COMPRESSED NOTES CHAPTER 1: BIODIVERSITY SB025

1.1 BIODIVERSITY & CLASSIFICATION

A) TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY (UPS II 2012/2013)

Types of biodiversity

Genetic diversity Species diversity Ecosystem diversity

- The genetic variation within a species - The variety of species - Varieties of community &
- Due to different kind of genetic within a community ecosystem found on earth
makeup of a species
- Provide mechanism to adapt to
environment
B) HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION (UPS II 2012/2013, structure 10m)
1. Taxonomy is the science of naming, describing and classifying organisms
2. Carolus Linnaeus developed the hierarchical classification system and the system of Binomial
nomenclature
3. Hierarchical classification = A method to group and categorize organisms, by biological
characteristic, into taxonomic groups (taxon)
4. There are 8 taxon groups
Taxon Example 1: Human
Domain Eukarya
Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata
Class Mammalia
Order Primates
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species sapiens
The scientific name based on Binomial system: Homo sapiens
Genus + species

C) CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
1. FIVE_KINGDOM SYSTEM (UPS II 2014/2015, structure 10m; PSPM II 2005/2006, essay 10m)
- Proposed by Robert Whittaker
- Classification is based on common physical characteristics (structural / morphological
differences)
MONERA PROTISTA FUNGI PLANTAE ANIMALIA

Classified based on
Level of cell organization Level of organism Types of nutrition
Prokaryotes Eukaryotes Multicellular Saprophytic Photosynthetic Holozoic
Unicellular (autotroph= (Heterotroph=
producer) consumer)
Organisms Organisms Organism Organism Organism Organism that Organism
that lack that have which is that that secrete convert light that
true true made up of consists of enzyme for energy into ingesting
nucleus and nucleus and just one many cells extracellular chemical organic
membrane membrane cell digestion energy matter and
bound bound and digest
organelles organelles. absorbs internally
nutrients

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2. THREE DOMAINS SYTEM

- Proposed by Carl Woese
- Based on new information (molecular data of based on analyses of small subunit 16S
rRNA genes sequences), classification now follows the three domain system.
- There are big differences between Domain Bacteria and Archaea although these 2
domains categorized together under Kingdom Monera, which are prokaryotes.
- Domain Bacteria
- Domain Archaea
- Domain Eukarya consist of Kingdom Protista, Kingdom Fungi, Kingdom Plantae, Kingdom
Animalia

1.2 DOMAIN BACTERIA & ARCHAEA

A) Unique characteristics of Prokaryotes
1. Have no distinct nucleus.
 DNA is circular DNA
 DNA lying free in the cytoplasm without nuclear
envelope.
 DNA forms a nucleoid region in cytoplasm.
 DNA not associated with histone protein.
2. No membrane bound organelles.
3. Unicellular, relatively small size.
4. Some have plasmids.
5. Have cell wall made of peptidoglycan.
6. Contain 70s ribosomes.
7. Reproduction: by binary fission or endospore formation if
condition is not suitable
Structure Function
Capsule Sticky or slimy layer of polysaccharide. Protects the cell against some antibiotics and
from drying out.
Cell wall Gives shape, made of peptidoglycan.
Plasma membrane Control movement of materials into and out of the cell. May fold to form mesosomes.
Nucleoid A region where single circular DNA of bacteria located.
Plasmid Extra small circular DNA contains few genes (separated with main DNA)
Pili Assist the cell in attaching, which also important for reproduction (sex pilus)
Flagellum Made of protein flagellin, for movement of bacteria cell. Propel in helical orientation.

B) Differences between Domain Bacteria & Domain Archaea (UPS II 2015/2016, structure, 5m)
Characteristics i. DOMAIN BACTERIA ii. DOMAIN ARCHAEA
Live in diverse environment Live in extreme environment
 3 groups of Archaea:
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Example *Eg: E. coli
Cell wall Cell wall made up of
peptidoglycan
Structure of membrane Membrane lipid contain
lipids unbranched hydrocarbons // In
plasma membrane, fatty acid link
to glycerol by ester linkage
Association of histone DNA is not associated with
with DNA histone proteins
SB025
 Methanogens - survive only in oxygen-
free/ high methane environment like
marshy areas or guts of ruminant
animals
 Halophiles - live in high salinity (salty)
environments like dead sea
 Thermoacidophiles- live in high
temperature and high acid
concentration environments like hot
springs
*Eg: Sulfolobus sp.
Cell wall lack of peptidoglycan
Membrane lipid contain branched
hydrocarbons // In plasma membrane, fatty
acid link to glycerol by ether linkage
DNA is associated with histone proteins

C) Diversity of Bacteria (UPS II 2013/2014, structure, 4m)

i. Based on CELL SHAPE
Coccus (plu: cocci) Spherical shape
Bacillus (plu: bacilli) Rod shape
Spirillum (plu: spirilla) Spiral shape
Vibrio / Comma Curve rod

ii. Based on GRAM-STAIN (Cell wall composition)

