lebrun. Marie Antoinette
visited several times.* [21]
11.7.2 Ermenonville, Oise
Main article: René Louis de Girardin
Ermenonville Park was designed by René Louis de Gi-
rardin, who spent time as an officer in the army of Louis
XV before retiring to his estate. He had visited Italy,
Switzerland, Germany and England, and was familiar
with the early English landscape gardens. He was partic-
ularly inspired by the garden of the British poet William
Shenstone, Leasowes, which became the model for Er-
menonville.* [21]
In 1776 Girardin published a book, A la composition des
paysages (English:“On the Composition of Landscapes”
), which laid out his theories of gardens, theories that
quoted the French translation of a book on gardening by
74 CHAPTER 11. FRENCH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

Thomas Whateley and the Théorie des jardins of Jean- ité, to design a garden around a small house that he was
Marie Morel (1776). building to the northwest of Paris. Between 1773 and
Girardin created the garden at Ermenonville to be a se- 1778, he created the folie de Chartres (now Parc Mon-
ries of tableaux to be seen from various points at different ceau), one of the most famous French landscape gardens
times of day. The artist Hubert Robert contributed draw- of the time. It departed from the more natural English
ings for its design. The park occupied 100 hectares (250 landscape gardens of the time by presenting a series of
acres), lying in a valley along the River Launette. It took fantastic scenes designed“to unite in one garden all places
ten years to build the garden; ponds needed to be drained and all times."[3]. It included a series of fabriques, or
architectural structures, while it illustrated all the styles
and the river had to be diverted. The 17th-century man-
sion sat on an island in the middle; northwards was all known at the time: antiquity, exoticism, Chinese, Turk-
ish, ruins, tombs, and rustic landscapes, all created to sur-
farmland, and to the west, towards the village, was Le
Désert, a wildlife garden. Girardin filled the garden with prise and divert the visitor.
metaphors representing philosophical, Renaissance and
Mediaeval themes.
The philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau spent the last 11.7.5 Désert de Retz, Yvelines (1774-
weeks of his life in a cottage in this garden, in a part that
1782)
had been inspired by his novel La Nouvelle Heloise (Julie,
or the New Heloise). On his death he was interred on an
The garden was created by François Racine de Monville
island in the river, the Île des Peupliers the neo-classical
(1734–1797), a French aristocrat, musician, architect and
tomb and its attendant grove of poplar trees were depicted
landscape designer. In 1774, de Monville bought a coun-
in several prints of the period - it became a place of pil-
grimage for his many admirers. On October 11th 1794 try estate at Saint-Jacques-de-Retz, which had a farm,
his body was removed and reinterred in the Pantheon in lands, and a formal jardin à la française. He resolved to
Paris near the remains of Voltaire. create a new garden in the new English style. He called
the garden le Désert de Retz,* [Note 4] and planted it
Because of its connection with Rousseau, the garden has with four thousand trees from the royal greenhouses, and
attracted many famous visitors, including Joseph II of rerouted a river and created several ponds.
Austria, King Gustave III, the future Czar, Paul I of
Russia, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Danton, The garden, completed in 1785, contained twenty-one
Robespierre, Chateaubriand, Queen Marie Antoinette fabriques, or architectural constructions, representing
and Napoleon Bonaparte.* [22] different periods of history and parts of the world; they
included an artificial rock, a temple of rest, a theater, a
Chinese house, a tomb, a ruined Gothic church, a ru-
11.7.3 The Chateau de Pompignan (works ined altar, an obelisk, a temple to the god Pan, a Siamese
1745-1780, garden mainly 1766- tent, and an ice-house in the form of a pyramid. The
1774) best-known feature was the ruined classical column, large
enough to hold a residence inside.* [23]
Main article: Chateau de Pompignan

This landscape garden with its follies was built by
Jean-Jacques Lefranc de Pompignan, a friend of
Rousseau.* [Note 3] It featured picturesque structures and
mysterious ruins, and the walks and views took advantage
of the park's site on a hillside overlooking the Garonne
valley and, in the far distance, the chain of the Pyrenees,
stretched out along the southern horizon. The chateau is
still inhabited, and although the parc has been neglected
for a very long time, vestiges of the works and walks are
still to be seen.
11.7.4 Parc Monceau, Paris (1773-1778)
Parc Monceau was designed by Louis Carrogis Carmon-
telle (15 August 1717 – 26 December 1806), a French
dramatist, painter, architect, set designer and author. In
1773, he was asked by the Duc de Chartres, the son of
Louis-Philippe d'Orleans and the future Philippe Egal-
11.7.6 The rustic village as garden feature
(hameau)
Along with the development of the French landscape gar-
den, there was a parallel development in the 18th century
of ornamental farms and picturesque “villages”. The
first such ornamental farm in France was the Moulin Joli,
but there were similar rustic buildings at Ermenonville,
Parc Monceau, and the Domaine de Raincy. In 1774,
the Prince de Condé conceived an entire rustic village,
the Hameau de Chantilly, for his estate at the Château
de Chantilly. The little village was modeled on a farm in
Normandy, and had seven buildings with thatched roofs,
designed by architect Jean-François Leroy. The exteri-
ors were rustic, but the interiors were extremely elegant,
and used for concerts, games, and dinners. They were
used for a reception for members of the Russian imperial
court in 1782.* [24]
11.8. SEE ALSO 75

11.7.7 Jardin de la reine, Versailles, (1774-

1779)

In 1749 Louis XV had created a “jardin d'instruction”

next to the gardens of Versailles, with domestic animals, a
kitchen garden, and a botanical garden of plants brought
from around the world. In 1750, he added a pavilion,
designed by Jacques-Ange Gabriel, with a formal garden,
and a few winding paths and bousquets of trees in the new
style. A one time he intended the Petit Trianon as a res-
idence for Madame de Pompadour who took an interest
in the design of the house and its gardens. At her death in
1764 the unfinished house passed into the sphere of his Map of the Folie Saint James, 1788
new mistress Madame du Barry, who did little with it be-
ing more interested in her new Pavilion at Louveciennes.
• Château de Méréville, Essonne, (1784–1786)
On his death the still unfinished property passed back into
the possesion of the new king, Louis XVI, who in 1774,
presented it to his wife Marie-Antoinette. She had the 11.8 See Also
house completed and commanded that a new garden be
built in the new fashionable anglo-chinese style. The gar-
• History of Parks and Gardens of Paris
den was designed by Richard Mique, Antoine Richard,
and painter Hubert Robert. Richard was responsible for • French formal garden
the choice of trees and plants, and Mique and Robert took
charge of the composition and the fabriques, or architec-
tural constructions.* [25] 11.9 Notes
The garden was conceived around a small stream whose
source was in a grotto of rocks. On one side was a butte [1] His remains were later moved to the Panthéon in Paris
with an octagonal belvedere on top. The belevedere was after the French Revolution.
also known as the pavilion of music, and was decorated
[2] Perhaps the best English equivalent would be Capability
with murals inspired by the paintings of Pompeii. The
Brown.
stream wound through the garden, and was crossed by
bridges or stones. It formed an island on which was placed [3] One of the few works of Lefranc to be read at all to-
the temple de l'Amour.* [25] day and considered by some to be his masterpiece is his
Ode sur la mort de Jean-Baptiste Rousseau [citation to
The construction of the garden required the destruction
come]. 'The Marquis felt himself to be very close to Jean-
of the old botanical gardens which had formal layouts and Jacques Rousseau, whose memory he honored in a cel-
several of the greenhouses. Some of the plants were in- ebrated and vengeful ode, and with whom he shared the
corporated into the new gardens, while others were sent same feeling of persecution justifying the escape into soli-
to other Royal gardens and the new Botanical Gardens in tude, and the same taste for a healing Nature in the face
Paris. of life's disillusionment'. (From the French in:Le Parc
À Fabriques du Chateau de Pompignan: Une Illustration
In 1783 Marie Antionette ordered the creation of the
de lʼArt des Jardins dans le Midi de la France, Yves
Hameau de la Reine, the most famous of all the rustic et Marie-Françoise Cranga, in Memoirs de la Société
villages created for gardens of the period. Between 1783 Archéologique du Midi de la France, Toulouse, 2003,
and 1787, the Hamlet was thus created in the spirit of a p198, footnote 51.)
Normandy village, with eleven houses spread out around
the a lake. Five of the buildings were actual residences [4] The term 'désert' was defined at the time in the original
for staff engaged in farm work, while several contained French Encyclopedia as“a place propitious for cultivating
dreams and nostalgia.”
suites of rooms for the Queen and her guests to relax in.

11.7.8 Other gardens 11.10 References

• Gardens of the Château de Bagatelle, Paris (1777– [1] Baltrušaitis 1978.
1784)
[2] Wenzler 2006, p. 27.
• The Folie Saint James, Neuilly, (1777–1780) [3] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 313.

• Hameau de la reine, Versailles (1783–1789) [4] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 280.
76 CHAPTER 11. FRENCH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

[5] Allain & Christiany 2006, pp. 280–283.

[6] Allain & Christiany 2006, pp. 316–318.
[7] Baltrušaitis 1978, p. 23.
[8] Cited in Baltrušaitis 1978, pp. 13–14
[9] Alain & Christiany 2006, pp. 316–317.
[10] Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1762). Émile, ou de l'Éducation
("Emile, or On Education") (in French).
[11] Baltrušaitis 1978, p. 9.
[12] Rousseau, Jean-Jaques (1761). “letter XI”. Julie ou La
Nouvelle Heloise 4th.
[13] de Girandin, R. L. (1777). De la composition des pay-
sages. Geneva.
[14] Racine 2001, pp. 169–177.
[15] Prévôt 2006, p. 181.
[16] Baltrušaitis 1978, p. 11.
[17] Baltrušaitis 1978, p. 51.
[18] Racine 2001, p. 249.
[19] Allain & Christiany 2006.
[20] Monique Mosser, Charles Watelet 1718-1786, Createurs
des jardins et paysages de la Renaissance au debut du XIX
siecle, Arles, Actes Sud.
[21] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 319.
[22] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 322.
[23] Article by Julien Cendres in Racine 2001, p. 167.
[24] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 342.
[25] Allain & Christiany 2006, p. 340.

11.11 Bibliography
• Baltrušaitis, Jurgis (1978). Jardins en France 1760–
1820 (in French). Paris: Caisse National des Monu-
ments Historiques et des Sites. OCLC 174457405.
• Wenzler, Claude (2003). Architecture du Jardin (in
French). Rennes: Editions Ouest-France.
• Prévôt, Philippe (2006). Histoire des jardins (in
French). Editions Sud Ouest.
• Allain, Yves-Marie; Christiany, Janine (2006).
L'art des jardins en Europe (in French). Paris:
Citadelles.
• Racine, Michel, ed. (2001). "de la Renaissance au
debut du XIX siècle". Créateurs des jardins et de
paysages en France de la Renaissance au XXIe siè-
cle (“The landscape gardeners of the 21st century
French renaissance”) I. École Nationale Supérieure
du Paysage.
 Chapter 12
English landscape garden
“English park”redirects here. For the stadium in New
Zealand, see English Park. For the public park in Arme-
nia, see English Park (Yerevan).
“English garden”redirects here. For the public park in
Munich, Germany, see Englischer Garten.
The English landscape garden, also called English
Rotunda at Stowe Garden (1730-38)
landscape park or simply the English garden (French:
Jardin à l'anglaise, Italian: Giardino all'inglese, German:
Englischer Landschaftsgarten, Portuguese: Jardim inglês,
Spanish: Jardín inglés), is a style of "landscape" garden
which emerged in England in the early 18th century, and
spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, sym-
metrical jardin à la française of the 17th century as the
principal gardening style of Europe.* [1] The English gar-
den presented an idealized view of nature. It drew inspi-
77
The paintings of Claude Lorrain inspired Stourhead and other
English landscape gardens
ration from paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine
and Nicolas Poussin, and, in the Anglo-Chinese garden,
from the classic Chinese gardens of the East,* [2] which
had recently been described by European travellers.* [2]
The English garden usually included a lake, sweeps of
gently rolling lawns set against groves of trees, and recre-
ations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and
other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an
idyllic pastoral landscape. The work of Lancelot“Capa-
bility”Brown was particularly influential. By the end of
the 18th century the English garden was being imitated
by the French landscape garden, and as far away as St.
Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future
Emperor Paul. It also had a major influence on the form
of the public parks and gardens which appeared around
the world in the 19th century.* [3]
12.1 History of the English land-
scape garden
The predecessors of the landscape garden in Eng-
land were the great parks created by Sir John Van-
brugh (1664–1726) and Nicholas Hawksmoor at Castle
Howard (1699–1712), Blenheim Palace (1705–1722),
and the Claremont Landscape Garden at Claremont
House (1715–1727). These parks featured vast lawns,
78 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

12.1.2 Chiswick House

Castle Howard (1699-1712), a predecessor of the English garden

modelled on the gardens of Versailles.

woods, and pieces of architecture, such as the classical

mausoleum designed by Hawksmoor at Castle Howard. Ionic Temple at Chiswick House
At the center of the composition was the house, behind
which were formal and symmetrical gardens in the style Kent created one of the first true English landscape gar-
of the garden à la française, with ornate carpets of floral dens at Chiswick House for Richard Boyle, 3rd Earl of
designs and walls of hedges, decorated with statues and Burlington. The first gardens that he laid out between
fountains. These gardens, modelled after the gardens of 1724 and 1733 had many formal elements of a Garden à
Versailles, were designed to impress visitors with their la française, including alleys forming a trident and canals,
size and grandeur.* [4] but they also featured something novel: a picturesque
recreation of an Ionic temple set in a theatre of trees. Be-
tween 1733 and 1736, he redesigned the garden, adding
lawns sloping down to the edge of the river and a small
12.1.1 William Kent and Charles Bridge- cascade. For the first time the form of a garden was in-
man spired not by architecture, but by an idealized version of
nature.* [6]
The new style that became known as the English gar-
den was invented by landscape designers William Kent
and Charles Bridgeman, working for wealthy patrons, in- 12.1.3 Rousham
cluding Richard Temple, 1st Viscount Cobham, Richard
Boyle, 3rd Earl of Burlington, and banker Henry Hoare;
men who had large country estates, were members of the
anti-royalist Whig Party, had classical educations, were
patrons of the arts, and had taken the Grand Tour to Italy,
where they had seen the Roman ruins and Italian land-
scapes they reproduced in their gardens.
William Kent (1685–1748) was an architect, painter
and furniture designer who introduced Palladian style
architecture to England. Kent's inspiration came from
Palladio's buildings in the Veneto and the landscapes and
ruins around Rome̶he lived in Italy from 1709 to 1719,
and brought back many drawings of antique architecture
and landscapes. His gardens were designed to comple- Garden of Rousham House, by William Kent (1737)
ment the Palladian architecture of the houses he built.* [5]
Charles Bridgeman (1690–1738) was the son of a gar- Rousham House in Oxfordshire is considered by some as
dener and an experienced horticulturist, who became the the most accomplished and significant of William Kent's
Royal Gardener for Queen Anne and Prince George of work.* [7] The patron was General Dormer, who com-
Denmark, responsible for tending and redesigning the missioned Bridgeman to begin the garden in 1727, then
royal gardens at Windsor, Kensington Palace , Hampton brought in Kent to recreate it in 1737. Bridgeman had
Court, St. James's Park and Hyde Park. He collaborated built a series of gardens, including a grotto of Venus, on
with Kent on several major gardens, providing the botan- the slope along the river Cherwell, connected by straight
ical expertise which allowed Kent to realize his architec- alleys. Kent turned the alleys into winding paths, built a
tural visions.* [4] gently turning stream, used the natural landscape features
12.2. THE GREAT AGE OF THE ENGLISH GARDEN
and slopes, and created a series of views and tableaus dec-
orated with allegorical statues of Apollo, a wounded glad-
iator, a lion attacking a horse, and other subjects. He
placed “eye-catchers,”pieces of classical architecture,
to decorate the landscape, and made use of the "ha-ha", a
concealed ditch that kept grazing animals out of the gar-
den while giving an uninterrupted vista from within. Fi-
nally, he added cascades modelled on those of the garden
of Aldobrandini and Pratolino in Italy, to add movement
and drama.* [8]
12.1.4 Stowe House
Palladian Bridge at Stowe (1730-38)
Temple of Ancient Virtue at Stowe (William Kent, 1737)
Stowe, in Buckinghamshire, (1730–1738), was an even
more radical departure from the formal French garden.
In the early 18th century, Richard Temple, 1st Viscount
Cobham, had commissioned Charles Bridgeman to de-
sign a formal garden, with architectural decorations by
John Vanbrugh. Bridgeman's design included an octago-
nal lake and a Rotunda (1720–21) designed by Vanbrugh.
In the 1730s, William Kent and James Gibbs were ap-
pointed to work with Bridgeman, who died in 1738. Kent
remade the lake in a more natural shape, and created a
new kind of garden, which took visitors on a tour of pic-
turesque landscapes. It eventually included a Palladian
bridge (1738); a Temple of Venus (1731), in the form
79
of a Palladian villa; a Temple of Ancient Virtues (1737),
with statues of famous Greeks and Romans; a Temple
of British Worthies (1734–1735), with statues of British
heroes; and a Temple of Modern Virtues, which was de-
liberately left in ruins, which contained a headless statue
of Robert Walpole, Cobham's political rival.* [9]
The garden attracted visitors from all over Europe, in-
cluding Jean-Jacques Rousseau. It became the inspira-
tion for landscape gardens in Britain and on the Conti-
nent. (See French landscape garden.)
12.1.5 Stourhead
Stourhead (1741-80)
Stourhead, in Wiltshire (1741–80), created by banker
Henry Hoare, was one of the first 'picturesque' gardens,
inspired to resemble the paintings of Claude Lorrain.
Hoare had travelled to Italy on the Grand Tour and had re-
turned with a painting by Claude Lorrain. Hoare dammed
a stream on his estate, created a lake, and surrounded the
lake with landscapes and architectural constructions rep-
resenting the different steps of the journey of Aeneas in
the Aeneid by Virgil.* [10]
12.2 The great age of the English
garden
12.2.1 Capability Brown
The most influential figure in the later development of
the English landscape garden was Lancelot“Capability”
Brown (1716–1783) who began his career in 1740 as a
gardener at Stowe under Charles Bridgeman, then suc-
ceeded William Kent in 1748.
Brown's contribution was to simplify the garden by elimi-
nating geometric structures, alleys, and parterres near the
house and replacing them with rolling lawns and extensive
views out to isolated groups of trees, making the land-
scape seem even larger. “He sought to create an ideal
landscape out of the English countryside.”* [11] He cre-
 80 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

circulars round his contacts in the upper classes adver-

Blenheim Palace Park, by Capability Brown
Garden of Chatsworth House, by Capability Brown
ated artificial lakes and used dams and canals to trans- Books. These works greatly influenced other landscape-
form streams or springs into the illusion that a river flowed designers including John Claudius Loudon, John Nash,
through the garden.
He compared his own role as a garden designer to that of
a poet or composer. “Here I put a comma, there, when
it's necessary to cut the view, I put a parenthesis; there I
end it with a period and start on another theme.”* [12] 12.3 The Anglo-Chinese garden
Brown designed 170 gardens. The most important were:
tising his services. To help clients visualize his designs,
Repton produced 'Red Books' (so called for their bind-
ing)* [14] with explanatory text and watercolors with a
system of overlays to show 'before' and 'after' views.* [15]
In 1794 Richard Payne Knight and Uvedale Price simul-
taneously published vicious attacks on the 'meagre ge-
nius of the bare and bald', criticizing Brown's smooth,
serpentine curves as bland and unnatural and champi-
oning rugged and intricate designs, composed according
to 'picturesque theory' that designed landscapes should be
composed like landscape paintings, with a foreground,
a middle ground and a background. Early in his ca-
reer, Repton defended Brown's reputation during the 'pic-
turesque controversy'. However, as his career progressed
Repton came to apply picturesque theory to the practice
of landscape design. He believed that the foreground
should be the realm of art (with formal geometry and or-
namental planting), that the middle ground should have a
parkland character of the type created by Brown and that
the background should have a wild and 'natural' character.
Repton re-introduced formal terraces, balustrades, trellis
work and flower gardens around the house in a way that
became common practice in the nineteenth century.* [16]
Repton published four major books on garden design:
Sketches and Hints on Landscape Gardening (1795), Ob-
servations on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gar-
dening (1803), An Inquiry into the Changes of Taste in
Landscape Gardening (1806) and Fragments on the The-
ory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1816).* [16]
These drew on material and techniques used in the Red
Jean Charles Adolphe Alphand, Hermann Ludwig Hein-
rich Pückler-Muskau and Frederick Law Olmsted.* [16]

• Petworth (West Sussex) in 1752;

• Chatsworth (Derbyshire) in 1761;
• Bowood (Wiltshire) in 1763;
• Blenheim Palace (Oxfordshire) in 1764.

12.2.2 Humphry Repton

Humphry Repton (21 April 1752 – 24 March 1818) was
the last great English landscape designer of the eighteenth
century, often regarded as the successor to Capability
Brown.* [13] Repton hit upon the idea of becoming a The Kew Gardens Pagoda at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew,
“landscape gardener”(a term he himself coined) after London (1761)
failing at various ventures and, sensing an opportunity af-
ter Brown's death, was ambitious to fill the gap and sent The Far East inspired the origins of the English Garden
12.5. THE ENGLISH GARDEN SPREADS TO THE CONTINENT 81

via Holland. In 1685, the English diplomat in The Hague 12.5 The English garden spreads to
and writer Sir William Temple wrote an essay Upon
the garden of Epicurus (published in 1690), which con-
the continent
trasted European theories of symmetrical gardens with
asymmetrical compositions from China, for which he in-
troduced the Japanese term sharawadgi.* [17]* [18]* [19]
Temple had never visited the Far East, but he was in
contact with the Dutch and their discourse on irregular-
ity in design, had spoken to a merchant who had been
in the Far East for a long time, and read the works of
European travellers there. He noted that Chinese gar-
dens avoided formal rows of trees and flower beds, and
instead placed trees, plants, and other garden features in
irregular ways to strike the eye and create beautiful com-
positions, with an understatement criticizing the formal
compositions of the gardens at the Palace of Versailles of
Louis XIV of France.* [20] His observations on the Chi-
nese garden were cited by the essayist Joseph Addison in The English Grounds of Wörlitz were one of the largest English
an essay in 1712, who used them to attack the English parks in 18th-century Europe.
gardeners who, instead of imitating nature, tried to make
their gardens in the French style, as far from nature as Descriptions of English gardens were first brought to
possible.* [21] France by the Abbé Le Blanc, who published accounts
The novelty and exoticism of Chinese art and architec- of his voyage in 1745 and 1751. A treatise on the En-
ture in Europe led in 1738 to the construction of the glish garden, Observations on Modern Gardening, written
first Chinese house in an English garden, in the garden by Thomas Whately and published in London in 1770,
of Stowe House. The style became even more popular was translated into French in 1771. After the end of the
thanks to William Chambers (1723–1796), who lived in Seven Years' War in 1763, French noblemen were able
China from 1745 to 1747, and wrote a book, The Draw- to voyage to England and see the gardens for themselves,
ings, buildings, furniture, habits, machines and utensils of and the style began to be adapted in French gardens. The
the Chinese, published in 1757. In 1761 he built a Chi- new style also had the advantage of requiring fewer gar-
nese pagoda, house and garden in Kew, London, as part of deners, and was easier to maintain, than the French gar-
Kew Gardens, a park with gardens and architecture sym- den.* [25]
bolizing all parts of the world and all architectural styles. One of the first English gardens on the continent was at
Thereafter Chinese pagodas began to appear in other En- Ermenonville, in France, built by marquis René Louis
glish gardens, then in France and elsewhere on the conti- de Girardin from 1763 to 1776 and based on the ide-
nent. French and other European observers coined the als of Jean Jacques Rousseau, who was buried within
term Jardin Anglo-Chinois (Anglo-Chinese garden) for the park. Rousseau and the garden's founder had visited
this style of garden.* [19]* [22] Stowe a few years earlier. Other early examples were the
Désert de Retz, Yvelines (1774–1782); the Gardens of
the Château de Bagatelle, in the Bois de Boulogne, west
of Paris (1777–1784); The Folie Saint James, in Neuilly-
sur-Seine, (1777–1780); and the Château de Méréville,
in the Essonne department, (1784–1786). Even at Ver-
sailles, the home of the most classical of all French gar-
12.4 The gothic revival influence on dens, a small English landscape park with a Roman tem-
English gardens ple was built by the Petit Trianon and a mock village, the
Hameau de la reine, Versailles (1783–1789), was created
for Marie Antoinette. (See the French landscape garden).
In the 1750s, classical architecture and Chinese architec-
The new style also spread to Germany. The central
ture were joined by gothic revival ruins in English gar- English Grounds of Wörlitz, in the Principality of Anhalt,
dens. This was largely the result of Horace Walpole, who was laid out between 1769 and 1773 by Prince Leopold
III, based on the models of Claremont, Stourhead and
introduced gothic revival features into his house and gar-
den at Strawberry Hill in Twickenham.* [23] Stowe Landscape Garden. Another notable example was
At Stowe, Capability Brown followed the new fashion be- The Englischer Garten in Munich, Germany, created in
tween 1740 and 1753 by adding a new section to the park, 1789 by Sir Benjamin Thompson (1753–1814).
called Hawkwelle Hill or the gothic promenade, with a In the Netherlands the landscape-architect Lucas Pieters
gothic revival building.* [24] Roodbaard (1782-1851) designed several gardens and
82 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

parks in this style. The style was introduced to Sweden and imitation ruins.
by Fredrik Magnus Piper. A second style of English garden, which became popular
The style also spread rapidly to Russia, where in 1774 during the 20th century in France and northern Europe,
Catherine the Great adapted the new style in the park of is the late 19th-century English cottage garden.* [27]
her palace at Tsarskoe Selo, complete with a mock Chi-
nese village and a Palladian bridge, modeled after that at
Wilton House. 12.7 Gallery
• Claremont Belvedere
12.6 Characteristics of the English
• Bowood House Gardens, by Capability Brown
garden
• Garden of Pavlovsk Palace near St. Petersburg
• Grotto at Bowood House, by Capability Brown
• Petworth House Garden, by Capability Brown
• The Monopteros in the Englischer Garten in Munich
• Ruins and a grotto in Dessau-Wörlitz
• The pond in Sheffield Park Garden
• The Chinese Tower in the Englischer Garten in
Munich
• Pavilion Shapel in Tsarskoe Selo, Russia

1803 painting of English garden's elements

12.8 See also
The continental European “English garden”is charac-
teristically on a smaller scale and more filled with “eye- • List of landscape gardens
catchers”than most English landscape gardens: grottoes,
temples, tea-houses, belvederes, pavilions, sham ruins, • French landscape garden
bridges and statues, though the main ingredients of the
landscape gardens in England are sweeps of gently rolling • German garden
ground and water, against a woodland background with • Landscape gardens topics
clumps of trees and outlier groves. The name̶not used
in the United Kingdom, where“landscape garden”serves • Landscape design history
̶differentiates it from the formal baroque design of the
• Historic garden conservation
garden à la française. One of the best-known English
gardens in Europe is the Englischer Garten in Munich.
The dominant style was revised in the early 19th century 12.9 References
to include more "gardenesque"* [26] features, including
shrubberies with gravelled walks, tree plantations to sat-
[1] Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, L'Art des
isfy botanical curiosity, and, most notably, the return of jardins en Europe, Citadelles and Mazenod, Paris, 2006.
flowers, in skirts of sweeping planted beds. This is the
version of the landscape garden most imitated in Europe [2] Boults, Elizabeth and Chip Sullivan (2010). Illustrated
in the 19th century. The outer areas of the“home park” History of Landscape Design. John Wiley and Sons. p.
of English country houses retain their naturalistic shap- 175. ISBN 0-470-28933-3.
ing. English gardening since the 1840s has been on a [3] Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes, Monda-
more restricted scale, closer and more allied to the res- tori Electra, Milan
idence.
[4] Philippe Prevot, Histoire des jardins, Editions Sud Ouest,
The canonical European English park contains a num- 2006
ber of Romantic elements. Always present is a pond or
small lake with a pier or bridge. Overlooking the pond [5] See Allain and Christiany, pg. 280.
is a round or hexagonal pavilion, often in the shape of a
[6] Lucia Impelloso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes, pg. 90.
monopteros, a Roman temple. Sometimes the park also
has a“Chinese”pavilion. Other elements include a grotto [7] See John Dixon Hunt, Garden and Grove, London 1986.
12.10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[8] Allain and Christiany, pg. 290
[9] Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes, pg. 96.
[10] Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes, pg. 95.
[11] Allain and Christiany, pg. 282.
[12] Cited in Allain and Christiany, pg. 282.
[13] Patrick Goode Ed. (2009) The Oxford Companion to
Architecture, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-1986-
0568-3
[14] Patrick Taylor Ed. (2006) The Oxford Companion to
the Garden, Oxford University Press ISBN 978-0-1986-
6255-6
[15] John Cannon (2009) The Oxford Companion to British
History, Oxford University Press ISBN 9780199567638
[16] James Stevens Curl (2006) A Dictionary of Architec-
ture and Landscape Architecture,Oxford University Press
ISBN 978-0-1986-0678-9
[17] See Wybe Kuitert “Japanese Art, Aesthetics, and a Eu-
ropean discourse - unraveling Sharawadgi”Japan Review
2014 ISSN 0915-0986 (Vol.27)
[18] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye:
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 28. ISBN
978-0-8047-5945-8.
[19] Stepanova, Jekaterina (2010). Kraushaar, Frank, ed.
Eastwards: Western views on East Asian culture. Bern:
Peter Lang. pp. 155–156. ISBN 978-3-0343-0040-7.
[20] see Wybe Kuitert“Japanese Robes, Sharawadgi, and the
landscape discourse of Sir William Temple and Constan-
tijn Huygens”Garden History, 41, 2: (2013) p.172
[21] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins- Paysagistes, Jarininiers, Po-
etes. Pg. 839-40.
[22] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye:
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 18. ISBN
978-0-8047-5945-8.
[23] Allain and Christiany, pg. 280
[24] Allain and Christiany, pg. 307
[25] Allain and Christiany, pg. 316-318.
[26] The term gardenesque was introduced by John Claudius
Loudon.
[27] From Peasants to Monet - Triumph of English Cottage
Gardens
83
12.10 Bibliography
• Kuitert, Wybe, Japanese Robes, Sharawadgi, and
the landscape discourse of Sir William Temple and
Constantijn Huygens Garden History, 41, 2: (2013)
p. 172
• Kuitert Wybe, Japanese Art, Aesthetics, and
a European discourse - unraveling Sharawadgi
Japan Review 2014 ISSN 0915-0986 (Vol.27)http:
//publications.nichibun.ac.jp/region/d/NSH/series/
jare/2014-08-29/s001/s006/pdf/article.pdf
• Clark, H.F., The English Landscape Garden. Lon-
don, Pleiades. 1948.
• Hussey, Christopher, English Gardens and Land-
scapes 1700-1750. London, Country Life. 1967.
• Prince, Hugh, Parks in England. Shalfleet Manor,
Pinhorns Handbooks: Two. 1967.
• Hunt, John Dixon, The Genius of the Place. The En-
glish Landscape Garden 1620-1820. London, Elek.
1975.
• Jarret, David, The English Landscape Garden. Lon-
don, Academy. 1978.
• Stuart, David C., Georgian Gardens. London, Hale.
1979.
• Jacques, David, Georgian Gardens. The Reign of
Nature. London, Batsford. 1983.
• The English Garden, Phaidon Press, London, 2008.
• Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, L'art des
jardins en Europe, Citadelle at Mazenot, Paris, 2006
• Lucia Impelluso, Jardins, potagers et labyrinthes',
Mondatori Electra, Milan
• Philippe Prévôt, Histoires des jardins, Éditions Sud
Ouest, Bordeaux 2008
• Michel Baridon, Les Jardins - Paysagistes. Jar-
diniers, Poetes. Editions Robert Laffont, Paris,
1998.
• Laird, Mark (1999). The flowering of the landscape
garden: English pleasure grounds, 1720-1800. Uni-
versity of Pennsylvania Press. Retrieved March 16,
2012. ISBN 081223457X
• Francis, Mark; Reimann, Andreas (1999). The
California landscape garden: ecology, culture, and
design. University of California Press. Retrieved
March 16, 2012. ISBN 0520214501
• Worpole, Ken & Orton, Jason, The New English
Landscape, Field Station, London, 2014.
84 CHAPTER 12. ENGLISH LANDSCAPE GARDEN

12.11 External links

• The English Garden Magazine website

• The English Landscape Garden (1600-1818)

Chapter 13

Mughal gardens

The Shalimar Gardens, Lahore

Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the

Mughals in the Persian style of architecture. This style
was heavily influenced by the Persian gardens particularly
the Charbagh structure.* [1] Significant use of rectilinear
layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of
the typical features include pools, fountains and canals
inside the gardens.

