ABSTRACT

This topic introduces design

in mechanical engineering,
the processes involved, and
ergonomic factors in design,

CHAPTER 1: selection of materials and

the requirements of
INTRODUCTION production specifications.

TO MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
DESIGN
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING DESIGN

1.1. Definition of Design

The world ‘design’ comes from the Latin ‘designare’, which means to designate or mark out.
Design can be taken to mean all the processes of conception, invention, visualization,
calculation, refinement and specification of details that determine the form of the product.
Design generally begins with either a need or requirement or alternatively, an idea. It ends with
a set of drawings or computer representations and other information that enables a product to
be manufactured and utilized. (Childs, 2004)

Most engineering designs can be classified as inventions-devices or systems that are created
by human effort and did not exist before or are improvements over existing devices or systems.
Inventions, or designs, do not suddenly appear from nowhere. They are the result of bringing
together technologies to meet human needs or to solve problems. Sometimes a design is the
result of someone trying to do a task more quickly or efficiently. Design activity occurs over a
period of time and requires a step-by-step methodology. (Khandani, 2005)

Design is the process by which the needs of the customer or the marketplace are transformed
into product satisfying these need. It is usually carry out by the designer or engineer but
requires help from other people in the company. To design is to create something that has been
existed before either as a solution to a problem solved previously.

1.2. Types of Design

1.2.1. Adaptive design
The designer only makes minor alternation or modification in the existing designs
of the product. In most cases, the designer’s work is concerned with adaption of
existing designs. This type of design needs no special knowledge or skill and can
be attempted by designers of ordinary technical training.

1.2.2. Development design

These types of design needs considerable scientific training and design ability in
order to modify the existing designs into a new idea by adopting a new material or
different method of manufacture. In this case, though the designer starts from the
existing design, but the final product may differ quite markedly from the original
product.

1.2.3. New design

This type of design needs lot of research, technical ability and creative thinking.
Only those designers who have personal qualities of sufficiently high order can
take up the work of a new design. (R.S. Khurmi, 2006)

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1.3. Design Process

The basic five-step process usually used in a problem-solving works for design problems as
well. Since design problems are usually defined more vaguely and have a multitude of correct
answers, the process may require backtracking and iteration. Solving a design problem is a
contingent process and the solution is subject to unforeseen complications and changes as it
develops. Until the Wright brothers actually built and tested their early gliders, they did not
know the problems and difficulties they would face controlling a powered plane.

The five steps used for solving design problems are:

1. Define the problem
2. Gather pertinent information
3. Generate multiple solutions
4. Analyse and select a solution
5. Test and implement the solution

The first step in the design process is the problem definition. This definition usually contains
a listing of the product or customer requirements and specially information about product
functions and features among other things. In the next step, relevant information for the design
of the product and its functional specifications is obtained. A survey regarding the availability
of similar products in the market should be performed at this stage. Once the details of the
design are clearly identified, the design team with inputs from test, manufacturing, and
marketing teams generates multiple alternatives to achieve the goals and the requirements of
the design. Considering cost, safety, and other criteria for selection, the more promising
alternatives are selected for further analysis. Detail design and analysis step enables a complete
study of the solutions and result in identification of the final design that best fits the product
requirements. Following this step, a prototype of the design is constructed and functional tests
are performed to verify and possibly modify the design.

When solving a design problem, you may find at any point in the process that you need to go
back to a previous step. The solution you chose may prove unworkable for any number of
reasons and may require redefining the problem, collecting more information, or generating
different solutions. This continuous iterative process is represented in the following Figure
1.1. (R.S. Khurmi, 2006)

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Test and
Define the
Implement
Problem
Solution

Analyze and
Gather
Select a
Information
Solution

Generate
Multiple
Solutions

Figure 1.1 Design process step

1.4. The Decision Process

After analysing your alternative solutions, you need to decide and document which design
solution is the best. You will refine and develop the best solution in more detail during the later
stages of the design process. At this stage, to evaluate each solution objectively against the
stated design criteria or requirements, you need a quantitative basis for judging and evaluating
each design alternative. One widely used method to formalize the decision-making process is
the decision matrix. The decision matrix is a mathematical tool you can use to derive a number
that specifies and justifies the best decision.

The first step in creating a decision matrix is for the design team to rank, in order of importance,
the desirable attributes or criteria for the design solution. These attributes can include factors
such as safety, manufacturing considerations, the ease of fabrication and assembly, cost,
portability, compliance with government regulations, etc. You then assign to each attribute or

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criteria a value factor related to the relative importance of that attribute. For example, suppose
you decide that safety is twice as important to the success of your design as cost. You would
assign a value factor of 20 for safety and a value factor of 10 for cost. You assign value factors
on a basis of 0 to 100, representing relative importance of each criterion to the decision.