Gram Positive
 Stains blue or purple violet
 Simple cell walls with thick
peptidoglycan
 Purple or blue stain is trapped  Purple or blue stain is decolorized by
in cell wall
 Less pathogens/ harmful
 Eg : Staphylococcus sp. and
Streptococcus sp.
Gram Negative
 Stain pink
 Cell walls with thin peptidoglycan &
contain lipopolysaccharides
alcohol, so it exhibits the color of pink
safranin
 More pathogenic, lipopolysaccharides
in the outer membrane often toxic.
Outer membrane is also impermeable
to antibiotic penicillin

 Eg: Salmonella sp., E. coli

D) The importance of Bacteria

Importance Explanation
Recycling of chemical - Nitrogen fixation. Rhizobium sp. helps in fixing of nitrogen from atmosphere
elements in ecosystem through root nodule
- Bacteria decompose the organic molecules of dead organism and release CO2
to atmosphere
Symbiotic E. coli in human intestine helps to digest lactose and supply vitamin K & B
complex.
Pathogenic Food poisoning by Salmonella sp.
In research and In biotechnology, E. coli used in gene cloning (extract plasmid as vector & as
technology host cell)
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1.4 KINGDOM PROTISTA
A) Unique characteristics of Protista
1. Eukaryote
2. Most are unicellular, some are multicellular (colonial/ filamentous)
3. Divided into Group Algae (plant-like protists) & Group Protozoa (animal-like protists)
4. Feeding mode: Autotrophic (photosynthetic) for algae
Heterotrophic (saprophytic or holozoic) for protozoa
5. Reproduction: Asexual reproduction (by binary fission or spore formation) / sexual
reproduction (fusion of gametes)
6. Most are motile (flagella/ cilia/ pseudopodia)
7. Protists are either phytoplankton (e.g. common marine algae) or zooplankton (e.g. protozoan)

Phylum Chlorophyta
Group Algae
Phylum Euglenophyta
Phylum Phaeophyta
Kingdom Protista Phylum Rhizopoda

Group Protozoa Phylum Ciliophora

Phylum Apicomplexa

B) (i) Unique characteristics of Algae (plant-like protists) (UPS 11 2011/2012, structure, 5m & UPS II
2015/2016, structure, 5m)
1. Both are aquatic and many species make up phytoplankton.
2. Can manufacture their own food by photosynthesis
3. They are not considered plants because they lack many plant structures
4. Algae lack cuticle
i. Phylum Chlorophyta (green algae) ii. Phylum Phaeophyta (brown algae)
Eg: Chlamydomonas sp. Eg: Fucus sp.

 Oval shape with pointed anterior  Appear brown due to pigments of fucoxanthin, a
 Has central nucleus type of xanthophyll pigment.
 Two flagella project from the anterior end to  The body is called thallus: plant-like algal body
propel the cell toward light that lacks true roots, stems, and leaves.
 Has a single, large, cup-shaped chloroplast with  Slimy material in the cell walls retards drying
a pyrenoid for starch synthesis  Specialized structure:
 Photosynthetic pigments: chlorophyll a and b Structure Function
 Has red pigmented eyespot (stigma) as Blades/ Leaf-like structure, provide
photoreceptor to detect changes in light intensity lamina photosynthetic surface. Blade
for photosynthesis associated with air bladders.
 Reproduce asexually by binary fission or sexually Stipes Stem-like structure that hold the
in unfavorable condition blades
 Mostly freshwater. Have 2 contractile vacuoles to Holdfast Provide attachment to the rock
eliminate excess water (osmoregulation) (root-like surface.
structure)
Air bladder gas-filled structure for buoyancy

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B) (ii) Unique characteristics of Protozoa (animal-like protists)

1. All are aquatic (make up zooplankton) and unicellular eukaryotic organisms.
2. Motile
3. Have contractile vacuole to excrete excess water for osmoregulation
4. Ingesting food (heterotrophic)
i. Phylum ii. Phylum iii. Phylum Ciliophora iv. Phylum Apicomplexa
Euglenophyta Rhizopoda
Euglena sp. Amoeba sp. Paramecium sp. Plasmodium sp.

Move by using flagella. Move by using Move by using cilia which Non-motile
pseudopodium. cover all over the body.

Special features : Special features : Special features : - Spores transmitted from

 Mixotrophs (able  Have irregular,  Slipper-like shape, host to host
to undergo indefinite shape definite shape covered - They are called
photosynthesis and  Also use by pellicle. ‘apicomplexa’ because
heterotrophic pseudopodium for  Cilia also used for they have complex of
nutrition) feeding by feeding organelles specialized to
 Eyespot/stigma at phagocytosis  Have 2 types of nuclei: penetrate host cells.
the base of long (engulfing their - Macronucleus - Complex life cycle
flagellum to detect prey) - micronucleus involving asexual and
light. sexual reproduction and
 Pellicle (flexible need 2 host:
cover) to provide (i) Mammalian host
strength & (human) – protozoan
flexibility live in blood stream
 Invertebrate host that is
female mosquito
(Anopheles sp.)