13.1 History
The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described his
favourite type of garden as a charbagh. They use the term
bāgh, baug, bageecha or bagicha for garden. This word
developed a new meaning in India, as Babur explains; In-
dia lacked the fast-flowing streams required for the Cen-
tral Asian charbagh. The Agra garden, now known as the
Ram Bagh, is thought to have been the first charbagh. In-
dia, Bangladesh and Pakistan have a number of Mughal
gardens which differ from their Central Asian predeces-
sors with respect to “the highly disciplined geometry”
. An early textual references about Mughal gardens are
found in the memoirs and biographies of the Mughal em-
perors, including those of Babur, Humayun and Akbar.
Later references are found from “the accounts of India”
written by various European travellers (Bernier for ex-
ample). The first serious historical study of Mughal gar-
dens was written by Constance Villiers-Stuart, with the
Mughal Emperor Babur supervising the creation of a garden
title Gardens of the Great Mughals (1913). Her husband
was a Colonel in Britain's Indian army. This gave her a
good network of contacts and an opportunity to travel.
During their residence at Pinjore Gardens, Mrs. Villiers-
Stuart also had an opportunity to direct the maintenance
of an important Mughal garden. Her book makes refer-
ence to the forthcoming design of a garden in the Gov-
ernment House at New Delhi (now known as Rashtrapati
Bhavan).* [2] She was consulted by Edwin Lutyens, and
this may have influenced his choice of Mughal style for
this project. Recent scholarly work on the history of
Mughal gardens has been carried out under the auspi-

85
86
cious guidance of Dumbarton Oaks (including Mughal
Gardens: Sources, Places, Representations, and Prospects
edited by James L. Wescoat, Jr. and Joachim Wolschke-
Bulmahn) and the Smithsonian Institution. Some exam-
ples of Mughal gardens are Shalimar Gardens (Lahore),
Lalbagh Fort at Dhaka, and Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar).
Mughal gardens at the Taj Mahal
From the beginnings of the Mughal Empire, the con-
struction of gardens was a beloved imperial pastime.* [3]
Babur, the first Mughal conqueror-king, had gardens built
in Lahore and Dholpur. Humayun, his son, does not
seem to have had much time for building̶he was busy
reclaiming and increasing the realm ̶but he is known
to have spent a great deal of time at his fatherʼs gar-
dens.* [4] Akbar built several gardens first in Delhi,* [5]
then in Agra, Akbarʼs new capital.* [6] These tended
to be riverfront gardens rather than the fortress gardens
that his predecessors built. Building riverfront rather than
fortress gardens influenced later Mughal garden architec-
ture considerably.
Akbarʼs region, Jahangir, did not build as much, but he
helped to lay out the famous Shalimar garden and was
known for his great love for flowers.* [7] Indeed, his trips
to Kashmir are believed to have begun a fashion for nat-
uralistic and abundant floral design.* [8]
Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan, marks the apex of Mughal
garden architecture and floral design. He is famous for
the construction of the Taj Mahal, a sprawling funereal
paradise in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Ma-
hal.* [9] He is also responsible for the Red Fort at Delhi
which contains the Mahtab Bagh, a night garden that was
filled with night-blooming jasmine and other pale flow-
ers.* [10] The pavilions within are faced with white mar-
ble to glow in the moonlight. This and the marble of
the Taj Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depict-
ing scrolling naturalistic floral motifs, the most important
being the tulip, which Shah Jahan adopted as a personal
symbol.* [11]
CHAPTER 13. MUGHAL GARDENS
Shalimar Bagh, Srinagar, Kashmir
13.2 Design and symbolism
Mughal gardens design derives primarily from the me-
dieval Islamic garden, although there are nomadic influ-
ences that come from the MughalsʼTurkish-Mongolian
ancestry. Julie Scott Meisami describes the medieval
Islamic garden as “a hortus conclusus, walled off and
protected from the outside world; within, its design was
rigidly formal, and its inner space was filled with those
elements that man finds most pleasing in nature. Its es-
sential features included running water (perhaps the most
important element) and a pool to reflect the beauties of
sky and garden; trees of various sorts, some to provide
shade merely, and others to produce fruits; flowers, col-
orful and sweet-smelling; grass, usually growing wild un-
der the trees; birds to fill the garden with song; the whole
cooled by a pleasant breeze. The garden might include a
raised hillock at the center, reminiscent of the mountain
at the center of the universe in cosmological descriptions,
and often surmounted by a pavilion or palace.”* [12] The
Turkish-Mongolian elements of the Mughal garden are
primarily related to the inclusion of tents, carpets and
canopies reflecting nomadic roots. Tents indicated sta-
tus in these societies, so wealth and power were displayed
through the richness of the fabrics as well as by size and
number.* [13]
The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorpo-
rated it into their gardens in many ways. The standard
Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture,
layout, and in the choice of plant life; but more secular
references, including numerological and zodiacal signif-
icances connected to family history or other cultural sig-
nificance, were often juxtaposed. The numbers eight and
nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and can
be found in the number of terraces or in garden architec-
ture such as octagonal pools.* [14]
13.4. SEE ALSO 87

• Brindavan Gardens, Mysore, Karnataka (1927-

1932)

• Rashtrapati Bhavan, New Delhi (1911-1931)

• Vernag

• Chashma Shahi

• Pari Mahal

• Achabal Gardens

13.3.3 Pakistan
Pinjore Gardens in Haryana
• Chauburji

• Lahore Fort

• Shahdara Bagh

• Shalimar Gardens (Lahore)

• Tomb of Jahangir, Lahore

• Hazuri Bagh

• Hiran Minar (Sheikhupura)

• Mughal Garden Wah

Humayun's Tomb, Delhi, India 13.4 See also

• Charbagh gardens
13.3 Sites of Mughal gardens
• Gardens in India
13.3.1 Afghanistan • Lal Bagh
• Bagh-e Babur (Kabul) • Indo-Persian culture

13.3.2 India
13.5 References
• Humayun's Tomb, Nizamuddin East, Delhi
[1] Penelope Hobhouse, Erica Hunningher, Jerry Harpur
• Taj Mahal, Agra (2004). Gardens of Persia. Kales Press. pp. 7–13.

• Ram Bagh, Agra [2] Villiers-Stuart, C. M. (1913). The Gardens of the Great
Mughals. Adam and Charles Black, London.
• Mehtab Bagh, Agra
[3] Jellicoe, Susan. “The Development of the Mughal Gar-
• Safdarjung's Tomb den”, MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; Ettinghausen, Richard.
The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Har-
• Shalimar Bagh (Srinagar), Jammu and Kashmir vard University, Washington D.C. (1976). p109

• Nishat Gardens, Jammu and Kashmir [4] Hussain, Mahmood; Rehman, Abdul; Wescoat, James L.
Jr. The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conservation and
• Yadavindra Gardens, Pinjore Implications, Ferozsons Ltd., Lahore (1996). p 207

• Khusro Bagh, Allahabad [5] Neeru Misra and Tanay Misra, Garden Tomb of Hu-
mayun: An Abode in Paradise, Aryan Books Interna-
• Roshanara Bagh tional, Delhi, 2003
88 CHAPTER 13. MUGHAL GARDENS

[6] Koch, Ebba. “The Char Bagh Conquers the Citadel: an 13.7 External links
Outline of the Development if the Mughal Palace Gar-
den,”Hussain, Mahmood; Rehman, Abdul; Wescoat, • Gardens of the Mughal Empire, Smithsonian Insti-
James L. Jr. The Mughal Garden: Interpretation, Conser-
tution
vation and Implications, Ferozsons Ltd., Lahore (1996).
p. 55 • The Herbert Offen Research Collection of the
Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum
[7] With his son Shah Jahan. Jellicoe, Susan “The Develop-
ment of the Mughal Garden”MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; • मुगल गॉर्डन: बसंत ऋतु में मानों धरती का स्वर्ग:
Ettinghausen, Richard. The Islamic Garden, Dumbarton
श्रवण शुक्ल की रिपोर्ट
Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University, Washington D.C.
(1976). p 115

[8] Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as Garden in Persia and

Mughal India, Scholar Press, London (1982)p 121-123.

[9] Villiers-Stuart, C. M. (1913). The Gardens of the Great

Mughals. Adam and Charles Black, London. p. 53.

[10] Jellicoe, Susan“The Development of the Mughal Garden”

MacDougall, Elisabeth B.; Ettinghausen, Richard. The
Islamic Garden, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard
University, Washington D.C. (1976). p 121

[11] Tulips are metaphorically considered to be “branded by

love”in Persian poetry. Meisami, Julie Scott.“Allegorical
Gardens in the Persian Poetic Tradition: Nezami, Rumi,
Hafez,”International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol.
17, No. 2 (May, 1985), p. 242

[12] Meisami, Julie Scott.“Allegorical Gardens in the Persian

Poetic Tradition: Nezami, Rumi, Hafez,”International
Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 17, No. 2 (May,
1985), p. 231; The Old Persian word pairideaza (translit-
erated to English as paradise) means “walled garden”.
Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as Garden in Persia and
Mughal India, Scholar Press, London (1982), p. 1.

[13] Allsen, Thomas T. Commodity and Exchange n the Mon-

gol Empire: A Cultural History of Islamic Textiles, Cam-
bridge University Press (1997). p 12-26

[14] Moynihan, Elizabeth B. Paradise as Garden in Persia and

Mughal India, Scholar Press, London (1982). p100

13.6 Further reading

• Lehrman, Jonas Benzion (1980). Earthly paradise:
garden and courtyard in Islam. University of Cali-
fornia Press. ISBN 0-520-04363-4.

• Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). Islamic Gardens

and Landscapes. University of Pennsylvania Press.
ISBN 0-8122-4025-1.

• Wescoat, James L.; Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim

(1996). Mughal Gardens: Sources, Places, Repre-
sentations, and Prospects Dumbarton Oaks, Wash-
ington D.C., ISBN 0-88402-235-8.

• मुगल गॉर्डन: बसंत ऋतु में मानों धरती का स्वर्ग:

श्रवण शुक्ल की रिपोर्ट
 Chapter 14

Chinese garden

“Chinese Garden”redirects here. For other uses, see Terrace, Pond and Park of the Spirit (Lingtai, Lingzhao
Chinese Garden (disambiguation). Lingyou) built by King Wenwang west of his capital city,
Yin. The park was described in the Shijing (Classic of
The Chinese garden is a landscape garden style which Poetry) this way:
has evolved over three thousand years. It includes both
the vast gardens of the Chinese emperors and members The Emperor makes his promenade in the Park
of the imperial family, built for pleasure and to impress, of the Spirit,
and the more intimate gardens created by scholars, po-
The deer are kneeling on the grass, feeding
ets, former government officials, soldiers and merchants,
their fawns,
made for reflection and escape from the outside world.
They create an idealized miniature landscape, which is The deer are beautiful and resplendent.
meant to express the harmony that should exist between
The immaculate cranes have plumes of a bril-
man and nature.* [1]
liant white.
A typical Chinese garden is enclosed by walls and in-
cludes one or more ponds, rock works, trees and flowers, The Emperor makes his promenade to the
and an assortment of halls and pavilions within the gar- Pond of the Spirit,
den, connected by winding paths and zig-zag galleries. By The water is full of fish, who wriggle.”- transla-
moving from structure to structure, visitors can view a se- tion in Jardins de Chine, ou la quête du paradis* [5]
ries of carefully composed scenes, unrolling like a scroll
of landscape paintings.* [2]
Another early royal garden was Shaqui, or the Dunes of
Sand, built by the last Shang ruler, King Zhou. (1075-
1046 BC). It was composed of an earth terrace, or tai,
14.1 History which served as an observation platform in the center of
a large square park. It was described in one of the early
14.1.1 Beginnings classics of Chinese literature, the Records of the Grand
Historian (Shiji).* [6]
The earliest recorded Chinese gardens were created in
According to the Shiji, one of the most famous features of
the valley of the Yellow River, during the Shang Dy- this garden was the Wine Pool and Meat Forest (酒池⾁
nasty (1600–1046 BC). These gardens were large en-
林). A large pool, big enough for several small boats, was
closed parks where the kings and nobles hunted game, constructed on the palace grounds, with inner linings of
or where fruit and vegetables were grown. polished oval shaped stones from the sea shores. The pool
Early inscriptions from this period, carved on tortoise was then filled with wine. A small island was constructed
shells, have three Chinese characters for garden, you, pu in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which
and yuan. You was a royal garden where birds and ani- had skewers of roasted meat hanging from their branches.
mals were kept, while pu was a garden for plants. During King Zhou and his friends and concubines drifted in their
the Qin Dynasty (221–206 BC), yuan became the char- boats, drinking the wine with their hands and eating the
acter for all gardens.* [3] The old character for yuan is a roasted meat from the trees. Later Chinese philosophers
small picture of a garden; it is enclosed in a square which and historians cited this garden as an example of deca-
can represent a wall, and has symbols which can represent dence and bad taste.* [7]
the plan of a structure, a small square which can represent During the Spring and Autumn period (722–481 BC), in
a pond, and a symbol for a plantation or a pomegranate 535 BC, the Terrace of Shanghua, with lavishly decorated
tree.* [4] palaces, was built by King Jing of the Zhou dynasty. In
A famous royal garden of the late Shang dynasty was the 505 BC, an even more elaborate garden, the Terrace of

89
90 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN

Gusu, was begun. It was located on the side of a moun-
tain, and included a series of terraces connected by gal-
leries, along with a lake where boats in the form of blue
dragons navigated. From the highest terrace, a view ex-
tended as far as Lake Tai, the Great Lake.* [8]
14.1.2 The Legend of the Isle of the Immor-
tals
bring back the elixir of immortal life, without success.
At his palace near his capital, Xianyang, he created a gar-
den with a large lake called Lanchi gong or the Lake of
the Orchids. On an island in the lake he created a replica
of Mount Penglai, symbolizing his search for paradise.
After his death, the Qin Empire fell in 206 BC and his
capital city and garden were completely destroyed, but
the legend continued to inspire Chinese gardens. Many
gardens have a group of islands or a single island with
an artificial mountain representing the island of the Eight
Immortals.* [9]

14.1.3 Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

Under the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), a new impe-
rial capital was built at Chang'an, and Emperor Wu built
a new imperial garden, which combined the features of
botanical and zoological gardens, as well as the traditional
hunting grounds. Inspired by another version of Chinese
classic about the Isles of the Immortals, called Liezi, he
created a large artificial lake, the Lake of the Supreme
Essence, with three artificial islands in the center repre-
senting the three isles of the Immortals. The park was
later destroyed, but its memory would continue to inspire
Chinese garden design for centuries.
Another notable garden of the Han period was the Garden
of General Liang Ji built under Emperor Shun (125–144
AD). Using a fortune amassed during his twenty years in
the imperial court, Liang Ji build an immense landscape
garden with artificial mountains, ravines and forests, filled
with rare birds and domesticated wild animals. This was
one of the first gardens that tried to create an idealized
copy of nature.* [9]

14.1.4 Gardens for poets and scholars

(221–618 AD)
After the fall of the Han dynasty, a long period of political
A miniature version of Mount Penglai, the legendary home of the instability began in China. Buddhism was introduced into
Eight Immortals, was recreated in many classical Chinese gar- China by Emperor Ming (57–75 AD), and spread rapidly.
dens By 495, the city of Luoyang, capital of the Northern Wei
dynasty, had over 1,300 temples, mostly in the former
An ancient Chinese legend played an important part in residences of believers. Each of the temples had its own
early garden design. In the 4th century BC, a tale in the small garden.* [10]
Shan Hai Jing (Classic of Mountains and Seas) described a During this period, many former government officials
peak called Mount Penglai located on one of three islands left the court and built gardens where they could escape
at the eastern end of the Bohai Sea, between China and the outside world and concentrate on nature and litera-
Korea, which was the home of the Eight Immortals. On ture. One example was the Jingu Yuan, or Garden of
this island were palaces of gold and silver, with jewels the Golden Valley, built by Shi Chong (249–300 AD),
on the trees. There was no pain, no winter, wine glasses an aristocrat and former court official, who in 296 com-
and rice bowls were always full, and fruits, when eaten, pleted a garden ten kilometers northeast of Luoyang. He
granted eternal life. invited thirty famous poets to a banquet in his garden, and
In 221 BC, Ying Zheng, the King of Qin conquered wrote about the event himself:
other rival states and unified China under the Qin Em-
pire, which he ruled until 210 BC. He heard the legend I have a country house at the torrent of the
of the islands and sent emissaries to find the islands and Golden Valley...where there is a spring of pure
14.1. HISTORY
The calligrapher Wang Xizhi in his garden, the Orchid Pavilion
water, a luxuriant woods, fruit trees, bambo,
cypress, and medicinal plants. There are fields,
two hundred sheep, chickens, pigs, geese and
ducks...There is also a water mill, a fish pond,
caves, and everything to distract the look and
please the heart....With my literary friends, we
took walks day and night, feasted, climbed a
mountain to view the scenery, and sat by the
side of the stream.
This visit to the garden resulted in a famous collection
of poems, Jingu Shi, or Poems of the Golden Valley, and
launched a long tradition of writing poetry in and about
gardens.* [11]
The poet and calligrapher Wang Xizhi (307–365) wrote
in his excellent calligraphy the Preface to the Poems Com-
posed at the Orchid Pavilion introducing a book record-
ing the event of the Orchid Pavilion Gathering, another
famous poetry setting at a country retreat called the“Or-
chid Pavilion”. This was a park with a meandering
stream. He brought together a group of famous poets, and
seated them beside the stream. Then he placed cups of
wine in the stream, and let them float. If the cup stopped
beside one of the poets, he was obliged to drink it and
then compose a poem. The garden of the floating cup
(liubei tang), with small pavilions and artificial winding
streams, became extremely popular in both imperial and
private gardens.* [10]
The Orchid Pavilion inspired Emperor Yang (604–617) The last great garden of the Tang dynasty was the
of the Sui dynasty to build his new imperial garden, the Hamlet of the Mountain of the Serene Spring (Pingquan
91
Garden of the West, near Hangzhou. His garden had a
meandering stream for floating glasses of wine and pavil-
ions for writing poetry. He also used the park for the-
atrical events; he launched small boats on his stream with
animated figures illustrating the history of China.* [12]
14.1.5 Tang dynasty (618–907), First
Golden Age of the Classical Gar-
den
The Tang dynasty (618–907 AD) was considered the first
golden age of the classical Chinese garden. Emperor Xu-
anzong built a magnificent imperial garden, the Garden
of the Majestic Clear Lake, near Xian, and lived there with
his famous concubine, Consort Yang.* [13]
Painting and poetry reached a level never seen before,
and new gardens, large and small, filled the capital city,
Chang'an. The new gardens, were inspired by classical
legends and poems. There were shanchi yuan, gardens
with artificial mountains and ponds, inspired by the leg-
end of the isles of immortals, and shanting yuan, gardens
with replicas of mountains and small viewing houses,
or pavilions. Even ordinary residences had tiny gardens
in their courtyards, with terracotta mountains and small
ponds.* [10]
These Chinese classical gardens, or scholar's gardens
(wenren yuan), were inspired by, and in turn inspired,
classical Chinese poetry and painting. A notable example
was the Jante Valley Garden of the poet-painter and civil
servant Wang Wei (701–761). He bought the ruined villa
of a poet, located near the mouth of a river and a lake.
He created twenty small landscape scenes within his gar-
den, with names such as the Garden of Magnolias, the
Waving Willows, the Kiosk in the Heart of the Bamboos,
the Spring of the Golden Powder, and the View-House
beside the Lake. He wrote a poem for each scene in the
garden and commissioned a famous artist, to paint scenes
of the garden on the walls of his villa. After retiring from
the government, he passed his time taking boat trips on
the lake, playing the cithare and writing and reciting po-
etry.* [14]
During the Tang dynasty, plant cultivation was devel-
oped to an advanced level, with many plant species be-
ing grown by means of plant introduction, domestication,
transplantation, and grafting.* [15] The aesthetic proper-
ties of plants were highlighted, while numerous books on
plant classification and cultivation were published.* [15]
The capital, Chang'an, was a very cosmopolitan city,
filled with diplomats, merchants, pilgrims, monks and
students, who carried descriptions of the gardens all over
Asia. The economic prosperity of the Tang dynasty led
to the increasing construction of classical gardens across
all of China.
92 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN

Shanzhuang), built east of the city of Luoyang by Li

Deyu, Grand Minister of the Tang Empire. The garden
was vast, with over a hundred pavilions and structures,
but it was most famous for its collection of exotic-shaped
rocks and plants, which he collected all over China.
Rocks of unusual shapes, known as Chinese Scholars'
Rocks, often selected to portray the part of a mountain
or mountain range in a garden scene, gradually became
an essential feature of the Chinese garden.* [16]

14.1.6 Song Dynasty (960–1279)

The Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou (1141) was a model

for later scholar's gardens.

Basin of the Clarity of Gold, was an artificial lake sur-

rounded by terraces and pavilions. The public was invited
into the garden in the spring for boat races and spectacles
on the lake. In 1117 he personally supervised the build-
ing of a new garden. He had exotic plants and picturesque
rocks brought from around China for his garden, particu-
larly the prized rocks from Lake Tai. Some of the rocks
were so large that, in order to move them by water on
the grand canal, he had to destroy all the bridges between
Hangzhou and Beijing. In the center of his garden he
had constructed an artificial mountain a hundred meters
high, with cliffs and ravines, which he named Genyue, or
“The Mountain of Stability.”The garden was finished in
1122. In 1127, Emperor Huizong was forced to flee from
The Lake of the Clarity of Gold, an artificial lake and pleasure the Song capital, Kaifeng, when it came under attack by
garden built by Emperor Huizong of Song at his capital, Kaifeng the armies of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty. When he re-
turned (as a captive of the Jurchens), he found his garden
completely destroyed, all the pavilions burned and the art
works looted. Only the mountain remained.* [17]
While the imperial gardens were the best known, many
smaller but equally picturesque gardens were built in
cities such as Luoyang. The Garden of the Monastery of
the Celestial Rulers in Luoyang was famous for its peonies;
the entire city came when they were in bloom. The Gar-
den of Multiple Springtimes was famous for its view of
the mountains. The most famous garden in Luoyang was
The Garden of Solitary Joy (Dule Yuan), built by the poet
and historian Sima Guang (1021–1086). His garden had
an area of eight mu, or about 1.5 hectares. In the cen-
ter was the Pavilion of Study, his library, with five thou-
sand volumes. To the north was an artificial lake, with a
The Blue Wave Pavilion in Suzhou (1044), the oldest extant Song
small island, with a picturesque fisherman's hut. To the
Dynasty Garden east was a garden of medicinal herbs, and to the west was
an artificial mountain, with a belevedere at the summit
There were two periods of the Song dynasty, northern to view the surrounding neighborhoods. Any *
passer-by
and southern, and both were known for the construction could visit the garden by paying a small fee. [18]
of famous gardens. Emperor Huizong (1082–1135) was After fall of Kaifeng, the capital of the Song dynasty was
an accomplished painter of birds and flowers. A scholar moved to Lin'an (present-day Hangzhou, Zhejiang). The
himself, he integrated elements of the scholar garden into city of Lin'an soon had more than fifty gardens built on
his grand imperial garden. His first garden, called The the shore of the Western Lake. The other city in the
14.1. HISTORY 93

province famous for its gardens was Suzhou, where many present-day Beijing, called Dadu, the Great Capital.
scholars, government officials and merchants built resi- The most famous garden of the Yuan dynasty was Kublai
dences with gardens. Some of these gardens still exist Khan's summer palace and garden at Xanadu. The
today, though most been much altered over the centuries. Venetian traveler Marco Polo is believed to have visited
The oldest Suzhou garden that can be seen today is the Xanadu in about 1275, and described the garden this way:
Blue Wave Pavilion, built in 1044 by the Song dynasty
poet Su Shunqing. (1008–1048). In the Song dynasty, “Round this Palace a wall is built, inclos-
it consisted of a hilltop viewing pavilion. Other lakeside ing a compass of 16 miles, and inside the Park
pavilions were added, including a reverence hall, a recita- there are fountains and rivers and brooks, and
tion hall, and a special pavilion for watching the fish. Over beautiful meadows, with all kinds of wild an-
the centuries it was much modified, but still keeps its es- imals (excluding such as are of ferocious na-
sential plan. ture), which the Emperor has procured and
Another Song dynasty garden still in existence is the placed there to supply food for his gerfalcons
Master of the Nets Garden in Suzhou. It was created in and hawks, which he keeps there in mew. Of
1141 by Shi Zhengzhi, Deputy Civil Service Minister of these there are more than 200 gerfalcons alone,
the Southern Song government. It had his library, the without reckoning the other hawks. The Khan
Hall of Ten Thousand Volumes, and an adjacent garden himself goes every week to see his birds sitting
called the Fisherman's Retreat. It was extensively remod- in mew, and sometimes he rides through the
eled between 1736 and 1796, but it remains one of the park with a leopard behind him on his horse's
best example of a Song Dynasty Scholars Garden. [19] * croup; and then if he sees any animal that takes
his fancy, he slips his leopard at it, and the
In the city of Wuxi, on the edge of Lake Tai and at the game when taken is made over to
foot of two mountains, there were thirty four gardens feed the hawks in mew. This he does for
recorded by the Song dynasty historian Zhou Mi (1232– diversion.”* [21]
1308). The two most famous gardens, the Garden of the
North (Beiyuan) and the Garden of the South (Nanyuan), This brief description later inspired the poem Kubla Khan
both belonged to Shen Dehe, Grand Minister to Emperor by the English romantic poet, Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Gaozong (1131–1162). The Garden of the South was a
classic mountain-and-lake (shanshui) garden; it had a lake When he established his new capital at Dadu, Kublai
with an Island of Immortality (Penglai dao), on which Khan enlarged the artificial lakes that had been created
were three great boulders from Taihu. The Garden of the a century earlier by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty, and built
South was a water garden, with five large lakes connected up the island of Oinghua, creating a striking contrast be-
to Lake Taihu. A terrace gave visitors a view of the lake tween curving banks of the lake and garden and the strict
and the mountains.* [20] geometry of what later became the Forbidden City of Bei-
jing. This contrast is still visible today.* [22]
Despite the Mongol invasion, the classical Chinese
14.1.7 Yuan dynasty (1279–1368) scholar's garden continued to flourish in other parts of
China. An excellent example was the Lion Grove Gar-
den in Suzhou. It was built in 1342, and took its name
from the collection of fantastic and grotesque assemblies
of rocks, taken from Lake Tai. Some of them were said
to look like the heads of lions. The Kangxi and Qianlong
emperors of the Qing dynasty each visited the garden sev-
eral times, and used it as model for their own summer
garden, the Garden of Perfect Splendor, at the Chengde
Mountain Resort.* [23]
In 1368, forces of the Ming dynasty, led by Zhu
Yuanzhang, captured Dadu from the Mongols and over-
threw the Yuan dynasty. Zhu Yuanzhang ordered the
Yuan palaces in Dadu to be burned down.

The Lion Grove Garden in Suzhou (1342), known for its fantastic
and grotesque rocks
In 1271, Kublai Khan established the Mongol-led Yuan
dynasty in China. By 1279, he annihilated the last re-
sistance of the Song dynasty and unified China under
Mongol rule. He established a new capital on the site of
14.1.8 Ming dynasty (1368–1644)
The most famous existing garden from the Ming dynasty
is the Humble Administrator's Garden in Suzhou. It was
built during the reign of the Zhengde Emperor (1506–
1521) by Wang Xianchen, a minor government adminis-
 94
Jichang Garden in Wuxi (1506–1521)
trator who retired from government service and devoted
himself to his garden. The garden has been much al-
tered since it was built, but the central part has survived;
a large pond full of lotus blossoms, surrounded by struc-
tures and pavilions designed as viewpoints of the lake and
gardens. The park has an island, the Fragrant Isle, shaped
like a boat. It also makes good use of the principle of the
“borrowed view,”(jiejing) carefully framing views of the
surrounding mountains and a famous view of a distant
pagoda.* [24]
Another existing garden from the Ming dynasty is the
Lingering Garden, also in Suzhou, built during the reign
of the Wanli Emperor (1573–1620). During the Qing
dynasty, twelve tall limestone rocks were added to the
garden, symbolizing mountains. The most famous was
a picturesque rock called the Auspicious Cloud-Capped
Peak, which became a centerpiece of the garden.* [24]
A third renowned Ming era garden in Suzhou is the
Garden of Cultivation, built during the reign of the Tianqi
Emperor (1621–27) by the grandson of Wen Zhengming,
a famous Ming painter and calligrapher. The garden is
built around a pond, with the Longevity Pavilion on the
north side, the Fry Pavilion on the east side, a dramatic
rock garden on the south, and the creator's study, the
Humble House, to the west.* [24]
• Garden of Cultivation (1541)
CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
• The Humble Administrator's Garden in Suzhou
(1506–1521)
• The Lingering Garden in Suzhou (1593), like many
Ming dynasty gardens, is filled with dramatic scholar
rocks
• Yuyuan Garden in Shanghai (1559)
14.1.9 Qing dynasty (1644–1912)
The Marble Boat pavilion in the garden of the Summer Palace
in Beijing (1755). After it was destroyed by an Anglo-French
expedition in 1860, the Empress Dowager Cixi diverted money
from the Beiyang Fleet to have it rebuilt.
The Qing dynasty was the last dynasty of China. The
most famous gardens in China during this period were the
Summer Palace and the Old Summer Palace in Beijing.
Both gardens became symbols of luxury and refinement,
and were widely described by European visitors.
Father Attiret, a French Jesuit who became court painter
for the Qianlong Emperor from 1738 to 1768, described
the Jade Terrace of the Isle of Immortality in the Lake of
the Summer Palace:
“That which is a true jewel is a rock or is-
land...which is in the middle of this lake, on
which is built a small palace, which contains
one hundred rooms or salons...of a beauty and
a taste which I am not able to express to you.
The view is admirable...* [25]
Their construction and improvement consumed a large
part of the imperial treasury. Empress Dowager Cixi fa-
mously diverted money intended for the modernization
of the Beiyang Fleet and used it to restore the Summer
Palace and the marble teahouse in the shape of boat on
Lake Kunming. Both the Summer Palace and Old Sum-
mer Palace were destroyed during the Boxer Rebellion
and by punitive expeditions of European armies during
the nineteenth century, but are now gradually being re-
stored.
14.2. DESIGN OF THE CLASSICAL GARDEN 95

In addition to the Old Summer Palace and Summer

Palace, between 1703 and 1792 the Qing emperors built
a new complex of gardens and palaces in the mountains
200 kilometers northeast of Beijing, to escape the sum-
mer heat of the capital. It was called the Chengde Moun-
tain Resort, and it occupied 560 hectares, with seventy-
two separate landscape views, recreating landscapes in
miniature from many different parts of China.* [26] This
enormous garden has survived relatively intact.
Renowned scholar gardens which still exist from this pe-
riod include the Couple's Retreat Garden (1723–1736)
and the Retreat & Reflection Garden (1885), both in Painted map of the Master of the Nets Garden begun in 1140,
renovated 1736–1796
Suzhou.

• The Old Summer Palace, eight kilometers north of art with which this irregularity is carried out. Everything
Beijing, was largely destroyed by an Anglo-French is in good taste, and so well arranged, that there is not a
expedition in 1860. single view from which all the beauty can be seen; you
have to see it piece by piece.”* [30]
• Remains of the Old Summer Palace garden
Chinese classical gardens varied greatly in size. The
• The Summer Palace in Beijing today largest garden in Suzhou, the Humble Administrator's
Garden, was a little over ten hectares in area, with one
• The Long Corridor at the Summer Palace (1750) fifth of the garden occupied by the pond.* [31] But they
is 728 meters long. It was built so the emperor did not have to be large. Ji Cheng built a garden for Wu
could walk through the garden protected from the Youyu, the Treasurer of Jinling, that was just under one
elements. hectare in size, and the tour of the garden was only four
hundred steps long from the entrance to the last viewing
• Gardens of the Chengde Mountain Resort, the im-
point, but Wu Youyu said it contained all the marvels of
perial villa in the mountains (1703–1792).
the province in a single place.* [32]
•“My Loveable Pavilion”from the Couple's Retreat The classical garden was surrounded by a wall, usually
Garden (1723–1736) painted white, which served as a pure backdrop for the
flowers and trees. A pond of water was usually located
• Keyuan garden in Guangdong Province, (1850)
in the center. Many structures, large and small, were ar-
• The He Garden in Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province, ranged around the pond. In the garden described by Ji
(1880), a classic private residence garden of the Cheng above, the structures occupied two-thirds of the
Qing dynasty. hectare, while the garden itself occupied the other third.
In a scholar garden the central building was usually a li-
brary or study, connected by galleries with other pavil-
14.2 Design of the classical garden ions which served as observation points of the garden fea-
tures. These structures also helped divide the garden into
individual scenes or landscapes. The other essential ele-
A Chinese garden was not meant to be seen all at once; ments of a scholar garden were plants, trees, and rocks,
the plan of a classical Chinese garden* [27] presented the all carefully composed into small perfect landscapes.
visitor with a series of perfectly composed and framed Scholar gardens also often used what was called “bor-
glimpses of scenery; a view of a pond, or of a rock, or a rowed”scenery (借景 jiejing) ; where unexpected views
grove of bamboo, a blossoming tree, or a view of a dis- of scenery outside the garden, such as mountain peaks,
tant mountain peak or a pagoda. The 16th-century Chi- seemed to be an extension of the garden itself.* [33]* [34]
nese writer and philosopher Ji Cheng instructed garden
builders to “hide the vulgar and the common as far as
the eye can see, and include the excellent and the splen- 14.2.1 Architecture
did.”* [28]
Some early Western visitors to the imperial Chinese gar- Chinese gardens are filled with architecture; halls, pavil-
dens felt they were chaotic, crowded with buildings in ions, temples, galleries, bridges, kiosks, and towers, oc-
different styles, without any seeming order.* [29] But cupying a large part of the space. The Humble Adminis-
the Jesuit priest Jean Denis Attiret, who lived in China trator's Garden in Suzhou has forty-eight structures, in-
from 1739 and was a court painter for the Qianlong Em- cluding a residence, several halls for family gatherings
peror, observed there was a “beautiful disorder, an anti- and entertainment, eighteen pavilions for viewing differ-
symmetry”in the Chinese garden. “One admires the ent features of the garden, and an assortment of towers,
96 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN

galleries, and bridges, all designed for seeing different

parts of the gardens from different points of view.* [35]
The garden structures are not designed to dominate the
landscape, but to be in harmony with it.
Classical gardens traditionally have these structures:

• The ceremony hall (ting or tang). A building used

for family celebrations or ceremonies, usually with
an interior courtyard, not far from the entrance gate.

• The principal pavilion (dating), for the reception of

guests, for banquets and for celebrating holidays,
Pavilion for viewing the rock garden at the Prince Gong Mansion such as New Years and the Festival of Lanterns. It
in Beijing (1777) often has a veranda around the building to provide
cool and shade.

• The pavilion of flowers (huating). Located near the

residence, this building has a rear courtyard filled
with flowers, plants, and a small rock garden.

• The pavilion facing the four directions (simian ting).

This building has folding or movable walls, for open-
ing up a panoramic view of the garden.

• The lotus pavilion (hehua ting). Built next to a lotus

pond, to see the flowers bloom and appreciate their
aroma.