Next you evaluate each design alternative against the stated criteria. A rating factor is assigned
to each solution, based on how well that solution satisfies the given criterion. The rating factor
is on a scale of 0 to 10, with 10 representing a solution that satisfies the given criterion the
best. To make an accurate evaluation, you need as much information as possible.
Unfortunately, engineers seldom have enough information to make a "perfect" evaluation. If
you have done the analysis phase of the design process properly, those results can provide a
basis for evaluation. Computer models and prototypes can also yield valuable information to
assist in the decision phase. In most cases you must use engineering judgment, and the decision
is subjective. The following example illustrates the use of a decision matrix in deciding the
best alternative design for a can crusher. (Khandani, 2005)

Example1: Aluminum Can Crusher

Students are being asked to design a simple device to crush aluminum cans. A student
design team proposes four solutions to the problem. They develop six criteria that are
important to a successful design. The student team agrees that the most important criteria (or
desirable attributes) of the design and assigned weights are:

 Safety: 30 percent (30 points)

 Ease of use: 20 percent (20 points)
 Portability: 20 percent (20 points)
 Durability and strength: 10 percent (10 points)
 Use of standard parts: 10 percent (10 points)
 Cost:10 percent (10 points)

This team also proposes four alternative solutions to this problem, which are illustrated in
the following Figure. They are:

1. A spring-loaded crusher
2. A foot-operated device
3. A gravity-powered dead weight crusher
4. An arm-powered lever arm crusher

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After analyzing each solution against the six criteria, the team evaluates each design alternative.
After assigning a rating factor to each design alternative for each of the specified criteria, the
team multiplies the rating factor by the value factor. The product of the value and rating factors
is then summed down the column for each design alternative. The total sum at the bottom of
each column determines the best design alternative. The results of this decision matrix are
illustrated in the following Table:

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Criteria Weight (%) Design 1 Design 2 Design 3 Design 4

Safety 30 2 9 2 9
R x Weight 60 270 60 270
Ease of use 20 8 9 6 9
R x Weight 160 180 120 180
Portability 20 5 3 2 8
R x Weight 100 60 40 160
Durability 10 8 8 6 8
R x Weight 80 80 60 80
Cost 20 6 5 7 8
R x Weight 120 100 140 160
Total 100 520 600 420 850

Although rating each design against the six stated criteria is subjective, the rating factor for
each design alternative is assigned according to the consensus of the design team. The results
of an analysis are used to evaluate and rate each design. The rating factor R is assigned
according to the following scale:

 Excellent 9-10
 Good 7-8
 Fair 5-6
 Poor 3-4
 Unsatisfactory 0-2

Design 4 was chosen the best design largely due to the rating assigned for safety, criterion l.
The team felt that the chances of human injury were negligible for this design. Since safety is
the most important factor (30% of the total weight), the high safety rating for design 4 gives
it the highest overall score (9 x 30, or 270).

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1.5. Design Consideration

Following are the general considerations in designing a product:

1.5.1. Types of load and stresses caused by the load

The load, on a machine component, may act in several ways due to which the
internal stresses are set up. The various types of load and stresses are discussed in
chapter 2.

1.5.2. Motion of the parts or kinetics of the product

The successful operation of any machine depends largely upon the simplest
arrangement of the parts which will give the motion required.

1.5.3. Selection of materials

It is essential that a designer should have a thorough knowledge of the properties
of the materials and their behavior under working conditions. Some of the important
characteristics of material are strength, durability, flexibility, weight, resistance to
heat and corrosion, ability to cast, welded or hardened, machinability, electrical
conductivity, etc.

1.5.4. Form and size of parts

The form and size are based on judgement. The smallest practicable cross-section
may be used, but it may be checked that the stresses induced in the designed cross-
section are reasonably safe. In order to design any machine part for form and size,
it is necessary to know the forces which the part must sustain. It is also important
to anticipate any suddenly applied or impact load which may cause failure.

1.5.5. Frictional resistance and lubrication

There is always a loss of power due to frictional resistance and it should be noted
that the friction of starting is higher than that of running friction. It is, therefore,
essential that a careful attention must be given to the matter of lubrication of all
surfaces which move in contact with others, whether in rotating, sliding or rolling
bearings.

1.5.6. Convenient and economical features

The economical operation of a machine which is to be used for production or for
the processing of material should be studied, in order to learn whether it has the
maximum capacity consistent with the production of good work.

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1.5.7. Use of standard parts

The use of standard parts is closely related to cost, because cost of standard or stock
parts is only a fraction of the cost of similar parts made to order. The standard parts
should be used whenever possible; Parts for which patterns are ready in existence
such as gears, pulley, and bearings and parts which may be selected from regular
shop stock such as screws, nuts and pins.

1.5.8. Safety of operation

Some machines are dangerous to operate, especially those which are speeded up to
insure production at the maximum rate. It is necessary that the designer should
always provide safety devices for the safety of operator. The safety appliance
should in no way interfere with operation of the machine. Safety has become a
matter of paramount importance these days in design. Machines must be designed
to serve mankind, not to harm it. Industrial regulations ensure that the manufacturer
is liable for any damage or harm arising out of a defective product. Use of a factor
of safety only in design does not ensure its overall reliability.