C) Importance of protista
Importance
Roles in biosphere (CO2 fixation)
Human food source (Chlorella sp.)
Eutrophication (algal bloom)
Red tide (red algae that causes
harmful algal blooms)
Human health
Sewage treatment
Explanation
Can fix CO2 from atmosphere for photosynthesis
As dietary supplement. High in proteins and packed with fats and
vitamins to promote growth and tissue repair
Boosting the growth of algae due to excess nutrients (P and N) in the
water. Followed by increased activity by decomposers (bacteria).
Reduce O2 content in water and cause death aquatic organism.
Pollution due to dinoflagellates. Release toxin when dinoflagellates
consume by shell or fish. Can cause illness to consumer.
Plasmodium sp. causes malaria
Removing contaminants from wastewater/ household water to
produce treated wastewater safe to the environment.
Eg: Paramecium caudatum

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1.5 KINGDOM FUNGI

A) Unique characteristics of Fungi (UPS II 2011/2012, structure, 2m & UPS II 2013/2014, sturucture,5m )
1. Fungi are heterotroph by saprophytic. They secrete enzymes externally to decompose organic materials,
and then absorb the nutrients.
2. Some fungi are parasites and symbionts.
3. Most are multicellular except yeast (unicellular).
4. Cell wall made up of chitin and store food as glycogen.
5. They have body which consists of long, branched
threadlike filaments called hyphae . Mass of hyphae
called mycelium. Types of hyphae:
Septate Aseptate/ Coenocytic

Hyphae has no septa,

Hyphae are divided by cross thus multinucleated
walls (septa with pores)
6. Fungi reproduce by using spores (sexual or asexual). Spores are produced on specialized aerial hyphae or
in specialized spore-forming (fruiting) structures called sporangium. Spores germinate to form new
hyphae.
7. Fungi are classified based on the types of sexual spore-bearing structures.
Phylum Phylum Zygomycota Phylum Ascomycota Phylum Basidiomycota
Type of Multinucleate hyphae, lack Hyphae have cross wall Hyphae have cross wall
hyphae septa. (Aseptate/ coenocytic) called septa (septate called septa (septate hyphae).
hyphae)
Asexual Spores form in sporangium. Conidia that pinch off from Rare/ none
reproduction conidiophores.

Sexual Zygospores are formed in Ascospores form Basidiospores form

reproduction zygosporangium (thick wall internally inside the sacs externally outside the
resistant structure). called ascus. basidia.
Zygosporangium came from the
fusion of hyphae.

The asci are arranged in The basidia are arranged in

fruiting bodies called fruiting bodies called
ascocarps. basidiocarps.
Example Black bread mold, Rhizopus sp. Yeast and Penicillium sp. Agaricus sp.

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(B) THE IMPORTANCE OF FUNGI (UPS II 2011/2012, structure, 1m & PSPM II 2005/2006, essay, 10m)
Importance Explanation
Decomposers Saprophytic fungi will decompose (by secrete enzyme for extracellular digestion) and
absorb nutrient from organic wastes and dead organisms. They able to degrade cellulose
and lignin of plant cell wall.
Symbionts Lichens are a symbiotic association between algae and fungi.
- Algae provides fungus with food / produce carbohydrate through
photosynthesis
- Fungus provides moisture, shelter, minerals and anchorage
Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of plant roots and fungi.
- Fungus helps plant roots absorb water and minerals in the soil
- Plant provides nutrients to fungus
Pathogens  Fungal infection such as ringworm and athlete’s foot
 Candidiasis, a yeast infection of mucus membranes of the mouth, throat or vagina
Commercial Fermented food by alcohol fermentation
importance in - Saccharomyces cerevisiae (yeast) is used in making bread and beer
food production - Involve in the production of “tempe” and “tapai”
Pharmaceutical  Some fungi produce antibiotics that are antibacterial (used to treat bacterial infection)
- Example: Penicillium sp. - formation of antibiotics penicillin from

1.6 KINGDOM PLANTAE

Unique characteristics of Plantae
1. Multicellular eukaryotes.
2. Autotrophic. Synthesis its own organic food through photosynthesis.
3. Non motile. Anchored to surfaces by root or rhizoid (root-like structure).
4. Cell wall made of cellulose and food storage in the form of starch.
5. Life cycle with alternation of generation which alternation of haploid gametophyte phase (n) and
diploid sporophyte phase (2n).
- Sporophyte produces haploid spores by the process of meiosis.
- Gametophyte produce haploid gametes by mitosis.

Primitive Advance
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1.6.1 BRYOPHYTES
Unique characteristics of Bryophytes
1. Non-vascular plant
2. Small in size and normally live in damp, shady terrestrial environments.
3. Seedless. It produces haploid spores (homosporous spores).
4. The body is called thallus, do not have true roots, stem and leaves
5. Terrestrial adaptation (more advanced than algae of protista):
- has epidermis (with no cuticle)
- has stomata (for gaseous exchange)
- has capsule (to protect spores)
- has rhizoid (root-like for attachment and absorption of water)

6. All dependent on water for fertilization

7. Alternation of generation in which:
Gametophyte (n) Sporophyte (2n)
Dominant generation. Smaller and short live.
It is larger and longer living.
Gametophyte are able to carry out photosynthesis Sporophyte depends on gametophyte for water and
nutrients.
Gametophyte produces gametes in their gametangium Can be found on female gametophyte. Consist of:
that are:  Foot
- Archegonium: produces oosphere (egg)  Seta, an elongated stalk
- Antheridium: produces flagellated sperms  Capsule (sporangium) that producing spore
(antherozoids) (homosporous)
i. Phylum Bryophyta (mosses) ii. Phylum Hepatophyta (liverworts) iii. Phylum Anthocerophyta
(UPS II 2014/2015, structure,6m) (PSPM II 2009/2010, essay, 8m) (hornworts)
Eg: Polytrichum sp. Eg: Marchantia sp. Eg: Anthoceros sp.