A moon gate from the Couple's Retreat Garden in Suzhou
• The pavilion of mandarin ducks (yuanyang ting).
This building is divided into two sections; one fac-
ing north used in yard of pine trees summer, facing
a lotus pond which provided cool air; and the south-
ern part used in winter, with a courtyard planted
with pine trees, which remained evergreen, and
plum trees, whose blossoms announced the arrival
of spring.* [36]

In addition to these larger halls and pavilions, the garden

is filled with smaller pavilions, (also called ting) which are
designed for providing shelter from the sun or rain, for
contemplating a scene, reciting a poem, taking advantage
of a breeze, or simply resting. Pavilions might be located
where the dawn can best be watched, where the moonlight
shines on the water, where autumn foliage is best seen,
where the rain can best be heard on the banana leaves, or
where the wind whistles through the bamboo stalks. They
are sometimes attached to the wall of another building
or sometimes stood by themselves at view points of the
garden, by a pond or at the top of a hill. They often are
open on three sides.
The names of the pavilions in Chinese gardens express
the view or experience they offer the visitor:

• The Peak-Worshipping Pavilion (The Lingering

Ornamemtal window frame for garden-viewing in Yuyuan Gar-
Garden)
den, Shanghai
• The Hall of Distant Fragrances (Humble Adminis-
trator's Garden)
14.2. DESIGN OF THE CLASSICAL GARDEN 97

• The Mountain View Tower (Humble Administra- they have highly ornamental ceramic frames. The win-
tor's Garden) dow may carefully frame a branch of a pine tree, or a plum
tree in blossom, or another intimate garden scene.* [37]
• Pavilion of the Moon and Wind (Master of the Nets
Garden) Bridges are another common feature of the Chinese gar-
den. Like the galleries, they are rarely straight, but zigzag
• Pavilion in the Lotus Breeze (Humble Administra- or arch over the ponds, suggesting the bridges of rural
tor's Garden) China, and providing view points of the garden. Bridges
are often built from rough timber or stone-slab raised
• Listening to the Rain Pavilion (Humble Administra- pathways. Some gardens have brightly painted or lac-
tor's Garden) quered bridges, which give a lighthearted feeling to the
garden.* [38]
• Watching the Pines and Appreciating Paintings Hall
(Humble Administrator's Garden) Gardens also often include small, austere houses for soli-
tude and meditation, sometimes in the form of rustic fish-
• Spot of Return for Reading (Lingering Garden) ing huts, and isolated buildings which serve as libraries or
studios (shufang).* [39]
• Between the Mountains and the Water Pavilion (The
Couple's Retreat Garden)
• A three bay hall with full gable roofline and flat eves
• Pavilion Leaning on the Jade (Humble Administra- in the Retreat & Reflection Garden (1885)
tor's Garden)
• The Flying Rainbow Bridge in the Humble Ad-
• Soft Rain Brings Coolness Terrace (Retreat & Re- ministrator's Garden. It was designed to create a
flection Garden) rainbow-shaped reflection in the pond.

• Lasting Spring and Moon Viewing Tower (Retreat • The Main Hall of the Retreat & Reflection Garden
& Reflection Garden) • A pavilion with a fan-shaped viewing window in
the pond of the Humble Administrator's Garden in
Gardens also often feature two-story towers (lou or ge), Suzhou
usually at the edge of the garden, with a lower story made
of stone and a whitewashed upper story, two-thirds the • A pavilion in Keyuan Garden
height of the ground floor, which provided a view from • Long gallery for viewing the lotus pond at the Prince
above of certain parts of the garden or the distant scenery. Gong Mansion in Beijing
Some gardens have a picturesque stone pavilion in the
• Garden gate of the Prince Gong Mansion in Beijing
form of a boat, located in the pond. (called an xie, fang,
or shifang). These generally had three parts; a kiosk with
winged gables at the front, a more intimate hall in the 14.2.2 Artificial mountains and rock gar-
center, and a two story structure with a panoramic view
dens
of the pond at the rear.

• Courtyards (yuan). Gardens contain small enclosed

court courtyards, offering quiet and solitude for
meditation, painting, drinking tea, or playing on the
cithare.

Galleries (lang) are narrow covered corridors which con-

nect the buildings, protect the visitors from the rain and
sun, and also help divide the garden into different sec-
tions. These galleries are rarely straight; they zigzag or
are serpentine, following the wall of the garden, the edge
of the pond, or climbing the hill of the rock garden. They
have small windows, sometimes round or in odd geomet-
ric shapes, to give glimpses of the garden or scenery to
those passing through. A scholar rock from Lake Taihu in the Beijing Botanical Garden
Windows and doors are an important architectural feature
of the Chinese garden. Sometimes they are round (moon The artificial mountain (jiashan) or rock garden is an inte-
windows or a moon gate) or oval, hexagonal or octagonal, gral element of Chinese classical gardens. The mountain
or in the shape of a vase or a piece of fruit. Sometimes peak was a symbol of virtue, stability and endurance in
98 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN

Rock garden at the Prince Gong Mansion in Beijing, complete

with a grotto
A pond or lake is the central element of a Chinese garden. Here
is the pond of the Humble Administrator's Garden.
Confucian philosophy and in the I Ching.* [40] A moun-
tain peak on an island was also a central part of the legend
of the Isles of the Immortals, and thus became a central
element in many classical gardens.
The first rock garden appeared in Chinese garden history
in Tu Yuan (literally“Rabbit Garden”), built during the
Western Han dynasty (206 BCE – 9 CE).* [41] During
the Tang dynasty, the rock was elevated to the status of
an art object, judged by its form (xing), substance (zhi),
color (se), and texture (wen), as well as by its softness,
transparency, and other factors. The poet Bo Juyi (772–
846) wrote a catalog of the famous rocks of Lake Taihu,
called Taihu Shiji. These rocks, of limestone sculpted by
erosion, became the most highly prized for gardens. Pond at the Prince Gong Mansion, Beijing
During the Song dynasty, the artificial mountains were
made mostly of earth.* [40] But Emperor Huizong (1100–
1125) nearly ruined the economy of the Song Empire by pavilions surround the lake to see it from different points
destroying the bridges of the Grand Canal so he could of view. The garden usually has a pond for lotus flowers,
carry huge rocks by barge to his imperial garden.* [40] with a special pavilion for viewing them. There are usu-
During the Ming dynasty, the use of piles of rocks to cre- ally goldfish in the pond, with pavilions over the water for
ate artificial mountains and grottos reached its peak. Dur- viewing them.
ing the Qing dynasty, the Ming rock gardens were consid- The lake or pond has an important symbolic role in the
ered too artificial and the new mountains were composed garden. In the I Ching, water represents lightness and
of both rocks and earth.* [42] communication, and carried the food of life on its jour-
The artificial mountain in Chinese gardens today usually ney through the valleys and plains. It also is the comple-
has a small view pavilion at the summit. In smaller classi- ment to the mountain, the other central element of the
cal gardens, a single scholar rock represents a mountain, garden, and represents dreams and the infinity of spaces.
or a row of rocks represents a mountain range. The shape of the garden pond often hides the edges of the
pond from viewers on the other side, giving the illusion
• The Auspicious Cloud Capped Peak, a scholar stone that the pond goes on to infinity. The softness of the water
in the Lingering Garden in Suzhou contrasts with the solidity of the rocks. The water reflects
the sky, and therefore is constantly changing, but even a
• Rock garden of the Mountain Villa with Embracing gentle wind can soften or erase the reflections.* [43]* [44]
Beauty The lakes and waterside pavilions in Chinese gardens
• Nine Lion Peak, from the Lion Grove Garden were also influenced by another classic of Chinese liter-
ature, the Shishuo Xinyu by Liu Yiqing (403–444), who
described the promenades of the Emperor Jianwen of Jin
14.2.3 Water along the banks of the Hao and the Pu River, in the Gar-
den of the Splendid Forest (Hualin yuan). Many gardens,
A pond or lake is the central element of a Chinese gar- particularly in the gardens of Jiangnan and the imperial
den. The main buildings are usually placed beside it, and gardens of northern China, have features and names taken
14.2. DESIGN OF THE CLASSICAL GARDEN 99

from this work.* [44]

Small gardens have a single lake, with a rock garden,
plants and structures around its edge. Middle-sized gar-
dens will have a single lake with one or more streams
coming into the lake, with bridges crossing the streams,
or a single long lake divided into two bodies of water by
a narrow channel crossed by a bridge. In a very large gar-
den like the Humble Administrator's Garden, the princi-
pal feature of the garden is the large lake with its symbolic
islands, symbolizing the isles of the immortals. Streams
come into the lake, forming additional scenes. Numerous
structures give different views of the water, including a
stone boat, a covered bridge, and several pavilions by the Blossoming tree by the lake at the Prince Gong Mansion in Beijing
side of or over the water.
Some gardens created the impression of lakes by places
smooth areas of white sand, bordered by rocks, in court-
yards. In the moonlight these looked like real lakes. This
style of 'dry garden' was later imported into Japan and
transformed into the zen garden.
The streams in the Chinese garden always follow a wind-
ing course, and are hidden from time to time by rocks or
vegetation. A French Jesuit missionary, Father Attiret,
who was a painter in the service of the Qianlong Emperor
from 1738 to 1768, described one garden he saw:

“The canals are not like those in our coun-

try bordered with finely cut stone, but very rus- In the Lingering Garden in Suzhou, flowers provide a contrast
tic and lined with pieces or rock, some coming with a scholar stone chosen to represent Mount Tiantai, one of
forward, some retreating. which are placed so the founding centers of Chinese Buddhism.
artistically that you would think it was a work
of nature.”* [45] Mengjian (1199–1264). For scholars, the pine was the
emblem of longevity and tenacity, as well as constance
• Pond of the Lingering Garden in friendship. The bamboo, a hollow straw, represented
a wise man, modest and seeking knowledge, and was
• Lake with water lilies in Liyuan Garden, Wuxi
also noted for being flexible in a storm without breaking.
• Koi in the Yuyuan Garden in Shanghai Plum trees were revered as the symbol of rebirth after the
winter and the arrival of spring. During the Song dynasty,
• Pond and viewing pavilion in the Humble Adminis- the favorite tree was the winter plum tree, appreciated for
trator's Garden its early pink and white blossoms and sweet aroma.* [46]
The peach tree in the Chinese garden symbolized
14.2.4 Flowers and trees longevity and immortality. Peaches were associated with
the classic story The Orchard of Xi Wangmu, the Queen
Flowers and trees, along with water, rocks and architec- Mother of the West. This story said that in Xi Wangmu's
ture, are the fourth essential element of the Chinese gar- legendary orchard, peach trees flowered only after three
den. They represent nature in its most vivid form, and thousand years, did not produce fruit for another three
contrast with the straight lines of the architecture and the thousand years, and did not ripen for another three thou-
permanence, sharp edges and immobility of the rocks. sand years. Those who ate these peaches became immor-
They change continually with the seasons, and provide tal. This legendary orchard was pictured in many Chinese
both sounds (the sound of rain on banana leaves or the paintings, and inspired many garden scenes.* [47] Pear
wind in the bamboo) and aromas to please the visitor. trees were the symbol of justice and wisdom. The word
Each flower and tree in the garden had its own symbolic 'pear' was also a homophone for 'quit' or separate,' and it
meaning. The pine, bamboo and Chinese plum (Prunus was considered bad luck to cut a pear, for it would lead
mume) were considered the "Three Friends of Winter" to the breakup of a friendship or romance. The pear tree
( 寒三友) by the scholars who created classical gar- could also symbolize a long friendship or romance, since
dens, prized for remaining green or blooming in win- the tree lived a long time.
ter. They were often painted together by artists like Zhao The apricot tree symbolized the way of the mandarin,
100 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN

or the government official. During the Tang dynasty,
those who passed the imperial examination were re-
warded with the banquet in the garden of the apricot trees,
or Xingyuan.
The fruit of the pomegranate tree was offered to young
couples so they would have male children and numerous
descendants. The willow tree represented the friendship
and the pleasures of life. Guests were offered willow
branches as a symbol of friendship.* [48]
Of the flowers in the Chinese garden, the most appre-
ciated were the orchid, peony, and lotus (Nelumbo nu-
cifera). During the Tang dynasty, the peony, the symbol
of opulence and a flower with a delicate fragance, was
the most celebrated flower in the garden. The poet Zhou
Dunyi wrote a famous elegy to the lotus, comparing it to
a junzi, a man who possessed integrity and balance. The
orchid was the symbol of nobility, and of impossible love,
as in the Chinese expression“a faraway orchid in a lonely
valley.”The lotus was admired for its purity, and its ef-
forts to reach out of the water to flower in the air made it a
symbol of the search for knowledge. The chrysanthemum
was elegized the poet Tao Yuanming, who surrounded his
hermit's hut with the flower, and wrote a famous verse:
“At the feet of the Eastern fence, I pick a
chrysanthemum, In the distance, detached and
serene, I see the Mountains of the South.”* [46]
The creators of the Chinese garden were careful to pre-
serve the natural appearance of the landscape. Trimming
and root pruning, if done at all, tried to preserve the nat-
ural form. Dwarf trees that were gnarled and ancient-
looking were particularly prized in the miniature land-
scapes of Chinese gardens.* [49]* [49]
But, as Ji Cheng wrote, it could also be“the immaculate
ribbon of a stream, animals, birds, fish, or other natural
elements (rain, wind, snow), or something less tangible,
such as a moonbeam, a reflection in a lake, morning mist,
or the red sky of a sunset.”It could also be a sound; he rec-
ommended locating a pavilion near a temple, so that the
chanted prayers could be heard; planting fragrant flowers
next to paths and pavilions, so visitors would appreciate
their aromas; that bird perches be created to encourage
birds to come to sing in the garden, that streams be de-
signed to make pleasant sounds, and that banana trees be
planted in courtyards so the rain would patter on their
leaves.“A judicious 'borrowing' does not have a reason.”
Ji Cheng wrote. “It is born simply of feeling created by
the beauty of a scene.”* [50]
The season and the time of day were also important el-
ements. Garden designers took into account the scenes
of the garden that would look best in winter, summer,
spring and autumn, and those best viewed at night, in the
morning or afternoon. Ji Cheng wrote: “In the heart of
the tumult of the city, you should choose visions that are
serene and refined: from a raised clearing, you look to the
distant horizon, surrounded by mountains like a screen;
in an open pavilion, a gentle and light breeze invades the
room; from the front door, the running water of spring
flows toward the marsh.”* [51]
Actually borrowing scenery is the conclusive, last chapter
of Yuanye that explains borrowing scenery as a holistic
understanding of the essence of landscape design in its
entirety. The ever-changing moods and appearances of
nature in a given landscape in full action are understood
by the author as an independent function that becomes an
agent for garden making. It is nature including the garden
maker that creates.* [52]

• The Paeonia lactiflora

14.2.6 Concealment and surprise
• Plum blossoms (Prunus mume) in the Plum Garden,
Jiangsu Another important garden element was concealment and
surprise. The garden was not meant to be seen all at once,
• Lotus blossom (Nelumbo nucifera)
it was laid out to present a series of scenes. Visitors
• The lotus pond in Humble Administrator's Garden moved from scene to scene either within enclosed gal-
leries or by winding paths which concealed the scenes un-
• Bamboo in a garden in the Summer Palace til the last moment. The scenes would suddenly appear at
the turn of a path, through a window, or hidden behind a
screen of bamboo. They might be revealed through round
14.2.5 “Borrowing scenery”, time and sea- “moon doors”or through windows of unusual shapes, or
sons windows with elaborate lattices that broke the view into
pieces.* [53]
According to Ji Cheng's 16th century book Yuanye,“The
Craft of Gardens,”“borrowing scenery”(jiejing) was
the most important thing of a garden. This could mean
using scenes outside the garden, such as a view of distant 14.3 In art and literature
mountains or the trees in the neighboring garden, to cre-
ate the illusion that garden was much bigger than it was. The garden plays an important part in Chinese art and
The most famous example was the mist-shrouded view of literature, and at the same time art and literature have
the North Temple Pagoda in Suzhou, seen in the distance inspired many gardens. The school of painting called
over the pond of the Humble Administrator's Garden. "Shanshui" (literally 'mountains and water' and with the
 14.3. IN ART AND LITERATURE 101

create with their scholar rocks and miniature mountain

ranges.* [54]
In his book, Craft of Gardens, the garden designer Ji
Cheng wrote: “The spirit and the charm of mountains
and forests must be studied in depth; ...only the knowl-
edge of the real permits the creation of the artificial, so
that the work created possesses the spirit of the real, in
part because of divine inspiration, but especially because
of human effort.”He described the effect he wanted to
achieve in the design of an autumn garden scene: “The
feelings are in harmony with the purity, with the sense
of withdrawal. The spirit rejoices at the mountains and
ravines. Suddenly the spirit, detached from the world of
small things, is animated and seems to penetrate to the
interior of a painting, and to promenade there...”* [55]
In literature, gardens were frequently the subject of the
genre of poetry called “Tianyuan”, literally 'fields and
gardens,' which reached its peak in the Tang dynasty
(618-907) with such poets as Wang Wei (701–761).* [56]
The names of the Surging Waves Garden and the Garden
of Meditation in Suzhou are taken from lines of Chinese
poetry.* [57] Within the gardens, the individual pavilions
and view points were frequently dedicated to verses of po-
ems, inscribed on stones or plaques. The Moon Comes
with the Breeze Pavilion at the Couple's Retreat Garden,
used for moon-viewing, has the inscription of a verse by
Han Yu:

“The twilight brings the Autumn

And the wind brings the moon here.”

And the Peony Hall in the Couple's Retreat Garden is

dedicated to a verse by Li Bai:

“The Spring Evening Banquet in the Peach and Pear Blossom “The spring breeze is gently stroking the
Garden, by Leng Mei (1677–1742) illustrates a famous garden balustrade
poem by Li Bai. and the peony is wet with dew.”* [58]

Wang Wei (701–761) was a poet, painter and Buddhist

actual meaning of 'landscape'), which began in the 5th
monk, who worked first as a court official before retiring
century, established the principles of Chinese landscape
to Lantian, where he built one of the first wenren yuan,
painting, which were very similar to those of Chinese gar-
or scholar's gardens, called the Valley of the Jante. In
dening. These paintings were not meant to be realistic;
this garden, a series of twenty scenes, like the paintings
they were meant to portray what the artist felt, rather than
of a scroll or album, unrolled before the viewer, each il-
what he saw.
lustrated by a verse of poetry. For example, one scene
The landscape painter Shitao (1641–1720) wrote that he illustrated this poem:
wanted to "'...create a landscape which was not spoiled
by any vulgar banality...”He wanted to create a sense of “The white rock emerges from the torrent;
vertigo in the viewer: “to express a universe inaccessi- The cold sky with red leaves scattering:
ble to man, without any route that led there, like the isles
of Bohai, Penglan and Fanghu, where only the immortals On the mountain path, the rain is fleeing,
can live, and which a man cannot imagine. That is the the blue of the emptiness dampens our
vertigo that exists in the natural universe. To express it in clothes.”* [59]
painting, you must show jagged peaks, precipices, hang-
ing bridges, great chasms. For the effect to be truly mar- The Valley of the Jante garden disappeared, but its mem-
velous, it must be done purely by the force of the brush.” ory, preserved in paintings and poems, inspired many
This was the emotion that garden designers wanted to other scholar's gardens.* [60]
 102 CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN

The social and cultural importance of the garden is illus- sures and corruption of court life in the capital. They
trated in the classical novel Dream of the Red Chamber chose to pursue the Taoist ideals of disengagement from
by Cao Xueqin which unfolds almost exclusively in a gar- worldly concerns.* [66]
den.* [61] For followers of Taoism, enlightenment could be
reached by contemplation of the unity of creation, in
which order and harmony are inherent to the natural
14.4 Philosophy world.* [33]* [63]* [67]
The gardens were intended to evoke the idyllic feeling of
wandering through a natural landscape, to feel closer to
the ancient way of life, and to appreciate the harmony
between man and nature.* [65]* [68]
In Taoism, rocks and water were opposites, yin and
yang, but they complemented and completed one another.
Rocks were solid but water could wear away rock. The
deeply eroded rocks from Lake Tai used in the classical
garden illustrated this principle.
Borrowing scenery is a most fundamental idea in Ming
period garden making theory (see above).
The winding paths and zig-zag galleries bridges that led
visitors from one garden scene to another also had a mes-
sage. They illustrated a Chinese proverb, “By detours,
access to secrets”.* [69]
According to the landcape historian and architect Che
Bing Chiu, every garden was “a quest for paradise. of
a lost world, of a utopian universe. The scholar's garden
participated in this quest; on the one hand the quest for
the home of the Immortals, on the other hand the search
for the world of the golden age so dear to the heart of the
scholar.”* [70]
A more recent view of the philosophy of the garden was
expressed by Zhou Ganzhi, the President of the Chi-
The zig-zag bridge in the Humble Administrator's Garden illus- nese Society of Landscape Architecture, and Academi-
trates the proverb, “By detours, access to secrets.” cian at the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese
Academy of Engineering, in 2007: “Chinese classical
Even though everything [in the garden] is the work of gardens are a perfect integration of nature and work by
man, it must appear to have been created by heaven... man. They are an imitation of nature, and fully manifest
“ the beauty of nature. They can also be seen as an im-
” provement on nature; one from which the light of human
artistic genius shines.”* [71]

– Ji Cheng, Yuanye, or The Craft of Gardens (1633)* [62]

The Chinese classical garden had multiple functions. It 14.5 Influence

could be used for banquets, celebrations, reunions, or ro-
mance. It could be used to find solitude and for contem- 14.5.1 Chinese influence on the Japanese
plation. It was a calm place for painting, poetry, calligra- garden
phy, and music, and for studying classic texts.* [61]* [63]
It was a place for drinking tea and for poets to become The Chinese classical garden had a notable influence on
happily drunk on wine.* [64] It was a showcase to display the early Japanese garden. The influence of China first
the cultivation and aesthetic taste of the owner.* [65] Butreached Japan through Korea before 600 AD.* [63] In 607
it also had a philosophical message. AD, the Japanese crown prince Shotoku sent a diplomatic
Taoism had a strong influence on the classical garden. Af- mission to the Chinese court, which began a cultural ex-
ter the Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD), gardens were change lasting for centuries.* [72] Hundreds of Japanese
frequently constructed as retreats for government officials scholars were sent to study the Chinese language, political
who had lost their posts or who wanted to escape the pres- system, and culture. The Japanese Ambassador to China,
14.5. INFLUENCE 103

Ono no Imoko, described the great landscape gardens of

the Chinese Emperor to the Japanese court. His reports
had a profound influence on the development of Japanese
landscape design.* [73]
During the Nara period (710-794), when the Japanese
capital was located at Nara, and later at Heian, the
Japanese court created large landscape gardens with lakes
and pavilions on the Chinese model for aristocrats to
promenade and to drift leisurely in small boats, and more
intimate gardens for contemplation and religious medita-
tion.* [74]
A Japanese monk named Eisai (1141–1215) imported
the Rinzai school of Zen Buddhism from China to Japan,
which led to the creation of a famous and unique Japanese
gardening style, the Zen garden, exemplified by the gar-
den of Ryōan-ji. He also brought green tea from China
to Japan, originally to keep monks awake during long
meditation, giving the basis for the Japanese tea cere-
mony, which became an important ritual in Japanese gar-
dens.* [75]
The Japanese garden designer Muso Soseki (1275–1351)
created the celebrated Moss Garden (Kokedera) in Ky-
oto, which included a recreation of the Isles of Eight
Immortals, called Horai in Japanese, which were an im-
portant feature of many Chinese gardens. During the
Kamakura period (1185–1333), and particularly during
the Muromachi period (1336–1573) the Japanese garden A fanciful view of a Chinese garden by the French painter
François Boucher (1742)
became more austere than the Chinese garden, following
its own aesthetic principles.* [74]
cally.* [78]
In the 18th century, as Chinese vases and other decora-
14.5.2 In Europe tive objects began to arrive in Europe, there was a surge
of popularity for Chinoiserie. The painters Watteau, and
The first European to describe a Chinese garden was the François Boucher painted Chinese scenes as they imag-
Venetian merchant and traveler Marco Polo, who vis- ined them, and Catherine the Great decorated a room in
ited the summer palace of Kublai Khan at Xanadu. The her palace in Chinese style. There was great interest in
garden of Kublai Khan had a later effect on European everything Chinsese, including gardens.* [79]
culture; In 1797, it inspired the romantic poem, Kubla
Khan, by the English romantic poet Samuel Taylor Co- In 1738, the French Jesuit missionary and painter Jean
leridge.* [76] Denis Attiret, went to China, where he became court
painter to the Qianlong Emperor. He described in great
Marco Polo also described the gardens of the impe- detail what he saw in the imperial gardens near Beijing:
rial palace in Khabaliq, the Mongol name for the city
which eventually became Beijing. He described ram- “One comes out of a valley, not by a
parts, balustrades and pavilions surrounding a deep lake straight wide alley as in Europe, but by zigzags,
full of fish and with swans and other aquatic birds; whose by roundabout paths, each one ornamented
central feature was a manmade hill one hundred steps with small pavilions and grottos, and when you
high and a thousand steps around, covered with evergreen exit one valley you find yourself in another, dif-
trees and decorated with green azurite stones.* [77] ferent from the first in the form of the land-
The first Jesuit priest, Francis Xavier, arrived in China in scape or the style of the buildings. All the
1552, and the priest Matteo Ricci received permission to mountains and hills are covered with flower-
settle in Beijing in 1601. Jesuit priests began sending ac- ing trees, which are very common here. It is
counts of Chinese culture and gardens to Europe. Louis a true terrestrial paradise. The canals are not
Le Comte, the mathematician to the King of France, trav- at all like ours- bordered with cut stone- they
elled to China in 1685. He described how the Chinese are rustic, with pieces of rock, some leaning
gardens had grottos, artificial hills and rocks piled to im- forward, some backwards, placed with such art
itate nature, and did not arrange their gardens geometri- you would think they were natural. Sometimes
104
a canal is wide, sometimes narrow. Here they
twist, there they curve, as if they were really
created by the hills and rocks. The edges are
planted with flowers in rock gardens, which
seem to have been created by nature. Each
season has its own flowers. Aside from the
canals, everywhere there are paths paved with
small stones, which lead from one valley to the
other. These paths also twist and turn, some-
times coming close to the canals, sometimes far
away.”* [80]
Attiret wrote:
“Everything is truly great and beautiful, both as
to the design and the execution: and [the gar-
dens] struck me the more, because I had never
seen any thing that bore any manner of resem-
blance to them, in any part of the world that I
had been before.”* [81]
The Qianlong Emperor (1711–1799) was equally inter-
ested in what was going on in Europe. He commissioned
the Jesuit priest Father Castiglione, who was trained in
engineering, to build fountains for his garden similar to
those he had heard about in the gardens at Versailles.* [82]
The Kew Gardens Pagoda at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew,
London (1761)
Chinese architecture and aesthetics also influenced the
English garden. In 1685, the English diplomat and writer
Sir William Temple wrote an essay Upon the garden of
Epicurus (published in 1692), which contrasted Euro-
pean theories of symmetrical gardens with asymmetrical
compositions from China.* [83] Temple had never visited
China, but he had read the works of European travel-
ers there. He noted that Chinese gardens avoided for-
mal rows of trees and flower beds, and instead placed
trees, plants, and other garden features in irregular ways
to strike the eye and create beautiful compositions. His
observations on the Chinese garden were cited by the es-
sayist Joseph Addison in an essay in 1712, who used them
to attack the English gardeners who, instead of imitating
CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
nature, tried to make their gardens in the French style, as
far from nature as possible.* [84]
The English landscape garden was already well-
established in England in the first part of the 18th
century, influenced by the travel to Italy by the British
upper class and their desire to have a new style of garden
to match the Palladian style of architecture they chose
for their country houses, and by the romantic landscapes
of Claude Lorraine and other painters, but the novelty
and exoticism of Chinese art and architecture in Europe
led in 1738 to the construction of the first Chinese house
in an English garden, at Stowe House, alongside Roman
temples, Gothic ruins and other architectural styles.
On the first view of the coast of China the stranger con-
cludes that the inhabitants are a nation of gardeners.
“
”
– James Main, 1827* [85]
The style became even more popular thanks to William
Chambers (1723–1796), who lived in China from 1745
to 1747, and wrote a book, The Drawings, buildings, fur-
niture, habits, machines and untensils of the Chinese, pub-
lished in 1757. He urged western garden designers to
use Chinese stylistic conventions such as concealment,
asymmetry, and naturalism. Later, in 1772, Chambers
published his Dissertation on Oriental Gardening, a rather
fanciful elaboration of contemporary ideas about the nat-
uralistic style of gardening in China.* [86]
Chambers was a fierce critic of Capability Brown, the
leading designer of the English landscape garden, which
Chambers considered boring. Chambers believed that
gardens should be full of surprises. In 1761 he built
a Chinese pagoda, house and garden in Kew Gardens,
London, along with a mosque, a temple of the sun, a
ruined arch, and Palladian bridge. Thanks to Cham-
bers Chinese structures began to appear in other En-
glish gardens, then in France and elsewhere on the con-
tinent. Carmontelle added a Chinese pavilion to his gar-
den at Parc Monceau in Paris (1772), and the Duc de
Choiseul built a pagoda on his estate at Chanteloup be-
tween 1775 and 1778. The Russian Empress Catherine
the Great built her own pagoda in the garden of her palace
of Tsarskoye Selo, near Saint Petersburg, between 1778
and 1786.* [87] Many continental critics disliked the term
English Garden, so they began to use the term 'Anglo-
Chinois”to describe the style. By the end of the nine-
teenth century parks all over Europe had picturesque Chi-
nese pagodas, pavilions or bridges, but there were few
gardens that expressed the more subtle and profound aes-
thetics of the real Chinese garden.
14.7. REFERENCES
14.6 See also
• Classical Gardens of Suzhou
• Ji Cheng
• List of Chinese gardens
• Pear Garden
• Penjing
• West Lake
• Borrowing of scenery (“shakkei”)
14.7 References
[1] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins - paysagistes, jardiners, poḕts.
p. 348
[2] Records of the 21st conference of the UNESCO World
Heritage Committee, describing Classical Chinese garden
design and the gardens of Suzhou.
[3] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, pref-
ace, and Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, ou la quete du par-
adis, Editions de La Martiniere, Paris 2010, p. 10–11.
[4] Tong Jun, Records of Jiang Gardens, cited in Feng
Chanoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou.
[5] Cited in Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 11.
[6] Tan, p. 10. See also Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p.
11.
[7] Che Bing Chiu,“Jardins de Chine, ou la quete du paradis”
, p. 11. [29] For example, Louis Le Comte, who visited China on a sci-
[8] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 12
[9] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 12.
[10] Che Bing Chiu Jardins de Chine, p. 16.
[11] Chen Congzhou and JIang Qiting (Editors), Yuanzong,
Shanghai, 2004, “You Jingyu yuan xu,”p. 39.
[12] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 352
[13] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 352.
[14] Patrick Carré, Le Jardin de Lettré, Musée Albert Kahn,
Besançon,Éditions de l'imprimeur, 2004, pp. 97–109.
[15] Chen, Gang (2010). Planting design illustrated (2nd ed.).
Outskirts Press, Inc. p. 120. ISBN 978-1-4327-4197-6.
[16] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 22
[17] Tzu-Hsui, Record of Hua Yang Palace, quoted by Michel
Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 352
[18] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 36.
[19] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical gardens of Suzhou. New
World Press, 2007.
105
[20] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 41.
[21] http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Travels_of_Marco_
Polo/Book_1/Chapter_61 The Travels of Marco Polo,
Book 1/Chapter 61, Of the City of Chandu, and the
Kaan's Palace There. from Wikisource, translated by
Henry Yule.
[22] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pp. 352–53.
[23] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, pg.
12.
[24] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, p. 6
[25] Jean-Denis Attiret, “Letter a M. d'Assaut,”cited in Che
Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 122.
[26] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 353
[27] This term is a translation of ' 中国古典 林' Zhōngguó
gǔdiǎn yuánlín which can be translated as 'Ancient Chi-
nese gardens', however what exactly it refers to in Western
languages is rather vague and is rarely defined by schol-
ars, with the notable exception of Z. Song, who gives this
definition:"'le jardin classique chinois' désigne les jardins
chinois créés au temps antérieurs au XIXe siècle au cours
duquel connut le commencement de l'industrialisation chi-
noise et surtout les jardins créés ou réaménagés entre
les XVIe et XVIIIe siècles.”which translates as 'classi-
cal gardens in China were created before the nineteenth
century [...] and especially gardens from the sixteenth-
eighteenth centuries' p. 1, Song, Z.-S. (2005). Jardins
classiques français et chinois: comparaison de deux modal-
ités paysagères. Paris: Ed. You Feng.
[28] Ji Cheng, The Craft of Gardens, translated by A. Hardie,
London and New Haven, Yale University Press, 1988.
entific expedition for King Louis XIV in 1685. See Michel
Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 426.
[30] cited in Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 431
[31] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou.
[32] Ji Cheng, The Craft of Gardens, translation by A. Harde,
London and New Yaven, Yale University Press, 1988
[33] Stepanova, Jekaterina (2010). Kraushaar, Frank, ed.
Eastwards: Western views on East Asian culture. Bern:
Peter Lang. pp. 162–3. ISBN 978-3-0343-0040-7.
[34] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, p. 24.
[35] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, p. 30
[36] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 124.
[37] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 135
[38] Harte, Sunniva (1999). Zen gardening. New York: Stew-
art, Tabori & Chang. p. 45. ISBN 978-1-55670-929-6.
[39] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 128.
[40] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 114.
106
[41] Tsu, Frances Ya-sing (1988). Landscape design in Chinese
gardens. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-
07-065339-9.
[42] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 116.
[43] Chen, Gang (2011). Landscape architecture: Planting de-
sign illustrated (3rd ed.). ArchiteG, Inc. p. 145. ISBN
978-0-9843741-9-9.
[44] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 118.
[45] Jean-Denis Attiret,“Lettre a M. d'Assaut, 1re Novembre
1743. Lettres édifiantes et curieuses écrites des Missions
étrangères par quelques missionaires de la Compagne de
Jésus,”Paris, Fr. Guerin, 1749, volume XXVII, v-1. p.
1–61. Trans, by David Siefkin.
[46] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 137
[47] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 141
[48] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 142
[49] Chen, Gang (2011). Landscape architecture: Planting de-
sign illustrated (3rd ed.). ArchiteG, Inc. p. 185. ISBN
978-0-9843741-9-9.
[50] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins. p. 396.
[51] cited in MIchel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 411
[52] Wybe Kuitert (2015) Borrowing scenery and the land-
scape that lends - the final chapter of Yuanye, Journal of
Landscape Architecture, 10:2, 32-43,
[53] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, pg. 205
[54] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 425.
[55] Quoted in Michel Baridon, Les Jardins. p. 411
[56] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 389.
[57] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou, p. 14
[58] Feng Chaoxiong, The Classical Gardens of Suzhou
[59] Che Bing Chiu, cited in Jardins de Chine, p. 19
[60] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine. Pg. 19.
[61] Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. “The Garden as a Site of So-
cial Activity”. University of Washington. Retrieved 5
October 2011.
[62] Cited in Michel Attiret, Les Jardins, Editions Robert La-
font, Paris, 1998 pg. 402
[63] Smith, Kim (2009). Oh garden of fresh possibilities!.
Boston: David R. Godine, Publisher. p. 34. ISBN 978-
1-56792-330-8.
[64] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 193
[65] “Chinese gardens and collectors' rocks”. Department of
Asian Art. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Retrieved 6 September 2011.
[66] Ebrey, Patricia Buckley. “Origins of Garden Design”.
University of Washington. Retrieved 5 October 2011.
CHAPTER 14. CHINESE GARDEN
[67] Thacker, Christopher (1985). The history of gardens.
Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 43. ISBN
978-0-520-05629-9.
[68] Wong, Young-tsu (2001). A paradise lost: The imperial
garden Yuanming Yuan. Honolulu: University of Hawaii
Press. p. 9. ISBN 978-0-8248-2328-3.
[69] This proverb is quoted in the 18th century classic novel
Dream of the Red Chamber, when a family is looking for a
motto for a garden pavilion. Michel Baridon, Les Jardins,
p. 443.
[70] Che Bing Chiu, Jardins de Chine, p. 186. Translated from
French by D.R. Siefkin.
[71] cited in Feng Chaioxiong The Classical Gardens of
Suzhou, Preface.
[72] Michel Barridon, Les Jardins, p. 464
[73] Chen, Gang (2011). Landscape architecture: Planting de-
sign illustrated (3rd ed.). ArchiteG, Inc. p. 150. ISBN
978-0-9843741-9-9.
[74] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 470
[75] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 469
[76] Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Christabel, Kubla Khan, and
the Pains of Sleep, 2nd edition, William Bulmer, London,
1816.
[77] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, p. 387.
[78] Louis le Comte, Nouveaux memoires sur l'etat present de
la Chine, vol. I, p. 336.
[79] O. Impey, Chinoiseries, London, Oxford University Press,
1977.
[80] Joseph Spence [alias Sir Harry Beaumont] (1752). A par-
ticular account of the Emperor of China's gardens near
Pekin. London. pp. 6–10. Translated from: Jean De-
nis Attiret (1743, published in 1749), Lettres edifiantes et
curieuses, vol. XII, p. 403.
[81] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye:
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 23. ISBN
978-0-8047-5945-8.
[82] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins. p. 348.
[83] Chang, Elizabeth Hope (2010). Britain's Chinese eye:
Literature, empire, and aesthetics in nineteenth-century
Britain. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p. 28. ISBN
978-0-8047-5945-8.
[84] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins- Paysagistes, Jarininiers, Po-
etes. pp. 839–40.
[85] Main, James. Gardener's Magazine, 1827, Volume II, p.
135. Cited in: Kilpatrick, Jane (2007). Gifts from the gar-
dens of China. London: Frances Lincoln. p. 130. ISBN
978-0-7112-2630-2.
[86] Chambers, William (1772). Dissertation on Oriental Gar-
dening
[87] Alexander Orloff and Dmitri Chvidkovski, Saint-
Petersbourg, l'architecture des tsars, Paris, 1995
14.9. EXTERNAL LINKS 107

14.8 Bibliography
• Chaoxiong, Feng (2007). The Classical Gardens of
Suzhou., New World Press, Beijing (ISBN 978-7-
80228-508-8)

• Chiu, Che Bing (2010). Jardins de Chine, ou la quête

du paradis., Éditions de la Martinière, Paris (ISBN
978-2-7324-4038-5)

• Clunas, Craig (1996). Fruitful sites: garden culture

in Ming dynasty China. Durham: Duke University
Press.
• Baridon, Michel (1998). Les Jardins- Paysagistes,
Jardiniers, Poetes., Éditions Robert Lafont, Paris,
(ISBN 2-221-06707-X)

• Keswick, Maggie (2003). The Chinese garden: his-

tory, art, and architecture. 3rd Ed. Cambridge,
Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
• Sirén, Osvald (1949). Gardens of China.New York:
Ronald Press.
• Sirén, Osvald (1950). China and Gardens of Europe
of the Eighteenth Century.
• Song, Z.-S. (2005). Jardins classiques français et
chinois: comparaison de deux modalités paysagères.
Paris: Ed. You Feng.