1.5.9. Workshop facilities

A design engineer should familiar with the limitations of his employer’s workshop,
in order to avoid the necessity of having work done in some other workshop. It is
important to plan and supervise the workshop operations.

1.5.10. Number of product to be manufactured

The number of product to be manufactured affects the design in a number of ways.
The engineering and shop costs which are called fixed charges or overhead
expenses are distributed over the number of product to be manufactured. If only a
few product to be made, extra expenses are not justified unless the product is large
or of some special design. An order for calling for small number of the product will
not permit any undue expense in the workshop processes, so, that the designer
should restrict his specification to standard parts as much as possible.

1.5.11. Cost of construction

The cost of construction of a product is the most important consideration involved
in design. The aim of design engineer under all conditions should be to reduce the
manufacturing cost to the minimum.

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1.5.12. Assembling
Every product must be assembled as a unit before it can function. Large units must
often be assembled in the shop, tested and then taken to be transported to their place
of service. The final location of any product is important and the design engineer
must anticipate the exact location and the local facilities for erection.

1.6. Ergonomics
Ergonomics is the human factor in engineering. It is the study of how people interact with
machines. Most products have to work with people in some manner. People occupy a space in
or around the design, and they may provide a source of power or control or act as a sensor for
the design. For example, people sense if an automobile air-conditioning system is maintaining
a comfortable temperature inside the car. These factors form the basis for human factors, or
ergonomics, of a design.

A design solution can be considered successful if the design fits the people using it. The
handle of a power tool must fit the hand of everybody using it. The tool must not be too heavy
or cumbersome to be manipulated by all sizes of people using the tool. The geometric
properties of people-their weight, height, reach, circumference, and so on-are called
anthropometric data. The difficulty in designing for ergonomics is the abundance of
anthropometric data. The military has collected and evaluated the distribution of human beings
and published this information in military standard tables. A successful design needs to be
evaluated and analysed against the distribution of geometry of the people using it.

1.7. Engineering materials

The knowledge of materials and their properties is of great significance for a design
engineer. The product elements should be made of such a material which has properties
suitable for the conditions of operation. In additional to this, a design engineer must be familiar
with the effects which the manufacturing processes and heat treatment have on the properties
of the materials and their properties in designing product.

1.7.1. Classification of Engineering Materials

Figure 1.2 below show the general classification for Engineering Materials:

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ferrous
metal
engineering non-ferous
materials
glass, rubber,
non-metal
plastic, etc.

Figure 1.2 Engineering material classification

The ferrous metal are those which have the iron as their main constituent, such as cast
iron, wrought and steel. Meanwhile the non-ferrous metals are those which have a
metal other than iron as their main constituent, such as copper, aluminum, brass, tin,
zinc, etc.

1.7.2. Material selection

The selection of proper material for designing process is one of the most important
and difficult problem to the designer. The best material is one which serve the
desired objectives at the minimum cost. The following factors should be considered
while selecting the material:
i. Availability of the materials
ii. Suitability of the materials for the working conditions in service
iii. The cost of the materials.

The important properties, which determine the utility of the material are physical,
chemical and mechanical properties.

1.7.3. Physical properties

The physical properties include luster, color, size, shape, density, electric and thermal
conductivity, and melting point.

1.7.4. Mechanical properties

The mechanical properties of the metals are those which are associated with the ability
of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical properties of
the metal include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility, brittleness,
malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and hardness.

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1.7.5. Bill of Material

A bill of materials or product structure (sometimes bill of material, BOM or associated

list) is a list of the raw materials, sub-assemblies, intermediate assemblies, sub-
components, parts and the quantities of each needed to manufacture an end product. A
BOM may be used for communication between manufacturing partners, or confined to a
single manufacturing plant. A bill of materials is often tied to a production order whose
issuance may generate reservations for components in the bill of materials that are in stock
and requisitions for components that are not in stock.

A BOM can define products as they are designed (engineering bill of materials), as they
are ordered (sales bill of materials), as they are built (manufacturing bill of materials), or
as they are maintained (service bill of materials or pseudo bill of material). The different
types of BOMs depend on the business need and use for which they are intended. In process
industries, the BOM is also known as the formula, recipe, or ingredients list. In electronics,
the BOM represents the list of components used on the printed wiring board or printed
circuit board. Once the design of the circuit is completed, the BOM list is passed on to the
PCB layout engineer as well as component engineer who will procure the components
required for the design. Figure 1.3 show the sample of BOM. (Anon, Bill of materials,
2015)

Figure 1.3 Sample of BOM (Anon, arenasolutions, 2015)

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References
Anon. (2015, October 29). arenasolutions. Retrieved from bill of material:
http://www.arenasolutions.com/images/resources/article-img/bill-of-materials-excel-1-large.png
Anon. (2015, October 29). Bill of materials. Retrieved from wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bill_of_materials
Childs, P. R. (2004). Mechanical Design. UK: Elsevier Butterwoth Heinemann.
Khandani, S. (2005). Engineering Design Process. California: Saylor.
R.S. Khurmi, J. G. (2006). Machine Design. New Delhi: S. Chand.

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