Dioecious (sexes are separated) Dioecious (sexes are separated) Mostly monoecious
Sexual life cycle of Polytrichum sp.

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1.The individual plant is the gametophyte (haploid) generation (dominant generation)

2.Male gametophyte contains male sex organ, antheridium that produces biflagellated antherozoids
(sperms)
3.Female gametophyte contains female sex organ, archegonium that produces oosphere (egg)
4.Fertilization of antherozoids and oosphere produces a diploid zygote
- Antherozoids swims through water and fertilizes the oosphere in the archegonium
- Zygote develops into sporophyte generation (consisting of foot, seta and capsule) on female
gametophyte
5.The sporophyte generation is dependent on the gametophyte generation for water and nutrition
6.Sporophyte produces haploid spores by meiosis in the capsule
7.When capsule is matured, its lid pops off and peristome teeth release the haploid spores.
8.Haploid spores germinate and develop into protonema (thread-like structure)
9.Protonema produce buds that grow into separate haploid male and female gametophytes
10. Sporophyte degenerates
11. Sporophyte will be formed again after the next cycle of sexual reproduction

1.6.2 PTERIDOPHYTES
Unique characteristics of Pteridophytes
1. Have simple vascular tissue (simple xylem and phloem)
2. Have true root, stem and leaves. The leaves are called sporophyll (spore-bearing leaves)
3. Alternation of generation in which:
- Sporophyte generation is dominant in the life cycle; larger and longer lifespan
- Gametophyte is smaller and shorter lifespan
- The gametophyte and sporophyte are independent to each other because both of them can
undergo photosynthesis.
4. Seedless plant.
5. Dependent on water for fertilization
6. The sporophytes bear sporangia with leaf-like appendages called sporophylls. In some cases, sporophylls
may form distinct compact structures called strobilus or cones (reproductive structure) that grouped
together at the tips of the stem.
7. Spores are produced inside the sporangia.
8. The spores may be homosporous or heterosporous:
Homosporous Heterosporous
Plants that produce only one type of spore Plant that produce two different types of spores;
- smaller microspores develop into male
gametophytes
- larger megaspores develop into female
gametophytes
The spore develops into a bisexual The spore develops into a unisexual gametophytes
gametophytes (with both archegonia & (separate male and female gametophytes)
antheridia)

Strobilus of homosporous plant

Strobilus of heterosporous plant
e.g: Lycopodium sp. and Dryopteris sp.
e.g. Selaginella sp.

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9. The spores germinate to produce a haploid gametophyte, called prothallus. (either bisexual or
unisexual gametophytes)
10. In gametophytes, antheridia produce antherozoids (n) while archegonia produce oosphere (n)
11. Fertilization needs external water for movement of antherozoids.
12. The diploid zygote formed is retained in the archegonia where it develops into a young sporophyte (2n).
i. Phylum Lycophyta Phylum Pterophyta (UPS II 2015/2016, structure, 5m)

Lycopodium sp. Selaginella sp.

(homosporous) (heterosporous)
Eg: Dryopteris sp. (homosporous)
- Reproductive structure: - Sporophyte consists of stems, rhizomes, leaves
Strobilus at the tip of the stem = consist of (frond) and roots
sporangia (containing spores) found on the fertile - Circinnates is coiled young fronds
leaves called sporophylls - Reproductive structure:
Underneath mature fronds are sori (clusters/ a
group of sporangia that produces spores)
Life cycle of Dryopteris sp.

1. Sporangia under mature frond (sori) produce

homosporous spores
2. Sporangia burst & dispersed the spores
3. The spore germinate & develop into bisexual
gametophyte (prothalus)
4. Water is needed for fertilization for antherozoid
swim into archegonium
5. The zygote (2n) formed & develop into a young
sporophyte
6. Gametophyte & sporophyte are independent (both
can undergo photosynthesis)
7. Sporophyte is dominant due to larger in size &
long lasting

1.6.3 GYMNOSPERMS
Unique characteristics of Gymnosperms
1. Gymnosperms are non-flowering plants
2. Seed plants. The seed is naked (exposed/ not enclosed in ovary/ fruit).
- Eg: seeds borne on scales of cone or naked on branches.
3. Complex vascular tissue. (xylem - only tracheid and phloem - only sieve tube)
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4. Alternation of generation in which:

 Sporophyte is dominant in the life cycle
 Gametophyte is very much reduced and dependent on sporophyte
5. Reproductive structures are called cones or strobilus and they are heterosporous.
 Female cones have megasporangium containing megaspores. Megaspore develops into female
gametophyte and retained in the ovule
 Male cones have microsporangium containing microspores. Microspore (pollen grain) develops
into male gametophyte
 After fertilization, the ovule develops into naked seed
6. Do not need external water for fertilization, but need wind as pollinator
i. Phylum ii. Phylum Cycadophyta iii. Phylum Ginkgophyta iv. Phylum Gnetophyta
Coniferophyta (PSPM II 2012/2013, essay, (PSPM II 2012/2013, essay, 6m)
(PSPM II 2012/2013, 4m)
essay, 6m)

Ginkgo sp. Gnetum sp.