• Tong, Jun. Gazetteer of Jingnan Gardens (Jingnan

Yuanlin Zhi).

• Tan, Rémi (2009). Le Jardin Chinois par l'image.,

Editions You Feng, Paris (ISBN 978-2-84279-142-
1)

14.9 External links

• Suzhou Classical Gardens
Chapter 15

Japanese garden

15.1.1 Origins

The idea of these unique gardens began during the Asuka

period when Japanese merchants witnessed the gardens
that were being built in China and became so inspired
by the gardens that they would frequently import many
facets of the Chinese culture back to their own country.
Today, in many parts of Japan and the western part of the
world the traditions of Japanese garden art still maintain
their full intensity of expression and continue to inspire
the many artists that aspire to create a personal Japanese
garden of their own.
Saihō-ji (Kyoto), also known as the “Moss Garden”, begun in
1339

Japanese gardens (⽇本庭園 nihon teien) are traditional

gardens that create miniature idealized landscapes, often
in a highly abstract and stylized way.* [1] The gardens of
the Emperors and nobles were designed for recreation and
aesthetic pleasure, while the gardens of Buddhist temples
were designed for contemplation and meditation.
Japanese garden styles include karesansui, Japanese
rock gardens or Zen gardens, which are meditation gar-
dens where white sand replaces water; roji, simple, rustic
gardens with teahouses where the Japanese tea ceremony Ise Jingu, a Shinto shrine begun in the 7th century, surrounded
is conducted; kaiyū-shiki-teien, promenade or stroll gar- by white gravel
dens, where the visitor follows a path around the garden to
see carefully composed landscapes; and tsubo-niwa, small Japanese gardens first appeared on the island of Honshu,
courtyard gardens. the large central island of Japan. In their physical ap-
pearance they were influenced by the distinct character-
Japanese gardens were developed under the influences of
istics of the Honshu landscape; rugged volcanic peaks,
the Chinese gardens,* [2] but gradually Japanese garden
narrow valleys and mountain streams with waterfalls and
designers began to develop their own aesthetics, based
cascades, lakes, and beaches of small stones. They were
on Japanese materials and Japanese culture. By the Edo
also influenced by the rich variety of flowers and differ-
period, the Japanese garden had its own distinct appear-
ent species of trees, particularly evergreen trees, on the
ance.* [3] Since the end of the 19th century, Japanese gar-
islands, and by the four distinct seasons in Japan, includ-
dens have also been adapted to Western settings.
ing hot, wet summers and snowy winters.* [4]
Japanese gardens have their roots in Japanese religion
of Shinto, with its story of the creation of eight perfect
islands, and of the shinchi, the lakes of the gods. Pre-
historic Shinto shrines to the kami, the gods and spirits,
15.1 History are found on beaches and in forests all over the island.
Sometimes they took the form of unusual rocks or trees,

108
 15.1. HISTORY 109

which were marked with cords of rice fiber (shimenawa), of Japanese poetry.
and surrounded with white stones or pebbles, a symbol of It appears from the small amount of literary and arche-
purity.* [5] The white gravel courtyard became a distinc- ological evidence available that the Japanese gardens of
tive feature of Shinto shrines, Imperial Palaces, Buddhist this time were modest versions of the Imperial gardens of
temples, and zen gardens.* [6] the Tang Dynasty, with large lakes scattered with artificial
Japanese gardens also were strongly influenced by the islands and artificial mountains. Pond edges were con-
Chinese philosophy of Daoism, and Amida Buddhism, structed with heavy rocks as embankment. While these
imported from China in or around 552 AD. Daoist leg- gardens had some Buddhist and Daoist symbolism, they
ends spoke of five mountainous islands inhabited by the were meant to be pleasure gardens, and places for festi-
Eight Immortals, who lived in perfect harmony with na- vals and celebrations.
ture. Each Immortal flew from his mountain home on the
back of a crane. The islands themselves were located on
the back of an enormous sea turtle. In Japan, the five 15.1.3 Gardens of the Nara period (710-
islands of the Chinese legend became one island, called 794)
Horai-zen, or Mount Horai. Replicas of this legendary
mountain, the symbol of a perfect world, are a common The Nara Period is named after its capital city Nara. The
feature of Japanese gardens, as are rocks representing tur- first authentically Japanese gardens were built in this city
tles and cranes.* [7] at the end of the eighth century. Shorelines and stone
settings were naturalistic, different from the heavier, ear-
lier continental mode of constructing pond edges. Two of
15.1.2 In antiquity such gardens have been found at excavations, both were
used for poetry-writing festivities.* [9]
The earliest recorded Japanese gardens were the pleasure
gardens of the Japanese Emperors and nobles. They are 15.1.4 Gardens of the Heian period (794–
mentioned in several brief passages of Nihon Shoki, the
first chronicle of Japanese history, published in 720 AD.
1185)
In the spring of the year 74 AD, the chronicle recorded:
“The Emperor Keikō put a few carp into a pond, and re-
joiced to see them morning and evening”. The following
year,“The Emperor launched a double-hulled boat in the
pond of Ijishi at Ihare, and went aboard with his imperial
concubine, and they feasted sumptuously together”. And
in 486, “The Emperor Kenzō went into the garden and
feasted at the edge of a winding stream”.* [8]
The Chinese garden had a very strong influence on the
early Japanese gardens. In or around 552 AD Buddhism
was officially installed from China, via Korea, into Japan.
Between 600 and 612, the Japanese Emperor sent four
legations to the Court of the Chinese Sui Dynasty. Be-
tween 630 and 838, the Japanese court sent fifteen more Phoenix Hall in the garden of Byōdō-in, Kyoto, is a temple of the
legations to the court of the Tang Dynasty. These lega- Amitābha or school of Pure Land Buddhism (1053)
tions, with more than five hundred members each, in-
cluded diplomats, scholars, students, Buddhist monks, In 794, at the beginning of the Heian Period, the Japanese
and translators. They brought back Chinese writing, art court moved its capital to Heian-kyō (present-day Kyoto).
objects, and detailed descriptions of Chinese gardens. During this period, there were three different kinds of
In 612, the Empress Suiko had garden built with an gardens; palace gardens and the gardens of nobles in the
artificial mountain, representing Shumi-Sen, or Mount capital; the gardens of villas at the edge of the city; and
Sumeru, reputed in Hindu and Buddhist legends to be lo- the gardens of temples.
cated at the center of the world. During the reign of the The architecture of the palaces, residences and gardens
same Empress, one of her ministers, Soga no Umako, had in the Heian period followed Chinese practice. Houses
a garden built at his palace featuring a lake with several and gardens were aligned on a north-south axis, with the
small islands, representing the islands of the Eight Im- residence to the north and the ceremonial buildings and
mortals famous in Chinese legends and the Daoist philos- main garden to the south, there were two long wings to
ophy. This Palace became the property of the Japanese the south, like the arms of an armchair, with the garden
Emperors, was named“The Palace of the Isles”, and was between them. The gardens featured one or more lakes
mentioned several times in the Man'yōshū, the “Collec- connected by bridges and winding streams. The south
tion of Countless Leaves”, the oldest known collection garden of the imperial residences had a specially Japanese
 110 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

feature; a large empty area of white sand or gravel. The created with landscape and architecture, and a prototype
Emperor was the chief priest of Japan, and the white sand for future Japanese gardens.* [13]
represented purity, and was a place where the gods could Notable existing or recreated Heian gardens include:
be invited to visit. The area was used for religious cere-
monies, and dances for the welcoming of the gods.* [10]
• Daikaku-ji
The layout of the garden itself was strictly deter-
mined according to the principles of traditional Chinese • Byōdō-in
geomancy, or Feng Shui. The first known book on the art
• Kyoto Imperial Palace
of the Japanese garden, the Sakuteiki (Records of Garden
Keeping), written in the 11th century, said: • Jōruri-ji
“It is a good omen to make the stream arrive from the
east, to enter the garden, pass under the house, and then • Osawa lake in Kyoto was part of the old imperial
leave from the southeast. In this way, the water of the gardens of the Emperor Saga (809-823 AD).
blue dragon will carry away all the bad spirits from the
• Model of a residence and garden at Heian-kyō (Ky-
house toward the white tiger.”* [11]
oto), around 1000 AD.
The Imperial gardens of the Heian Period were water
gardens, where visitors promenaded in elegant lacquered • A 19th-century scaled-down reconstruction of the
boats, listening to music, viewing the distant moun- Heian-jingū, the first Kyoto Imperial Palace Garden,
tains, singing, reading poetry, painting, and admiring the as it was in 794 AD.
scenery of the garden. The social life in the gardens was • Stepping stones in the garden of the first Kyoto Im-
memorably described in the classic Japanese novel, the perial Palace. These stones were originally part of
Tales of Genji, written in about 1005 by Murasaki Shik- a 16th-century bridge over the Kamo River, which
ibu, a lady-in-waiting to the Empress. The traces of one was destroyed by an earthquake.* [1]
such artificial lake, Osawa no ike, near the Daikaku-ji
Temple in Kyoto, still can be seen. It was built by the • Recreated garden of the old Kyoto Imperial Palace
Emperor Saga, who ruled from 809 to 823, and was said
to be inspired by Dongting Lake in China.* [12] A scaled- 1. ^ Daniele Eilisseeff, Jardins Japonais, pg. 20
down replica of the Kyoto Imperial Palace of 794 AD,
the Heian-jingū, was built in Kyoto in 1895 to celebrate
the 1100th birthday of the city. The south garden is fa- 15.1.5 Kamakura and Muromachi Periods
mous for its cherry blossoms in spring, and for azaleas (1185–1573)
in the early summer. The west garden is known for the
irises in June, and the large east garden lake recalls the
leisurely boating parties of the 8th century.* [12] Near the
end of the Heian period a new garden architecture style
appeared, created by the followers of Pure Land Bud-
dhism. These were called “Paradise Gardens,”built to
represent the legendary Paradise of the West, where the
Amida Buddha ruled. These were built by noblemen who
wanted to assert their power and independence from the
Imperial household, which was growing weaker.
The best surviving example of a Paradise Garden is
Byōdō-in in Uji, near Kyoto. It was originally the villa
of Fujiwara Michinaga, (966-1028), who married his
daughters to the sons of the Emperor. After his death,
his son transformed the villa into a temple, and in 1053 Kinkaku-ji, the Golden Pavilion (1398)
built the Hall of Phoenix, which still stands. The Hall is
built in the traditional style of a Chinese Song Dynasty The weakness of the Emperors and the rivalry of feu-
temple, on an island in the lake. It houses a gilded statue dal warlords resulted in two civil wars (1156 and 1159),
of the Amithaba Buddha, looking to the west. In the lake which destroyed most of Kyoto and its gardens. The cap-
in front of the temple is a small island of white stones, ital moved to Kamakura, Kanagawa, and then in 1336
representing Mount Horai, the home of the Eight Immor- back to the Muromachi quarter of Kyoto. The Emperors
tals of the Daoists, connected to the temple by a bridge, ruled in name only; real power was held by a military gov-
which symbolized the way to paradise. It was designed ernor, the shogun. During this period, the Government
for mediation and contemplation, not as a pleasure gar- reopened relations with China, which had been broken
den. It was a lesson in Daoist and Buddhist philosophy off almost three hundred years earlier. Japanese monks
went again to study in China, and Chinese monks came to
 15.1. HISTORY 111

Notable gardens of the Kamakura and Muromachi Peri-

ods include:

• Kinkaku-ji, (the Golden Pavilion)

• Ginkaku-ji, (the Silver Pavilion)

• Nanzen-ji

• Saihō-ji (The Moss Garden)

• Tenryū-ji

• Daisen-in
The zen rock garden of Ryōan-ji (late 15th century)
• Ginkaku-ji, or the Silver Pavilion, in Kyoto, was
(and is) a Zen Buddhist temple. (1482).
Japan, fleeing the Mongol invasions. The monks brought • The zen rock garden of Ginkaku-ji features a minia-
with them a new form of Buddhism, called simply Zen, or ture mountain shaped like Mount Fuji.
“meditation”. The first zen garden in Japan was built by a
Chinese priest in 1251 in Kamakura.* [14] Japan enjoyed • The garden of Daisen-in Kyoto. (1513)
a renaissance in religion, in the arts, and particularly in
• Nanzen-ji garden, Kyoto, built by Musō Soseki. Not
gardens.* [15]
all zen gardens were made of rock and sand; monks
Many famous temple gardens were built early in this pe- here contemplated a forest scene.
riod, including Kinkaku-ji, The Golden Pavilion, built in
1398, and Ginkaku-ji, The Silver Pavilion, built in 1482. • Tenryū-ji garden in Kyoto. The Sogen pond, created
In some ways they followed Zen principles of spontane- by Musō Soseki, is one of the few surviving features
ity, extreme simplicity and moderation, but in other ways of the original garden.
they were traditional Chinese Song-Dynasty Temples; the
upper floors of the Golden Pavilion were covered with
gold leaf, and they were surrounded by traditional water 15.1.6 The Momoyama Period (1568–
gardens. 1600)
The most notable garden style invented in this period was
the zen garden, or Japanese rock garden. One of the finest
examples, and one of the best-known of all Japanese gar-
dens is Ryōan-ji in Kyoto. This garden is just 9 meters
wide and 24 meters long. It is composed of white sand
carefully raked to suggest water, and fifteen rocks care-
fully arranged, like small islands. It is meant to be seen
from a seated position on the porch of the residence the
abbot of the monastery. There have been many debates
about what the rocks are supposed to represent, but, as
garden historian Gunter Nitschke wrote, “The garden at
Ryōan-ji does not symbolize. It does not have the value
of representing any natural beauty that can be found in
the world, real or mythical. I consider it as an abstract
composition of “natural”objects in space, a composi- The garden at Tokushima Castle (1592) on the island of Shikoku
features water and enormous rocks. It was meant to be seen from
tion whose function is to incite mediation.”* [16]
above, from a viewing pavilion.
Several of the famous zen gardens of Kyoto were the
work of one man; Musō Soseki (1275–1351). He was The Momoyama period was short, just 32 years, and was
a monk, a ninth-generation descendant of the Emperor largely occupied with the wars between the daimyo, the
Uda. He was also a formidable court politician, writer and leaders of the feudal Japanese clans. The new centers
organizer, who armed and financed ships to open trade of power and culture in Japan were the fortified castles
with China, and founded an organization called the Five of the daimyo, around which new cities and gardens ap-
Mountains, made up of the most powerful Zen monaster- peared. The characteristic garden of the period featured
ies in Kyoto. He was responsible for the building of the one or more ponds or lakes next to the main residence,
zen gardens of Nanzen-ji; Saihō-ji (The Moss Garden); or shoin, not far from the castle. These gardens were
and Tenryū-ji. meant to be seen from above, from the castle or residence.
112 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

The daimyos had developed the skills of cutting and lift- guests rinsed their hands and mouths before entering the
ing large rocks to build their castles, and they had armies tea room through a small, square door called nijiri-guchi,
of soldiers to move them. The artificial lakes were sur- or “crawling-in entrance”, which requires bending low
rounded by beaches of small stones and decorated with to pass through. Sen no Rikyū decreed that the garden
arrangements of boulders, with natural stone bridges and should be left unswept for several hours before the cere-
stepping stones. The gardens of this period combined ele- mony, so that leaves would be scattered in a natural way
ments of a promenade garden, meant to be seen from the on the path.* [19]
winding garden paths, with elements of the zen garden, Notable gardens of the period include:
such as artificial mountains, meant to be contemplated
from a distance.* [17]
• Tokushima Castle garden on the island of Shikoku.
The most famous garden of this kind, built in 1592, is sit-
uated near the Tokushima castle on the island of Shikoku. • Tai-an tea house at Myōki-an Temple in Kyoto, built
Its notable features include a bridge 10.5 meters long in 1582 by Sen no Rikyū.
made of two natural stones.
• Sanbō-in at Daigo-ji, in Kyoto Prefecture (1598)
Another notable garden of the period still existing is
Sanbō-in, rebuilt by Toyotomi Hideyoshi in 1598 to cel-
ebrate the festival of the cherry blossom, and to recreate • Garden at the Tokushima Castle, dominated by
the splendor of an ancient garden. Three hundred garden- rocks
builders worked on the project, digging the lakes and in-
stalling seven hundred boulders in a space of 540 square • The garden at Daigo-ji (1598) is famous for its
meters. The garden was designed to be seen from the ve- cherry blossoms.
randa of the main pavilion, or from the“Hall of the Pure
View”, located on a higher elevation in the garden.
15.1.7 Edo Period (1615–1867)
In the east of the garden, on a peninsula, is an arrange-
ment of stones designed to represent the mythical Mount
Horai. A wooden bridge leads to an island representing a
crane, and a stone bridge connects this island to another
representing a tortoise. which is connected by an earth-
covered bridge back to the peninsula. The garden also
includes a waterfall at the foot of a wooded hill. One
characteristic of the Momoyama period garden visible at
Sanbō-in is the close proximity of the buildings to the wa-
ter.* [17]
The Momoyama Period also saw the development of the
chanoyu (tea ceremony), the chashitsu (teahouse), and the
roji (tea garden). Tea had been introduced to Japan from
China by Buddhist monks, who used it as a stimulant to
keep awake during long periods of meditation. The first
great tea master, Sen no Rikyū (1522–1591), defined in
the most minute detail the appearance and rules of the tea The garden of Katsura Imperial Villa in Kyoto (1641-1662), the
prototype for the promenade, or stroll garden
house and tea garden, following the principle of wabi (侘
び) “sober refinement and calm”.* [18]
Following Sen no Rikyū's rules, the teahouse was sup-
posed to suggest the cottage of a hermit-monk. It was
a small and very plain wooden structure, often with a
thatched roof, with just enough room inside for two
tatami mats. The only decoration allowed inside a scroll
with an inscription and a branch of a tree. It did not have
a view of the garden.
The garden was also small, and constantly watered to be
damp and green. It usually had a cherry tree or elm to
bring color in the spring, but otherwise did not have bright
flowers or exotic plants that would distract the attention
of the visitor. A path led to the entrance of the tea house.
Along the path was waiting bench for guests and a privy, The interior of the Geppa Pavilion of the Katsura Imperial Villa,
and a stone water-basin near the tea house, where the perfectly integrated into the garden
15.1. HISTORY
During the Edo Period, power was won and consolidated
by the Tokugawa clan, who became the Shoguns, and
moved the capital to Edo, which became Tokyo. Dur-
ing this time, Japan, except for the port of Nagasaki, was
virtually closed to foreigners, and Japanese were not al-
lowed to travel to any country except China or the Nether-
lands. The Emperor remained in Kyoto as a figurehead
leader, with authority only over cultural and religious af-
fairs. While the political center of Japan was now Tokyo,
Kyoto remained the cultural capital, the center for reli-
gion and art. The Shoguns provided the Emperors with
little power, but with generous subsidies for building gar-
dens.* [20]
The Edo period saw the widespread use of a new kind
of Japanese architecture, called Sukiya-zukuri, which
means literally “building according to chosen taste”.
The term first appeared at the end of the 16th century re-
ferring to isolated tea houses. It originally applied to the
simple country houses of samurai warriors and Buddhist
monks, but in the Edo period it was used in every kind of
building, from houses to palaces.
The Sukiya style was used in the most famous garden
of the period, the Katsura Imperial Villa in Kyoto. The
buildings were built in a very simple, undecorated style, a
prototype for future Japanese architecture. They opened
up onto the garden, so that the garden seemed entirely
part of the building. Whether the visitor was inside or
outside of the building, he always had a feeling he was
in the center of nature. The garden buildings were ar-
ranged so that were always seen from a diagonal, rather
than straight on. This arrangement had the poetic name
ganko, which meant literally “a formation of wild geese
in flight.”* [21]
Most of the gardens of the Edo Period were either prom-
enade gardens or dry rock zen gardens, and they were
usually much larger than earlier gardens. The promenade
gardens of the period made extensive use of borrowing
of scenery (“shakkei”). Vistas of distant mountains
are integrated in the design of the garden; or, even bet-
ter, building the garden on the side of a mountain and
using the different elevations to attain views over land-
scapes outside the garden. Edo promenade gardens were
often composed of a series of meisho, or“famous views”,
similar to postcards. These could be imitations of famous
natural landscapes, like Mount Fuji, or scenes from Taoist
or Buddhist legends, or landscapes illustrating verses of
poetry. Unlike zen gardens, they were designed to portray
nature as it appeared, not the internal rules of nature.* [22]
• Shugakuin Imperial Villa
• Shisen-dō, (1641)
• Suizen-ji
• Hama Rikyu
• Kōraku-en (Okayama)
113
• Ritsurin Garden (Takamatsu)
• Koishikawa Kōraku-en (Tokyo), (1629)
• Ninna-ji, Kyoto
• Emman-in, Otsu
• Sanzen-in, north of Kyoto
• Chishaku-in, southeast of Kyoto
• Jōju-in, in the temple of Kiyomizu, southeast of Ky-
oto. (1688–1703)
• Manshu-in, northeast of Kyoto (1656)
• Nanzen-ji, east of Kyoto. (1688–1703)
• The hermitage garden of the poet and scholar
Ishikawa Jozan at Shisen-dō, built in 1641. It later
became a temple.
• The north garden at Ninna-ji in Kyoto, a classic
promenade garden
• The south garden at Ninna-ji, a zen rock garden
• Koishikawa Kōrakuen Garden in Tokyo, begun in
1629, is now surrounded by office buildings.
• The most famous view of Suizen-ji is miniature
mountain resembling Mount Fuji
15.1.8 Meiji Period (1868–1912)
The Meiji period saw the modernization of Japan, and the
re-opening of Japan to the west. Many of the old private
gardens had been abandoned and left to ruin. In 1871, a
new law transformed many gardens from the Momoyama
and Edo periods into public parks, preserving them. One
of the well-known architects of that time was Ogawa Jihei
VII, also known as Ueji.
Notable gardens of this period include:
• Kenroku-en, 18th and 19th centuries, finished in
1874.
• Chinzan-so in Tokyo in 1877.
• Murin-an in Kyoto, finished 1898.
• Kenroku-en in Kanazawa
• Chinzan-so in Tokyo
• Murin-an in Kyoto
 114 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

15.1.9 Modern Japanese gardens (1912 to have always been conceived as a representation of a natu-
present) ral setting. The Japanese have always had a spiritual con-
During the Showa period (1926–1988), many traditional
gardens were built by businessmen and politicians. After
World War II, the principal builders of gardens were no
longer private individuals, but banks, hotels, universities
and government agencies. The Japanese garden became
an extension of the architecture of the building. New gar-
dens were designed by architecture school graduates, and
often used modern building materials, such as concrete.
Some modern Japanese gardens, such as Tōfuku-ji, de-
signed by Mirei Shigemori, were inspired by classical
models. Other modern gardens have taken a much more
radical approach to the traditions. One example is Awaji
Yumebutai, a garden on the island of Awaji, in the Seto
Inland Sea of Japan, designed by Tadao Ando. It was built
as part of a resort and conference center on a steep slope,
where land had been stripped away to make an island for
an airport.
nection with their land and the spirits that are one with
nature, which explains why they prefer to incorporate nat-
ural materials in their gardens. Traditional Japanese gar-
dens can be categorized into three types: tsukiyama (hill
gardens), karesansui (dry gardens) and chaniwa gardens
(tea gardens). The main purpose of a Japanese garden is
to attempt to be a space that captures the natural beauties
of nature.
The small space given to create these gardens usually
poses a challenge for the gardeners. Due to the absolute
importance of the arrangement of natural rocks and trees,
finding the right material becomes highly selective. The
serenity of a Japanese landscape and the simple but de-
liberate structures of the Japanese gardens are what truly
make the gardens unique. “The two main principles in-
corporated in a Japanese garden are scaled reduction and
symbolization.”* [24]

• Tōfuku-ji, A modern Japanese garden from 1934,

designed by Mirei Shigemori, built on grounds of a
13th-century Zen temple in Kyoto

• The moss garden at Tōfuku-ji, Kyoto

• A contemporary Japanese garden at the Kochi Mu-

seum of Art

• The garden at the Naoshima Fukutake Art Museum,

using sculpture to imitate the form of island on the
horizon

• Garden of the Adachi Museum of Art

• Awaji Yumebutai, a contemporary garden on the is-

land of Awaji, Hyogo (2000)

• Shell beach garden, part of the Awaji Yumebutai on

the island of Awaji, Hyogo (2000)

• Jissō-in rock garden in Iwakura (Kyoto), reformed

in 2013.

Cascade at Nanzen-ji garden in Kyoto

15.2 Garden elements
Japanese gardens always have water, either a pond or
15.2.1 Water stream, or, in the dry rock garden, represented by white
sand. In Buddhist symbolism, water and stone are the
The ability to capture the essence of nature makes the yin and yang, two opposites that complement and com-
Japanese gardens distinctive and appealing to observers. plete each other. A traditional garden will usually have an
Traditional Japanese gardens are very different in style irregular-shaped pond or, in larger gardens, two or more
from occidental gardens. The contrast between west- ponds connected by a channel or stream, and a cascade, a
ern flower gardens and Japanese gardens is profound. miniature version of Japan's famous mountain waterfalls.
“Western gardens are typically optimised for visual ap- In traditional gardens, the ponds and streams are care-
peal while Japanese gardens are modelled with spiritual fully placed according to Buddhist geomancy, the art and
and philosophical ideas in mind.”* [23] Japanese gardens science of putting things in the place most likely to at-
15.2. GARDEN ELEMENTS 115

tract good fortune. The rules for the placement of water • An island of weathered rocks and a single pine
were laid out in the first manual of Japanese gardens, the tree in Rikugi-en garden in Tokyo represents Mount
Sakuteiki, or“The Creation of Gardens”, in the 11th cen- Horai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals.
tury (see“Literature”below). According to the Sakuteiki,
the water should enter the garden from the east or south- • An island in Koraku-en gardens, Tokyo
east and flow toward the west because the east is the home • Cascade at Keitaku-en garden near Osaka
of the Green Dragon (seiryu) an ancient Chinese divinity
adapted in Japan, and the west is the home of the White
Tiger, the divinity of the east. Water flowing from east 15.2.2 Rocks and sand
to west will carry away evil, and the owner of the gar-
den will be healthy and have a long life. According to the Rock, sand and gravel are an essential feature of the
Sakuteiki, another favorable arrangement is for the water Japanese garden. A vertical rock may represent Mount
to flow from north, which represents water in Buddhist Horai, the legendary home of the Eight Immortals, or
cosmology, to the south, which represents fire, which are Mount Sumeru of Buddhist teaching, or a carp jumping
opposites (yin and yang) and therefore will bring good from the water. A flat rock might represent the earth.
luck.* [25] Sand or gravel can represent a beach, or a flowing river.
The Sakuteiki recommends several possible miniature Rocks and water also symbolize yin and yang, (in and yō
landscapes using lakes and streams: the “ocean style” in Japanese) in Buddhist philosophy; the hard rock and
, which features rocks that appear to have been eroded by soft water complement each other, and water, though soft,
waves, a sandy beach, and pine trees; the “broad river can wear away rock.
style”, recreating the course of a large river, winding Rough volcanic rocks (kasei-gan) are usually used to rep-
like a serpent; the “marsh pond”style, a large still pond resent mountains or as stepping stones. Smooth and
with aquatic plants; the “mountain torrent style”, with round sedimentary rocks (suisei-gan) are used around
many rocks and cascades; and the “rose letters”style, lakes or as stepping stones. Hard metamorphic rocks are
an austere landscape with small, low plants, gentle relief usually placed by waterfalls or streams. Rocks are tra-
and many scattered flat rocks. ditionally classified as tall vertical, low vertical, arching,
Traditional Japanese gardens have small islands in the reclining, or flat. Rocks should vary in size and color
lakes. In sacred temple gardens, there is usually an island but from each other, but not have bright colors, which
which represents Mount Penglai or Mount Horai, the tra- would lack subtlety. Rocks with strata or veins should
ditional home of the Eight Immortals. have the veins all going in the same direction, and the
rocks should all be firmly planted in the earth, giving an
The Sakuteiki describes different kinds of artificial island appearance of firmness and permanence. Rocks are ar-
which can be created in lakes, including the “mountain- ranged in careful compositions of two, three, five or seven
ous island”, made up of jagged vertical rocks mixed with rocks, with three being the most common. In a three-
pine trees, surrounded by a sandy beach; the “rocky is- arrangement, a tallest rock usually represents heaven, the
land”, composed of “tormented”rocks appearing to shortest rock is the earth, and the medium-sized rock is
have been battered by sea waves, along with small, an- humanity, the bridge between heaven and earth. Some-
cient pine trees with unusual shapes; the “cloud island” times one or more rocks, called suteishi, (“nameless”or
, made of white sand in the rounded white forms of a cu- “discarded”) are placed in seemingly random locations
mulus cloud; and the “misty island”, a low island of in the garden, to suggest spontaneity, though their place-
sand, without rocks or trees. ment is carefully chosen.* [27]
A cascade or waterfall is an important element in In ancient Japan, sand (suna) and gravel (jari) were used
Japanese gardens, a miniature version of the waterfalls around Shinto shrines and Buddhist temples. Later it
of Japanese mountain streams. The Sakuteiki described was used in the Japanese rock garden or Zen Buddhist
seven kinds of cascades. It notes that if possible a cascade gardens to represent water or clouds. White sand rep-
should face toward the moon and should be designed to resented purity, but sand could also be gray, brown or
capture the moon's reflection in the water.* [26] bluish-black.* [28]

• Lotus pond at Enjo-ji, a Heian period paradise gar- • Rocks in the Garden of the Blissful Mountain at
den (12th century) Daitoku-ji
• A winding stream at Mōtsū-ji garden in Hiraisumi • Sand in checkerboard pattern at Tōfuku-ji, in Kyoto
• The spring-fed pond at Suizen-ji Jōju-en garden, • Tōfuku-ji garden in Kyoto
(1636) whose water was reputed to be excellent for
making tea • Myōshin-ji garden
• Youkoukan Garden in Fukui Prefecture recreates a • Shitenno-ji garden. Note the three-rock composi-
miniature beach and a mountain tion in the center.
116 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