Cycas sp.
Pinus sp.
Woody tree Palms-like Woody tree Trees, vines and shrubs
Needle-like leaves Compound leaves with Fan-shaped leaves that Broad leaves with reticulate
palm-like tree turn gold before fall off venation
Evergreen or Evergreen Deciduous (autumn) Evergreen
deciduous (winter)
Reproductive Reproductive structure: Reproductive structure: Reproductive structure:
structure: Cones Large strobilus/ cone Strobilus Flower-like strobili
Xylem is only tracheid without vessel elements Xylem with tracheid and
vessel elements
Phloem consist of sieve tube only Phloem consist of sieve tube
and companion cell
Monoecious : ♂ & ♀ Dioecious: separate ♂ & ♀ Dioecious: ♀ plants have Mostly dioecious: ♂ & ♀
cones in the same trees naked seed. Outer seed strobilus (flower-like form)
plants coat is fleshy but release in different plants.
unpleasant odor. ♂ plants
has microstrobili that
produce pollen.

Naked seed for Gymnosperms and seed enclosed in fruit for Angiosperms

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1.5.4 ANGIOSPERMS
Describe the unique characteristics of Angiosperms
1. Angiosperms are flowering plants (produce flowers and fruits)
2. Have complex vascular tissue (xylem consist of tracheid and vessel element while phloem consists of
sieve tube and companion cells)
3. Alternation of generation in which:
 Sporophyte generation is dominant/ longer living.
 Gametophytes generation depends on sporophyte for nutrition.
 Gametophytes generation reduced in size.
4. Angiosperms reproductive structures are flowers.
5. Angiosperms are also heterosporous (produce two different types of spore) with double fertilization:
(a) Microspores will produce pollen grain (male gametophyte)
(b) Megaspores will produce embryo sac (female gametophyte)
6. Not need of external water for fertilization, but need pollinating agent like insects and wind.
7. After double fertilization:
- Ovary develops into fruit.
 fruit protects seed
- Ovule develops into seed.
 Seed contain diploid embryo and triploid endosperm (cotyledon).
 Seed is enclosed by seed coat (derives from integuments of ovule)
Phylum Anthophyta
i. Class Monocotyledonae ii. Class Dicotyledonae
One cotyledon in seed Two cotyledons in seed
Veins in leaf usually parallel pattern Vein in leaf usually net-like pattern

Vascular bundles usually shows complex arrangement/ Vascular bundles usually arranged in ring
scattered in the stem (phloem outside/ xylem inside)
Fibrous root system Taproot usually present
Floral parts usually in three or multiple of three Floral parts usually in multiple of four or five
Example: Zea mays (maize) Example: Mangifera indica (mango)

1.5.5 Differences of between Angiosperms and Gymnosperms (essay:PSPM 2007/2008 10marks)

ANGIOSPERMS GYMNOSPERMS
general
- Broad leaves - Needles-like leaves
- Xylem tissues consists of tracheids and vessels - Xylem tissues consists of tracheids only
- Phloem tissues consists of sieve tube and - Phloem tissues consists of sieve tube only
companion cells
in terms of reproduction
- Reproductive organ is flower - Reproductive organ is cone/ strobilus
- Flower parts in advanced angiosperms arranged in - Cone parts are arranged in spirals
whorls
- Undergoes double fertilization - Does not undergoes double fertilization
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- Ovary develops into fruits - Ovary does not develop into fruits
- The seed possess endosperm - The seed does not possess endosperm
- The seed are protected by fruit/ovules enclosed by - The seed are not protected by fruit/ovules not
ovaries enclosed by ovaries/ naked seed
- Several pollinating agents like wind, animal/ insect - Pollinating agent is wind

1.5.5 Explain the major EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP OF PLANT KINGDOM (essay:PSPM

2013/2014 8marks)
Characteristics Bryophyte Pteridophyte Gymnosperm Angiosperm
Size of Large gametophyte Small gametophyte Reduced gametophyte, Large sporophyte
gametophyte small sporophyte, large sporophyte,
Dependency of Sporophyte depend Gametophyte and Gametophyte depend on sporophyte
gametophyte and on gametophyte sporophyte are
sporophyte independent
Sporophyte Non-photosynthetic Photosynthetic sporophyte
sporophyte
Dominant Gametophyte (n) Sporophyte (2n)
generation
Free living Free living gametophyte Free living sporophyte protects Gametophyte
generations within it
Water dependency Fully depend on Need water for No (non-motile sperm doesn’t need water for
in fertilization water for fertilization fertilization)
fertilization
Seed production Absence of seed Presence of naked Present of protected
seed seed
Fruit production Absence of fruit Present of fruit
Present of true No true root, stem Have true root, stem and leaves
root, stem and and leaves (Thallus
leaves body)
Types of spore Homosporous Homosporous Heterosporous
and heterosporous
Presence of No-vascular tissue Simple vascular Complex vascular tissue
vascular tissues tissue
Embryo Within archegonia Some protection Within seed coat Within seed coat
protection (gametophyte) within archegonia enclosed in fruit
(gametophyte)

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1.6 KINGDOM ANIMALIA

PHYLOGENETIC TREE OF KINGDOM ANIMALIA

Protostomia (coelom
from cell masses)

Deuterostomia
(coelom from
digestive tube)

Unique characteristics of Kingdom Animalia

(Most) have
Multicellular Heterotrophic (Most) reproduce nervous systems
eukaryotes (holozoic) sexually and muscle
systems

Have a period of
Motile // Capable Have diverse body
embryonic
of locomotion plans
development

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Animal classification based on

(i) Tissue organization (ii) Body symmetry (iii) Body cavity of triploblastic
animals (UPS 2012/2013 structure,
PSPM 2012/2013 essay 10marks)
 Body cavity is a fluid-filled space
separating the digestive tract from the
outer bod0y wall.
 Also known as coelom
Parazoa Asymmetry Acoelomate
No true tissue/No germ NO pattern of symmetry. Body  Organisms that have a solid body and
layer cannot be divided into mirror LACK a body cavity
E.g: Sponges (Phylum halves  Eg: Platyhelminthes,
Porifera) flatworm/tapeworm/fluke
.

Eumetazoa Radial symmetry Pseudocoelomate

(i) Have true tissues - are Body can be divided into mirror  Organisms that have a false body cavity
collections of specialized halves through multiple planes. NOT completely lined by mesoderm.
cells isolated from other It develops between mesoderm and the
tissues by membranous endoderm
layers.  Eg: nematodes/roundworms/Ascaris sp.
(ii)Diploblastic = Having
two germ layers (ectoderm
& endoderm)
Triploblastic = Having
three germ layers
(ectoderm, mesoderm &
endoderm)

Bilateral symmetry Coelomate

Body can be divided into two
mirror-image, right and left halves
through only one plane.
 Organisms that have a fluid-filled body
cavity (true coelom) COMPLETELY
lined by mesoderm. Internal organ
develop & suspended in coelom.
 Eg:annelids/molluscs/arthropods/echin
oderms/chordates

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1.6.1 PHYLUM PORIFERA

Unique characteristics of Porifera
 E.g. sponges, Leucosolenia sp.
 Body plan: No true tissues (Parazoa) and no body symmetry (asymmetry).
 They are sessile (lived permanently attached to the surface)
 Suspension feeders (feed on food particles suspended in the water that passes through its body).
 Sac-like body with tiny pores (ostium) on the body wall for water enter. Water exit through osculum.
 Central cavity is spongocoel.
 (Most) are hermaphrodites = the SAME individual can produce BOTH sperms and eggs
 They can reproduce by both asexual and sexual means.
 Sexual reproduction: amoeboid cells produce egg & sperm into water, they fused to form new sponge
 Asexual reproduction: budding

Choanocytes/  Flagellated cells line the inside of the sponge wall

collar cell  Beating of flagella generates water current that brings food and oxygen and carry out
carbon dioxide and waste through osculum.
Amoeboid  Digest food particles trapped by collar cells. Then, it transports nutrients to other cell.
cell /  Secrete spicules.
amoebocytes  Secrete spongin to provides support and elasticity
 Produce sperm and egg/ gamete
Spicules  Secrete by amoeboid cell
 Sharp pointed structures to provide support for a sponge and protection from predators

1.6.2 PHYLUM CNIDARIA

List the Unique characteristics of Cnidaria, and describe briefly the life cycle of Obelia sp. (PSPM
2010/2011 essay 12marks)
3.Has tentacles with
cnidocytes that
2. Gastrovascular
1.Body plan: have discharge 4.Body forms
cavity has single-
radial symmetry and nematocysts (stinging dimorphism/
opening that acts as
diploblastic structure). Used to polymorphism
mouth and anus.
trap prey and as
protection/ defense.
4.Dimorphism of body plan of Cnidaria (e.g Obelia sp.)
Polyp Medusa
Sessile Free swimming/ motile
Cylindrical shape body Umbrella/ bell-shaped body
The mouth directed upward (dorsal opening) The mouth directed downward (ventral opening)

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For Asexual reproduction: Reproductive For Sexual reproduction: The sperm from male
polyp (gonozoid) produces medusa through medusa and ovum from female medusa combine
budding to form a zygote.Zygote develops into planula
larva and form new colony of polyp.