• Ankokuji garden in Hiroshima features rocks of dif- Such attention to detail can be seen at places such as Mi-
ferent but harmonious sizes and colors dori Falls in Kenroku-en Garden in Kanazawa, Ishikowa
Prefecture, as the rocks at the waterfall's base were
• Rock composition at Tōfuku-ji (1934) changed at various times by six different daimyo.
• A large flat rock on an island in Korakuen garden in
Tokyo, which represents a turtle's head.
15.2.3 Garden architecture
• Carefully positioned stones around the pond in
Ritsurin Garden. In Heian Period Japanese gardens, built in the Chinese
• Combination of checkerboard pattern and watter model, buildings occupied as much or more space than
patterns at the Negoro-Temple (Negoro-ji), Prefec- the garden. The garden was designed to be seen from the
ture Wakayama. main building and its verandas, or from small pavilions
built for that purpose. In later gardens, the buildings were
Selection and subsequent placement of rocks was and still less visible. Rustic teahouses were hidden in their own lit-
is a central concept in creating an aesthetically pleasing tle gardens, and small benches and open pavilions along
garden by the Japanese. During the Heian era, the con- the garden paths provided places for rest and contempla-
cept of placing stones as symbolic representations of is- tion. In later garden architecture, walls of houses and
lands – whether physically existent or nonexistent – began teahouses could be opened to provide carefully framed
to take hold, and can be seen in the Japanese word shima, views of the garden. The garden and the house became
*
which is of “particular importance …because the word one. [32]
contained the meaningʻislandʼ”Furthermore, the prin-
ciple of kowan ni shitagau, or“obeying (or following) the • The symmetrical and highly ornamental architec-
request of an object”, was, and still is, a guiding princi- ture of the Phoenix Hall in Byōdō-in Garden, Kyoto,
ple of Japanese rock design that suggests “the arrange- (1052 AD) was inspired by Chinese Song Dynasty
ment of rocks be dictated by their innate characteristics.” architecture.
The specific placement of stones in Japanese gardens to
symbolically represent islands (and later to include moun- • A chashitsu or teahouse in Jo-an garden in Inuyama,
tains), is found to be an aesthetically pleasing property of from 1618. The simple and unadorned zen teahouse
traditional Japanese gardens. Here are some of the aes- style began to be used on all Japanese buildings,
thetic principles, as stated by Thoams Heyd: from garden pavilions to palaces. This teahouse was
declared a National Treasure of Japan in 1951.
Stones, which constitute a fundamental part
of Japanese gardens, are carefully selected for • The architecture of the main house of the Katsura
their weathering and are placed in such a way Imperial Villa (1619-1662) was inspired by the sim-
that they give viewers the sense that theyʻnat- plicity of the tea house.
urallyʼbelong where they are, and in combi-
nations in which the viewers [sic] find them.
As such, this form of gardening attempts to 15.2.4 Garden bridges
emblematically represent (or present) the pro-
cesses and spaces found in wild nature, away Bridges first appeared in the Japanese garden during the
from city and practical concerns of human Heian period. At Byōdō-in garden in Kyoto, a wooden
life* [29] bridge connects the Phoenix pavilion with a small island
of stones, representing the Mount Penglai or Mount Ho-
Rock placement is a general“aim to portray nature in its rai, the island home of the Eight Immortals of Daoist
essential characteristics”* [30] - the essential goal of all teaching, The bridge symbolized the path to paradise and
Japanese gardens. Furthermore, immortality.* [33]

while the cult of stones is also central to
Japanese gardening …as stones were part of an
aesthetic design and had to be placed so that
their positions appeared natural and their re-
lationships harmonious. The concentration of
the interest on such detail as the shape of a rock
or the moss on a stone lantern led at times to an
overemphatic picturesqueness and accumula-
tion of minor features that, to Western eyes ac-
customed to a more general survey, may seem
cluttered and restless.* [31]
Bridges could be made of stone (ishibashi), or of wood,
or made of logs with earth on top, covered with moss
(dobashi); they could be either arched (soribashi) or flat
(hirabashi). Sometimes if they were part of a temple gar-
den, they were painted red, following the Chinese tradi-
tion, but for the most part they were unpainted.* [34]
During the Edo period, when large promenade gardens
became popular, streams and winding paths were con-
structed, with a series of bridges, usually in a rustic stone
or wood style, to take visitors on a tour of the scenic views
of the garden.
15.2. GARDEN ELEMENTS 117

• The bridge at Byōdō-in temple (1052) represented • Water basin at Ryoan-ji, Kyoto
the way to the island of the immortals, and paradise
• Stone water basin in Kenroku-en garden.
• A bridge at Tokushima castle made of two stones
resting on a third stone (1592). • Stone water basin in Sakamotu, Otsu, Shiga
• Water basin at Tenryu-ji Temple in Kyoto
• Wood and stone bridge at Suizen-ji garden. The gar-
den was begun in 1636. • Snow lanterns, like this one in Kenroku-en garden,
have wide brims which catch the snow, to create pic-
• Wooden bridge in Ritsurin Garden, (Between 1642
turesque scenes.
and 1745)

• The Flying Geese Bridge in Kenroku-en garden (Be-

tween 1822 and 1874). 15.2.6 Garden fences, gates, and devices

• Stone bridge in Koishikawa Kōrakuen • The exterior wall of Katsura Imperial Villa, de-
signed, like all the garden, for purity and simplicity
• Rustic bridge at Tensha-en garden in Uwajima
(1866) • Gate of the Urakuen tea garden, seen from inside

• A wooden bridge covered with earth and moss • The traditional garden gate of the Adachi Museum
(dobashi) at Sorakuen of Art

• a rare covered bridge from the Sankeien Garden in • A shishiodoshi is garden device, made of bamboo
Yokohama and wood, designed to scare away birds. As the
bamboo tube fills with water, it clacks against a
stone, empties, then fills with water again.
15.2.5 Stone lanterns and water basins
For complete article see Tōrō 15.2.7 Trees and flowers
Japanese stone lanterns (台灯籠 dai-dōrō, lit. platform
lamp) date back to the Nara Period and the Heian Pe-
riod. Originally they were located only at Buddhist tem-
ples, where they lined the paths and approaches to the
temple, but in the Heian period they began to be used at
Shinto shrines as well. According to tradition, during the
Momoyama Period they were introduced to the tea gar-
den by the first great tea masters, and in later gardens they
were used purely for decoration.
In its complete and original form, a dai-doro, like the
pagoda, represents the five elements of Buddhist cosmol-
ogy. The piece touching the ground represents chi, the
earth; the next section represents sui, or water; ka or fire,
is represented by the section encasing the lantern's light Momiji in the temple of Ginkaku-ji, Kyoto
or flame, while fū (air) and kū (void or spirit) are rep-
resented by the last two sections, top-most and pointing Nothing in a Japanese garden is natural or left to chance;
towards the sky. The segments express the idea that after each plant is chosen according to aesthetic principles, ei-
death our physical bodies will go back to their original, ther to hide undesirable sights, to serve as a backdrop to
elemental form.* [35] certain garden features, or to create a picturesque scene,
like a landscape painting or postcard. Trees are carefully
Stone water basins, (tsukubai) were originally placed in
chosen and arranged for their autumn colors. Moss is of-
gardens for visitors to wash their hands and mouth before
ten used to suggest that the garden is ancient. Flowers are
the tea ceremony. The water is provided to the basin by
also carefully chosen by their season of flowering. Formal
a bamboo pipe, or kakei, and they usually have a wooden
flowerbeds are rare in older gardens, but more common
ladle for drinking the water. In tea gardens, the basin was
in modern gardens. Some plants are chosen for their re-
placed low to the ground, so the drinker had to bend over
ligious symbolism, such as the lotus, sacred in Buddhist
to get his water.* [36]
teachings, or the pine, which represents longevity.

• Lantern in Shukkei-en garden in Hiroshima. The trees are carefully trimmed to provide attractive
scenes, and to prevent them from blocking other views of
• Lantern in Koraku-en garden the garden. Their growth is also controlled, in a technique
118 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

called Niwaki, to give them more picturesque shapes, and Dynasty (960 – 1279), yellow, orange, white and red-and-
to make them look more ancient. They are sometimes white colorations had been developed. Goldfish were in-
constrained to bend, in order to provide shadows or bet- troduced to Japan in the 16th century. Koi were devel-
ter reflections in the water. Very old pine trees are often oped from common carp in Japan in the 1820s. Koi are
supported by wooden crutches, or their branches are held domesticated common carp (Cyprinus carpio) that are se-
by cords, to keep them from breaking under the weight lected or culled for color; they are not a different species,
of snow. and will revert to the original coloration within a few gen-
* *
In the late 16th century, a new art was developed in the erations if allowed to breed freely. [39] [40]
Japanese garden; that of ōkarikomi (⼤刈込), the tech-
• Nishiki-goi,
nique of trimming bushes into balls or rounded shapes
Kept of Amaterasu in the Ise Grand Shrine 2005.
which imitate waves. According to tradition this art was
developed by Kobori Enshū (1579–1647), and it was • Nishiki-goi,
most frequently practiced on azalea bushes. It was sim- or brocaded (colored) carp, a decorative fish bred for
ilar to the topiary gardens made in Europe at the same gardens
time, except that European topiary gardens tried to make
• Koi in Himeji Koko-en Garden
trees look like geometric solid objects, while ōkarkikomi
sought to make bushes look as if they were almost liquid, • A large carp in the garden of Suizen-ji
or in flowing natural shapes. It created an artistic play of
light on the surface of the bush, and, according to garden
historian Michel Baridon, “it also brought into play the 15.3 Aesthetic principles
sense of 'touching things' which even today succeeds so
well in Japanese design.”* [37]* [38]
The early Japanese gardens largely followed the Chinese
The most common trees and plants found in Japanese model, but gradually Japanese gardens developed their
gardens are the azalea (tsutsuji), the camellia (tsubaki), own principles and aesthetics. These were spelled out by
the oak (kashiwa), the Japanese apricot (ume), cherry a series of landscape gardening manuals, beginning with
(sakura), maple (momiji), the willow (yanagi), the ginkgo Sakuteiki (Notes on Gardening) in the Heian Period (794-
(ichō), the Japanese cypress (hinoki), the Japanese cedar 1185).* [41] The principles of sacred gardens, such as the
(sugi), pine (matsu), and bamboo (take). gardens of Zen Buddhist temples, were different from
those of pleasure or promenade gardens; for example,
• The style of topiary plant sculpture known as o- Zen Buddhist gardens were designed to be seen, while
karikomi in Chionin Garden. seated, from a platform with a view of the whole garden,
without entering it, while promenade gardens were meant
• O-karikomi sculpted trees and bushes at Chiran to be seen by walking through the garden and stopping at
Samurai Residence. a series of view points. However, they often contain com-
mon elements and used the same techniques. Some basic
• Azaleas at Soraku-en Garden principles are:
Miniaturization. The Japanese garden is a miniature
• Bamboo and Japanese maple combined at Tenryū-ji and idealized view of nature. Rocks can represent moun-
Garden in Kyoto. tains, and ponds can represent seas. The garden is some-
times made to appear larger by placing larger rocks and
• Pine trees at Kenroku-en garden supported by braces
trees in the foreground, and smaller ones in the back-
to support the weight of snow without breaking
ground.
• Some ancient pine trees at Kenroku-en supported by Concealment. (miegakure, literally 'hide and reveal.')
cords in winter to keep their limbs from breaking The Zen Buddhist garden is meant to be seen all at once,
but the promenade garden is meant to be seen one land-
• Landscape in Ritsurin Garden scape at a time, like a scroll of painted landscapes un-
rolling. Features are hidden behind hills, trees groves or
• O-karikomi; trimmed bushes in Ritsurin Garden bamboo, walls or structures, to be discovered when the
visitor follows the winding path.

15.2.8 Fish Borrowing of scenery (“shakkei”). Smaller gardens are

often designed to incorporate the view of features outside
The use of fish, particularly nishiki-goi (colored carp), the garden, such as hills, trees or temples, as part of the
or goldfish as a decorative element in gardens was bor- view. This makes the garden seem larger than it really is.
rowed from the Chinese garden. Goldfish were developed Asymmetry. Japanese gardens are not laid on straight
in China more than a thousand years ago by selectively axes, or with a single feature dominating the view. Build-
breeding Prussian carp for color mutations. By the Song ings and garden features are usually placed to be seen
15.5. GARDEN STYLES 119

from a diagonal, and are carefully composed into scenes 15.5.1 Chisen-shoyū-teien or pond garden
that contrast right angles, such as buildings with natural
features, and vertical features, such as rocks, bamboo or The chisen-shoyū-teien, literally“lake-spring-boat excur-
trees, with horizontal features, such as water.* [42] sion garden”, was imported from China during the Heian
Period (794-1185). It is also called the shinden-zukuri
According to garden historians David and Michigo
style, after the architectural style of the main building.
Young, at the heart of the Japanese garden is the prin-
It featured a large, ornate residence with two long wings
ciple that a garden is a work of art. “Though inspired by
reaching south to a large lake and garden. Each wing
nature, it is an interpretation rather than a copy; it should
* ended in a pavilion from which guests could enjoy the
appear to be natural, but it is not wild.”. [43]
views of the lake. Visitors made tours of the lake in small
Landscape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto wrote that the boats. These gardens had large lakes with small islands,
Japanese generate “the best of nature's handiwork in a where musicians played during festivals and ceremonies
limited space.”* [44] worshippers could look across the water at the Buddha.
No original gardens of this period remain, but reconstruc-
tions can be seen at Heian-jingū and Daikaku-ji Temple
in Kyoto.
15.4 Differences between Japanese
and Chinese gardens • Heian-jingū is a recreation of the old imperial pond
garden of Kyoto.
Japanese gardens during the Heian Period were modeled
upon Chinese gardens, but by the Edo Period there were 15.5.2 The Paradise Garden
distinct differences.
Architecture. Chinese gardens have buildings in the cen- The Paradise Garden appeared in the late Heian Period,
ter of the garden, occupying a large part of the garden created by nobles belonging to the Amida Buddhism sect.
space. The buildings are placed next to or over the central They were meant to symbolize Paradise or the Pure Land
body of water. The garden buildings are very elaborate, (Jōdo), where the Buddha sat on a platform contemplat-
with much architectural decoration. In later Japanese ing a lotus pond. These gardens featured a lake island
gardens, the buildings are well apart from the body of called Nakajima, where the Buddha hall was located,
water, and the buildings are simple, with very little orna- connected to the shore by an arching bridge. The most
ment. The architecture in a Japanese garden is largely or famous surviving example is the garden of the Phoenix
partly concealed. Hall of Byōdō-in Temple, built in 1053, in Uji, near Ky-
oto. Other examples are Jōruri-ji temple in Kyoto, Enro-
Viewpoint. Chinese gardens are designed to be seen
ji Temple in Nara Prefecture, the Hokongoin in Kyoto,
from the inside, from the buildings, galleries and pavil-
Mōtsū-ji Temple in Hiraizumi, and Shiramizu Amidado
ions in the center of the garden. Japanese gardens are de-
Garden in Iwaki City.* [47]
signed to be seen from the outside, as in the Japanese rock
garden or zen garden; or from a path winding through the
garden. • Byōdō-in Temple in Uji, near Kyoto.
Use of Rocks. In a Chinese garden, particularly in the • Enjō-ji Temple in Nara Prefecture is a good exam-
Ming Dynasty, rocks were selected for their extraordi- ple of a paradise garden of the late Heian Period.
nary shapes or resemblance to animals or mountains, and
used for dramatic effect. They were often the stars and • Jōruri-ji, a paradise garden in Kyoto. The pond was
centerpieces of the garden. In later Japanese gardens, dug by monks in 1150.
rocks were smaller and placed in more natural arrange-
ments. integrated into the garden.* [45]
15.5.3 Karesansui dry rock gardens
Marine Landscapes. Chinese gardens were inspired by
Chinese inland landscapes, particularly Chinese lakes and Karesansui gardens (枯⼭⽔) or Japanese rock gardens,
mountains, while Japanese gardens often use miniatur- became popular in Japan in the 14th century thanks to
ized scenery from the Japanese coast. Japanese gardens the work of a Buddhist monk, Musō Soseki (1275–1351)
frequently include white sand or pebble beaches and rocks who built zen gardens at the five major monasteries in
which seem to have been worn by the waves and tide, Kyoto. These gardens have white sand or raked gravel in
which rarely appear in Chinese gardens.* [46] place of water, carefully arranged rocks, and sometimes
rocks and sand covered with moss. Their purpose is to fa-
cilitate meditation, and they are meant to be viewed while
seated on the porch of the residence of the hōjō, the abbot
15.5 Garden styles of the monastery. The most famous example is Ryōan-ji
Temple in Kyoto.
120
• Rosan-ji garden, Kyoto
• Zuihō-in garden, Kyoto
• Daisen-in, Kyoto
15.5.4 Roji, or tea gardens
The tea garden was created during the Muromachi Period
(1333–1573) and Momoyama Period (1573–1600) as a
setting for the Japanese tea ceremony, or chanoyu. The
style of garden takes its name from the roji, or path to
the teahouse, which is supposed to inspire the visitor to
meditation to prepare him for the ceremony. There is an
outer garden, with a gate and covered arbor where guests
wait for the invitation to enter. They then pass through
a gate to the inner garden, where they wash their hands
and rinse their mouth, as they would before entering a
Shinto shrine, before going into the teahouse itself. The
path is always kept moist and green, so it will look like a
remote mountain path, and there are no bright flowers that
*
might distract the visitor from his meditation. [48] Early
tea houses had no windows, but later teahouses have a
wall which can be opened for a view of the garden.
• A teahouse and roji, or tea garden, at Ise Jingu.
• Traditional teahouse and tea garden at Kenroku-en
Garden
• Garden of the Urakuen teahouse
• Rustic gate of the Keishun-in garden teahouse in Ky-
oto
15.5.5 Kaiyū-shiki-teien, or promenade
gardens
Promenade or stroll gardens (landscape gardens in the go-
round style) appeared in Japan during the Edo Period,
(1600–1854), at the villas of nobles or warlords. These
gardens were designed to complement the houses in the
new sukiya-zukuri style of architecture, which were mod-
eled after the tea house. These gardens were meant to be
seen by following a path clockwise around the lake from
one carefully composed scene to another. These gardens
used two techniques to provide interest; borrowing of
scenery (“shakkei”), which took advantage of views of
scenery outside the garden, such as mountains or temples,
incorporating them into the view so the garden looked
larger than it really was; and miegakure, or “hide-and-
reveal,”which used winding paths, fences, bamboo and
buildings to hide the scenery so the visitor would not see
it until he was at the best view point. Edo Period gar-
dens also often feature recreations of famous scenery or
scenes inspired by literature; Suizen-ji Jōju-en Garden in
Kumamoto has a miniature version of Mount Fuji, and
Katsura Villa in Kyoto has a miniature version of the
CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
Ama-no-hashidate sandbar in Miyazu Bay, near Kyoto.
The Rikugi-en Garden in Tokyo creates small landscapes
inspired by eighty-eight famous Japanese poems.* [49]
• Katsura Imperial Villa, the prototype for the prom-
enade garden
• Shugaku-in Imperial Villa, completed in 1659, an-
other classic example of a promenade garden of the
Edo Period
• Two hills covered with trimmed bamboo grass
which represent Mount Lu in China. This feature
is in Koishikawa Korakuen Garden in Tokyo.
• Suizen-ji Jōju-en Garden, begun in 1636, has a
miniature replica of Mount Fuji. The trees on the
upper part of the hill are trimmed to be smaller, to
make the mountain look taller.
15.5.6 Tsubo-niwa courtyard garden
The courtyard garden of a former geisha house in Kanazawa,
Ishikawa. The trees are covered with straw to protect them from
the snow.
These small gardens were originally found in the interior
courtyards of Heian Period and palaces, and were de-
signed to give a glimpse of nature and some privacy to
the residents of the rear side of the building. They were
as small as one tsubo, or about 3.3 square meters. During
the Edo Period, merchants began building small gardens
in the space behind their shops, which faced the street,
and their residences, located at the rear. These tiny gar-
dens were meant to be seen, not entered, and usually had
a stone lantern, a water basin, stepping stones and a few
plants. Today, tsubo-niwa are found in many Japanese
residences, hotels, restaurants, and public buildings.* [50]
A good example from the Meiji Period is found in the
villa of Murin-an in Kyoto.* [51]
15.6. LITERATURE AND ART OF THE JAPANESE GARDEN 121

Shisen-dō, built in Kyoto, in the 17th century, one of the best

examples of a hermitage garden

15.5.7 Hermitage garden

A hermitage garden is a small garden usually built by a

samurai or government official who wanted to retire from
public life and devote himself to study or meditation. It is
attached to a rustic house, and approached by a winding
path, which suggests it is deep in a forest. It may have a
Claude Monet, Bridge over a Pond of Water Lilies, 1899,
small pond, a Japanese rock garden, and the other features
Metropolitan Museum of Art
of traditional gardens, in miniature, designed to create
tranquility and inspiration. An example is the Shisen-dō
garden in Kyoto, built by a bureaucrat and scholar exiled
bonseki, bonsai and related arts was Rhymeprose on a
by the shogun in the 17th century. It is now a Buddhist
Miniature Landscape Garden (around 1300) by the Zen
temple.
monk Kokan Shiren, which explained how meditation on
a miniature garden purified the senses and the mind and
led to understanding of the correct relationship between
15.6 Literature and art of the man and nature.
Japanese garden Other influential garden manuals which helped to define
the aesthetics of the Japanese garden are Senzui Narabi ni
Yagyo no Zu (Illustrations for Designing Mountain, Wa-
15.6.1 Garden manuals ter and Hillside Field Landscapes), written in the fifteenth
century, and Tsukiyama Teizoden (Building Mountains
The first manual of Japanese gardening was the
and Making Gardens), from the 18th century. The tradi-
"Sakuteiki" (“Records of Garden Making”), proba-
tion of Japanese gardening was historically passed down
bly written in the late eleventh century by Tachibana no
from sensei to apprentice. The opening words of Illus-
Tohshitsuna, (1028–1094). Citing even older Chinese
trations for designing mountain, water and hillside field
sources, it explains how to organize the garden, from the
landscapes (1466) are“If you have not received the oral
placement of rocks and streams to the correct depth of
transmissions, you must not make gardens”and its clos-
ponds and height of cascades. While it was based on
ing admonition is “You must never show this writing to
earlier Chinese garden principles, it also expressed ideas
outsiders. You must keep it secret”.* [54]
which were unique to Japanese gardens, such as islands,
*
beaches and rock formations imitating Japanese maritime These garden manuals are still studied today. [42]
landscapes.* [52]
Besides giving advice, Sakuteiki also gives dire warnings
of what happens if the rules are not followed; the author 15.6.2 Gardens in literature and poetry
warns that, if a rock that in nature was in a horizontal
position is stood upright in a garden, it will bring mis- • The Tale of Genji, the classic Japanese novel of the
fortune to the owner of the garden. And, if a large rock Heian Period, describes the role of the Japanese gar-
pointed toward the north or west is placed near a gallery, den in court life. The characters attend festivals in
the owner of the garden will be forced to leave before a the old Kyoto imperial palace garden, take boat trips
year passes.* [53] on the lake, listen to music and watch formal dances
Another influential work about the Japanese garden, under the trees.* [55]
122
Gardens were often the subject of poems during the
Heian period. A poem in one anthology from the period,
the Kokin-Shu, described the Kiku-shima, or island of
chrystanthemums, found in the Osawa pond in the great
garden of the period called Saga-in.
I had thought that here
only one chrysanthmum can grow.
Who therefore has planted
the other in the depths
of the pond of Osawa?
Another poem of the Heian period, in the Hyakunin isshu,
described a cascade of rocks, which simulated a waterfall,
in the same garden:
The cascade long ago
ceased to roar,
But we continue to hear
The murmur
of its name.* [56]
15.6.3 Philosophy, painting, and the
Japanese garden
“Catching a catfish with a gourd”by Josetsu
Painting of part of Landscape of the Four Seasons by the monk
Tensho Shubun from the Muromachi Period, showing an ideal-
ized Japanese landscape, where man was humble and lived in
harmony with nature. This ideal landscape was also depicted in
Japanese gardens.
In Japanese culture, garden-making is a high art, equal to
the arts of calligraphy and ink painting. Gardens are con-
sidered three-dimensional textbooks of Daoism and Zen
Buddhism. Sometimes the lesson is very literal; the gar-
den of Saihō-ji featured a pond shaped like the Japanese
character shin (⼼) or xīn in Chinese, the heart-spirit of
Chinese philosophy, the newspaper character is ⼼ but
it's the full cursive, the sousho style (草書) for shin that
would be used; sousho, this well-named “grass writing”
, would be appropriate for gardening purpose indeed, for
in cursive writing the character shapes change depending
on the context and of course, since it is cursive, depend-
ing on the person -that is to say that the character would
be done in a single pencil stroke, it would match the state
of mind and the context rather than the newspaper print.
CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
However, usually the lessons are contained in the arrange-
ments of the rocks, the water and the plants. For example,
the lotus flower has a particular message; Its roots are in
the mud at the bottom of the pond, symbolizing the mis-
ery of the human condition, but its flower is pure white,
symbolizing the purity of spirit that can be achieved by
following the teachings of the Buddha. * [57]
The Japanese rock gardens were intended to be intellec-
tual puzzles for the monks who lived next to them to
study and solve. They followed the same principles as the
suiboku-ga, the black-and-white Japanese inks paintings
of the same period, which, according to Zen Buddhist
principles, tried to achieve the maximum effect using the
minimum essential elements.* [58]
One painter who influenced the Japanese garden was
Josetsu (1405–1423), a Chinese Zen monk who moved
to Japan and introduced a new style of ink-brush paint-
ing, moving away from the romantic misty landscapes
of the earlier period, and using asymmetry and areas of
white space, similar to the white space created by sand
in zen gardens, to set apart and highlight a mountain or
tree branch or other element of his painting. He became
chief painter of the Shogun and influenced a generation
of painters and garden designers.* [59]
Japanese gardens also follow the principles of perspective
of Japanese landscape painting, which feature a close-up
plane, an intermediate plane, and a distant plane. The
empty space between the different planes has a great im-
portance, and is filled with water, moss, or sand. The
garden designers used various optical tricks to give the
garden the illusion of being larger than it really is, by
borrowing of scenery (“shakkei”), employing distant
views outside the garden, or using miniature trees and
bushes to create the illusion that they are far away.* [60]
15.7 Noteworthy Japanese gardens
15.7. NOTEWORTHY JAPANESE GARDENS 123

15.7.1 In Japan

A spacious Japanese garden, Suizen-ji Jōju-en, near Kumamoto

Castle

Tenryū-ji Garden in Kyoto.

(Kaiyū-shiki Garden, completed in the 14th century) • Tohoku Region

• Mōtsū-ji Garden (Hiraizumi, Iwate)

• Kantō region

• Kairaku-en (Mito, Ibaraki)

• Rikugi-en (Bunkyo, Tokyo)
• Kyu Hamarikyu Gardens (Chūō, Tokyo)

• Chūbu region

• Kenroku-en (Kanazawa, Ishikawa)

• Ichijōdani Asakura Family Gardens (Fukui,
Fukui)

Kōraku-en in Okayama. • Kansai Region

(Kaiyū-shiki Garden, completed in the 17th century)
Adachi Museum of Art Garden, Yasugi.
(Kanshō-shiki Garden, completed in the 20th century)
The Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and
Technology of the government of Japan designates the
most notable of the nation's scenic beauty as Special
Places of Scenic Beauty, under the Law for the Protec-
tion of Cultural Properties.* [61] As of March 1, 2007,
29 sites are listed, more than a half of which are Japanese
gardens, as below;
Boldface entries specify World Heritage Sites.
• Byōdō-in Garden (Uji, Kyoto)
• Jisho-ji Garden (Kyoto, Kyoto)
• Nijō Castle Ninomaru Garden (Kyoto, Ky-
oto)
• Rokuon-ji Garden (Kyoto, Kyoto)
• Ryōan-ji Garden (Kyoto, Kyoto)
• Tenryū-ji Garden (Kyoto, Kyoto)
• The garden of Sanbōin in Daigo-ji (Kyoto,
Kyoto)
• The moss garden of Saihō-ji (the “Moss
Temple”) (Kyoto, Kyoto)
• Daitoku-ji Garden (Kyoto, Kyoto)
• The garden of Daisen-in in Daitoku-ji (Kyoto,
Kyoto)
• Murin-an garden, Kyoto, Kyoto
• Negoro-ji Garden (Iwade, Wakayama)
• Chūgoku region
• Adachi Museum of Art Garden (Yasugi, Shi-
mane)
• Kōraku-en (Okayama, Okayama)
124 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

• Matsue Vogel Park (Matsue)
• Shūraku-en, (Tsuyama)
• Shikoku Region
• Ritsurin Garden (Takamatsu, Kagawa)
• Nakatsu Banshoen (Marugame, Kagawa)
• Tensha-en (Uwajima, Ehime)
• Kyushu Region
• Suizen-ji Jōju-en (Kumamoto, Kumamoto)
• Sengoku-en (Kagoshima, Kagoshima)
• Ryūkyū Islands
• Shikina-en (Naha, Okinawa)
However, the Education Minister is not eligible to have
jurisdiction over any imperial property. These two gar-
dens, administered by Imperial Household Agency, are
also considered to be great masterpieces.
• Katsura Imperial Villa* [62]
• Shugaku-in Imperial Villa [63]
* dens have been introduced into the Western world, they
15.7.2 In English-speaking nations
Samuel Newsom's Japanese Garden Construction (1939)
offered Japanese aesthetic as a corrective in the construc-
tion of rock gardens, which owed their quite separate ori-
gins in the West to the mid-19th century desire to grow
alpines in an approximation of Alpine scree.
According to the Garden History Society, Japanese land-
scape gardener Seyemon Kusumoto was involved in the
development of around 200 gardens in the UK. In 1937
he exhibited a rock garden at the Chelsea Flower Show,
and worked on the Burngreave Estate at Bognor Regis,
and also on a Japanese garden at Cottered in Hertford-
shire. The lush courtyards at Du Cane Court̶an art deco
block of flats in Balham, London, built between 1935
and 1938̶were designed by Kusumoto. All four court-
yards there may have originally contained ponds. Only
one survives, and this is stocked with koi. There are
also several stone lanterns, which are meant to symbol-
ise the illumination of one's path through life; similarly,
the paths through the gardens are not straight. Japanese
maple, Japanese anemone, cherry trees, evergreens, and
bamboo are other typical features of Du Cane Court's
gardens.* [44]
According to David A. Slawson, many of the Japanese
gardens that are recreated in the US are of “museum-
piece quality”. He also writes, however, that as the gar-
have become more Americanized, decreasing their natu-
ral beauty.* [66]
Australia

This view from the Symbolic Mountain in the gardens in Cowra,

Australia shows many of the typical elements of a Japanese gar-
den.

The aesthetic of Japanese gardens was introduced to the

English-speaking community by Josiah Conder's Land- A Japanese zen garden at the Auburn Botanical Gardens, in
scape Gardening in Japan (Kelly & Walsh, 1893). It Auburn, Sydney.
sparked the first Japanese gardens in the West. A sec-
ond edition was required in 1912.* [64] Conder's princi-
ples have sometimes proved hard to follow: • Auburn Botanical Gardens, in Sydney, New South
Wales
“Robbed of its local garb and mannerisms, the
Japanese method reveals aesthetic principles • Canberra Nara Peace Park in Lennox Gardens,
applicable to the gardens of any country, teach- Canberra
ing, as it does, how to convert into a poem or • Cowra Japanese Garden and Cultural Centre,
picture a composition, which, with all its vari- Cowra, New South Wales
ety of detail, otherwise lacks unity and intent”
*
[65] • Himeji Gardens, Adelaide
15.7. NOTEWORTHY JAPANESE GARDENS 125

• Melbourne Zoo • School of Oriental and African Studies,

London* [69]
• “Tsuki-yama-chisen”Japanese Garden, Brisbane

• Nerima Gardens, Ipswich Northern Ireland

• Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, Hobart • Sir Thomas and Lady Dixon Park, Belfast
• University of Southern Queensland Japanese Gar- • Fujiyama Japanese Garden
den, “Ju Raku En”,* [67] Toowomba, Queensland
Scotland
Canada
• • Lauriston Castle, Edinburgh ̶garden opened
2002* [69]

Ireland

Japanese Garden in the Devonian Botanic Garden, Edmonton,

Alberta

• Nitobe Memorial Garden, Vancouver, British

Columbia
Japanese Garden, Tully, County Kildare. Red lacquered arched
• The Devonian Botanical Garden, Edmonton, bridges are Chinese in origin and seldom seen in Japan, but are
Alberta, which contains an extensive Japanese often placed in Japanese-style gardens in other countries.* [73]
garden

• Nikka Yuko Japanese Garden, Lethbridge, Alberta • The Japanese Gardens at the Irish National Stud,
• The Japanese Garden and Pavilion, Montreal Botan- Kildare, Co. Kildare* [69]
ical Garden, Quebec
Singapore
• Kariya Park, Mississauga, Ontario
• Japanese Garden - a garden island located in Jurong
United Kingdom Lake

England United States of America

• Compton Acres, Dorset* [68] • Serene Gardens (Grand Island, New York)
• Dartington Hall, Devon* [69] • Anderson Japanese Gardens (Rockford, Illinois)

• Hall Park, Leeds* [70] • Brooklyn Botanic Garden (Brooklyn, New York)

• Harewood House, Leeds* [71] • Chicago Botanic Garden (Glencoe, Illinois)

• Holland Park, London* [69] • Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden (California State
University, Long Beach)
• St Mawgan in Pydar, Cornwall* [72]
• Lotusland Japanese Garden at Ganna Walska Lotus-
• Tatton Park, Cheshire* [69] land (Santa Barbara, California)
126 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

• Shofuso Japanese House and Garden, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania
• Taniguchi Japanese Garden (Austin, Texas)
• Yuko-En on the Elkhorn (Georgetown, Kentucky)
• Shigematsu Memorial Japanese Garden at Lansing
Community College, Lansing, Michigan

15.7.3 In other countries

Hakone Gardens in Saratoga, California

• Fort Worth Japanese Garden at the Fort Worth

Botanic Garden (Fort Worth, Texas)
• Hagiwara Japanese Tea Garden (San Francisco, Cal-
ifornia)
• Hakone Gardens (Saratoga, California)
• Hayward Japanese Gardens (Hayward, California),
the oldest traditionally designed Japanese garden in
California.* [74]
• The Huntington (San Marino, California) The Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens
• Japanese Friendship Garden (Phoenix, Arizona)
• Japanese Friendship Garden (Kelley Park) (San
Jose, California)
• Japanese Garden at Marjorie McNeely Conserva-
tory (St Paul, Minnesota)
• Maymont Park - Japanese Garden (Richmond, VA)
• Japanese garden at Minnesota Landscape Arbore-
tum (near Chanhassen, Minnesota)
• Kumamoto En (San Antonio, Texas)
• Houston Japanese Garden at Hermann Park in
Houston, Texas
• Morikami Museum and Japanese Gardens, Delray All seasons close-up of the Tsubo-en (Netherlands) O-karikomi,
Beach, Florida hako-zukuri topiary