Dimorphism in life cycle of Obelia sp. (PSPM 2012/2013 structure 10marks, PSPM 2010/2011 essay
12marks)
 Polyp form:
(i) reproductive polyp (gonozoids) - no tentacles,
containing medusa buds for reproduction
(ii) feeding polyps (gastrozoids) - have tentacles to
trap pray
 Medusa form:
- Produce by reproductive polyps by budding
- Free swimming medusa reproduce sexually

1.6.3 PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES

Unique characteristics of Platyhelminthes (flatworm) (PSPM 2006/2007 essay 11m, PSPM 2008/2009
essay 10m, PSPM 2011/2012 essay 10m)
 Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, acoelomate
 Known as flatworm because bodies are flattened dorsal-ventrally.
 Unsegmented (except Class Cestoda- tape worm)
 Hermaphrodite- an individual in which reproductive organs of both male and female sexes are present
 Incomplete digestive system//Gastrovascular cavity has a single opening which serves a mouth (no anus)
 Shows cephalization (head formation)
*cephalization= the concentration of sensory structures at the anterior end of the body
 Most are parasites except Class Turbellaria - planaria.
 Flame cell/ protonephridia as their excretory organ/ osmoregulation.
 No circulatory system. Due to flattened body, circulation is carried out by diffusion.
 Body muscle cannot be contracted and locomotion happen only by swimming

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Class Cestoda  No mouth or digestive system

Eg: Tapeworm (Taenia sp.)
 Scolex (head) with suckers
and hooks
 Sucker: to absorbs
nutrients from host
 Hook: for attachment to
host
 Proglottids
 Each contains a complete
set of male and female
reproductive organs
(hermaphrodite)
 A mature proglottid has
many eggs

1.6.4 PHYLUM NEMATODA

Unique characteristics of Nematoda (roundworm) (PSPM 2011/2012 essay 10m)
 Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, pseudocoelomate
 Unsegmented and cylindrical shape with tapered/pointed ends
 Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
 No circulatory system
 Separate sexes (dioecious, in female is larger than male)
 Have longitudinal muscles only
 Shows cephalization
 Mostly parasitic, living inside host. Ascaris sp.
 Tough and transparent cuticle forms the outer body covering for shape and protection

1.6.5 PHYLUM ANNELIDA

Unique characteristics of Annelida (PSPM 2006/2007 essay 11m, PSPM 2008/2009 essay 10m, PSPM
2011/2012 essay 10m)
1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomate
2. Has metameric segmentation = each segment contains same organ in each segment except head
3. Complete digestive tract with mouth and anus
4. Have longitudinal and circular muscle
5. Have tiny bristles called setae / chaetae help in movement. In ragworm, there are present of setae and
parapodia for the movement.
6. Nephridia/ metanephridia as excretory organs and has closed circulatory system
7. Body covered by cuticle
8. Shows cephalization. It may be hermaphrodite or some are dioecious
9. Roles of Annelida
- Soil aeration: earthworms loosen, aerate and mix the soil as they burrow into the soil. Burrowing also
provides passage-ways for plant roots and improves soil condition.
- Medical use : anti-coagulant (hirudin) in saliva of leech is used in cupping treatment/ improves blood
flow (prevents blood clots following surgery)
Example: Class Oligochaeta Earthworm (Pheretima sp.)

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IMPORTANT: Differences between the Phylum Platyhelminthes, Nematoda and Annelida.

Phylum Platyhelminthes Nematoda Annelida

Level of organization Organ Organ Organ system
Germ layers Triploblastic
Body symmetry Bilateral symmetry
Body cavity Acoelom Pseudocoelom Coelom
Segmentation Unsegmented Unsegmented Segmented body
Number of digestive One opening which Two opening, mouth and anus (complete)
opening serves as mouth
(incomplete)
Nervous system Simple brain, simple Simple brain, dorsal Simple brain, ventral
sense organs and ventral nerve cord nerve cord
Circulatory system No circulatory system Closed circulatory system
Specialized • Dorsoventrally • Cylindrical body • Rounded body with blunt
structures flattened body with pointed ends
• Flame cell/ (tapered) ends • (Meta) nephridia for
protonephridia for • body covered with osmoregulation and excretory
osmoregulation and thick/ tough cuticle • Present of setae/ chaetae for
excretion of waste • have longitudinal locomotion except leeches
products muscle only (body • body covered with cuticle
• Body muscle cannot be muscle can be • have longitudinal and circular
contracted, locomotion contract for muscle (body muscle can be
happen only by locomotion) contract for locomotion)
swimming
Life style Parasitic except Dugesia sp. Non-parasitic
Supporting system No Hydrostatic skeleton Hydrostatic skeleton
Habitat Live in at least 1 host but Soil, water Live in soil or aquatic areas
Dugesia sp. is marine or
freshwater (aquatic)

1.6.6 PHYLUM ARTHROPODA

Unique characteristic of Arthropoda (PSPM 2015/2016 essay 10m)
1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic, coelomates
2. Main body cavity is hemocoel that filled with hemolymph in adult
3. Show cephalization, well-developed sensory organ at the anterior end of the body
4. Have complete digestive system
5. Have an open circulatory system - the blood is not contained within an enclosed circuit of vessels
6. Excretory system is the Malpighian tubules collect wastes from the blood and reabsorb water so that only
dry material is excreted.
7. Three main features of Arthropoda:
Features Description
Exoskeleton A hard external covering, usually made of chitin.
Paired and jointed Legs, mouthparts antennae, claws pincers,
appendages swimming paddles, and gills represent some of the
specializations.
Segmented body i. 3 segments (Head/thorax/abdomen) or
(tagmata) ii.2 segments (Cephalothorax/abdomen)