• Normandale Japanese Garden (Bloomington, Min-

nesota) • Argentina

• Portland Japanese Garden (Portland, Oregon)
• Seattle Japanese Garden at the Washington Park Ar-
boretum, Kubota Garden (Seattle, Washington)
• Austria:
• The Japanese Garden (Los Angeles, California)
• Mizumoto Japanese Stroll Garden (Springfield, Mis-
souri)
• Seiwa-en at the Missouri Botanical Garden (St.
Louis, Missouri)
• The Buenos Aires Japanese Gardens, of the
Fundación Cultural Argentino Japonesa
• Jardín Japonés de Belén de Escobar.
• Setagayapark, Ecke Gallmeyergasse,1190 Vi-
enna - opened 1992 (garden designer Ken
Nakajima)
• The Japanese Garden in Schlosspark Schön-
brunn, Vienna - revitalized 1999
15.8. SEE ALSO
The Japanese Garden in Przelewice, Poland
• Belgium
• Japanse tuin, Hasselt
• Jardin japonais Chevetogne Namur
• Brazil
• Parque Santos Dummont, São José dos Cam-
pos, São Paulo
• Bosque Municipal Fábio Barreto, Ribeirão
Preto, São Paulo
• Bulgaria: Japanese Garden at the Kempinski Ho-
tel Zografski in Sofia; built in 1979 as a large-scale
copy of the garden at the Hotel New Otani Tokyo,
first and only Japanese Garden in the Balkans until
2004.* [75]
• Chile: La Serena and Santiago. Built by the em-
bassy of Japan.
• Costa Rica: Lankester Botanical Gardens, property
of the Costa Rica University, in Paraíso, Cartago.
• France:
• The Departmental Museum of Albert
Kahn (Musée Albert-Kahn) in Boulogne-
Billancourt has two Japanese Gardens.* [76]
• Japanese Garden at the UNESCO Head Quar-
ters, created by Isamu Noguchi in 1958.* [77]
• Rising sun garden (Jardin du Soleil levant) in
the Botanical garden of Upper Brittany.
• Germany: Hamburg, Leverkusen, Kaiserslautern,
Munich (in the Englischer Garten).
• Hungary: Small Japanese garden on Margaret Is-
land, Budapest and another one in the Budapest Zoo
and Botanical Garden.
• India: Japanese Garden, Moti Jheel, Kanpur and
Buddha Park, Indira Nagar, Kalianpur, Kanpur
• Mongolia: Juulchin street cnr Jigjidjav street,
Ulaanbaatar, established in 2005 by a Mongolian
sumo wrestler
127
• Monaco: Jardin Japonais, Larvotto
• The Netherlands:
• The Japanse Tuin of Clingendael park* [78]
• The Tsubo-en karesansui garden in Lelystad, a
private modern Japanese zen (karesansui, dry
rock) garden
• The Von Siebold Memorial Garden in Lei-
den* [79]
• Norway: Japanhagen in Milde, Bergen - opened
2005, part of the botanical garden of the University
of Bergen - (landscape architect Haruto Kobayashi)
• Poland:
• The Japanese Garden in Wrocław - founded
1913, restored 1996-1997, destroyed by flood,
restored 1999
• The Japanese Garden in Przelewice - a part of
Dendrological Garden in Przelewice founded
in 1933
• Russia:
• The Japanese Garden in Moscow ̶founded
1983, opened 1987 (landscape architect Ken
Nakajima)
• Kare-sansui garden (枯 ⼭ ⽔) or Japanese
rock garden in Irkutsk – opened 2012 (land-
scape architect Takuhiro Yamada), part of the
Botanic Garden of the Irkutsk State University
• Serbia: The Japanese Garden in Botanical Gar-
den Jevremovac - opened 2004 (landscape architects
Vera and Mihailo Grbic)
• Spain: Zen Gardens of the Autonomous University
of Barcelona at the faculty of translation and inter-
pretation
• Sweden:
• Japanska Trädgården in Ronneby Brunnspark,
Blekinge
• The “Japandalen”(Japan Valley) of
Gothenburg Botanical Garden
• Uruguay: Jardín Japonés, Montevideo - opened
2001 by Princess Sayako
15.8 See also
• Niwaki
• Shishi odoshi
• Beijing Botanical Garden
• Yuyuan Garden
128
15.9 Sources and citations
[1] Gunter Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 9-10.
[2] Encyclopædia Britannica. Garden and landscape design:
Japanese. Accessed: 7 March 2008.
[3] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 466-479
[4] Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 14-15
[5] Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 14-15, and Young, The
Art of the Japanese Garden.
[6] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 64-65. Fa-
mous is Kuitert's critique on the zen garden as a modern
interpretation: The term zen garden appears in English
writing in the 1930s for the first time, in Japan zen teien,
or zenteki teien comes up even later, from the 1950s. It ap-
plies to a Sung China-inspired composition technique de-
rived from ink-painting. The composition or construction
of such small, scenic gardens have no relation to religious
Zen. See Kuitert, Themes, Scenes, and Taste in the His-
tory of Japanese Garden Art, 1988; Kuitert, Themes in the
History of Japanese Garden Art 2002, pp.129-138; and
the review of these two books by Elizabeth ten Groten-
huis http://www.jstor.org/stable/25064424
[7] Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 22-23
[8] These three quotations are cited in Nitschke, Le Jardin
Japonais, page 30.
[9] See Wybe Kuitert, Two Early Japanese Gardens 1991,
[10] Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 36.
[11] See on the manual Kuitert, Themes in the History of
Japanese Garden Art, pp 30-52. The quote is from
Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 36.
[12] Danielle Ellisseeff, Jardins japonais, pg. 16
[13] Danielle Elisseeff, Jardins japonais, pg. 22-23.
[14] Danielle Elisseeff, Jardins japonais, pg. 30-31
[15] Miyeko Murase, L'Art du Japon, pg. 173-177
[16] Gunter Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 92. English
translation of excerpt by D.R. Siefkin.
[17] Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 120.
[18] Miyeko Murase, l'Art du Japon, pg. 213-215.
[19] Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 160-162.
[20] Miyeko Murase, L'Art du Japon, pg. 277-281
[21] Nitschke, Le jardin Japonais, pg. 158.
[22] Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 169-172
[23] Iwatsuki, Zennoske, and Tsutomu Kodama. Economic
Botany. 3rd ed. Vol. 15. New York: Springer, 1961.
Print. Mosses in Japanese Gardens
[24] Roberts, Jeremy. Japanese Mythology A to Z. New York,
NY: Chelsea House, 2010. Print.
CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN
[25] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 492.
[26] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg, 490
[27] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 24.
[28] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 24-25
[29] Heyd, Thoams (2008). Encountering Nature. Abingdon,
Oxen: Ashgate Publishing Group. p. 156.
[30] Ibid., 156. Missing or empty |title= (help)
[31] Encyclopaedia Britannica (15th ed). Garden and Land-
scape Design: Japanese. Check date values in: |date=
(help)
[32] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 40
[33] Danielle Elisseeff, Jardins japonais, pg. 24.
[34] Young and Young, the Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 33.
[35] “Five Element Pagodas, Stupas, Steles, Gravestones”.
Onmark Productions. Retrieved 25 April 2010.
[36] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, (pg. 35)
[37] Michel Baridon. Les Jardins. Pg. 475. excerpt translated
from French by D.R. Siefkin.
[38] “Karikomi”. JAANUS.
[39] “Aquatic-oasis articles”. Aquatic-oasis. Archived from
the original on October 16, 2008. Retrieved 2009-02-26.
[40] Exotic goldfish net
[41] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 20
[42] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 20.
[43] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 20
[44] Vincent, Gregory K. (2008). A history of Du Cane Court
: land, architecture, people and politics. Woodbine. ISBN
0-9541675-1-1.
[45] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 22
[46] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 466
[47] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 84.
[48] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 118-119.
[49] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg. 124
[50] Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden, pg, 126
[51] Gunter Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 225.
[52] For a review of Sakuteiki and various translations in West-
ern languages see: De la Creation des Jardins: Traduction
du Sakutei-ki by Michel Vieillard-Baron. Review in En-
glish by: Wybe Kuitert in Monumenta Nipponica, Vol.
53, No. 2, Summer 1998, Pages 292-294 http://www.
jstor.org/stable/2385689 See also Sakuteiki: Visions of the
Japanese Garden by Jiro Takei and Marc P. Keane.
[53] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 485-486.
15.10. BIBLIOGRAPHY
[54] The Illustrations, nevertheless, are translated and anno-
tated in David A. Slawson, Secret Teachings in the Art of
Japanese Gardens (New York/Tokyo: Kodansha 1987)
[55] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 485.
[56] Nitschke, Le Jardin Japonais, pg. 42. Excerpts translated
from French by DR Siefkin.
[57] Danielle Elisseeff, Jardins Japonais, pg. 39.
[58] Miyeko Murase, L'Art du Japon, pg. 183.
[59] Miyeko Murase, L'Art du Japon, pg. 197
[60] Virginie Klecka, Jardins Japonais, pg. 20.
[61] MEXT : Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science
and Technology
[62] JNTO Website | Find a Location | Kyoto | Katsura
[63] JNTO Website | Find a Location | Kyoto | Shugaku-in Im-
perial Villa
[64] Slawson 1987:15 and note2.
[65] Conder quoted in Slawson 1987:15.
[66] Slawson, David A. (1987). Japanese gardens: design prin-
ciples, aesthetic values. Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo: Kodansha In-
ternational Ltd. p. 15. ISBN 4-7700-1541-0.
[67] “Gardens”. University of Southern Queensland. Re-
trieved 14 April 2014.
[68] “Japanese Gardens in the UK and Ireland ̶Compton
Acres”. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
[69] “UK and Ireland Survey”. Japanese Garden Journal 35.
September–October 2003. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
[70] “Leeds - Places - Japanese Garden at Horsforth Hall Park
reopens”. BBC. 2009-08-27. Retrieved 2013-12-22.
[71] “Japanese Gardens and Where to visit them in the UK”
. Homeandgardeningarticles.co.uk. 2011-05-26. Re-
trieved 2013-12-22.
[72] Japanese Gardens and Nursery
[73] Eliovson, Sima (1971). Gardening the Japanese way.
Harrap. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-245-50694-9. Red lacquered
arched bridges are seldom seen in Japan, although they are
often placed in Japanese-styled gardens in other countries.
These are of Chinese origin and there are only a few in ev-
idence in Japanese gardens.
[74] The Japanese Gardens. Dmtonline.org. Retrieved on
2010-12-25.
[75] “The Hotel”. Kempinski Hotel Zografski Sofia. Re-
trieved 2009-11-06.
[76] See the official web site . For the contemporary Japanese
Garden see: Wybe Kuitert“Discourse and Creation: Two
Japanese Gardens to contemplate in Paris”Shakkei, 2008,
15/1, pp.18-29 pdf
129
[77] See the official web site ; and see Wybe Kuitert“Discourse
and Creation: Two Japanese Gardens to contemplate in
Paris”Shakkei, 2008, 15/1, pp.18-29 pdf
[78] Japonaiserie in London and The Hague, A history of the
Japanese gardens at Shepherd's Bush (1910) and Clingen-
dael (c. 1915) Journal of the Garden History Society 30,
2: 221-238
[79] Constructed in the Leiden University Botanical
Hortus Garden http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
7VBoQbBJ9eE
15.10 Bibliography
• Kuitert, Wybe, (1988) Themes, Scenes, and Taste in
the History of Japanese Garden Art, Japonica Neer-
landica, Amsterdam, (ISBN 90-5063-0219)
• Kuitert, Wybe, (2002) Themes in the History of
Japanese Garden Art, Hawaii University Press, Hon-
olulu, (ISBN 0-8248-2312-5)
• Young, David and Michiko, (2005), The Art of the
Japanese Garden, Tuttle Publishing, Vermont and
Singapore, (ISBN 978-0-8048-3598-5)
• Nitschke, Gunter, (1999) Le Jardin japonais - An-
gle droit et forme naturelle, Taschen publishers,
Paris (translated from German into French by Wolf
Fruhtrunk), (ISBN 978-3-8228-3034-5)
• Baridon, Michel (1998). Les Jardins- Paysagistes,
Jardiniers, Poetes., Éditions Robert Lafont, Paris,
(ISBN 2-221-06707-X)
• Murase, Miyeko, (1996), L'Art du Japon, La
Pochothḕque, Paris, (ISBN 2-253-13054-0)
• Elisseeff, Danielle, (2010), Jardins japonais, Ḗdi-
tions Scala, Paris, (ISBN 978-2-35988-029-8)
• Klecka, Virginie, (2011), Concevoir, Amenager,
Decorer Jardins Japonais, Rustica Editions, (ISBN
978-2-8153-0052-0)
• Slawson, David A. Secret Teachings in the Art of
Japanese Gardens (New York/Tokyo: Kodansha
1987)
• Yagi, Koji A Japanese Touch for Your Home (Ko-
dansha 1982)
• Miller, P. (2005), The Japanese Garden: Gateway
to the Human Spirit, International Journal of Hu-
manities & Peace 2005, Vol. 21 Issue 1, Retrieved
August 3, 2008 from: http://researchport.umd.edu
• Kato, E. (2004), The Tea Ceremony and Womenʼ
s Empowerment in Modern Japan, RoutledgeCur-
zon, Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: http://www.
netlibrary.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/Reader/
130 CHAPTER 15. JAPANESE GARDEN

• Varely, P. (2000), Japanese Culture Fourth Edi-

tion, The Maple – Vaile Book Manufacturing
Group, Retrieved August 3, 2008 from: http://www.
netlibrary.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/Reader/
• GoJapanGo. (2008), Japanese Garden History,
GNU Free Documentation License, Retrieved Au-
gust 2, 2008 from: www.gojapango.com

• Gardens, Japan Guide (1996–2008), Retrieved Au-

gust 3, 2008 from: http://www.japan-guide.com/

• Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary,

Kenkyusha Limited, Tokyo 1991, ISBN 4-7674-
2015-6

• The Compact Nelson Japanese-English Dictionary,

Charles E. Tuttle Company, Tokyo 1999, ISBN 4-
8053-0574-6 (Japan)

15.11 External links

• Japanese rock garden on (so-called) zen gardens

• Sakuteiki on the oldest Japanese manual on land-

scape gardening

• Japanese Gardens 65+ in Japan, others overseas

• Japanese Gardens, Bowdoin College

• Real Japanese Gardens 90 gardens in Japan

Chapter 16

Japanese rock garden

miniature stylized landscape through carefully composed

arrangements of rocks, water features, moss, pruned trees
and bushes, and uses gravel or sand that is raked to rep-
resent ripples in water.* [1] A zen garden is usually rela-
tively small, surrounded by a wall, and is usually meant
to be seen while seated from a single viewpoint outside
the garden, such as the porch of the hojo, the residence
of the chief monk of the temple or monastery. Classical
zen gardens were created at temples of Zen Buddhism in
Kyoto, Japan during the Muromachi Period. They were
intended to imitate the intimate essence of nature, not its
actual appearance, and to serve as an aid to meditation
about the true meaning of life.* [2]
Ryōan-ji (late 15th century) in Kyoto, Japan, a famous example
of a zen garden

16.1 History

16.1.1 Early Japanese rock gardens

Rock gardens existed in Japan at least since the Heian Pe-

riod (784-1185). These early gardens were described in
the first manual of Japanese gardens, Sakuteiki (Records
of Garden Keeping), written at the end of the 11th cen-
tury by Tachibana no Toshitsuna (1028–1094). They
were largely copied from the Chinese gardens of the Song
Dynasty (960-1279), where groups of rocks symbolized
Mount Penglai, the legendary mountain-island home of
the Eight Immortals in Chinese mythology, known in
Japanese as Horai.* [3] The Sakuteiki described exactly
how rocks should be placed. In one passage, he wrote:
“In a place where there is neither a lake or a stream,
one can put in place what is called a kare-sansui, or dry
landscape...”This kind of garden featured either rocks
placed upright like mountains, or laid out in a miniature
landscape of hills and ravines, with few plants. He de-
scribed several other styles of rock garden, which usually
included a stream or pond, including the great river style,
the mountain river style, and the marsh style. The ocean
style featured rocks that appeared to have been eroded
by waves, surrounded by a bank of white sand, like a
A mountain, waterfall, and gravel “river”at Daisen-in (1509–
1513) beach.* [4]
White sand and gravel had long been a feature of Japanese
The Japanese rock garden (枯⼭⽔ karesansui) or“dry gardens. In the Shinto religion, it was used to symbol-
landscape”garden, often called a zen garden, creates a ize purity, and was used around shrines, temples, and

131
 132 CHAPTER 16. JAPANESE ROCK GARDEN

palaces. In zen gardens, it represents water, or, like the and a dry waterfall of rocks looking like a Chinese land-
white space in Japanese paintings, emptiness and dis- scape. Saihō-ji and Tenryū-ji show the transition from
tance. They are places of meditation. the Heian style garden toward a more abstract and styl-
ized view of nature.* [7]
The gardens of Ginkaku-ji, also known as the Silver
16.1.2 Zen Buddhism and the Muromachi Pavilion, are also attributed to Muso Kokushi. This tem-
Period (1336-1573) ple garden included a traditional pond garden, but it had
a new feature for a Japanese garden; an area of raked
The Muromachi Period in Japan, which took place at white gravel with a perfectly shaped mountain of white
roughly the same time as the Renaissance in Europe, was gravel, resembling Mount Fuji, in the center. The scene
characterized by political rivalries which frequently led to was called ginshanada, literally“sand of silver and open
wars, but also by an extraordinary flourishing of Japanese sea”. This garden feature became known as kogetsudai,
culture. It saw the beginning of Noh theater, the Japanese or small mountain facing the moon,”and similar small
tea ceremony, the shoin style of Japanese architecture, Mount Fujis made of sand or earth covered with grass ap-
and the zen garden.* [5] peared in Japanese gardens for centuries afterwards.* [8]
Zen Buddhism was introduced into Japan at the end of The most famous of all zen gardens in Kyoto is Ryōan-
the 12th century, and quickly achieved a wide following, ji, built in the late 15th century where for the first time
particularly among the Samurai class and war lords, who the zen garden became purely abstract. The garden is a
admired its doctrine of self-discipline. The gardens of rectangle of 340 square meters.* [9] Placed within it are
the early zen temples in Japan resembled Chinese gar- fifteen stones of different sizes, carefully composed in
dens of the time, with lakes and islands. But in Kyoto five groups; one group of five stones, two groups of three,
in the 14th and 15th century, a new kind of garden ap- and two groups of two stones. The stones are surrounded
peared at the important zen temples. These zen gardens by white gravel, which is carefully raked each day by the
were designed to stimulate meditation. “Nature, if you monks. The only vegetation in the garden is some moss
made it expressive by reducing it to its abstract forms, around the stones. The garden is meant to be viewed from
could transmit the most profound thoughts by its simple a seated position on the veranda of the hōjō, the residence
presence”, Michel Baridon wrote.“The compositions of of the abbot of the monastery.* [10]
stone, already common China, became in Japan, veritable
The garden at Daisen-in (1509-1513) took a more literary
petrified landscapes, which seemed suspended in time, as
approach than Ryōan-ji. There a“river”of white gravel
in a certain moments of Noh theater, which dates to the
represents a metaphorical journey through life; beginning
same period.”* [6]
with a dry waterfall in the mountains, passing through
The first garden to begin the transition to the new style is rapids and rocks, and ending in a tranquil sea of white
considered by many experts to be Saihō-ji, “The Tem- gravel, with two gravel mountains.
ple of the Perfumes of the West,”popularly known as
The invention of the zen garden was closely connected
Koke-dera, the Moss Garden, in the western part of Ky-
with developments in Japanese ink landscape paintings.
oto. The Buddhist monk and zen master Musō Kokushi
Japanese painters such as Sesshū Tōyō (1420–1506) and
transformed a Buddhist temple into a zen monastery in
Soami (died 1525) greatly simplified their views of na-
1334, and built the gardens. The lower garden of Saihō-
ture, showing only the most essential aspects of nature,
ji is in the traditional Heian Period style; a pond with
leaving great areas of white around the black and gray
several rock compositions representing islands. The up-
drawings. Soami is said to have been personally involved
per garden is a dry rock garden which features three rock
in the design of two of the most famous zen gardens in
“islands.”The first, called Kameshima, the island of the
Kyoto, Ryōan-ji and Daisen-in, though his involvement
turtle, resembles a turtle swimming in a“lake”of moss.
has never been documented with certainty.
The second, Zazen-seki, is a flat“meditation rock,”which
is believed to radiate calm and silence; and the third is the Michel Baridon wrote, “The famous zen gardens of the
kare-taki, a dry“waterfall”composed of a stairway of flat Muromachi Period showed that Japan had carried the art
granite rocks. The moss which now surrounds the rocks of gardens to the highest degree of intellectual refinement
and represents water, was not part of the original garden that it was possible to attain.”* [11]
plan; it grew several centuries later when the garden was
left untended, but now is the most famous feature of the
• Saihō-ji, or the Moss Garden, an early zen garden
garden.* [7]
from the mid-14th century. The moss arrived much
Muso Kokushi built another temple garden at Tenryū-ji, later, when the garden was not tended.
the “Temple of the Celestial Dragon”. This garden ap-
pears to have been strongly influenced by Chinese land- • The garden of Ginkaku-ji features a replica of
scape painting of the Song Dynasty which feature moun- Mount Fuji made of gravel, in a gravel sea. it was the
tains rising in the mist, and a suggestion of great depth and model for similar miniature mountains in Japanese
height. The garden at Tenryū-ji has a real pond with water gardens for centuries.
16.2. SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF ROCKS 133

• Part of the garden at Ryōan-ji (late 15th century), • Shitennō-ji Honbō garden
the most abstract of all Japanese zen gardens
• A small garden in the Japanese Tea Garden of
• Classic triad rock composition at Ryōan-ji. Golden Gate Park, in San Francisco
• In the garden of Daisen-in, a river of gravel takes • Sand and stone garden located in the Portland
visitors on a metaphorical journey through life Japanese Gardens.
• The white gravel“ocean”of the garden of Daisen-ji, • An'yō-in Garden of Taisan-ji in Kobe, Hyogo,
to which the gravel river flows. Japan.
• The Garden of the Blissful Mountain at Zuiho-in, a • Rosan-ji garden
sub-temple of Daitoku-ji.
• Shitennō-ji in Osaka
• In Zuiho-in garden, - some of the rocks are said to
form a cross. The garden was built by the daimyo • Adachi Museum of Art
Ōtomo Sōrin, who was a convert to Christianity.
• Taizō-in, Myōshin-ji, in Kyoto
•
• Kōmyōzen-ji
•
• Jissō-in, in Kyoto (Iwakura)
•
• Japanese Garden at Hamilton Gardens, Waikato,
•
New Zealand

16.1.3 Later rock gardens

16.2 Selection and arrangement of
During the Edo period, the large promenade garden be-
came the dominant style of Japanese garden, but zen gar-
rocks
dens continued to exist at zen temples. A few small new
rock gardens were built, usually as part of a garden where The selection and placement of rocks is the most impor-
a real stream or pond was not practical. tant part of making a Japanese rock garden. In the first
known manual of Japanese gardening, the Sakuteiki, '
In 1880, the buildings of Tōfuku-ji temple in Kyoto, one “Creating a garden”is expressed as “setting stones”,
of the oldest temples in the city, were destroyed by a fire. ishi wo tateru koto; literally, the “act of setting stones
In 1940, the temple commissioned the landscape histo- upright.”It laid out very specific rules for choice and the
rian and architect Shigemori Mirei to recreate the gar- placement of stones, and warned that if the rules were
dens. He created four different gardens, one for each not followed the owner of the garden would suffer mis-
face of the main temple building. He made one garden fortune.* [13] In Japanese gardening, rocks are classified
with five artificial hills covered with grass, symbolizing as either tall vertical, low vertical, arching, reclining, or
the five great ancient temples of Kyoto; a modern rock flat.* [14]
garden, with vertical rocks, symbolizing Mount Horai; a
large“sea”of white gravel raked in a checkboard pattern; For creating “mountains”, usually igneous volcanic
and an intimate garden with swirling sand patterns.* [12] rocks, rugged mountain rocks with sharp edges, are used.
Smooth, rounded sedimentary rocks are used for the bor-
In the last century, zen gardens have appeared in many ders of gravel “rivers”or “seashores.”* [14] In Chi-
countries outside Japan. nese gardens of the Song dynasty, individual rocks which
looked like animals or had other unusual features were
• The garden of Tōfuku-ji (1940). The five hills sym- often the star attraction of the garden. In Japanese gar-
bolize the five great zen temples of Kyoto. dens, individual rocks rarely play the starring role; the
emphasis is upon the harmony of the composition.* [14]
• The modern zen garden at Tōfuku-ji (1940). For arranging rocks, there are many rules in the Sakuteiki.
• A zen garden in a checkboard pattern, at Tōfuku-ji For example:
(1940).
“Make sure that all the stones, right down
• A courtyard zen garden at Tōfuku-ji (1940). to the front of the arrangement, are placed with
• part of the modern zen garden at Tōfuku-ji (1940). their best sides showing. If a stone has an ugly-
The “islands”of the immortals. looking top you should place it so as to give
prominence to its side. Even if this means it
• Part of the modern zen garden at Tōfuku-ji (1940). has to lean at a considerable angle, no one will
134 CHAPTER 16. JAPANESE ROCK GARDEN

notice. There should always be more horizon- Sakutei-ki wrote:

tal than vertical stones. If there are “running
away”stones there must be“chasing”stones. “Sometimes, when mountains are weak,
If there are “leaning”stones, there must be they are without fail destroyed by water. It is,
“supporting”stones.” in other words, as if subjects had attacked their
emperor. A mountain is weak if it does not
Rocks are rarely if ever placed in straight lines or in sym- have stones for support. An emperor is weak if
metrical patterns. The most common arrangement is one he does not have counselors. That is why it is
or more groups of three rocks. One common triad ar- said that it is because of stones that a mountain
rangement has a tall vertical rock flanked by two smaller is sure, and thanks to his subjects that an em-
rocks, representing Buddha and his two attendants. Other peror is secure. It is for this reason that, when
basic combinations are a tall vertical rock with a reclining you construct a landscape, you must at all cost
rock; a short vertical rock and a flat rock; and a triad of a place rocks around the mountain.”* [16]
tall vertical rock, a reclining rock and a flat rock. Other
important principles are to choose rocks which vary in Some classical zen gardens, like Daisen-in, have symbol-
color, shape and size, to avoid rocks with bright colors ism that can be easily read; it is a metaphorical journey on
which might distract the viewer, and make certain that the river of life. Others, like Ryōan-ji, resist easy inter-
the grains of rocks run in the same direction. pretation. Many different theories have been put forward
about what the garden is supposed to represent, from is-
At the end of the Edo period, a new principle was in-
lands in a stream to swimming baby tigers to the peaks
vented; the use of suteishi, “discarded”or “nameless”
of mountains rising above the clouds to theories about
rocks, placed in seemingly random places to add spon-
secrets of geometry or of the rules of equilibrium of odd
taneity to the garden.* [14] Other important principles of
numbers. Garden historian Gunter Nitschke wrote:“The
rock arrangement include balancing the number of verti-
garden at Ryōan-ji does not symbolize anything, or more
cal and horizontal rocks.
precisely, to avoid any misunderstanding, the garden of
Ryōan-ji does not symbolize, nor does it have the value of
reproducing a natural beauty that one can find in the real
16.3 Sand and gravel or mythical world. I consider it to be an abstract compo-
sition of“natural”objects in space, a composition whose
Gravel is usually used in zen gardens, rather than sand, function is to incite meditation.”.* [17]
because it is less disturbed by rain and wind. The act of A recent suggestion, by Gert van Tonder of Kyoto Uni-
raking the gravel into a pattern recalling waves or rippling versity and Michael Lyons of Ritsumeikan University, is
water, known as samon (砂紋)* [15] or hōkime (箒⽬), that the rocks of Ryōan-ji form the subliminal image of
has an aesthetic function. Zen priests practice this raking a tree. The researchers claim the subconscious mind is
also to help their concentration. Achieving perfection of sensitive to a subtle association between the rocks. They
lines is not easy. Rakes are according to the patterns of suggest this may be responsible for the calming effect of
ridges as desired and limited to some of the stone objects the garden.* [18]
situated within the gravel area. Nonetheless often the pat-
terns are not static. Developing variations in patterns is a
creative and inspiring challenge.
16.5 Landscape painting and the
Stone arrangements and other miniature elements are
used to represent mountains and natural water elements Zen garden critique
and scenes, islands, rivers and waterfalls. Stone and
shaped shrubs (karikomi, hako-zukuri topiary) are used Chinese landscape painting was one of the many Chinese
interchangeably. In most gardens moss is used as a arts that came to Japan with Zen Buddhism in the four-
ground cover to create “land”covered by forest. teenth century. That the Buddhism of Zen influenced
garden design was first suggested not in Japan, but in the
West by a Hawaian garden journalist Loraine Kuck in the
16.4 Symbolism 1930s and disputed as such by a scholar of Japanese gar-
den history, Wybe Kuitert in 1988.* [19] This was well
before scholars jumped on the bandwagon in the 1990s
In the Japanese rock garden, rocks sometimes symbolize to deconstruct the promotion and reception of Zen.* [20]
mountains, (particularly Horai, the legendary home of the The critique comes down to the fact that Buddhist priests
Eight Immortals in Buddhist mythology); or they can be were not trying to express Zen in gardens. A review of
boats or a living creature (usually a turtle, or a carp). In the quotes of Buddhist priests that are taken to “prove”
a group, they might be a waterfall or a crane in flight. Zen for the garden are actually phrases copied from Chi-
In the earliest rock gardens of the Heian period, the rocks nese treatises on landscape painting. Secondary writers
in a garden sometimes had a political message. As the on the Japanese garden like Keane and Nitschke, who
 16.8. REFERENCES 135

were associating with Kuitert when he was working on • Ryoanji

his research at the Kyoto University joined the Zen gar-
den critique, like Kendall H. Brown, who took a similar • Tofukuji
distance from the Zen garden. In Japan the critique was
taken over by Yamada Shouji who took a critical stance to Outside Kyoto:
the understanding of all Japanese culture, including gar-
dens, under the nominator of Zen.* [21] Christian Tag- • An'yō-in (Kobe)
sold summarized the discussion by placing perceptions of
the Japanese garden in the context of an interdisciplinary • Bingo-Ankokuji (Fukuyama)
comparison of cultures of Japan and the West.* [22]
• Harima Ankokuji (Kato, Hyogo)
Zen priests quote from Chinese treatises on landscape
painting indicating that the Japanese rock garden, and its • Jōmyō-ji (Kamakura)
karesansui garden scenery was and still is inspired by or
based on first Chinese and later also Japanese landscape • Kinbyōzan Zuisenji (Kamakura)
*
painting. [23] Landscape painting and landscape garden-
• Komyozenji (Fukuoka)
ing were closely related and practiced by intellectuals,
the literati inspired by Chinese culture. A primary de- • Shitennoji (Osaka)
sign principle was the creation of a landscape based on,
or at least greatly influenced by, the three-dimensional
monochrome ink (sumi) landscape painting, sumi-e or
suiboku-ga. In Japan the garden has the same status as a
16.8 References
work of art. Though each garden is different in its com-
position, they mostly use rock groupings and shrubs to [1] Ono Kenkichi and Walter Edwards: “Bilingual (En-
glish and Japanese) Dictionary of Japanese Garden Terms
represent a classic scene of mountains, valleys and wa-
(Karesansui. p. 20) from Kansai Main Pageocess, Nara
terfalls taken from Chinese landscape painting. In some
2001 The Karesansui definition was extracted with per-
cases it might be as abstract as just a few islands in a mission from The on-line“living”guide to realize a Zen
sea. Any Japanese garden may also incorporates existing garden by P.M. Patings.
scenery outside its confinement, e.g. the hills behind, as
“borrowed scenery”(using a technique called Shakkei). [2] Gunter Nitschke, Le Jardin japonais, pg. 65.

[3] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins- Paysagistes, Jardinieres, Po-

etes, pg. 485-487.
16.6 See also
[4] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 488
• Garden spa [5] Nitschke, le jardin japonais, pg. 67.
• Higashiyama Bunka in Muromachi period [6] Baridon, Les Jardins pg. 472.
• Japanese garden [7] Nitschke, le jardin japonais, pg. 68-73.
• Wabi-sabi [8] Nitschke, Le jardin japonais, pg. 86.
• Rock garden [9] Nitschke, Le Jardin Japonais. Young and Young put the
size at twenty-five meters by ten meters.

16.7 List [10] Nitschke, Le Jardin Japonais, pg. 90.

[11] Michel Baridon, :Les Jardins, pg. 474. Translation of this

Shrines and temples with rock gardens: excerpt from French by D.R. Siefkin.
In Kyoto: [12] Nitschke, Le jardin Japonais, pg. 217-218

• Daitokuji [13] Michel Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 485-490.

• Daisen-in [14] Young and Young, The Art of the Japanese Garden. pg.
22.
• Jishoji
[15] JAANUS, "samon 砂紋"
• Jisso-in
[16] Baridon, Les Jardins, pg. 492.
• Myoshinji
[17] Nitschke, Le jardin Japonais,”pg. 92. Translation of this
• Rozanji citation from French by D.R. Siefkin.
136 CHAPTER 16. JAPANESE ROCK GARDEN

[18] van Tonder, Gert; Lyons, Michael J. (September 2005).
“Visual Perception in Japanese Rock Garden Design”
(PDF). Axiomathes (Springer) 15 (3): 353–371(19).
doi:10.1007/s10516-004-5448-8. Retrieved 2007-01-08.
[19] Wybe Kuitert, Themes, Scenes, and Taste in the His-
tory of Japanese Garden Art, p.150-160, Japonica Neer-
landica Volume 3, Gieben Publishers, Amsterdam ISBN
90-5063-021-9 http://edepot.wur.nl/206169
[20] Review Elizabeth ten Grotenhuis, Journal of Japanese
Studies, Vol. 29, No. 2 (Summer, 2003), pp. 429-432
http://www.jstor.org/stable/25064424
[21] Yamada Shoji, (Earl Hartman transl.) Shots in the Dark,
Japan, Zen, and the West, The University of Chicago
Press, 2009
[22] Christian Tagsold Spaces of Translation: Japanese Gar-
dens in the West, Habilitationsschrift, HHU Dusseldorf
[23] Kuitert, Wybe (March 2013). “Composition of Scenery
in Japanese Pre-Modern Gardens and the Three Distances
of Guo Xi”. Studies in the History of Gardens & De-
signed Landscapes (Taylor and Francis) 33 (1): 1–15.
doi:10.1080/02666286.2012.753189.
16.9 Bibliography
• Wybe Kuitert (1988). Themes, Scenes, and Taste in
the History of Japanese Garden Art. Gieben Ams-
terdam. ISBN 90-5063-021-9.
nearly 1000 years ago, making it the oldest work on Japanese
gardening. It is assumed that this was written in the 11th century
by a noble man named Tachibana no Tichitsuna. In this text lies
the first mention of the karesansui in literature. Only recently
we saw an English modern translation of this gardening classic.
16.10 External links
• Zen Gardens: images and meaning
• Photo Gallery of Japanese Zen Gardens
• Virtual tour of the Zen Gardens in and around Kyoto
• Geometrical concepts of Japanese rock garden
• Stanford University article on the history and mean-
ing of some Japanese gardens PDF (180 KB)
• Tsubo-en - A virtual tour of the karesansui garden in
The Netherlands
• Study into the karesansui gardens of the Edo era
- karesansui gardens of Traditional Samurai Resi-
dences
• Neuroscience unlocks secrets of Zen garden (Re-
quires subscription)
Neuroscience unlocks secrets of Zen
garden (Mirror)

• Wybe Kuitert (2002). Themes in the History of • Criticisms of the term“Zen Garden”- in Japanese
Japanese Garden Art. Hawaii University Press. Garden Journal
ISBN 0-8248-2312-5.