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Example:
Class Insecta
(Valanga sp. Eg; Grasshoppers)

How these unique characteristic contributes to the success of Arthropods in term of their survival?
(PSPM 2009/2010 essay 12m)

Characteristics How?
Variety of respiratory - Directs the air to the tissues, thus makes high metabolic rate possible
organs - Allow them to survive in different habitat
Metamorphosis - Larvae and adult utilize different sources (niche) thus reduces
intraspecific competition
- Allows different growth forms (in different habitats)
Segmentation/ - Allow specialization of the body parts for variety functions
metamerism
Exoskeleton - Protects the animal
- Protection from dehydration (prevent water loss)
- For support & attachment site for muscles
- Adaptations to wider range of habitat.
Well-developed sensory - Alert to any change in the environment/ to sense different
organ environmental stimulus
Paired and jointed - Allow efficient locomotion and flexible movement.
appendages - Make the body plan more efficient because specialized for variety of
functions eg. Movement, feeding
1.6.7 PHYLUM MOLLUSCA
Unique characteristics of Mollusca
1. Body plan: Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic and coelomate.
2. Unsegmented: soft body covered by a shell
composed mainly of calcium carbonate
3. Metanephridia as excretory organ
4. Has hydrostatic skeleton
5. Body soft and fleshy
6. Open circulatory system – except Cephalopoda
7. Three important body structure:
a) Visceral mass: Containing most of
internal organ
b) Mantle: cover the visceral mass and contain
gland that secrete calcareous shell contain
calcium carbonate.
c) Muscular foot: contain both sensory and motor organ for movement/ locomotion
Example Description Diagram
Class Gastropoda • Single & spiraled shells
Achatina sp.(garden • Body is large, moist & muscular
snail) • Respiration; gills & moist skin.
• Have a radula for feeding/ to
scrape the food
• Anus & mantle cavity at the head
region - after torsion
• Open circulatory system

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1.6.8 PHYLUM ECHINODERMATA

Unique characteristics of Echinodermata
1. Body plan: Adult is radial symmetry while larva is bilateral symmetry, triploblastic and coelomate
2. Mouth generally on lower (oral) surface of body and anus on upper surface
3. Have water vascular system - function in movement, feeding and gaseous exchange.
 A network of hydraulic canals branching into tube feet
 Ampulla = Rounded muscular sac at the base of the tube foot to store fluid

Flow of water through water

vascular system:

Madreporite

Central ring canal

Radial canal

Tube feet

4. Endoskeleton consist of calcium carbonate plates

5. Has spines that covered the body for protection
6. Simple nervous system without brain
7. Crown of thorn starfish:
 threaten coral reef by acting as predator to eat coral reef
 Balance-out the marine ecosystem because they consume coral tissue faster than the corals can
grow
Example Diagram
Class Asteroidea
Starfish (Asterias sp.)

Flattened star, arms not long with spines.

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1.6.9 PHYLUM CHORDATA

Unique characteristics of Chordata (PSPM 2014/2015 essay 8m, PSPM 2015/2016 essay 10m)

Structure Description
1.Body plan - Bilateral symmetry, triploblastic and coelomate.
2.Close circulatory - Blood and interstitial fluid does not mix
system
3.Skeleton - Have endoskeleton
4.Myotomes - Segmented muscle blocks
5.Notochord - A longitudinal, flexible rod located between the digestive tube and the nerve
cord. Give rise to vertebral column/ endoskeleton
- provides skeletal support throughout most of the length of the animal
6.Post anal tail - Muscular tail extending beyond the anus. Present at least in embryo / early
stage
- provides much of the propulsive force in many aquatic species
7.Dorsal hollow - A hollow tube above the notochord
nerve cord - Develops into the central nervous system: the brain and spinal cord (CNS)
8.Presence of - Connect the pharynx, just posterior to the mouth, to the outside of the animal
pharyngeal cleft - Slits allow water that enters the mouth to exit without continuing through the
(slits in the entire digestive tract
pharynx) - As suspension-feeding devices.
- Modified for gas exchange (in aquatic vertebrates), jaw support, hearing, and
other functions during vertebrate evolution.
Example - Amphioxus sp.

1.6.10 EXPLAIN THE EVOLUTIONARY RELATIONSHIP OF ANIMALS

Phylum Level of Germ layers Body plan Body cavity Segmentation/
organization (symmetry) metamerism
Porifera Cell No true tissue Asymmetry - No
Cnidaria Tissue Diploblastic Radial - No
Platyhelminthes Organ Triploblastic Bilateral Acoelomate No
Nematoda Organ Triploblastic Bilateral Pseudocoelomate No
Annelida Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate Yes
Arthropoda Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate Yes
Mollusca Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate No
Echinodermata Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral (Larva) Coelomate No
Radial (adult)
Chordata Organ system Triploblastic Bilateral Coelomate Yes
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