• David Young; Michiko Young (July 2005). The Art

of the Japanese Garden. Tuttle Pub. ISBN 978-0-
8048-3598-5.

• Günter Nitschke (2007). Le jardin japonais: Angle

droit et forme naturelle. ISBN 978-3-8228-3034-5.

• Baridon, Michel (1998). Les Jardins- Paysagistes,

Jardiniers, Poetes., Éditions Robert Lafont, Paris,
(ISBN 2-221-06707-X)

• Miyeko Murase (1996). L Art Du Japon. LGF/Le

Livre de Poche. ISBN 978-2-253-13054-3.

• Danielle Elisseeff (2010-09-23). Jardins japonais.

ISBN 978-2-35988-029-8.

• Virginie Klecka (2011-04-15). Jardins Japonais.

ISBN 978-2-8153-0052-0.

16.9.1 Note
*The Sakuteiki is a garden book with notes on garden making
that dates back to the late seventeenth century. Its oldest title is
Senzai Hishõ, “Secret Extracts on Gardens”, and was written
Chapter 17
Roof garden
For the song by Al Jarreau, see Breakin' Away (album).
A roof garden is a garden on the roof of a building.
The roof garden of the Rockefeller Center in Manhattan
Sky garden at 20 Fenchurch Street
Besides the decorative benefit, roof plantings may pro-
vide food, temperature control, hydrological benefits, ar-
chitectural enhancement, habitats or corridors* [1] for
wildlife, recreational opportunities, and in large scale it
may even have ecological benefits. The practice of cul-
tivating food on the rooftop of buildings is sometimes
referred to as rooftop farming.* [2] Rooftop farming is
usually done using green roof, hydroponics, aeroponics or
air-dynaponics systems or container gardens.* [3]
137
The roof terrace of the Casa Grande hotel in Santiago de Cuba.
17.1 History
Humans have grown plants atop structures since antiq-
uity. The ziggurats of ancient Mesopotamia (4th millen-
nium BC–600 BC) had plantings of trees and shrubs on
aboveground terraces. An example in Roman times was
the Villa of the Mysteries in Pompeii, which had an ele-
vated terrace where plants were grown.* [4] A roof gar-
den has also been discovered around an audience hall
in Roman-Byzantine Caesarea.* [5] The medieval Egyp-
tian city of Fustat had a number of high-rise buildings
that Nasir Khusraw in the early 11th century described
as rising up to 14 stories, with roof gardens on the top
story complete with ox-drawn water wheels for irrigating
them.* [6]
Among the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, The
Hanging Gardens are often depicted as tall structures
holding vegetation; even immense trees.
17.2 Environmental impact
Roof gardens are most often found in urban environ-
ments. Plants have the ability to reduce the overall heat
absorption of the building which then reduces energy con-
sumption.“The primary cause of heat build-up in cities is
insolation, the absorption of solar radiation by roads and
138 CHAPTER 17. ROOF GARDEN

mal radiation, rooftop gardens are also beneficial in re-

ducing rain run off. A roof garden can delay run off; re-
duce the rate and volume of run off. “As cities grow,
permeable substrates are replaced by impervious struc-
tures such as buildings and paved roads. Storm water run-
off and combined sewage overflow events are now major
problems for many cities in North America. A key solu-
tion is to reduce peak flow by delaying (e.g., control flow
drain on roofs) or retaining run-off (e.g., rain detention
basins). Rooftop gardens can delay peak flow and retain
the run-off for later use by the plants.”* [9]

17.3 Urban agriculture

View of ACROS Fukuoka designed by architect Emilio Ambasz.

See Urban Agriculture

Infinity edge pool at Sands Sky Park, Marina Bay Sands Hotel, Palais de Tokyo, Paris
Singapore
“In an accessible rooftop garden, space becomes available
for localized small-scale urban agriculture, a source of
buildings in the city and the storage of this heat in the local food production. An urban garden can supplement
building material and its subsequent re-radiation. Plant the diets of the community it feeds with fresh produce and
surfaces however, as a result of transpiration, do not rise provide a tangible tie to food production.”* [10] At Trent
more than 4–5 °C above the ambient and are sometimes University, there is currently a working rooftop garden
cooler.”* [7] This then translates into a cooling of the which provides food to the student café and local citizens.
environment between 3.6 and 11.3 degrees Celsius (6.5
and 20.3 °F), depending on the area on earth (in hotter ar- Available gardening areas in cities are often seriously
eas, the environmental temperature will cool more). The lacking, which is likely the key impetus for many roof gar-
study was performed by the University of Cardiff.* [8] dens. The garden may be on the roof of an autonomous
building which takes care of its own water and waste.
A study at the National Research Council of Canada Hydroponics and other alternative methods can expand
showed the differences between roofs with gardens and the possibilities of roof top gardening by reducing, for ex-
roofs without gardens against temperature. The study ample, the need for soil or its tremendous weight. Plant-
shows temperature effects on different layers of each roof ings in containers are used extensively in roof top gardens.
at different times of the day. Roof gardens are obvi- Planting in containers prevents added stress to the roof's
ously very beneficial in reducing the effects of temper- waterproofing. One high-profile example of a building
ature against roofs without gardens. “If widely adopted, with a roof garden is Chicago City Hall.
rooftop gardens could reduce the urban heat island, which
would decrease smog episodes, problems associated with For those who live in small apartments with little space,
heat stress and further lower energy consumption.”* [9] square foot gardening, or (when even less space is avail-
able) green walls (vertical gardening) can be a solution.
• These use much less space than traditional gardening
(square foot gardening uses 20% of the space of con-
• ventional rows; ten times more produce can be generated
from vertical gardens). These also encourage environ-
Aside from rooftop gardens providing resistance to ther- mentally responsible practices, eliminating tilling, reduc-
 17.6. SCIENCE OF GARDENING 139

ing or eliminating pesticides, and weeding, and encour- outdoor living space for the building's residents. It may
aging the recycling of wastes through composting. include planters, plants, dining and lounging furniture,
outdoor structures such as pergolas and sheds, and au-
tomated irrigation and lighting systems.
17.4 Importance to urban planning Although they may provide aesthetic and recreational
benefits a green roof is not necessarily designed for this
purpose. A green roof may not provide any recreational
space and be constructed with an emphasis towards im-
proving the insulation or improving the overall energy ef-
ficiency and reducing the cooling and heating costs within
a building.
Green roofs may be extensive or intensive (refer http://
www.elmich.com.au/greenroofsystems/about.php). The
terms are used to describe the type of planting required.
The panels that comprise a green roof are generally no
more than a few inches up to a foot in depth, since weight
is an important factor when covering an entire roof sur-
face. The plants that go into a green roof are usually
sedum or other shallow-rooted plants that will tolerate the
hot, dry, windy conditions that prevail on most rooftop
gardens. With a green roof, “the plants layer can shield
off as much as 87% of solar radiation while a bare roof
receives 100% direct exposure”.* [12]
The planters on a roof garden may be designed for a va-
riety of functions and vary greatly in depth to satisfy aes-
thetic and recreational purposes. These planters can hold
a range of ornamental plants: anything from trees, shrubs,
vines, or an assortment of flowers. As aesthetics and
recreation are the priority they may not provide the en-
Seelbach Hotel advertising its roof garden, ca. 1910 vironmental and energy benefits of a green roof.Planting
on roof tops can make urban living more self-sufficient
Becoming green is a high priority for urban planners. and make fresh vegetables more accessible to urban peo-
The environmental and aesthetic benefits to cities is the ple.
prime motivation. It was calculated that the temperature
in Tokyo could be lowered by 0.11–0.84 °C if 50% of all
available rooftop space were planted with greenery. This 17.6 Science of gardening
would lead to a savings of approximately 100 million yen
*
[11] The related idea of a living machine is based on the most
Singapore is very active in green urban development. basic cycle of gardening: using wastes (organic waste
“Roof gardens present possibilities for carrying the no- and sewage), appropriately broken down, usually in some
tions of nature and open space further in tall building specialized container, on the soil, and harvesting food
development.”* [11] When surveyed, 80% of Singapore which, when processed, generates biodegradable waste,
residents voted for more roof gardens to be implemented and when eaten, generates sewage. In most of the world,
in the city's plans. Recreational reasons, such as leisure this kind of very tight closed loop gardening is used, de-
and relaxation, beautifying the environment, and green- spite certain health risks if necessary precautions are not
ery and nature, received the most amount of votes. Plant- taken. Composting human or pet waste should achieve
ing roof gardens on tops of building is a great way to make thermophilic conditions and age for at least a year before
city more efficient.* [11] being used.

17.5 Roof garden vs. green roof 17.7 In popular culture

A roof garden can be distinguished from a green roof,
although the two terms are often used interchangeably.
The term roof garden is well suited to roof spaces that in-
corporate recreation, entertaining, and provide additional
• American jazz singer Al Jarreau composed a song
named “Roof Garden”.
• Apu Nahasapeemapetilon of the TV show The Simp-
sons has a roof top garden visited by Paul McCartney
140 CHAPTER 17. ROOF GARDEN

and his wife. 17.10 References

• In BBC's 1990 television miniseries House of Cards,
[1] Louise Lundberg Scandinavian Green Roof Institute
the main character, MP Francis Urquhart, murders (2009). “The benefits of Rooftop Gardens”(PDF). Re-
journalist Mattie Storin by throwing her off of the trieved March 12, 2014.
Palace of Westminster's rooftop garden.
[2] “World's Largest Rooftop Farm Documents Incredible
Growth High Above Brooklyn”. The Huffington Post.
February 12, 2014. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
17.8 Gallery
[3] Michelle Nowak (May 2004).“Urban Agriculture on the
• Sveavägen 44 uses Sedum Rooftop”. City Farmer, Canada's Office of Urban Agri-
culture. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
• Sveavägen 44
[4] pp. 112–115, chapter 2,“Roof gardens through history”,
• Villa Arson Roof gardens: history, design, and construction, Theodore
Osmundson, W. W. Norton & Company, 1999, ISBN 0-
• Villa Arson 393-73012-3.

• ACROS Fukuoka [5] p. 219, Byzantine garden culture, Antony Robert Little-
wood, Henry Maguire, and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn,
• Herb garden of National Museum of Nature and Dumbarton Oaks, 2002, ISBN 0-88402-280-3.
Science Tokyo
[6] Behrens-Abouseif, Doris (1992), Islamic Architecture in
• A small Zen roof garden Cairo, Brill Publishers, p. 6, ISBN 90-04-09626-4

[7] Ong, B. (2003). Green plot ratio: an ecological measure

• Inari Daimyojin on the roof of Hankyu Department
for architecture and urban planning. Landscape and Ur-
Stores Umeda main store
ban Planning, 63 (4). Retrieved June 19, 2009, from Sci-
• Tokyo Plaza enceDirect database.

[8] Catherine Brahic (September 28, 2007). “Cooling per-

• Canal City Hakata
centages by 'Green roofs'". NewScientist. Retrieved
March 12, 2014.

17.9 See also [9] Liu, K. “Energy efficiency and environmental benefits
of rooftop gardens” (PDF). National Research Council
Canada. Retrieved March 12, 2014.
• Building-integrated agriculture
[10] Trent University (October 30, 2009).“Rooftop Gardens”
• Composting toilet (PDF). Retrieved March 12, 2014.

• Cool roof [11] Yuen, B, & Wong, N. (2005). Resident perceptions and
expectations of rooftop gardens in Singapore. Landscape
• Green roof and Urban Planning, 73 (4). Retrieved June 19, 2009,
from ScienceDirect database.
• Hanging Gardens of Babylon
[12] Wong, N, Tay, S, Wong, R, Ong, C, & Sia, A. (2003).
• Kensington Roof Gardens Life cycle cost analysis of rooftop gardens in Singapore.
Building and Environment, 38 (3). Retrieved June 19,
• List of gardening topics 2009, from ScienceDirect database.
• Low-flow irrigation systems

• Metropolitan Museum of Art Roof Garden 17.11 External links

• Ralph Hancock, designer of The Rockefeller Center
Roof Gardens • Kensington roof gardens guestlist

• Roof deck • The New York Times article about rooftop garden in
Manhattan
• Skyrise greenery

• Terrace garden

• Urban agriculture

• Wildlife corridor
 Chapter 18

Public space

“In public”redirects here. For the song by Kelis featur- 18.1 Use of public spaces
ing Nas, see In Public. For the film, see In Public (film).
A public space is a social space that is generally
18.1.1 Right to common passage

In Nordic countries like Norway, Sweden and Finland, all

nature areas are considered public space, due to a law, the
allemansrätten (the right to common passage).

18.1.2 Restrictions on state action in pub-

lic spaces in the United States

In the United States the right of the people to engage in

speech and assembly in public places may not be unrea-
sonably restricted by the federal or state government.* [2]
The government cannot usually limit one's speech be-
yond what is reasonable in a public space, which is con-
sidered to be a public forum (that is, screaming epithets
Urban space (Florence)
at passers-by can be stopped; proselytizing one's religion
probably cannot). In a private̶that is, non-public̶fo-
open and accessible to people. Roads (including the rum, the government can control one's speech to a much
pavement), public squares, parks and beaches are typi- greater degree; for instance, protesting one's objection to
cally considered public space. To a limited extent, gov- medicare reform will not be tolerated in the gallery of
ernment buildings which are open to the public, such the United States Senate. This is not to say that the gov-
as public libraries are public spaces, although they tend ernment can control what one says in their own home or
to have restricted areas and greater limits upon use. to others; it can only control government property in this
Although not considered public space, privately owned way. The concept of a public forum is not limited to phys-
buildings or property visible from sidewalks and public ical space or public property, for example, a newspaper
thoroughfares may affect the public visual landscape, for might be considered a public forum, but see Forum (le-
example, by outdoor advertising. Recently, the concept gal) as the term has a specific meaning in United States
of Shared space has been advanced to enhance the ex- law.
perience of pedestrians in public space jointly used by
automobiles and other vehicles. Parks, malls, beaches, waiting rooms, etc., may be closed
at night. As this does not exclude any specific group, it is
Public space has also become something of a touch- generally not considered a restriction on public use. Entry
stone for critical theory in relation to philosophy, (urban) to public parks cannot be restricted based upon a user's
geography, visual art, cultural studies, social studies and residence.* [3]
urban design. The term 'public space' is also often mis-
construed to mean other things such as 'gathering place',
which is an element of the larger concept of social space. 18.1.3 Social norms in public spaces
One of the earliest examples of public spaces are
commons. For example, no fees or paid tickets are re- In some cultures, there is no expectation of privacy in
quired for entry. Non-government-owned malls are ex- a public space, however civil inattention is a process
amples of 'private space' with the appearance of being whereby individuals are able to maintain their privacy
'public space'. within a crowd.

141
142 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE

18.1.4 Controversy regarding restrictions racy, employing Henri Lefebvre's notion of the right to
on use the city in articulating his argument.* [6] While democ-
racy and public space don't entirely coincide, it is the po-
tential of their intersection that becomes politically im-
portant. Other geographers like Gill Valentine have fo-
cused on performativity and visibility in public spaces,
which brings a theatrical component or 'space of appear-
ance' that is central to the functioning of a democratic
space.* [7]

18.1.6 Privatization
Main article: Privately owned public space

A privately owned public space is a public space that is

open to the public, but owned by a private entity, typically
a commercial property developer. Conversion of publicly
Leyton Marshes, London, an example of land with long estab-
owned public spaces to privately owned public spaces is
lished rights of access, and equally long-standing restrictions
referred to as the privatization of public space, and is a
common result of urban redevelopment.* [8]
Public space is commonly shared and created for open
usage throughout the community, whereas private space Beginning roughly in the 1960s, the privatization of pub-
is individually or corporately owned. The area is built for lic space (especially in urban centers) has faced criticism
a range of various types of recreation and entertainment. from citizen groups such as the Open Spaces Society.
The physical setting is socially constructed, which cre- Private-public partnerships have taken significant con-
ates a behavior influence. Limitations are imposed in the trol of public parks and playgrounds through conservancy
space to prevent certain actions from occurring--public groups set up to manage what is considered unmanage-
behavior that is considered obnoxious or out of character able by public agencies. Corporate sponsorship of public
(i.e., drug and alcohol consumption, urinating, indecent leisure areas is ubiquitous, giving open space to the pub-
exposure, etc.)--and are supported by law or ordinance. lic in exchange for higher air rights. This facilitates the
Through the landscape and spatial organization of public construction of taller buildings with private parks.
space, the social construction is considered to be privately In one of the newer U.S. incarnations of the private-public
ruled by the implicit and explicit rules and expectations partnership, the business improvement district (BID), pri-
of the space that are enforced. vate organizations are allowed to tax local businesses and
Whilst it is generally considered that everyone has a right retail establishments so that they might provide special
to access and use public space, as opposed to private private services such as policing and increased surveil-
space which may have restrictions, there has been some lance, trash removal, or street renovation, all of which
academic interest in how public spaces are managed to once fell under the control of public funds.
exclude certain groups - specifically homeless* [4] people
and young* [5] people.
18.1.7 Semi-public spaces
Measures are taken to make the public space less attrac-
tive to them, including the removal or design of benches A broader meaning of public space or place includes also
to restrict their use for sleeping and resting, restricting ac- places where everybody can come if they pay, like a café,
cess to certain times, locking indoor/enclosed areas. Po- train, or movie theater. A shop is an example of what is
lice forces are sometimes involved in moving 'unwanted' intermediate between the two meanings: everybody can
members of the public from public spaces. In fact, by enter and look around without obligation to buy, but ac-
not being provided suitable access, disabled people are tivities unrelated to the purpose of the shop are not un-
implicitly excluded from some spaces. limitedly permitted.
The halls and streets (including skyways) in a shopping
center may be declared a public place and may be open
18.1.5 As a site for democracy
when the shops are closed. Similarly for halls, railway
Human geographers have argued that in spite of the ex- platforms and waiting rooms of public transport; some-
clusions that are part of public space, it can nonetheless times a travelling ticket is required. A public library is a
be conceived of as a site where democracy becomes pos- public place. A rest stop or truck stop is a public space.
sible. Geographer Don Mitchell has written extensively For these “semi-public”spaces stricter rules may ap-
on the topic of public space and its relation to democ- ply than outside, e.g. regarding dress code, trading,
18.2. PUBLIC SPACE IN DESIGN THEORY 143

begging, advertising, photography, propaganda, riding ern society has withdrawn from public life that used to
rollerskates, skateboards, a Segway, etc. inform city centres. Political and social needs, and fo-
rums for expression, can now be accessed from the home.
This sentiment is reflected in Michael Sorkin's and Mike
18.2 Public space in design theory Davis' declaration of “the end of public space”and* the
“destruction of any truly democratic urban spaces.” [15]
Another side of the debate, however, argues that it is peo-
Public space, as a term and as a concept in design, is
ple who apply meaning to public space, wherever it may
volatile. There is much conversation around what con-
be. It has been suggested that the concepts of public,
stitutes public space, what role it plays, and how design
space, democracy, and citizenship are being redefined by
should approach and deal with it.
people through lived experience.* [16] Discussion has sur-
faced around the idea that, historically, public space has
18.2.1 Historical shift been inherently contradictory in the way that it has always
been exclusive in who has been able to participate. This
Historically, public space in the west has been limited has caused *
the“counterpublics”, as identified by Nancy
to town centres, plazas, church squares, i.e. nearly al- Fraser, [17] to establish their own public spaces to re-
ways engineered around a central monument, which in- spond to their own concerns. These spaces are in constant
forms the program of the space. These spaces acted as the flux, and in response, its users restructure and reinterpret
'commons' of the people; a political, social and cultural physical space. An example of this is in the African-
arena. Of the thirteen colonies that became the United American neighbourhood, Baldwin Hills, Los Angeles.
States, three were comprehensively planned with inte- Here, a parking lot has evolved into a scene of intense
grated physical, social, and economic elements. These commercial and social activity. Locals gather here to
planned colonies of Carolina, Pennsylvania, and Geor- meet and socialise, sell and consume goods. The exam-
gia each placed emphasis on public space, in particular ple has been used to illustrate that the historical ideal of
the public square. The plan for Georgia, known as the fixed public space around a monument is not viable for a
Oglethorpe Plan created a unique design in which a public contemporary diverse social range as “no single physi-
square was created for every ward of forty residential lots cal space can represent
*
a completely inclusive 'space of
and four civic or commercial lots. The design has been democracy'.” [16]
preserved in the Savannah historic district.* [9]* [10]* [11]
Jürgen Habermas' concept of the public sphere links its
emergence with the development of democracy.* [12] A
good example of this is the New Deal projects. The New
Deal was a brief period in the US under Franklin De-
lano Roosevelt's government that produced a huge num- 18.2.3 Art in public space
ber of public works in an economic effort to boost em-
ployment during the depression. The result, however, was Main article: Public art
more than this. They constituted a legacy of what has
been called the cultural infrastructure underlying Ameri-
can public space.* [13] The New Deal projects have been This sense of flux and change, informs how contempo-
rary public art has evolved. Temporal art in public spaces
credited with significantly contributing to the quality of
American life and encouraging unity between all aspects has been a long established practice. But the presence of
of the community. It has been recently argued, however, public art has become increasingly prevalent and impor-
that the democratic ideal of public life through the usetant within our contemporary cities. Temporal public art
is so important because of its ability to respond to, reflect,
of public space has deteriorated. As our cities accelerate
and explore the context which it inhabits. Patricia Phillips
towards segregation (social, economic, cultural, ethnic),
describes the “social desire for an art that is contempo-
the opportunity for public interaction is on the decline.
John Chase writes, “The importance of voluntary and rary and timely, that responds to and reflects its temporal
and circumstantial context.”* [18] Public art is an arena
obligatory participation in civic life has been usurped by
for investigation, exploration and articulation of the dense
the consciousness of the arbitrary nature of assigned cul-
and diverse public landscape. Public art asks its audience
tural meanings and by the increasingly important role that
consumption of goods and services plays in the formationto re-imagine, re-experience, re-view and re-live. In the
of individual identity.”* [14] design field, a heavy focus has been turned onto the city
as needing to discover new and inspired ways to re-use,
re-establish and re-invent the city, in step with an invigo-
18.2.2 Modern critique rated interest in re-juvinating our cities for a sustainable
future. Contemporary design has become obsessed with
Modern architectural critics have lamented on the 'nar- the need to save the modern city from an industrialised,
rative of loss' within the public sphere. That is, mod- commercialised, urban pit of a death bed.
 144
18.2.4 Approaching urban design
Contemporary perception of public space has now
branched and grown into a multitude of non-traditional
sites with a variety of programs in mind. It is for this rea-
son that the way in which design deals with public space [12] Jurgen Habermas, The Structural Transformation of the
as a discipline, has become such a diverse and indefinable
field.
Iris Aravot puts forward an interesting approach to the ur-
ban design process, with the idea of the 'narrative-myth'.
Aravot argues that “conventional analysis and problem
solving methods result in fragmentation...of the authentic
experience of a city...[and] something of the liveliness of
the city as a singular entity is lost.”* [19] The process
of developing a narrative-myth in urban design involves
analysing and understanding the unique aspects of the lo-
cal culture based on Cassirer's five distinctive“symbolic
forms”.* [20] They are myth and religion, art, language,
history and science; aspects often disregarded by profes-
sional practice. Aravot suggests that the narrative-myth
“imposes meaning specifically on what is still inexplica-
ble”, i.e. the essence of a city.
18.3 Notes and references
[1] Petersen, Klaus & Allan C. Hutchinson. “Interpreting
Censorship in Canada”, University of Toronto Press,
1999.
[2] First Amendment to the United States Constitution
[3] http://classweb.gmu.edu/jkozlows/lawarts/10OCT01.
pdf
[4] “Illegal to be Homeless”. National Coalition for the
Homeless. 2004.
[5] Malone, K. “Children, Youth and Sustainable Cities”
(PDF). Local Environment 6 (1).
[6] Mitchell, Don. 2003, The Right to the City: Social Justice
and the Fight for Public Space. New York: The Guilford
Press.
[7] Valentine, Gill, 1996, Children should be seen and not
heard: the production and transgression of adults' public
space . Urban Geography 17, 205-220.
[8] Vasagar, Jeevan (11 June 2012).“Privately owned public
space: where are they and who owns them?". London:
The Guardian. Retrieved 2012-09-01.
[9] Fries, Sylvia. The Urban Idea in Colonial America.
Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1977. Chapters
3 and 5 discuss the designs of Pennsylvania and Georgia
[10] Wilson, Thomas D. The Oglethorpe Plan. Charlottesville,
VA: University of Virginia Press, 2012. See chapter 3 for
design details.
CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE
[11] Rivers, William J. A Sketch of the History of South Car-
olina. Charleston: McCarter and Co., 1856. See pp. 358-
394 for design details; Carolina thus far has received less
attention in the urban design literature than Pennsylvania
or Georgia
Public Sphere: An Inquiry into a Category of Bourgeois
Society (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1989)
[13] Robert D. Leighninger, Jr., 1996, 'Cultural Infrastructure:
The Legacy of New Deal Public Space', Journal of Ar-
chitectural Education, Vol. 49, No. 4 (May, 1996), pp.
226-236
[14] John Chase, “The Garret, the Boardroom, and the
Amusement Park,”JAE 47/2 (Nov. 1993)
[15] Michael Sorkin, “Introduction”, and Mike Davis,
“Fortress Los Angeles: The Militarization of Urban
Space,”in Michael Sorkin, ed. Variations on a Theme
Park: The New American City and the End of Public
Space (New York: Hill and Wang, 1992)
[16] Margaret Crawford. 1995,“Contesting the Public Realm:
Struggles over Public Space in Los Angeles”, Journal of
Architectural Education, Vol. 49, No. 1 (Sep, 1995) pp.
4-9
[17] Nancy Fraser,“Rethinking the Public Sphere: A Contri-
bution to the Critique of Actually Existing Democracy,”
in Bruce Robbins, ed., The Phantom Public Sphere (Min-
neapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1993)
[18] Patricie C. Philips, 1989, “Temporality and Public Art”
, Art Journal, Vol. 48, No. 4, Critical Issues in Public Art
(Winter, 1989), pp. 331-335
[19] Iris Aravot,“Narrative-Myth and Urban Design”, Journal
of Architectural Education (1984-), Vol. 49, No. 2 (Nov.,
1995), pp. 79-91
[20] Ernst Cassirer, An Essay on Man (New York: Bantam,
1970)
18.4 See also
• Busking
• Enclosure
• Footpath
• Freedom of panorama
• Guerrilla gardening
• History of Public Library Advocacy
• Principles of Intelligent Urbanism
• Public art
• Public display of affection
• Public indecency
18.6. EXTERNAL LINKS 145

• Public land

• Public Library Advocacy

• Public nudity

• Speakers' Corner
• Street photography

• Terrorism Act 2000 (UK law)

• Toronto Public Space Committee

• Third place (community)

• Urban design

• Village green

18.5 Bibliography
• Illegal to be Homeless. National Coalition for the
Homeless (2004).

• Maasik, Sonia, and Jack Solomon. Signs of Life in

the USA Readings on Popular Culture for Writers.
Boston: Bedford/St. Martin's, 2006.
• Malone, K. “Children, Youth and Sustainable
Cities”. Local Environment 6 (1).
•“Conclusions of the International Seminar on the
Planning of Collectively-Used Spaces in Towns”,
in: Monumentum (Louvain), Vol. 18-19, 1979, pp.
129–135.

18.6 External links

• Media related to Public space at Wikimedia Com-
mons

• European Archive of Urban Public Space

146 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE

18.7 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

18.7.1 Text
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bernian, Sbharris, Dr. Marcus Gossler, Cybercobra, Fullstop, Meffrey, Jake Lancaster, Terrasidius, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Kuru, Armyri-
fle9, Helzagood, Paradise, the band, ShakingSpirit, Iridescent, Wfgiuliano, Travis Myers, Zarex, Shorespirit, Iokseng, Cydebot, Jonathan
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long, Hveziris, JaGa, Zahakiel, MartinBot, Keith D, Kostisl, Choihei, Ian.thomson, Honeychic, Hillock65, Belovedfreak, NewEnglandYan-
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Open2universe, Y23, Tim1965, EJSawyer, SmackBot, HeartofaDog, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Razwww, CSWarren,
Mooncow, Bejnar, Tim Ross, J. Finkelstein, SilkTork, Aleator, Peterlewis, Neilbradford, Gpscholar, PaulGS, Pwforaker, Janus303, Dia^,
AndrewHowse, Kweeket, Corpx, Rosser1954, Thijs!bot, AntiVandalBot, Just Chilling, Handsaw, Caracaskid, PhilKnight, Magioladitis,
Cheesecheese, R'n'B, Charlesjsharp, AntiSpamBot, Luedke, Rodolph, Deor, Amikake3, Jaddyboy, Whiteghost.ink, Mfisherkirshner, Cre-
ativelandscaping, Topiaryone, Tomyun, Hafspajen, Metalrog, Alpha Ralpha Boulevard, Sun Creator, Aarondunn, Muro Bot, Johnuniq,
Darkicebot, Stoick, Addbot, JoinTheMadVender, Ginosbot, Ehrenkater, Аимаина хикари, Luckas-bot, Ptbotgourou, AnomieBOT, Bufo-
MarinusHughes, Coleridgenut, Kingpin13, Westerness, Capricorn42, FrescoBot, Remotelysensed, Thayts, Karesansui, Patings, LittleWink,
Kibi78704, JeepdaySock, EmausBot, Jaddy321, Philafrenzy, ClueBot NG, Elen on the Roads, PaleCloudedWhite, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Tholme, R.Michael2000, Northamerica1000, CitationCleanerBot, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Scandinavii-kamikaze, StilNovo and Anony-
mous: 75
• Persian gardens Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_gardens?oldid=704098134 Contributors: Ahoerstemeier, Smack, Charles
Matthews, Justin Bacon, Nv8200pa, Wetman, Mayooranathan, Mirv, OldakQuill, Quadell, Florian Blaschke, Mani1, Bender235, Art
LaPella, Bobo192, Cmdrjameson, Jonsafari, Wiki-uk, Zereshk, Woohookitty, Nemonoman, Amir85, Yamamoto Ichiro, Khirad, Russ-
Bot, Shinmawa, Tajik, Arad, SmackBot, Reedy, Grantb, Verne Equinox, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Aksi great, ParthianShot, Willow4, Dreadstar,
NickPenguin, Databot, SilkTork, Lue3378, Pejman47, Gil Gamesh, Bruinfan12, CmdrObot, Gregbard, Ntsimp, Verdy p, Barticus88, So-
breira, Bobblehead, BehnamFarid, Nick Number, WinBot, Alite, Tokyo tintin, Mardavich, Magioladitis, CommonsDelinker, Johnbod, Lor-
dAnubisBOT, Chiswick Chap, Redtigerxyz, Aparhizi, TXiKiBoT, Joopercoopers, Falcon8765, JukoFF, GoLnAr, Wschroedter, Tinglepal,
Prof saxx, Martarius, Keeper76, Ivansevil, DragonBot, PixelBot, Cenarium, Jotterbot, SchreiberBike, Taranet, Thingg, Lx 121, ‫ברוקולי‬,
MystBot, Addbot, Aacugna, Lightbot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, AnomieBOT, Srahat, Sendelbach, Gilo1969, Mcgrathmg, Moodi999,
Louperibot, ‫محک‬, Rain drop 45, EmausBot, Look2See1, ‫مانفی‬, Koresdcine, ChuispastonBot, Dr. Persi, PaleCloudedWhite, Rezabot,
Northamerica1000, Maahmaah, Makecat-bot, Rahelehwiki, HistoryofIran, Husraw, C.M. Tom, Bladesmulti, HajjiBaba, Shab2012 and
Anonymous: 27
• Hortus conclusus Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hortus_conclusus?oldid=700164330 Contributors: Bogdangiusca, Wetman, Tom
harrison, LLarson, Andycjp, Rich Farmbrough, Ynhockey, Koavf, TBHecht, FlaBot, SmackBot, Rune X2, Sbharris, Egsan Bacon, Cyber-
cobra, Andrewplatham, SilkTork, Makyen, PaulGS, Kapohogrrl, RCS, Drinibot, Cydebot, Goldfritha, Thijs!bot, MarshBot, Amadalvarez,
CommonsDelinker, Lilac Soul, Ian.thomson, Johnbod, John Carter, StAnselm, Hafspajen, SchreiberBike, Sjouker, MystBot, Addbot,
Luckas-bot, Flizzz, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, NicoScPo, HyperGaruda, Pierpao, EmausBot, Look2See1, EleferenBot, Jaco-
bisq, Gilderien, Abercius, ClaireFrancesClaire, MagicatthemovieS, Boyinra and Anonymous: 5
• Botanical garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botanical_garden?oldid=705717931 Contributors: Vicki Rosenzweig, Zundark,
Christian List, DavidLevinson, Sfdan, Blueshade, Andrel, Haakon, Stan Shebs, Den fjättrade ankan~enwiki, Aarchiba, Dysprosia, Marsh-
man, Shizhao, Raul654, Wetman, Pollinator, Donarreiskoffer, Romanm, Cecropia, Alan Liefting, Mintleaf~enwiki, Yak, Curps, Dick
Bos, Andycjp, MisfitToys, Eranb, Chris j wood, Discospinster, Paul August, DS1953, Bobo192, Jumbuck, AnnaP, Velella, Evil Mon-
key, Tony Sidaway, Cmapm, Drbreznjev, Stemonitis, Nuno Tavares, Isnow, Tetraminoe, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Ricardo Carneiro Pires,
FlaBot, Oliver Chettle, CalJW, Margosbot~enwiki, RexNL, Wongm, Giac, CJLL Wright, Stefan29, YurikBot, Wavelength, Phantom-
steve, RussBot, Chroniclev, Mikewmiller, WayneRay, Chensiyuan, NawlinWiki, Stephen Burnett, Semolo75, Grafen, Welsh, Pyrotec,
Aaron Brenneman, FargomeD~enwiki, Gadget850, Zzuuzz, Airodyssey, Johndodd, Vanka5, SmackBot, David Kernow, Greedo, Steam5,
Shadware, Hmains, Skizzik, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Dreg743, LaggedOnUser, Zinneke, Esculapio, Nixeagle, WikiCats, Cybercobra,
Jiddisch~enwiki, Acdx, Risssa, Ohconfucius, SashatoBot, Rklawton, John, 1mtc, SilkTork, NongBot~enwiki, A. Parrot, Makyen, MTS-
bot~enwiki, Treeboy2001, OnBeyondZebrax, KlaudiuMihaila, CmdrObot, Page Up, WeggeBot, Miguel303xm~enwiki, Fordmadoxfraud,
Reywas92, Pauliefred, Christian75, Thijs!bot, J Bar, Headbomb, Dawnseeker2000, KP Botany, Edokter, JAnDbot, MER-C, Plantsurfer,
PhilKnight, Stubbleboy, J.P.Lon, Michael Goodyear, KConWiki, Xlboy~enwiki, Peter coxhead, Wassupwestcoast, Kostisl, Commons-
Delinker, Botsad, Fconaway, J.delanoy, DrKay, Numbo3, Eliz81, Keizers, Bonadea, Andy Marchbanks, DASonnenfeld, VolkovBot,
Miguelzinho, Umalee, TXiKiBoT, Sherip23, Rei-bot, Aymatth2, Kleiner stern, Rituido, L.vivian.richard, Roland zh, Dominican1000,
Pdfpdf, Bfpage, SieBot, Whiteghost.ink, BlueAzure, SimonTrew, Rosiestep, Linkboyz, Suburban shaman, Beniboza, Martarius, ClueBot,
Bob1960evens, FieldMarine, Estirabot, Nosteb~enwiki, Kakofonous, SoxBot III, Camboxer, A.zstephens, Thatguyflint, Kembangraps,
Addbot, Betterusername, Granitethighs, Tassedethe, Lightbot, Kenraiz, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Botanicalgardenland-
marksocietygov, RIBEYE special, AnomieBOT, Kepper66, Cossde, Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, TheAMmollusc, Gigemag76, GrouchoBot, Shadowjams, SchnitzelMannGreek, A.amitkumar, Photnart, Originalwana, Boldpotato,
148 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE

ClickRick, Citation bot 1, Flyingsalamanders, ARGMGM, Sam Malone, IceTi, Angenhariaus, Floramarina, Jonkerz, Vrenator, Utopia-
park, Theo10011, TjBot, The Stick Man, Slon02, Nihola, EmausBot, John of Reading, Tococa, WikitanvirBot, Racerx11, Bettymnz4,
ZéroBot, PBS-AWB, SwinSvinoza, Nanodance, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, DavidAnstiss, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lionhead99, MKar, Rl-
hindle, Northamerica1000, Tangerinehistry, TejasDiscipulus2, Alexpostfacto, JYBot, 114rider, Martin F. Smit, Jamesx12345, Jonnmann,
Barsxxx, Rekowo, AkhilKumarPal, Bungutebungute, L Manju, Karlostachys, Scotthi1960, KasparBot, Sweepy, DirtyRotten, Karlfonza
and Anonymous: 108
• Giardino all'italiana Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giardino_all'italiana?oldid=690513566 Contributors: The Anome, Top-
banana, Joy, Wetman, PBS, Wiki-uk, Wavelength, Grafen, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Egsan Bacon, Carnby, Ian Spackman, TheTito,
JAnDbot, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, M-le-mot-dit, Biglovinb, Carlomorino, JO 24, Addbot, Drpickem, Yobot, Victoriaearle, KamikazeBot,
Kibi78704, Stalwart111, Seurope, EmausBot, John of Reading, Look2See1, ‫مانفی‬, BanWisco, Justlettersandnumbers, Khazar2, Hmains-
bot1, N0n3up, KasparBot and Anonymous: 7
• Italian Renaissance garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Renaissance_garden?oldid=664951434 Contributors: Wetman,
Wiki-uk, StephanCom, CambridgeBayWeather, Grafen, Attilios, SmackBot, Mangoe, Chris the speller, -Marcus-, Ian Spackman, Doug
Coldwell, The Anomebot2, R'n'B, Funandtrvl, SiefkinDR, Sun Creator, Iohannes Animosus, Vejvančický, Yobot, Witza, Xqbot, Bru-
taldeluxe, FrescoBot, Theologiae, PetroniusArb, Thekingofwrong, Look2See1, 02Wahyudi, Eyadhamid, SporkBot, Concord113, Darth-
Haterz, Rococo1700, Gial Ackbar, Mogism, Radarm and Anonymous: 10
• French formal garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_formal_garden?oldid=697604486 Contributors: Olivier, Hadal, Var-
laam, Alansohn, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, Angusmclellan, Str1977, Fnorp, Grafen, Sardanaphalus, Attilios, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris,
JHunterJ, Saltlakejohn, Cydebot, JAnDbot, The Anomebot2, EagleFan, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, Funandtrvl, Cnilep, SiefkinDR, Mild
Bill Hiccup, Martim33, David FLXD, Aucassin, Addbot, The Sage of Stamford, Annielogue, SamatBot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Aeortiz, Lil-
Helpa, Xqbot, Sionk, Locobot, DrilBot, RedBot, Kibi78704, Elekhh, Lotje, EmausBot, John of Reading, Look2See1, Wikipelli, Midas02,
ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, MKar, John0919, Mogism, Radarm, KasparBot and Anonymous: 19
• French landscape garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_landscape_garden?oldid=682948284 Contributors: William Av-
ery, Menchi, Topbanana, Pascal666, Macrakis, Smalljim, Wiki-uk, Woohookitty, Mandarax, BD2412, Gaius Cornelius, Hmains, Chris the
speller, JustAGal, The Anomebot2, Peter coxhead, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, Squids and Chips, Funandtrvl, SimonTrew, SiefkinDR,
Chaley67, WikHead, Debresser, Ben Ben, Yobot, Gensanders, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, RjwilmsiBot, Look2See1, Fabien555, ClueBot
NG, Concord113, Widr, MKar, Khazar2, Radarm, Priam4 and Anonymous: 8
• English landscape garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_landscape_garden?oldid=695124235 Contributors: Olivier,
Menchi, Haakon, Tobias Conradi, Wetman, Michael Glass, David Edgar, DocWatson42, Andycjp, Richardelainechambers, Bender235,
Marcok, Smalljim, Cwolfsheep, Grutness, Anthony Appleyard, Wiki-uk, Kotasik, Inge-Lyubov, Ghirlandajo, Woohookitty, ScottDavis,
MZMcBride, CalJW, Gurch, Str1977, YurikBot, Fnorp, Danlaycock, Emersoni, Aranymalinko~enwiki, Petri Krohn, Mais oui!, DVD R
W, Edward Waverley, Jfg284, Xavier35, Peter Isotalo, Hmains, Mona, Mike hayes, Intelligent Mr Toad, Rrburke, Flyguy649, John, Silk-
Tork, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Deepak D'Souza, Chicheley, Teratornis, Varlet16, Modernist, JAnDbot, Ericoides, D.h, R'n'B, DrKay,
Reedy Bot, DarwinPeacock, Balthazarduju, Inwind, Funandtrvl, VolkovBot, Dormskirk, Mikebach, PeterHuntington, Frania Wisniewska,
Shakko, SiefkinDR, Martarius, ClueBot, Sevilledade, Cordwangler, Richerman, Dean oreillt, N p holmes, BOTarate, Anual, Surtsicna,
Addbot, Lemonade100, Tassedethe, Wholetone, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ptbotgourou, Agnosticaphid, MinorProphet, AnomieBOT,
Rubinbot, Materialscientist, Xqbot, Erud, GrouchoBot, Eugene-elgato, FrescoBot, Purpleturple, Jiří Janíček, IceTi, Wosne, Moonraker,
RjwilmsiBot, Rwood128, John of Reading, Look2See1, SwinSvinoza, Eyadhamid, GrindtXX, Erianna, Concord113, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Regulov, BG19bot, MKar, Northamerica1000, ISTB351, HIDECCHI001, Cold Season, Posterio, Khazar2, Spetsnaz1991, Hmainsbot1,
Danny Sprinkle, Yakikaki, Courage respect, Argovian, Hyeonjin Kim, Yggdrasil sampo, KasparBot and Anonymous: 43
• Mughal gardens Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mughal_gardens?oldid=692575262 Contributors: Tom Radulovich, OldakQuill,
Grutness, Wiki-uk, Salilb, Grenavitar, Woohookitty, Nemonoman, Cbdorsett, Dialectric, Malekhanif, Tajik, SmackBot, Bobet, Mairibot,
Amatulic, SeanWillard, Willow4, Bahauddeen, Shyamsunder, Green Giant, Randhirreddy, Mcginnly, AshLin, Emilio Juanatey, Haphar,
Mattisse, Burg Hambler, Mr pand, Seaphoto, The Anomebot2, Dharmadhyaksha, Daemonic Kangaroo, Fconaway, Johnbod, Barastert,
Redtigerxyz, TXiKiBoT, The Thing That Should Not Be, Keeper76, Synthiac, Ihrishikesh, SchreiberBike, KawalSingh, XLinkBot, Roxy
the dog, WikHead, Addbot, Jan eissfeldt, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ciphers, Asamudra, Mahabharat fan, Anujkhandelwal, Mightymrt away,
Leverett.lisa, Look2See1, East of Borschov, Alpha Quadrant (alt), ClueBot NG, Dr. Persi, Helpful Pixie Bot, HMSSolent, MKar, Kash-
miriGuide, PTJoshua, Ali15uk, Mughal Lohar, Neeru Misra, ThanMore, Isavecina, Isarra (HG), SFK2, Ugog Nizdast, NottNott,
and Anonymous: 56
• Chinese garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_garden?oldid=701671206 Contributors: Olivier, Edward, Llywrch, Aho-
erstemeier, Judzillah, Topbanana, Sunray, Davidcannon, Enochlau, Jeremykemp, Chris j wood, Xezbeth, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Nickj,
Grutness, Raintaster, Ctande, Arthena, Wiki-uk, Bathrobe, Fat pig73, Sudasana, Immanuel Giel, RyanGerbil10, Mindmatrix, Tabletop,
Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Angusmclellan, Daderot, Pfctdayelise, Benjwong, Jonathan Stanley, Mhartl, Clam0p, Caerwine, Eeksypeeksy, Wai
Hong, SmackBot, Reedy, Lds, Gaff, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Snori, TheLeopard, SROSET, Stepho-wrs, Nakon, Dreadstar, Gurdjieff,
Khazar, SilkTork, Kkong, JHunterJ, Hvn0413, Intranetusa, JoeBot, Jackp, Casper Gutman, Tawkerbot2, CmdrObot, Requestion, Nick
Number, Haha169, Taurion, TheBlueFox, SiobhanHansa, ArchStanton69, Szilas, Paul Gard, Tenor9200, Genghiskhanviet, Keith D, R'n'B,
CommonsDelinker, Meilanfang, Unkx80, LordAnubisBOT, Balthazarduju, M-le-mot-dit, DASonnenfeld, Squids and Chips, Funandtrvl,
Ng556, Chineseman02, Michaeldsuarez, Roland zh, PericlesofAthens, Alawa, SieBot, Lucasbfrbot, Kasey cole, Lightmouse, Gomey-
ing, SiefkinDR, Msrasnw, Dcattell, JoeenNc, ClueBot, EoGuy, Mild Bill Hiccup, Meiguoren, Alexbot, Stepheng3, Versus22, Balmacaan,
DumZiBoT, Black Knight takes White Queen, Angeloncloud, XLinkBot, Addbot, Ucla90024, Chzz, Elan26, Ws227, Luckas Blade, Szalax,
Arbitrarily0, AnomieBOT, Tryptofish, Timtag5674, Asoer, Ulric1313, LilHelpa, Gardenhistory, Shadowjams, Asoucek, FrescoBot, Mean-
ing of Lif, Louperibot, AstaBOTh15, Kibi78704, Dustynyfeathers, Updatehelper, Puchiwonga, EmausBot, John of Reading, Look2See1,
燈⽕闌珊處, 02Wahyudi, Fabien555, ChuispastonBot, Crown Prince, ClueBot NG, JesseW900, Outlawmonkeys, Helpful Pixie Bot,
MKar, Cold Season, DPL bot, FragrantHill, Khazar2, Dexbot, Xochiztli, Josepha Richard, Metadox, ‫אביהו‬, Hyeonjin Kim, Anddme,
Ptanaka and Anonymous: 85
• Japanese garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_garden?oldid=702339513 Contributors: Ixfd64, Haakon, Bueller 007,
Habj, Lukobe, Jnc, Raul654, Wetman, Nnh, Francs2000, Chris 73, Ianb, Barbara Shack, Ich, Jdavidb, Gilgamesh~enwiki, Avala, Andy-
cjp, Fuzzy Logic, Craig Fryer, MisfitToys, Kusunose, Neutrality, Fg2, Klemen Kocjancic, Discospinster, Elwikipedista~enwiki, Bendono,
Bobo192, Kappa, Ardric47, Jjron, Mareino, Melah Hashamaim, Wiki-uk, CJ, Evil Monkey, Skycycle, BDD, SAUNDERS, Woohookitty,
18.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 149

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nyWilde, Cherubino, Gareth E. Kegg, Visor, Bgwhite, Kummi, Wavelength, Gaius Cornelius, Loyola~enwiki, Howcheng, DAJF, Jp-
bowen, Gmatsuda, Mkill, CDA, Jamesluckard, Ms2ger, BazookaJoe, Closedmouth, MaNeMeBasat, GraemeL, ArielGold, Cgb~enwiki,
Katieh5584, DVD R W, Neier, Nihonjoe, Impaciente, FloNight, Axd, Unyoyega, Mike Nishimuta, Donama, Bluebot, OrangeDog, Xx236,
Nbarth, Tsca.bot, Midori, Huon, Nakon, Underbar dk, Dreadstar, DMacks, Dogears, Will Beback, Kkong, Breno, RomanSpa, Gbutler77,
A. Parrot, Dekkappai, Intranetusa, Ryulong, Hgrobe, Casper Gutman, InvisibleK, Lograph, Myasuda, Cydebot, Atelier kado, 663high-
land, Urashimataro, Nol888, Thijs!bot, Cool Blue, Kaaveh Ahangar~enwiki, Escarbot, Pootentate, WinBot, Whats up skip, Aranho, In-
golfson, Kariteh, JAnDbot, MER-C, Avaya1, SiobhanHansa, VoABot II, GerardK, JNW, Jllm06, Stagophile, Cpl Syx, Kateshortforbob,
Adolfont, Botsad, Iwanafish, J.delanoy, Lilstudy94, Meilanfang, Peter Clarke, ラハール, Thepitch, Johnbod, Starnestommy, Naniwako,
Balthazarduju, Bricology, Funandtrvl, Mjknight50, Deor, VolkovBot, Barneca, Mercurywoodrose, Ann Stouter, Broadbot, DaDonski,
OhMyDeer, AlleborgoBot, IndulgentReader, Enkyo2, Fredrikbroman, Oda Mari, Oxymoron83, Tubs uk, SiefkinDR, Dcattell, Myger-
ardromance, Jonipoon, Gantuya eng, Martarius, ClueBot, Binksternet, GorillaWarfare, Fadesga, Parkjunwung, Mild Bill Hiccup, Bone-
yard90, Excirial, Takethiswaltz, Timsdad, Ngebendi, SchreiberBike, Onozeki, Thingg, Vanished User 1004, DumZiBoT, DocGizmo,
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Luckas-bot, Yobot, DerechoReguerraz, Themfromspace, Bunnyhop11, Sherlock4000, Kanjo Kotr, KamikazeBot, Eric-Wester, Andrey
Korzun, Mayba, AnomieBOT, KDS4444, DemocraticLuntz, Tryptofish, Rangasyd, Gc9580, Kingpin13, Carolina wren, Materialsci-
entist, E2eamon, SLIMHANNYA, Sahara110, Gmihail, Anonymous from the 21st century, GrouchoBot, Abce2, RibotBOT, MOTOI
Kenkichi, Ec17a05, Joaquin008, FrescoBot, Karesansui, I.Sáček, senior, Patings, Seibun, ProfReader, AddiKtiV, IceTi, Phrase1, Serols,
Phoenix7777, W Michel, Full-date unlinking bot, Kibi78704, TobeBot, Bit2spam, Ripchip Bot, Whis4ey, Puchiwonga, Kandrews1967,
John of Reading, Look2See1, Solarra, Winner 42, ZéroBot, Koresdcine, Wayne Slam, Hujber Tünde, L Kensington, Muehsam, Clue-
Bot NG, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lionhead99, Gkvxyz, BG19bot, MKar, Northamerica1000, FactController, Cold Season, DPL bot,
Yuichi ozawa, Foltiere, Fraulein451, Cyberbot II, ChrisGualtieri, YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Delotrooladoo, OCTAPOR, LPS.1, Lamar2, Ansei,
FrigidNinja, Amyhallstrom, Kkgtokyo, Maxkdavis, ReconditeRodent, The Old Bolsheviks, Tang99, Wandaiu, 太⽥さく, Hyeonjin Kim,
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Ubiquity, Llywrch, Habj, Palfrey, Dysprosia, Mackensen, Raul654, Wetman, Finlay McWalter, RedWolf, Flauto Dolce, Robinh, Kent
Wang, Muke, Ds13, Leonard G., Eequor, Andycjp, Fuzzy Logic, Quadell, Antandrus, Kusunose, ShakataGaNai, Karl-Henner, Joyous!,
Avihu, Fg2, Generica, Arcuras, Discospinster, Cacycle, Pmsyyz, Pedant, Shanes, Viriditas, Sam Korn, Dmanning, Wiki-uk, Roncero, Pippu
d'Angelo, InShaneee, Immanuel Giel, LordAmeth, Nightstallion, Saxifrage, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, BD2412, Vegaswikian, CalJW,
DannyWilde, Yhelothur, Diza, Chobot, Marbot, Bgwhite, Ahpook, Gwernol, Kummi, YurikBot, Wavelength, WAvegetarian, Hede2000,
Ugur Basak, Xenoploid, Howcheng, Mkill, BOT-Superzerocool, Doncram, Wknight94, Fulup, Closedmouth, SadaraX, SmackBot, Dweller,
Nihonjoe, Gribeco, Kopaka649, Yamaguchi 先⽣, Seann, Persian Poet Gal, Sadads, Nbarth, A Max J, Addshore, Nakon, TedE, Dave-
Reaves, Ugur Basak Bot~enwiki, SilkTork, 16@r, Ryulong, Violncello, Zephyr su, Courcelles, CmdrObot, Furitora, Old Guard, Cydebot,
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II, Jackfiftytwo, Jllm06, Arjun01, Rettetast, J.delanoy, Meilanfang, Cans, Mind meal, Johnbod, KCinDC, Landlaw, DASonnenfeld, Anton
Rakitskiy, Deor, Camster, Rei-bot, Ann Stouter, Martin451, PDFbot, BotKung, Scarian, Highfive2434, SiefkinDR, Elassint, ClueBot,
Dakinijones, The Thing That Should Not Be, Hafspajen, Quiescen, Boneyard90, Excirial, Alexbot, Telekenesis, Onozeki, Taranet, Ad-
dbot, The Sage of Stamford, DOI bot, Morning277, Numbo3-bot, Kanjo Kotr, Daniel 1992, AnomieBOT, Tryptofish, Asamudra, Jim1138,
Bluerasberry, Materialscientist, Eumolpo, Xqbot, Capricorn42, RibotBOT, MrHardworking, Karesansui, Patings, Seibun, Mariahelen8a,
DrilBot, I dream of horses, Trelawnie, Phoenix7777, W Michel, MelissaDortch, Look2See1, GoingBatty, Werieth, Josve05a, Wiooiw,
Elke Kubo~enwiki, ChuispastonBot, Emerald22, Helpsome, ClueBot NG, Panfsergey, PaleCloudedWhite, Wdchk, Widr, Alexandra3214,
Zzyxzaa26, MKar, Walkingdistance, ChrisGualtieri, Khazar2, Cwobeel, Ansei, C5st4wr6ch, Scow10, 太⽥さく, Hyeonjin Kim, Monkbot,
Adem1010, GLG GLG, Arianatownsend, Young Demosthenes, KasparBot, ISantak, Ptanaka and Anonymous: 168
• Roof garden Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roof_garden?oldid=703385346 Contributors: William Avery, Anthere, Sfdan, Ted-
ernst, Infrogmation, Stan Shebs, Cimon Avaro, Pollinator, Shantavira, Alan Liefting, Wolfkeeper, CryptoDerk, Neutrality, Sonett72, Wipe,
Jpallan, Grutness, Wiki-uk, DavidHoag, Velella, Guthrie, Gene Nygaard, Mindmatrix, Tabletop, FreplySpang, DirkvdM, CalJW, YurikBot,
Wavelength, Spacepotato, Charly Steinbeisser, Stainless steel, Thomas Blomberg, SmackBot, McGeddon, Jagged 85, Setanta747 (locked),
KVDP, Gilliam, Fluri, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, TenPoundHammer, SilkTork, Bjankuloski06en~enwiki, Samcapasso, CmdrObot,
Cydebot, Gogo Dodo, Adonoman, Goldenlane, Mattisse, Blathnaid, Goldenrowley, Barek, RadioKAOS, ForestAngel, Sustainableyes, Jörg
Breuning, Jim.henderson, Rettetast, AlphaEta, Hu Totya, Svetovid, TamCaP, DASonnenfeld, Mastrchf91, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Gup-
pinchen, Mylands, Marcosaedro, Rmaul, Andy Dingley, Red58bill, SieBot, Meathead1962, Wmpearl, Agiglio, Hafspajen, BOTarate,
XLinkBot, Mbf000, AntoninoGiglio, Addbot, MrOllie, Tassedethe, Erutuon, Tangopaso, AnomieBOT, Koskim, AMuseo, Materialscien-
tist, Geraldblank, Anna Frodesiak, Gunart, Chevymontecarlo, D'ohBot, Katiepie14, Kibi78704, Hornlitz, Mam78, EmausBot, Ashton 29,
Pierreuk, Look2See1, GoingBatty, Slightsmile, Gray eyes, Rhallare, DASHBotAV, ClueBot NG, Helpful Pixie Bot, Northamerica1000,
Eliseobradsh820, Dark Silver Crow, Regensturm23, Lugia2453, Epicgenius, Tentinator, Silver gasman, Gothamgardener, Urban Roof
Gardens, LazyReader, Andy Sherman, ME TOO AND YOU, KasparBot, Sardeis and Anonymous: 62
• Public space Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_space?oldid=704961771 Contributors: The Anome, Montrealais, Patrick,
Michael Hardy, Fred Bauder, Karada, Scott, Timwi, Viajero, Maximus Rex, Francs2000, Stewartadcock, Honta, Jpo, Noone~enwiki,
Ot, Mormegil, Brianhe, Jordancpeterson, CanisRufus, Maurreen, Perklund, Man vyi, La goutte de pluie, Jjron, Espoo, Sherurcij, Mi-
mosinnet, Woohookitty, LoopZilla, GeorgeTSLC, Cbustapeck, SDC, Jon Harald Søby, Gaf.arq, Descendall, Rjwilmsi, Vgedris, Caek,
Mark83, RexNL, YurikBot, Chanlyn, RussBot, Jtgibson, Andnat, Wknight94, MCB, Pb30, Petri Krohn, LeonardoRob0t, Curpsbot-
unicodify, SmackBot, Unyoyega, Paxse, Stevegallery, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Oatmeal batman, Neo139, Cookie90,
Wossi, Dandelion1, Lapaz, Mfk91, Darci p, Mishatx, Wikidwitch, CmdrObot, Smably, Publicy, NaBUru38, Argon233, CJBot, Ricardo-
greene, PKT, AgentPeppermint, Heroeswithmetaphors, AntiVandalBot, Ingolfson, Barek, Banzai!, Theroadislong, Cooper-42, SnapSnap,
Emelian1977, Axlq, Centpacrr, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Word2line, Acalamari, FrummerThanThou, Bigminh, Cisnottrans, Bonadea,
Davehi1, Broadbot, Qworty, - tSR - Nth Man, SieBot, BotMultichill, Gerakibot, Da Joe, Eyedubya, Le Pied-bot~enwiki, Lord Beck-
man, BradMajors, WordyGirl90, Kai-Hendrik, Eric Wester, Cambrasa, Gtstricky, Tjrowlan22, ProfDEH, Salam32, Alexius08, Addbot,
Freepenguin, Cantaloupe2, Fluffernutter, Pietrow, Не А, Luckas-bot, Yobot, YngNorman, Adeliine, Unara, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Lil-
Helpa, MakeBelieveMonster, Gumruch, GrouchoBot, Pinethicket, JordanSeiler, Sherdonna, Crusoe8181, Elekhh, Oahfapgah, Lpsickle,
Psyouboo, Copistopplayer, J'88, Tbhotch, RjwilmsiBot, NoloCantata, ZéroBot, Cogiati, Gistya, Jacobisq, RayneVanDunem, ASNelson,
Yclept:Berr, ClueBot NG, Chester Markel, Guthrun, BG19bot, Brooklyn-NY, Twilson088, Caitlin.esk, Mang55, SFK2, Graphium, Trace-
dInAir, Plunkersiniapes, Je.est.un.autre, Konshowed ur btch and Anonymous: 82
150 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE

18.7.2 Images
• File:"_Green_Pig"_-_geograph.org.uk_-_245244.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/%22_Green_
Pig%22_-_geograph.org.uk_-_245244.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Bill Cresswell
• File:07._Japanese_Garden_Pano,_Cowra,_NSW,_22.09.2006.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/
07._Japanese_Garden_Pano%2C_Cowra%2C_NSW%2C_22.09.2006.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original
artist: John O'Neill
• File:15th-century_unknown_painters_-_Madonna_on_a_Crescent_Moon_in_Hortus_Conclusus_-_WGA23736.jpg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/15th-century_unknown_painters_-_Madonna_on_a_Crescent_
Moon_in_Hortus_Conclusus_-_WGA23736.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http:
//www.wga.hu/art/m/master/zunk_ge/zunk_ge2/10madonn.jpg' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' src-
set='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image
<a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/m/master/zunk_ge/zunk_ge2/10madonn.html' data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20'
height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-
width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Unknown Master, German (active 1450s in Cologne)
• File:2004_0927-Suzhou_MasterOfNetGarden_PaintedMap.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/
2004_0927-Suzhou_MasterOfNetGarden_PaintedMap.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Self-photographed (Original text: Photo
taken by Kanga35) Original artist: Kanga35
• File:20090510_Shanghai_Yuyan_6689.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/20090510_Shanghai_
Yuyan_6689.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jakub Hałun
• File:20090905_Suzhou_Couple'{}s_Retreat_Garden_4442.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c3/
20090905_Suzhou_Couple%27s_Retreat_Garden_4442.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jakub Hałun
• File:20090905_Suzhou_Lion_Grove_Garden_4502.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/20090905_
Suzhou_Lion_Grove_Garden_4502.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jakub Hałun
• File:30_Rockefeller_Center_rooftop.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/84/30_Rockefeller_Center_
rooftop.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jwilly77
• File:40sotoon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e7/40sotoon.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:A_French_estate_18th_century_park_view.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/
A_French_estate_18th_century_park_view.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Bonhams Original artist: Un-
known<a href='//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='1050'
data-file-height='590' /></a>
• File:AbbasAbad-e-Ashref_1.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/AbbasAbad-e-Ashref_1.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: ‫محک‬
• File:Adachi_Museum_of_Art01st3200.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Adachi_Museum_of_
Art01st3200.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: 663highland Original artist: 663highland
• File:Ambox_globe_content.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work, using File:Information icon3.svg and File:Earth clip art.svg Original artist: penubag
• File:Ambrogiana_utens.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4f/Ambrogiana_utens.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/museum_firenze-com-era.html# Original artist: ?
• File:Appennino2.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Appennino2.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Original artist: Hari Seldon from Firenze, Italia
• File:Baburnama_1.jpeg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/Baburnama_1.jpeg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://cybermuse.gallery.ca Original artist: Unknown (Indian, Imperial Mughal )
• File:Baghe_Eram_Shiraz_edit.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Baghe_Eram_Shiraz_edit.jpg Li-
cense: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work (Original text: self-made) Original artist: Arad.
• File:Bassin_Apollon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Bassin_Apollon.jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Eric Pouhier
• File:Beckley_Park_topiary_garden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/00/Beckley_Park_topiary_
garden.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Vivian Garrido
• File:Beijing_Botanical_Garden_-_Oct_09_-_IMG_1161.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/25/
Beijing_Botanical_Garden_-_Oct_09_-_IMG_1161.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daderot
• File:Belvedere_Palace'{}s_Gardens.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Belvedere_Palace%27s_
Gardens.JPG License: CC BY-SA 3.0 at Contributors: Own work Original artist: Adrian.lifa
• File:Blenheim_PalaceDE.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6a/Blenheim_PalaceDE.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://www.digitalengravings.com/ Original artist: F.O.Morris
• File:BoboliEntrance.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/BoboliEntrance.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
18.7. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES 151

• File:Bomarzo_parco_mostri_orco.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Bomarzo_parco_mostri_orco.

jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alessio Damato
• File:Botanischer_Garten_BS.Seerosen.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/Botanischer_Garten_BS.
Seerosen.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Mattes
• File:Bridge_Over_a_Pond_of_Water_Lilies,_Claude_Monet_1899.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
1/10/Bridge_Over_a_Pond_of_Water_Lilies%2C_Claude_Monet_1899.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Daniel Schwen, Own
work, image taken at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 2008-05-28 Original artist: Claude Monet
• File:Bridge_in_Humble_Administrator'{}s_Garden.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Bridge_
in_Humble_Administrator%27s_Garden.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: ⼀
• File:Byodo-in_Uji02pbs3400.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Byodo-in_Uji02pbs3400.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: 663highland Original artist: 663highland
• File:Cacti_X.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Cacti_X.jpg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Karl Thomas Moore
• File:CaedmonManuscriptPage46Illust.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ad/
CaedmonManuscriptPage46Illust.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Canglangting_entry_hall.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Canglangting_entry_hall.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Image by Author Original artist: Lamassu Design Gurdjieff (talk)
• File:Caserta-reggia-15-4-05_130.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/Caserta-reggia-15-4-05_130.
jpg License: CC BY 2.5 Contributors: Self-photographed Original artist: Twice25 & Rinina25
• File:CasertaReale.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/CasertaReale.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Self-taken photograph Original artist: User:Gallardo
• File:Castello_utens.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Castello_utens.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors:
Original artist: Giusto Utens
• File:Castle_Howard.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Castle_Howard.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:ChanteloupPagode.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/ChanteloupPagode.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: German Wikipedia, uploaded there by user Manfred Heyde on 2007-06-01, photo taken with Ixus 850 IS Original
artist: Manfred Heyde,
• File:Chateau_de_Chantilly_garden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Chateau_de_Chantilly_
garden.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Chateau_de_versailles33.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/26/Chateau_de_versailles33.jpg Li-
cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Simdaperce
• File:Chatsworth_House_02.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Chatsworth_House_02.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Alan Heardman
• File:Chelsea_physic_garden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Chelsea_physic_garden.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: flickr user flickr-rickr http://flickr.com/photos/flickr-rickr/192923289/sizes/o/ Original artist: flickr user
flickr-rickr
• File:Chicago_Botanic_Garden_-_Zig_Zag_Bridge.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/69/Chicago_
Botanic_Garden_-_Zig_Zag_Bridge.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed
(based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Kaosfere assumed (based on copyright claims).
• File:Chiswick_House_343.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Chiswick_House_343.JPG License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Patche99z
• File:Claude_Lorrain_Apollo_Muses.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Claude_Lorrain_Apollo_
Muses.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/c/claude/3/10muses.jpg'
data-x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
20px-Inkscape.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/
30px-Inkscape.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png
2x' data-file-width='60' data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/c/claude/3/10muses.html' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/
Information_icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Claude
Lorrain (1604/1605–1682)
• File:Cole_Thomas_The_Garden_of_Eden_1828.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/76/Cole_Thomas_
The_Garden_of_Eden_1828.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Thomas Cole
• File:Collage_architettura_italiana.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/53/Collage_architettura_italiana.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Colosse_illuminato.JPG' class='image'><img alt='Colosse illuminato.JPG'
src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Colosse_illuminato.JPG/120px-Colosse_illuminato.JPG'
width='120' height='90' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Colosse_illuminato.JPG/
180px-Colosse_illuminato.JPG 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Colosse_illuminato.JPG/
240px-Colosse_illuminato.JPG 2x' data-file-width='2272' data-file-height='1704' /></a>
152 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fontana_di_Trevi_a_Roma.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Fontana di Trevi a

Roma.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Fontana_di_Trevi_a_Roma.jpg/120px-Fontana_
di_Trevi_a_Roma.jpg' width='120' height='90' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Fontana_di_
Trevi_a_Roma.jpg/180px-Fontana_di_Trevi_a_Roma.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/
Fontana_di_Trevi_a_Roma.jpg/240px-Fontana_di_Trevi_a_Roma.jpg 2x' data-file-width='1600' data-file-height='1200' /></a>

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Roma-

tempiettobramante01R.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Roma-tempiettobramante01R.
jpg/85px-Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg' width='85' height='120' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
thumb/b/b5/Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg/127px-Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg/170px-Roma-tempiettobramante01R.jpg 2x' data-file-
width='625' data-file-height='884' /></a>

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Reggia_Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_f04.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Reggia Caserta

Diana 03-09-08 f04.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Reggia_Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_
f04.jpg/120px-Reggia_Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_f04.jpg' width='120' height='79' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Reggia_Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_f04.jpg/180px-Reggia_Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_f04.jpg
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Reggia_Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_f04.jpg/240px-Reggia_
Caserta_Diana_03-09-08_f04.jpg 2x' data-file-width='1923' data-file-height='1267' /></a>

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Einblick_Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Einblick

Galerie Viktor Emanuel Mailand.jpg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Einblick_
Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg/66px-Einblick_Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg' width='66' height='120'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Einblick_Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg/
99px-Einblick_Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/
aa/Einblick_Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg/132px-Einblick_Galerie_Viktor_Emanuel_Mailand.jpg 2x' data-file-
width='881' data-file-height='1600' /></a>

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG' class='image'><img

alt='Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Firenze.PalVecchio.
statues.JPG/97px-Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG' width='97' height='120' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/thumb/7/74/Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG/145px-Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG/194px-Firenze.PalVecchio.statues.JPG 2x' data-file-
width='960' data-file-height='1188' /></a>

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Duomo_florence.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Duomo florence.jpg' src='https://

upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Duomo_florence.jpg/90px-Duomo_florence.jpg' width='90' height='120'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Duomo_florence.jpg/135px-Duomo_florence.jpg 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Duomo_florence.jpg/180px-Duomo_florence.jpg 2x' data-file-
width='1920' data-file-height='2560' /></a>

• <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saint_Peter%27s_dome_in_the_night.jpg' class='image'><img alt='Saint Pe-

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• File:Hanging_Gardens_of_Babylon.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ae/Hanging_Gardens_of_
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Contributors: From geograph.org.uk Original artist: Francois Thomas
154 CHAPTER 18. PUBLIC SPACE

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• File:Hieronymus_Bosch_-_The_Garden_of_Earthly_Delights_-_The_Earthly_Paradise_(Garden_of_Eden).jpg Source:
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